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Home , Multiperspectivity

گۆڤارى زانکۆ بۆ زانستە مرۆڤایەتییەکان پاشكۆی بەرگى 02 ژمارە 4 ساڵى 0202

Multiperspectivity in William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Orhan Pamuk's My Name is Red pp. (142-149)

Niwar A. Obaid Assistant Lecturer in Nawroz University, Duhok, Iraq [email protected]

Abstract Multiperspectivity, sometimes also referred to as multiple narrators, is a technique or of commonly employed in modern and postmodern . This innovative literary phenomenon has been of high interest to ingenious writers of 20th and 21st centuries, due to its prodigious deviation in the narrative text. The question of multiple narrators has created several controversies among literary critics as it distinguishes itself from traditional techniques of narration and other narratological concepts. William Faulkner in As I Lay Dying (1930) and Orhan Pamuk in My Name is Red (1998) have employed multiple narrators for discrepant purposes and functions. Both novels are similarly divided into fifty-nine chapters; As I Lay Dying involves fifteen narrators from the Bundren family as well as other villagers. My Name is Red covers twenty-one voices ranging from human to the dead and inanimate objects. The two novels coincidentally share several landscapes regarding the narrative technique and overall structure along with some disparate features, which are analytically discussed in the present paper. This paper attempts to spot the purposes and implications of Faulkner and Pamuk in employing multiple narrators in their novels, As I Lay Dying and My Name is Red, successively, by analyzing multiperspectivity as a narrative technique and its potential effects on the structure of the story as well as on the reader. This is expected to be accomplished through a comparative analysis of both novels by providing adequate evidence and examples from the texts, and by developing a critical argument based on a theoretical framework of some model scholars in the related field, such as Vera Nünning and Ansgar Nünning (2000), Marcus Hartner (2008), which will be a comparative basis for the current study. In conclusion, this article, by closely examining the aforementioned novels, sheds a new light on the rarely acknowledged issue of multiperspectivity.

Keywords: Multiperspectivity, Narrative Technique, , Faulkner, Pamuk, As I Lay Dying, My Name is Red.

1. Introduction he literary phenomenon of multiperspectivity has gained meager attention among literary theorists and critics. The few critics who have been preoccupied with the topic T use different terms in their studies for this narrative technique, which complicates the issue all the more. The concept of multiperspectivity has an interdisciplinary relevance in several fields other than literature, such as history, philosophy, art, and science. However, in literature, there are many other narratological concepts that might have a parallel stance or meaning to multiperspectival narration, like Gentte's focalization and Todorov's paradigms of narration. Nevertheless, to discuss multiperspectivity from a historical viewpoint would not fit the paper; therefore, the paper briefly presents some arguments regarding multiperspectivity in terms of meaning and function, followed by the analysis of the two novels. Various explications, classifications and paradigms are presented by Vera Nünning and Ansgar Nünning in their broad study on multiperspectival narration, in addition to Marcus Hartner's valuable contributions to this technique, some of which are discussed in the following section. Nonetheless, the interest and objective of this research is to discover the implications, purposes and functions of using this technique by the two authors, Faulkner and Pamuk, in their outstanding novels. The paper consists of three sections, along with an introduction and a conclusion. The first section covers some significant explanations and controversies on multiperspectivity in reference to a number of model critics. The second and third sections are dedicated to the analyses of the two novels, Faulkner's As I Lay Dying and Pamuk's My Name is Red, in succession. The fourth section summarizes the findings and analyses of the preceding sections, by way of showing a comparison of the two aforementioned novels in terms of multiperspectivity.

