CHAPTER 2 Natural Variables CHAPTER 2

NATURAL VARIABLES (Landform, Soil, Climate and Natural Resources)

2. Introduction:

The spread of Harappan cultural elements into the regions of

Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, towards the end of the 3rd millennium B.C. is well known. In these multidirectional penetrations the Harappans have demonstrated their skill in selecting suitable environmental niches suggesting that their settlement pattern was mainly influenced by the varied geophysical features of the land. While nature determines the route of development, man determines the rate and the stage

(Taylor 1953). In other words nature creates imbalances in the form of relief, climate, biotic cover and mineral endowments and man operates in this setting. Harappan sites have been located all over the varied geophysical and environmental conditions of

Gujarat state.

2.1 Gujarat in general.

The state of Gujarat extends over an area of 187,115 Sqkms and consists of a variety of landscape formations (Fig: 2.a). On the one hand there are the fertile alluvial plains of the rivers such as the Tapi, Narmada, Mahi, Sabarmati, Saraswati and Banas and on the other there is the vast expanse of Salt waste of the

Rann of Kutch. And while the Arabian coastline forms its western margin, the hills of the southern Aravallis, the western rim of the Vindhyas and Satpudas and the northern part of the Sahayadris form its eastern margin. Physiographically the region is divided into 3 distinct units or sub regions viz: Kutch, the Saurashtra

35 N N

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF GUJARAT

N

Fig: 2.a

36 peninsula or Kathiawad and Mainland Gujarat. Mainland Gujarat can be further subdivided as North Gujarat and South Gujarat, mainly on the basis of environmental conditions. The region between Mt.

Abu and Mahi river forms the arid zone of North Gujarat and the region between the Mahi and Damanganga rivers forms the fertile alluvial tract of South Gujarat. These divisions also form the cultural zones of Historical Gujarat (Majumdar 1965:17, Sankalia

1941:4-6). 2. l.a Ths. Landform

The landform is made up of mainly two geological formations of which the most important is the Deccan trap formation of the

Mesozoic (Fig: 2.b). It occupies the central and southern parts of Saurashtra, the southern mainland coast and also the central parts of Kutch. This formation is not uniform in thickness, varying from 213 mt. at Khambalia, 311 mt. at Jamnagar, 464 mt. at Dhandhuka and attains a maximum of 1117 mt. at Mount Girnar.

In contrast to these ancient highland formations is the vast alluvial plains, which form the second important formation of

Gujarat. Recent in origin it is the creation of fluviatile and marine deposition (Deshpande 1948:208-211). This low lying tract connecting the Saurashtra Peninsula with the mainland Gujarat is indicative of an esturine area during the Pleistocene time.

According to Dikshit (1970:16) the depression is an outcome of tectonics during the Tertiary which in recent times was filled with alluvium. Although its basal complex is formed by harder crystalline deposits, it is the alluvium which determines the topography and land utilization. It also marks the most fertile

37 GUJARAT GEOLOGY

CHARNIOCKITES

40 0 40 ao

N N

Fig: 2.b

38 zone of the state.

The development of the Rann of Rutoh is also a recent geological phenomena. During the Pleistocene it was most probably a shallow arm of the sea into which the Indus and Saraswati of the Vedic times flowed. The growth of the desert conditions is due to the fact that this region lies along the well known northern desert belt. Besides the Aravallis are aligned parallel

* to the progress of the*"winds, which allows for very little rainfall. The increasing^aridity and the large diurnal variations of temperature are instrumental in disintegrating the rocks and helping in the accumulation of sand, which is distributed by the action of winds (Wadia 1944:291). These Ranns have almost entirely isolated Kutch from the mainland, which in spite of its drying up in summer season is an effective barrier to human contacts.

An important point to be noted here is that while this tract of saline marshy plain, scarcely above the sea level remains dry for one part of the year, it is covered by water for the other part. The 1884 Gazateer states that, 'during the south west monsoon the Cambay Rann joins the Nal and forms a connected sheet of water which spreads over the neighboring tracts of the Bhal and the Nal Kantha, turning the villages into islands and cutting off communication with Ahmedabad' (1884:78). According to Flam

(1981:52-53), during 'the prehistoric period the central and western portions of the Lower Indus basin was probably a bay, with the coastline located somewhere north of Tatta and south of

39 Hyderabad. Terrestrial Rutch consisted of an island or islands and can be considered part of the Lower Indus basin'. In fact a very little depression of this tract would be enough to convert

Sauarshtra and Kutch into Islands. Recent research observes that, even today the excess water of the Rann empties into the Gulf of

Cambay via this tract (Dikshit 1970:15; Pandya 1983:62). It is mainly because of these recent natural formations that the state of Gujarat is categorically divided into the above mentioned three subregions.

Next in important are the Jurassic limestone formations of

Kutch, where they are bordered on the south by the Deccan traps and by the saline marsh of the Rann of Kutch on the North. The large part of Jurassic rocks to the east of Saurashtra around

Dhrangadhra belongs to the same formation and is called the Umia horizon.

2. l.b. Siiils.

Although the main feature of the physical setting of Gujarat is its orientation to the Arabian sea, it is the internal distribution of hills and plains which has affected the spread and growth of settlements. The soil especially, which forms the fundamental and locally important factor, is mainly a product of the bedrock geology of the region (Fig: 2.c). The most predominant soil in Peninsular India and Gujarat is the black cotton soil' also known as 'Regur'. Its origin is generally ascribed to long continued surface action on rocks like the

Deccan Trap. 'The decomposition of the Basalt in sliil, would result in an argillenanceous or clayey residue, which by a long 40 T" N

SOIL MAP OF GUJARAT

DESERT SAMDY (SALINE

ALLUVIUM - SANDY

alluvium-SANDY LOAM

COASTAL ALLUVIUM V-V

MEDIUM BLACK SOIL

DEEP BLACK SOIL

40 SO

ie o ie 32 4a mis

Fig: 2.C

41 cycle of secondary changes and impregnation by iron and decomposed organic matter resulting from ages of jungle growth over it, would assume the character of Regur' (Wadia 1944:305).

The characteristic features of the black soil are 1. The depth varies from 1 to 2 feet and sometimes up to more than 20 feet. 2. It has a loamy to clayey texture 3. Heavy cracks in summer season which, especially in heavy rock clays, is more than

3 to 4 feet deep 4. Presence of lime kankar zone at some depths and free carbonates (mostly calcium carbonate) mixed in the soil.

The soils are generally rich in montmorillontic and beideltic group of minerals (I C A R 1957). The moisture retentive qualities of the black cotton soil and its aeration by deep hot- weather cracking are well known; it swells when wet and shrinks when dry. This alteration ensures through mixing of soil particles. Unless tilled very soon after the onset of the rains,

it is extremely sticky and difficult to work (Spate 1954:83).

However Wallace says (1887) that the black cotton ploughs itself and can be loosened with the help of wooden ards; he notes

"Black soil has wonderful power for absorbing water

Although it continues to retain throughout an abnormal amount of moisture which is of great value to the crops grown on it and in short enables cultivation to be practiced without irrigation, at the same time in the dry weather, it loses a large amount of moisture and shrinks in consequence. The shrinking is in all directions, consequently very deep and wide cracks are formed...

By the use of the Dutch hoe harrow the cracks are filled and

42 closed with the fine soil of the surface and by this means a regular circulation of soil is established. The cracks further fulfill the function of ploughing, by admitting air freely into the body of the soil (PP180-181)'.

This soil is credited with an extraordinary degree of fertility and is excellent for dry cropping. Most of the black cotton regions are important cotton growing tracts.

In several parts of Gujarat the black soils have been eroded and their character changed by stream transportation. The lowlands of North Gujarat are underlain by alluvium with local drifts of sand, derived from the wind and water erosion of the

Aravalli range. Black soil is met with only in patches. Major portion of mainland Gujarat is covered with recent sub-aerial formation consisting mainly of the great loess or blown loam deposits. They are underlaid by the old alluvium of the great rivers, which is equally extensive but exposed only in the deep cut river valleys. This alluvium has obviously favored agrarian development in this part of the state, except along the sandy coast and the highland fringes in the northeast.

2.1.0. Climate

Mainland Gujarat receives a rainfall of 800 to 1500mm, which is the maximum in the state (Fig: 2.d). Of course, the mountains or ghats along the eastern border receives more than adequate precipitation, but of little productive significance. Saurashtra receives an annual rainfall of 600 to 800mm along the deccan trap core and Ahmedabad district, whereas the rest of Saurashtra

43 N

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL IN CUJARAT

BELOW 40 Cm

ABOVE 100 -„-

4.0 O 40 80 H ie O 16 32 48 N

Fig: 2.d

44 receives 400 to 600mm of annual rainfall. Kutch receives less than 400mm of rainfall. Besides the arid peninsula of Kutch has no large or perennial river and has to depend on well water which is available at some fault zones of this seismic area. The fortified settlement of Dholavira (Bisht 1989) in this region is an excellent example of effective exploitation and storage of this source of water during the Indus Civilization.