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2. MULTIPERSPECTIVITY: THE NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE OF CONTROVERSY There is a lack of consensus on the definition, classification, terminology and nature of multiperspectival narration, due to the fact that there are few studies in the relevant field despite its common usage in the modern and postmodern novels. What's more, rarely have literary critics paid adequate attention to this indispensable literary phenomenon, except for some German scholars who have fairly contributed to it along with some other recent dissertations by some researchers. Therefore, the controversial issues over this technique are still ongoing, some of which are briefly debated in this section. From a historical perspective, multiperspectivity is not a recent phenomenon. Early examples can be found in Plato‘s Symposium, the Old Norse Edda (13th century), Chaucer‘s ―Parliament of Fowls‖ (1381-82). Yet, pre-modern forms of multiperspective narration remain quite few, and often achieve "primarily rhetorical functions" (Hartner, 2008a). In the 19th century, the phenomenon becomes more prevalent and diversified, as an increasing number of writers employ a range of strategies of multiperspectival narration in their works, such as David Mitchel, John Green, George, R. R. Martin, and many others. Hence, a number of modern and postmodern writers have followed the trend and have featured this form of narration in their novels. The occurrence of multiperspectivity is actually theoretically associated with the philosophy of perspectivism, which was developed by Nietzsche and Ortega y Gasset. It seems to be primarily appropriate "to stage perceptual relativism and skepticism towards knowledge and reality" (Hartner, 2008a). In this framework, critics have struggled to distinguish the main types of the technique and their contradictory "epistemological and semantic" inferences (Hartner, 2008a). In their prominent study, which has become groundwork for many researchers, Vera and Ansgar Nünning define multiperspectivity as a form of narrative transmission in which an event, a subject, a etc. is presented from a minimum of two or more individual viewpoints (Zsoldos, 2008). Multiperspectivity, compared to other narratological concepts, is a relatively equivocal term, and it is problematic to classify some works under multiperspectival narration. Therefore, to avoid theoretical confusions around the concept, Vera and Ansgar Nünning propose some queries to be taken into account while judging whether a narrative can be categorized as a multiperspectival narrative. In their view, multiperspectivity can be demonstrated in a narrative text only when a number of accounts of the same events, or of the same phenomenon happening at the story level, are offered. A multiperspectivally presented event or subject becomes especially important when there are inconsistencies and disparities in the judgment or evaluation of the multiply displayed incidents, characters, places, truths, subjects or Weltanschauungs, to the degree that the synthesis of discrete perspectives cannot be made (Zsoldos, 2008). This also creates an , whom the reader is unable to trust. Overall, the versions of each event by various narrators need to be considered and observed from different angles in order to reach an authentic conclusion. Correspondingly, Hartner (2008a) argues that, based on the common uses of the technique, multiperspectivity can be defined as a "basic aspect of narration or a mode of " wherein multiple and often different viewpoints are used to present and evaluate a story and its realm. In this framework, Hartner further claims that the arrangement of perspectives in multiperspective possibly will accomplish a range of different tasks effectively. Typically, though, they foreground the "perceptually, epistemologically or ideologically restricted nature of individual perspectives" (Hartner, 2008a), besides grabbing attention to numerous kinds of discrepancies and resemblances between the viewpoints presented in the text. In this fashion, multiperspectivity frequently serves to portray the relative character of personal viewpoints or perspectivity in general.

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This distinctive technique is often used in narratives about investigation of a crime or a mystery. The key to the puzzle has to be found by the reader, who has to make sense of different witness accounts before any prejudgments. This structure, furthermore, tacitly suggests that "the only authentic approach to the problem of reality is one which allows multiple perspectives to be heard in debate with each other" (Schonfield, 2009:140). As a result, Multiperspectivity, as Hartner (2008b) maintains, typically highlights some sort of "tension" or "dissonance" that arises from the clash of the presented perspectives. Likewise, Mullan remarkably states that one drive of the novel has often been to demonstrate how the "truth about human behavior" can hinge on one's viewpoint (Mullan, 2006:56). Thus, the use of multiple perspectives serves not only the author, but the reader as well, while seeking the truth in a discrete story world with a captivating soul and a curious mind.