In Kutch, the level land is alluvial and covered by wind blown deposits. Aridity governs all forms of land use.

Agriculture becomes difficult, because the sandy loam soils are not deep. Although easy to plough, it requires frequent manuring and fallowing. Only the southern alluvial belt is agriculturally useful and that too because of local irrigation. Millets, wheat and cotton are the main crops. Much of the land is given to grazing rather than farming. Wild dates are common and tamarish trees grow near river beds.

In spite of such conditions a number of Mature Harappan sites are reported from this region. In fact^there are varied opinions on the climate during the Harappan times. Some have suggested that an increase in rainfall facilitated an expansion of settlements along the Indus plains and beyond (Marshall

1931:2-5; Wheeler 1968; Singh 1971). Gurdeep Singhs (1971), argument for a wetter climate coinciding with the Pre Harappan and Harappan period (4000-2000 B.C.) is based on pollens from the deposits of a few lakes in Rajasthan. This interpretation has been contested by Vishnu Mittre (1972; 1974) on botanical grounds. According to him, sometime before 3500 B.P (1800 B.C.)

45 dessication set in, with the Rajasthan lakes being dry from about that time to c.1500 B.P. (A.D. 500), after which somewhat wetter conditions prevailed. On hydrological grounds also the probability of a wetter condition has been rejected (Raikes and

Dyson 1961; Raikes 1965).Contrary to the above views, Ratnagar

(1986) is of the opinion that, 'given the basic soil type, river rigme (excepting the drying of the Hakra), the amount and incidence of rainfall, the crops sown, the nature of floods and the rhythm of the agricultural cycle have not changed markedly between proto historic and pre industrial times'.

But the large number of protohistoric settlements, dating from 4000 B.C. to 1500 B.C. on the Ghaggar Hakra river bed could have flourished only if the river was flowing perennially, in turn suggestive of wetter conditions. The climatic condition during the Harappan times can be best summarized in the words of

Allchin and Goudie (1973):

* for long periods of time during the Late Pleistocene, and to a lesser extent during the early Kolocene, the landscape of

Western India must have differed markedly from that of the present day on account of far reaching changes of climate. The nature of these changes are demonstrated on the one hand by fossil dessert sand dunes which extend upto 350kms beyond present day limits of active dune formation (the present day dunes forming a belt starting from Pavagad in Baroda, up north, skirting the Aravallies through the inside and reaching upto

Delhi), indicating a major reduction of average annual rainfall over a period of some thousands of years, and the extension of

46 desert conditions eastward and southward into the dry zone. Under the present rainfall conditions, but relieved of the pressures of deforestation and overgrazing, much of the dry zone would carry a much richer vegetation such as we see today in certain forest reserves. Open woodland and dry savanna with plentiful freshwater during and after the monsoon, and an adequate supply throughout the year in certain areas would provide an ideal environment for

Nilgai and other game. These conditions established in the early

Holocene times, prevailed with modifications throughout the mesolithic and the period of chalcolithic and early iron age settlement. From then on the effects of Man upon the environment, must have become increasingly widespread and decisive (pp64)'''.

Thus the fact is that we do not have any comprehensive view on how far the climate and environment of the Lower Indus Valley differed from that of the present day or what changes it passed through during the growth and maturity of the Indus culture. The element of regional patterns of climatic variations (Allchin

1993) needs special attention. Especially for a region with varied ecological niches like Gujarat; on the one hand is the arid conditions of Kutch and on the other is the climatically favorable zone of South Gujarat. In between, lies the parallel belt of Saurashtra and North Gujarat, forming a blend of both dry and wet conditions.

Excavated sites like Dholavira (Bisht 1991), Desalpur

(Soundarajan 1967) and Surkotada (Joshi 1973, 1990) has given ample evidence for a flourishing Harappan occupation in Kutch. If

47 we accept the 'general principle that prehistoric site location

and land use was not based on calculations of average rainfall or

average harvest yields; rather the major consideration was the

minimization of risk and the maximization of overall output'

(Ratnagar 1991:8), then these large fortified settlements can be

viewed in the light of function specific settlements which had

very little to do with the percentage of rainfall. In fact the ground water is a more reliable source and Dholavira is a

excellent example of efficient ground water exploitation.

In contrast to Kutch are the regions of Main land Gujarat

and Saurashtra. On the whole Gujarat is a dry zone in which

Acacia caoaris form an important complex. Coarse grass and thorny bush are widespread whereas trees like neem (Azadirachta indica") and pipal (Ficus religiosa) are found at all villages in the

state. It is only the eastern margin of mainland Gujarat and the

hill ranges of Saurashtra which is characterized by a dry

deciduous forest consisting mainly of 'Dry Teak' such as

Anageissus latifolia and a great proportion of grass land area

especially on the Panchmahal hill tops. In the drier regions, the vegetation is dominated by Acacia catechu and Acacia sundra. With

Acacia catechu are associated several other Acacia and thorny

mimosae and zizyphus along with stunted specimens of trees, scattered in varying numbers throughout (Rrishnan 1943:157). The

rainfall, rivers and mainly the soil has facilitated agriculture

in these regions.

The agro ecological division of India has divided Gujarat

into four regions chiefly; (a) Kutch and the north western part

48 of Saurashtra (b^ the plains comprising Ahmedabad and north eastern districts (c) the remaining portion of Saurashtra and parts of south and eastern districts of Gujarat and (d) coastal plains of Surat, Dangs and Valsad districts (Sehgal et al 1992).

Rice, Jowar and Wheat form the major crops in South Gujarat, closely followed by cotton and tobacco along the northern edge.

On the Gulf coast of Cambay, in spite of sandy alluvial plains and greater rainfall, agriculture is restricted due to swampy soils. On the saline soils, loam containing an admixture of sand and alluvium, wheat is grown. The river Mahi forms an approximate transitional zone between the sandier loams of North Gujarat and the alluvial clays of South Gujarat (Government of Gujarat 1979:

274-276; 1880:138).

In North Gujarat agriculture is mainly restricted to the river valleys of the Sabarmati, Banas and Saraswati; which in itself is ill suited for irrigation because of the high percentage of silt and sand content in the soil (Leshnik 1968:

298). While the Satpura formations in the east receive 800mm rainfall annually, the bordering Little rann of Kutch in the west receives only 400mm annual rainfall. The desert is encroaching further into the dry beds of the rivers and into the large areas of wasteland. An interesting feature of this region is the excellent growth of grasses which include 'bokna' (Cressa cretioa), 'kharidhar' (Aelutopus flariddum), 'lapdi' (Aristida redaets), 'soma' (EnimochlQe OQlonum), 'jinko soma' CPanicum flaridum). 'mancho' (Dhetvloclemium egvptium). 'mano' (Chlaris montani). 'dhaman' (Cenchrus Qiliaris), 'zinzvo' CAndropogan 49 etc and are exploited to great advantage by the present day pastoral communities of Gujarat (Bhan 1994). The discovery of more than 80 Chalcolithic sites with different degrees of affiliation to the Harappan culture is significant. It has made

North Gujarat an important region for understanding the Harappan cultural dynamics, especially its settlement pattern. Unlike settlements in Kutch, these are small distinct village farming

Chalcolithic communities, which is also an indication of better environmental condition.

2.2. Saurashtra in particular.

Saurashtra forms the largest subregion in the state of

Gujarat. The Saurashtra peninsula also known as the Kathiawar peninsula lies between 20®41' and 23®25' north latitudes and 68"

57' and 72° 20' east longitudes with an area of 80880sq kms.

(Deshpande 1948). The most outstanding feature of this peninsula projecting into the Arabian sea is the long coastline and the two

Gulfs; Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Cambay which separates it from the borders of Kutch and South Gujarat respectively.

The landscape consists of a succession of geomorphological facets: a trappean core, sandy beaches and dunes along the coast, alluvial stretches behind them and lateritic or miliolite outcrops at higher levels, often surrounded by fresh water inundated tracts (Despande 1992: 126-128).