3. MULTIPERSPECTIVITY IN AS I LAY DYING The structure of As I Lay Dying is organized around the death of a woman, Addie. The story moves on in chronological time as the Bundren family takes her body to the town of Jefferson for burial. Its narration is divided into fifty-nine fragments of internal monologues by fifteen characters with a first-person point of view, each with a different insight into the and a different way of connecting to reality. The fifty-nine chapters of As I Lay Dying, each headed by the name of one of the fifteen first-person narrators, display a remarkable variance in : we listen to the dialect of poor white Mississippi farmers, the talk by town storekeepers, anxious and hasty narrative, rich , and "philosophically charged speculation burdened by Latinate and convoluted syntax" (Ross, 1979). The novel is written mostly in the stream-of-consciousness—a literary technique marked by a character‘s incessant flow of thoughts. The novel is a sequence of interior monologues; and through these dispersed passages we piece the story together. The length of chapters varies, starting from one sentence as Vardaman's "My mother is a fish" (84), to nearly ten pages; one chapter by Cash is a numbered list of reasons for making a coffin. Darl and Vardaman are the most frequent narrators, while characters like Jewel and Addie each only narrates one chapter. The choice of particular narrators for particular events and the recurrent times they appear validate the aptitude of Falkner. Due to the biased nature of the narrators, we can hardly rely on what each one recounts. We have to draw conclusions and evaluate each character as we move on witnessing the events from all angles. Alldredge (1978) quite interestingly refers to the tension and of the story. She explains that the reader is sited within the conscience of various narrators, and is detached from "linear or quantitative time". Most of the tension and irony of the novel is derived from the noticeable difference between external happenings and internal reality for the several characters. For instance, townsfolk disapprove and make humorous responses to the idea of a rotten corpse being moved through a country town, while the inner sights of the proceedings are extremely serious and fairly reasonable in the minds of the Bundren family members. The reader must hold all of these different viewpoints in combination, in an attempt to read the novel as one manifold image. Ramanathan(2010:84), furthermore, indicates that by allowing us to enter much more deeply into the intricacies of character's minds than we could otherwise, Faulkner has deprived himself of the rights of an omniscient writer As we are given the chance of seeing into the mind of each character directly, we must analyze what we find there, and decide for ourselves what sorts of characters they are. Their true nature is revealed based on how each one thinks about a particular incident or subject. This capacity of seeing each event from multiple perspectives is stimulating. For instance, as Roberts (1969: 3) points out, when the coffin is lost in the river, we have numerous which permit us to observe the same event from different perspectives. Darl contributes his

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گۆڤارى زانکۆ بۆ زانستە مرۆڤایەتییەکان پاشكۆی بەرگى 02 ژمارە 4 ساڵى 0202 narration of the loss of the coffin; from Vardaman, we hear of his mother being a fish swimming in the river; from Cash, we hear that the coffin was not on a balance; and from Anse, we hear that this is just one more burden before he can achieve his false teeth. Moreover, when a character tells what he actually said to another person in an incident, he always falls back into vernacular speech. Therefore, Vernon Tull tells his wife Cora: "…. I will help [Anse] out if he gets into a tight, with her sick and all. Like most folks around here, done holp him so much already I cant quit now" (33). In another example when Dewy Dell expresses her own feelings to herself, using a very different sort of utterance. The girl is desperate with worry over her unwanted pregnancy, "I dont know whether I am worrying or not. Whether I can or not. I dont know whether I can cry or not. I dont know whether I have tried to or not. I feel like a wet seed wild in the hot blind earth" (64), (Ramanathan, 2010:85). Addie's sense of detachment from her husband drives her to commit adultery with the minister Whitfield, though she claims her being innocent, "I hid nothing. I tried to deceive no one."(174). She lays blame on her selfish and careless husband for the predicaments that befell her and the family. Her impressions about sin and salvation, "duty to the alive", motherhood, religion, sex and other matters are astonishingly uncovered, while we could barely have this clue about her character from accounts of others. In the middle of the novel, Faulkner gives this chance to Addie to relate her version of story. The reader is left wondering whether this might be a leap in time when Addie was alive or an account from the coffin, i.e. when she is dead. In the first case, Faulkner crafts a deviation in the structure of the novel, as well as in the linearity of time. Assuming the second case, a dead person being given the chance to narrate is, in effect, a notable feature of modernity in the field of narration, namely, a celebration of multiperspectivity as a prodigious phenomenon in modern novel. The dysfunctional relationship of the Bundrens is unveiled when each family member shares his or her own view about other characters and their deeds. Faulkner makes evident how a band of people can group together when there is a misfortune and tragedy, though they can disapprove and even leave one other in search of their own egotistic advantages, all on account of ―family.‖ Even though the family appears to cooperate in its struggle to get Addie to Jefferson, each one of them seeks how to fulfill his or her own needs (Dudek, 2011:423). This recognition could not be achieved without a technique that offers different windows to the narration, namely, multiperspectivity. One of the main reasons of this technique of multiple narrators by Faulkner is, as Ramanathan (2010:85) describes it, to build and support an important in this novel: the acute isolation of every human from others. Faulkner emphasizes the loneliness of the individual. Addie Bundren feels separated from her husband and most of her children. Dewey Dell has nobody nearby or trustworthy to whom she can express her fears. Jewel is mostly irritated, because he senses his difference from the rest; thus, he depends on himself alone, and he disregards others. Accordingly, multiperspectivity functions as a significant tool for Faulkner in that it imbues the narrative with complex motifs and clashing versions of events and characters. In effect, this technique pushes the reader to make a great effort understanding the true nature of the characters, resolving mysteries and implicit hints, and reaching genuine answers for the qualms held by him – the reader. The lack of communication and Addie's assertion of the ineptness of words to convey the meaning or the true feelings of oneself suggest the "aloneness" and privacy of each character. Thus, the inner conflicts of the characters are revealed to us, whereas the characters are so protective and watchful about what they should say or do. The transition of the narration from one character to another alters not only the dimensions of the plotline, but it also alters the tone and of the story as it flows on. All in all, Faulkner's goal for such technique is to show us the concerns and interests of the characters stored secretly and the little feelings they share with others. This duplicity would not be observed unless we are allowed to enter the

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گۆڤارى زانکۆ بۆ زانستە مرۆڤایەتییەکان پاشكۆی بەرگى 02 ژمارە 4 ساڵى 0202 minds of all characters and understand their personalities. Moreover, Faulkner seems to underscore some themes and motives predominant in the life of the family, such asthe lack of communication, disconnection, dishonesty, egoism, and grievances of individuals. These states of affairs and issues can be observed through various eye and mind views owing to multiperspectival narration.