Sparing the coast, the central region consists of Trap formations which reaches a height of 1117mt at Mt Girnar and it

50 stands out prominently, encircled by a girdle of low lands. To the north west of this Trappean core lies the older formations of

the Umia series, near Wadhwan and Dhrangadhra in Surendranagar district, where the sandstone and the allied types stand out in

contrast to the alluvial plain. In the south, the junction of the

Trap and the overlying territories is marked by a line of

laterite formations. The line is not continuous, but locally it

introduces sharp variation in landscape (Deshpande 1948:209-210).

The Dwarka and Gaj beds similarly introduces local differences in topography and land use along the southern coast. The coastal strip mainly consists of marine limestones composed of the remains of the foraminifer miliolite. The presence of coral reefs and raised beach deposits on the Saurashtra coast is a clear

indication of the relative movement of land and sea (Gupta 1977a,

1977b). Wadia (1944), Pascoe (1964) and Krishnan (1943) have

interpreted the situation as an indication of the uplift of the

coast. Although nothing can be said about the observation that the physical features of Kathiawar suggest that it may once have been an island or a group of islands of volcanic origin, we cannot ignore recent phenomena like the great earthquake of 1819 which is reported to have raised up the central area of the Rann by several feet (Gazateer 1884). Minor earthquakes were commonly reported in the last century and it has had its effect on the landscape. Moreover the Holocene rise of sea level is believed to

have been punctuated by a number of 'stillstands or minor regressions' (Merh 1992:461-472).

The most recent and interesting formations are the lowlands

51 lying south of the Umia series in eastern Saurashtra. This vast stretch of land which is locally known as the 'bhal' and ^nal' or

'bhal' and 'bhalbaru' tracts spreads over the districts of

Surendranagar and Ahmedabad. At present the entire area is underlain by 1.5mt thick black alluvium with local drifts of sand. This region was till recently an arm of the sea, the remnants of which is 'Nal'; a lake 129sq kms. in extent, 60 kms. south west of Ahmadabad (Gazateer 1884:68).

Although this particular aspect of Saurashtra's relative

isolation from the mainland and the region of Kutch, has been considered by geographers, it remains to be highlighted as far as

Harappan studies are concerned. The Rann of Kutch although a saline desert for the greater part of the year, it is also a marsh during the monsoon when a thin sheet of water inundates it.

It was still deep enough for sailing ships in the 4th cent B.C. when Alexander the Great invaded India. Similarly the water in

the 'Nal' lake is brackish when the lake is full and becomes markedly saline in hot season when the level goes down. This supports the possibility of an intervening stretch of a shallow sea and the probability that Saurashtra may have been semi

insular as late as the 17th century (Deshpande 1948:30; Wadia

1944:310, 400; Allchin et al 1978:7; Blanford 1976:95-96, Fedden

1884:129, Spate and Learmouth 1967:567-597). It must have been the silt of the old eastern branch of the Indus, the Luni, the

Banas, the Saraswati, the Rupen and the Sabarmati that gradually filled the shallow sea bed and eventually joined north eastern

Saurashtra with the mainland (Gazateer 1884:49-59). The formation 52 of the 'Nal' lake could have been due to the same upheavals during the Holocene as stated above.

The region of Okhamandal, on the western tip of Saurashtra, with an area of about 777sq kms. is cut off by one of the similar lowlying waste. This Rann of Madhi is formed by an inlet of the sea from the Gulf of Kutch, which was formerly open to the sea but it is now closed by the formation of a sand bar across its mouth. The bed of the Rann is generally dry, but it is covered with water to a depth of 16 inches at some places during the spring tides (Govt. of Gujarat 1970:7). Here the underlying

Dwarka beds, clays and limestones yield a topography that is different from the traps of the central region.

Saurashtra's long coastal stretch on the west and the low lying tracts on the east are determinant factors which has affected the cultural processes within this region. Although we cannot ascertain the region as absorbing the fugitives from the upper Indus valley and Northern India (Subbarao 1958), it is definitely an area with a regional identity.

2.2.b. Climate

From the point of view of climate, the Peninsula marks a transition from the regions of medium rainfall to those of drought. Rainfall varies from 700mm/yr in the fertile sandy alluvial soil of the Bhogavo, Shukbhadar and Sabermati rivers to that of 400mm/yr in the dry zones of north west Saurashtra. In central Saurashtra it rains around 600mm/yr and all along the long southern coastline it is 500mm/yr (Govt, of Gujarat 1965). 53 Temperature is of little consequence. The monsoons bring scanty rains from June to September, then a period of cooler dry weather

follows until March. Dry and extremely hot weather occupy the months of March to June until the monsoon cools the land once

again (Rissman 1985b). On account of alluvial soils and favorable climate in the lowlands of Saurashtra, agriculture is the mainstay of the community. On the coast, the soil is calcareous and alluvial and the saline water makes it comparatively

infertile. Whereas in the interiors the soil is predominantly black and a variety of crop production can be seen. The vegetation is predominantly that of Acacia Capparis with some localized forests of other types. Along the north west coast is a stretch of mangrove swamps.