4. MULTIPERSPECTIVITY IN MY NAME IS RED Similarly, Orhan Pamuk's My Name is Red comprises fifty-nine chapters, like As I Lay Dying. This extraordinary coincidence about the two novels suggests that Pamuk, probably, has imitatively divided his novel on the same number of chapters. However, My Name is Red is narrated by twenty-one different voices with first-person point of view – ten human characters, including one with two identities, as a murderer and as an artist. A distinctive point in My Name is Red is that it consists of some inanimate narrators such as a coin, a tree, the color red, etc. and animals, such as a dog and a horse, as well as some other figures, such as Satan, death, a woman, a corpse, and two dervishes. Each chapter of My Name Is Red has a title that tells us, in advance, who will be speaking: ―I Am Your Beloved Uncle‖, "I, Shekure", "I Am Called Olive", and so forth. Each piece of narrative is in the first person. The main characters tell a fragment of their own stories. The first chapter of the novel is headed ―I Am a Corpse‖ and is indeed narrated by a dead person. The novel is concerned with finding the criminal and the cause for the murder. Afterwards, when the murderer reaches another victim, Enishte, the master of the miniaturists, we hear direct account from the victim being killed. Nevertheless, there seems to be a striking similarity of point of view in both novels, which is the narration of the dead. In As I Lay Dying, Addie narrates her part of story, although it is not obvious whether her words are from the grave, or whether the narrative jumps back in time to when Addie was still alive. However, Addie mainly talks about her past life and experiences with Anse, the birth of her children, and her illegal affair with Whitefield. On the contrary, the dead in My Name is Red speaks of the present moment of death and life after it, "there is indeed another world, thank God, and the proof is that I‘m speaking to you from here. I‘ve died, but as you can plainly tell, I haven‘t ceased to be." (4). Similar is the case with Enishte Effendi, ―My funeral was splendid, exactly as I‘d wanted‖ (228). As Mullan (2004) claims, these dead men give slightly comical interpretations of life after death. Certainly, they are so concerned with doing so that they do not bother to tell us anything useful about their murders. Moreover, Pamuk's characters speak directly to the reader, and show their fears, doubts and inner conflicts. They try to share their hidden feelings with the reader; but they keep their secrets and mysterious feelings for themselves, and prevent from revealing to other characters in the story, thus, often characters return to the reader for conformation and confession, this metafiction technique is typical of Pamuk's writing. As Mullan (2006:57) illustrates, in order to hold the narratives together, Pamuk needs the reader, to whom the characters admit. For instance, when Shekure describes finding her father‘s body, she somehow pretends that she is talking to someone who has read the accounts given by other characters and has a clue about the story, ―Listen, I can tell by your tight-lipped and cold-blooded reaction that you‘ve known for sometime what‘s happened in the room‖ (216). One of the suspicious miniaturists typically asks the reader, "Have I gained your trust as well?" (462). On another occasion, when Esther's role comes to an end, she concludes, "if Esther‘s taken out of the scene, she can‘t possibly continue with the story, can she now?" (351). The awareness of the narrators of their being fictional characters and their way of addressing the readers distinguish this novel from As I Lay Dying.

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Like a miniature, the writer has scattered the novel into many pieces; and the reader needs to place them together and see it as a whole painting. Such a technique enables Pamuk to create for his detective story, and to establish a bridge between the clashing cultural ethics and beliefs of East and West. Also, the use of multiple narrators, Smith (2011) argues, allows the reader to understand the conflicting viewpoints that developed as the miniaturists and their society came into a growing contact with other cultures, thereby understanding their artistic works and incorporating certain concepts and elements from them into their own work. In an interview with Farnsworth (2002), Pamuk states some significant facts regarding the novel. When he is questioned about the miniatures, which display the artistic difference of eastern and western styles by miniaturists in the book, Pamuk claims as follows: My miniaturists saw the world through the God‘s eye, so that‘s a very communitarian world where the rules are set and there is an endlessness of time. So from this single, all embracing, medieval or Islamic point of view, transition to a multi-voiced, multi- perspective, rich, western point of view… means leaving aside a whole tradition, a whole way of seeing things. So I dramatized this clash of different ways of seeing the world, since I love dramatizing the eastness of East and the westness of West. (Farnsworth, interview 2002) Here, it becomes palpable that Pamuk has employed multiperspectivity primarily for the purpose of presenting the two worldviews about art and religion: the eastern style advocates under the influence of Islamic tradition, and the adherers of the western world of art under the influence of Frankish and Venetian style. As Çiçekoglu (2003) states, the visual narratives of miniature painting are given minute details similar to the contemporary Renaissance art revealing, above all, the differences in portraying faces. Style in visual narration is scanned in the novel as a reflection of viewing and drawing the faces in their distinctiveness, opposite to the convention of Islamic book illumination, where all faces are given the same impression. Each individual voice, speaking with complicated details of style, suggestive of the individuality of the painting in visual terms, indicates a maturation of Pamuk's own style, compatible with a novel where the main theme is the individualization of style (Çiçekoglu, 2003). The reader is, as a result, enabled to observe the clashing views of characters concerning art, all of which increase the curiosity of arriving at some resolution point. Moreover, in his 2003 interview, Pamuk himself comments on the purpose of using multiperspectivity in the novel: I thought all these distinctive voices would produce a rich music—the texture of daily life in Istanbul four hundred years ago. These shifts in viewpoint also reflect the novel‘s main concern about looking at the world from our point of view versus the point of view of a supreme being. All of this is related to the use of perspective in painting; my characters line in a world where the restrictions of perspective do not exist so they speak in their own voice with their own humor. (Knopf, interview 2003) Pamuk illustrates how narrow a single human standpoint can be on an issue, and how rich when multiple perspectives are harmonized. For Pamuk, Mullan emphasizes, the mystery of the story suits the narrative technique well; doubtfulness about events is reflected in the actual form. There is no omniscient narrator to see the whole truth. Multiperspectivity, what's more, fits "the historical aspect of Pamuk's . A sense of the past is to be pieced together from separate testimonies rather than grasped by some 'modern' narrator" (Mullan, 2006:55). History itself is unreliable, especially if one reads from one source; therefore, a historical novel like My Name is Red serves to convince the reader and to gain his trustworthiness by showing different perspectives and accounts.

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5. CONCLUSION In conclusion, multiperspectivity serves the two novels in different ways, though the two narratives share some similar qualities in form. The narrative technique helps Faulkner, as a modernist writer, from a thematic perspective, to build his narrative with a strong sense of isolation, dysfunctional relationships, a lack of communication, disconnection, untruthfulness, egoism, and secret anguish of individuals in the Bundren family. Multiperspectivity, on a higher scale, functions well in accordance with Faulkner's use of the stream-of-consciousness technique and the interior monologues in the novel. Each character is allowed to relate his or her part of the story, which enables the reader to evaluate, judge and draw conclusions from each character's version story. The biased nature of the characters hinders our ability to judge or assess their personality until we observe them through the eyes of the other characters. Also, the doubts, fears and inner conflicts of the characters are exposed to us, whereas the characters are so protective and watchful about what they should say or do in the presence of others around. The shift of narration from one character to another changes the tone and mood of Faulkner's narrative as it flows on. All in all, Faulkner's goal of using technique is to show us the hidden concerns and interests of his characters and the little feelings they share with others. This duplicity would not be observed without our being allowed to enter the minds of all characters and understand their genuine identities. Accordingly, multiperspectivity functions as a significant tool for Faulkner in that it imbues the narrative with complex motifs and clashing versions of events and characters. Similarly, Pamuk's characters own the same privilege of having their voices heard alternately; they tell their private secrets, though relatively, as well as their fears and qualms concerning the mysterious issues revolving around their lives. What distinguishes the narrators of My Name is Red is that they are aware of their being fictional figures, and that they directly address the readers and turn to them for confirmation and confession. Another exceptional point in My Name is Red is that it includes some non-living narrators such as a coin, a tree, the color red, etc. and animals, such as a dog and a horse, along with some other figures, such as Satan, death, a woman, a corpse and two dervishes. This symphony of many different voices is compatible in its form with its content, as it expounds the concept of point of view in fictional . Multiperspectivity allows the reader of My Name is Red to grasp the disparate viewpoints that emerged as the miniaturists and their society came into a rising contact with other cultures and civilizations, thereby appreciating their artistic works and incorporating certain concepts and elements from them into their own works. In view of that, multiperspectivity suits the novel in presenting the two worldviews about art and religion, the Eastern style influenced by Islamic traditions of illumination and the contemporary Western style under the influence of the Renaissance art. What's more, the mystery of the story matches the narrative technique magnificently; uncertainty about occurrences is reflected in the actual form. There is no omniscient narrator to see the whole truth. Pamuk demonstrates how restricted a single human standpoint can be on a subject, and how rich when multiple perspectives are considered. The reader is marveled at the duplicity of the characters, their artifice and contrasting attitudes in different contexts. As a , multiperspectivity serves the book brilliantly, since it offers different witness accounts and proofs to rely on and reach a truthful conclusion. The two works share common grounds; in both narratives, the narrators are unreliable, and that makes the task of the reader hard, to arrive at an ultimate truth. Both novels center on two main points, that is, Addie's burial in As I Lay Dying, the secret book for the Ottoman emperor in My Name is Red. Therefore, the characters are driven toward the fulfillment of these two important things; the writers, in effect, create a mystery and suspense throughout the course of