2.2.0. Drainage and. Agriculture

The two series of hills, the north eastern and south western, as well as the central stretch of tablelands which link the two, form a distinct water parting from which all rivers and streams of Saurashtra flow in different directions. Besides, the tectonic uplifts has continuously rejuvenated the drainage pattern and maintained a degrading stream regime. In the lowlands on the eastern periphery of Saurashtra the drainage gets sluggish; in fact the region is prone to extensive floods during the monsoons. Although the ground water here is brackish these tracts have plenty of pasture for grazing (Varma 1990:137-161).

Besides, on account of alluvial soils and favorable climate agriculture is carried out, with wheat forming the major crop.

Erosion of softer series have developed fertile tracts like the

54 regions of the Shetrunja valley in the south east, which is one

of the best agricultural regions of Saurashtra. Not only in the

inland, but even the coastal alluvial stretches are well worked

out and a variety of crop production is possible. Millets, pulses

and oilseeds form the main crops here and the sandy coast promote

coconut plantation. The Gir hills separate the Shetrunja and the

Bhal drainage from that of the Bhadar and its complementary

stream Ojat. The lowlands of the Basin is underlain by black soil

derived from the Trap. Locally, topography and landuse are much

influenced by the outcrop of the trap dykes and the miliolite

cover at the coast (Fedden 1884:32).

On the northern coast although the soil is good, coastal

sands and scanty rainfall make agriculture difficult. In general

vegetation is dry but on higher elevations grasslands abound.

Livestock rearing is a more important occupation than

agriculture, wherein millets and oil seeds are grown. A good

percentage of the population is nomadic and depend on pastoral

activity (Fedden 1884). Further up the Gulf, the coast is marshy

and waterlogged and does not support agriculture. The Morvi

Dhrangadra region forms the next important zone. Cotton is

extensively grown on the fertile black soil, supported by better

rainfall conditions.

2.2.d. Cropping Pattern

Jowar, oilseeds and cotton are the leading crops (Govt. of

Gujarat 1965). Most of the major crops are sown during or before

the rains. Rest of the year different cash crops occupy the

55 fields (Fig: 2.e). These summer crops, such as jowar

vulgare) which is one of the chief food grains has no particular

season as it is grown through out the year. 'Bajri' (Penicillaria spicata), 'chola' (Vigna cat.iang'). 'mag' (Phaseolus mungo), 'math' (Phaseolus aconitifolius). 'banti' (Panicum flavidum),

'tal' (Sesamum indicum), 'kang' (Panicum italicum^. 'kulthi'

(Dolichos unif lorus') and 'adad' (Phaseolus radiatus) are sown during the setting in of the rains in the later part of June and

reaped in October and November. Winter crops such as wheat or

'ghau' (Triticum aesti vum'>. barley or 'jav' (Hordeum hexastichou^ and gram or 'channa' (Cicer arietinum) are sown in October

November and reaped in February and March. Cash crops such as cotton or ' kapas' (Gossvpium indicum"). onion, groundnut etc are

sown in the beginning of July and gathered in January (Gazeteer

1984:182-190).

2.2.e. Vegetation

The vegetation predominantly consists of Prosopis iuliflora or 'gando baval' which was successfully introduced a century ago

to prevent land erosion and desertification. Other varieties are

A•Senegal or 'gorad' and A.arabica or 'baval'. Large trees such as the pipal or 'piplo' (Ficus religiosa"). 'khijdo' (Prosopis spiciffrea). banyan or 'vad' (Ficus bengalensis). mango or 'amba'

(Mangjfera indica), tamarin or 'amli' (Tamarindus indica), neem or 'limdo' (Melia azadirachta'^ , 'bor' (Zizyphus ,iu,iuba') and many other local trees are very common in every village of the

Peninsula, both on its coastal stretch and in the central

highlands. But it is the southern half of the peninsula which is

56 Fig: 2.e

57 comparatively thickly vegetated (Govt, of Gujarat 1975). Among the grasses Dichanthiuin annulatum and Cenchrus ciliaris are the most important. In the Nal depression grasses such as Ischaemum rugosum and Iseilema colonum are found (Whyte 1969).