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گۆڤارى زانکۆ بۆ زانستە مرۆڤایەتییەکان پاشكۆی بەرگى 02 ژمارە 4 ساڵى 0202 the events. The characters of the two novels are highly biased and their inner conflicts to us, while they hide their true nature from other characters. The artificiality of characters is a common feature used in the two novels. Additionally, another striking similarity of point of view in both novels is the narration of the dead. In As I Lay Dying, Addie narrates her part of story, although it is not obvious whether her words are from the grave, or whether the narrative jumps back in time to when Addie was still alive; however, the dead in My Name is Red speaks of the present moment of death and life after it. On the whole, both writers employ this technique quite effectively and enrich their narratives with artistic sublimity. To a great extent, the use of such a creative technique foreground exceptional qualities of the two novels, both of which superbly present the storylines from several vantage points, which produce thrill, suspense and curiosity in the reader, and eventually, elevate the value of the works.

References Alldredge, Betty. (1978), Spatial Form in Faulkner's "As I Lay Dying". The Southern Literary Journal, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 3-19. Retrieved from Çiçekoglu, Feride. (2003). Difference Visual Narration, and "Point of View" in My Name Is Red". Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 37, No. 4. pp. 124-137. Dudek, HanaRae. (2011). Family in As I Lay Dying. In McClinton-Temple, J. (ed). Encyclopedia of themes in literature (Vol. 2). New York: Facts On File. Farnsworth, E. 2002. Bridging Two Worlds. – The News Hour, MacNeil/Lehrer Productions, 1–6. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org Faulkner, William. (1991). As I Lay Dying. New York: Vintage Books. Hartner, Marcus. (2008a). "Multiperspectivity". In: Hühn, Peter et al. (eds.): The Living Handbook of . Hamburg: Hamburg University Press. Retrieved from hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de Hartner, Marcus. (2008b). "Narrative Theory Meets Blending: Multiperspectivity Reconsidered." In: The Literary Mind [REAL, No. 24]. Eds. Jürgen Schlaeger and Gesa Stedman. Tübingen: Narr, 2008. 181-194. Knopf, A. A. 2003. A Conversation with Orhan Pamuk. The Borzoi Reader Online. Random House, 1–3. Retrieved from http://www.randomhouse.com Mullan, John. (2004). The Impossible Narrator. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com Mullan, John. (2006). How Novels Work. Oxford: Oxford UP. Pamuk, Orhan. (2001). My Name is Red. New York: Vintage. Ramanathan, S. (2010). Literary Works of William Faulkner. Jaipur: Global Media. Roberts, L. James.(1969). Cliff Notes on As I Lay Dying. New York: Wiley Pub. Ross, M. Stephen. (1979)."Voice" in Narrative Texts: The Example of As I Lay Dying. PMLA, Vol. 94, No. 2. pp. 300-310. Schonfield, Ernest (2009). ―Moonstone and ‗Mondgebirge‘: Exile and Identity in Wilhelm Raabe and Wilkie Collins.‖ G. Dirk (ed.). Wilhelm Raabe: Global Themes – International Perspectives. London: Legenda, 138–48. Smith, Nicole. (2011). "Analysis of "My Name is Red" by Orhan Pamuk". Article Myriad Retrieved from http://www.articlemyriad.com/analysis-my- name-is-red/ Zsoldos, Julianna Fekete . (2008) Multiperspectival Narration: The Perspective Structure of Charles Dickens´ "Bleak House" and George Eliot´s "Middlemarch", Munich, GRIN Verlag. Retreived from http://www.grin.com

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