2.3 Hatural resource in Saurashtra:

The fact that the Harappans were wide ranging traders is widely accepted. It was the search for natural resources for craft production and trade and not for wide ranging network of agricultural villages for its food needs, has been proved

(Fentress 1982, 1985; Jansen 1993). This led to the expansion of

Harappan cultural tradition into the marginal regions. For these

'sea fearers', the oceans gradually provided the easiest routes as far as their external trade was concerned and within the valleys the rivers became the highways. Through land they maintained trade relationships with regions as far as

Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia, and Afghanistan, whereas by sea, the entire Arabian coastline was open to them (Ratnagar 1981:115-

128; Khan 1992). Among the raw materials they traded in, the most important were copper, gold, silver, chert, steatite, semiprecious stones like agate, chalcedony, carnelian, jasper lapis lazuli and shell (Possehl 1994:103-114).

The maturity or peak of the Harappan civilization dated to around 2500 B.C. is said to have been marked by the Harappan access or expansion to the Arabian sea coast (Mughul 1992a).

This was mainly a trade pursuit and therefore it is important to note the availability of the trade items mentioned above in

Saurashtra. 58 2.3.a.

Minor occurrences of copper ore have been recorded in the

Deccan Traps, 21kms north west of Khambalia in Jamnagar and in

Rajkot (Fig: 2.f). These native occurrences are insignificant

(Lahiri 1992:90-108) and even today do not contribute to the economy of the region. The major source is in the Aravalli belt starting from the borderlands of North Gujarat into Ambamata in

Rajasthan and stretches upto Ketri. The metals present in these formations, particularly around Udaipur (Rajasthan) include copper, lead, zinc, silver, iron, manganese and beryl. Of these the abundance of copper is well recorded (Geological Survey of

India 1968). At Ketri, the ore is chiefly chalcopyrite and smelting is difficult . And according to Bhan et al (1994) actual copper minerals (eg. chrysocolla, chalcopyrite, malachite, etc) are rare at Harappan phase sites in the core areas of the greater

Indus valley. The Zawar lead and zinc mines are located here, but smelting of these metals were known only by 14th and 15th century

A.D., prior to which only silver/lead was worked (Craddock et al

1983) .

In the case of metal artifacts, apart from the presence of copper artifacts from Harappan sites, for example; 1200 copper artifacts from Kalibangan, there is no direct evidence for copper metallurgy at this source. According to scholars the copper requirements of the Harappans were met by the Sikar - Jhunjhunu area of the Ketri belt (Thapar 1991) and the site of Ganeshwar, located 75kms away from the Ketri copper mines and dated to c.3000-2000 B.C. (Agrawal 1984a,1984b; Agrawal and Kumar 1992)

59 2t.

Fig: 2.f

60 were the main suppliers of copper to the Harappans.

2.3.b. Steatite

Besides copper, the Ambamata copper deposits co-occur with

diorite and steatite (Sharma 1968:127). Steatite, a massive form

of talc, according to Mackay (1935, 1938, 1943) was a well known material in the Indus civilization during the 3rd millennium B.C.

They form a characteristic feature of the Indus civilization

(Vidale 1989b). According to Bhan et al (1994):

'Juding from the amount of steatite and steatite related

ornaments unearthed at any Harappan site, this trade must have

been massive. Harappans used high quality talc rocks for making

sophisticated goods such as seals and glazed beads, and appear to

have recycled the powder for mass producing large amounts of

beads and micro beads found in the cities and in graveyards (pp

147) • .

Inspite of the fact, that there are no steatite resource

within Saurashtra, the large quantities of steatite 'micro' and

'tubular' beads from the Early Harappan context at Padri,

confirms the antiquity of this material. It is important to note

here that the earliest known bead workshop form the protohistoric

context of the subcontinent is a steatite bead manufacturing

complex at Mehrgarh dated to the 4th millennium B.C. (Jarrige

1981). Besides, the available shapes in the beads of this

material, mainly the 'micro' and the "disc", suggests a

standardization predating the Mature Harappan phase.

61 2.3.C. Shells

One more important resource was that of Shells, especially of a species of gastropods called Turbinalia pyrum and Chicorus ramoses. which was extensively used by the Harappans in the making of bangles, beads, rings, spoons, ladles and inlays. A good deposit of these are found along the coast of Okhamandal, at the western tip of Saurashtra. According to scholars three distinct areas were being exploited for shells; mainly the western coast (Karachi and Makran regions); the eastern coast

(Gulf of Kutch and Cambay) and the coast of Oman (Bhan et al

1994). The site of Nageshwar has yielded good evidence to support a Harappan shell working industry there (Bhan and Kenoyer 1983).

The shell industries of Balakot and Kot Kori are also located close to the source of marine or esturine shells. The processing of specific resources, like the shell bangles of Tivela damtfoides at Balakot were carried out locally (Dales and Kenoyer 1977).

Manufacturing of shell bangles from T.pvrum and C.ramosus has also been noted at the site of Kuntasi (Despande A, 1991).

2.3.d. ££mi precious stones

Small quantities of different semi precious stones occur in nearly all the districts of Saurashtra (Govt, of Gujarat 1965,

1969, 1970, 1972, 1975, 1977). In Jamnagar they are found as geode materials containing stones like, moss agate, amethyst, onyx, jasperiod etc. There is also a narrow band of dark obsidian near Rajda. In Junagadh agates and chalcedony are conspicuous along the south eastern borders of the Gir forest. Pebbels of

62 agate, chert etc are occationally found in Rajkot. In Amreli they occur in small amounts not only in the Deccan traps but also occasionally as pebbles in the Gaj conglomerate. These semiprecious stones comprise of quartz, amethyst, rose quartz, chalcedony, agate, opals etc. In Bhavnagar pebbles of agate, chalcedony^ flinty jasper etc. dislodged from Gaj conglomerates due to weathering are strewn along the hill slopes west of Lakhanka.

In spite of all these minor occurrences there is no mention of its exploitation by people in the historical records. As far as Harappan studies is concerned, the sparse occurrence of carnelian among the list of semi precious stones from Saurashtra, strikes out a possible trade interest in the region. It is only in the region around Rajpipla, which appears from the evidence of many geological museums to be the only source of gem quality red carnelian in Gujarat (Dayton 1985). The banks of Narmada close to Rajpipla has been famous since the days of Ptolemy in

150 A.D. During Early Historic period Cambay was the trade centre for semi precious stones. There is a reference to the Cambay agate trade in the word 'vaidurga' meaning onyx, which is an old

Sanskrit name for the territory stretching from Narmada to

Gokarna (Majumdar 1965:21). Besides the districts of Kheda,

Ahmedabad and North Gujarat have good deposits of Agate and other stones. According to the Gazateer (1880):

'The term 'Cambay stones' includes two classes of gems; agates, found in different parts of Gujarat within a radius of about 120 miles of Cambay and miscellaneous foreign stones brought to

Cambay to be worked by its lapidaries Carnelians are

63 found within Rajpipla limits, on the left bank of Narmada, 14 miles north of Broach Of the other Cambay stones the chief are; the jasper or bloodstone, the chocolate stone, a variegated pebble known as maimariam, crystal, the lapis-lazuli or azure stone, the obsidian or jet and the blue stone. Of these only the first four are found in Gujarat. Jasper or bloodstone comes from Tankara village, Morvi, which are sent to Cambay and made into ornaments, boxes and paper weights lapis from

Persia and obsidian from Aden (pp 198-201).

The Harappan site of Lothal and Kuntasi, with clear cut evidence for bead working support the Harappan exploit of the above two resource base. Although there are no direct evidence for quarrying or mining at the source of these stones. Dr.

Arkell, proved that the factory in Cambay worked from 3000 B.C. upto the present time, making the same type of beads for 5000yrs.

(Arkell 1936). Pearls of good quality (Pterial vulgaris) are also reported from the Gulf of Kutch, Junagadh and Bhavnagar coast.

Apart from Harappan 'trade items', Saurashtra abounds in minerals and are particularly rich in building stones; of which miliolite limestones called 'Porbander stones' found near

Porbander and Dhrangadra in particular, are the best known varieties today. The chief building material in Rajkot are the deccan traps and umia sandstone. Whereas, Bhavnagar is rich in building clays for the manufacture of bricks and are found in the river alluvium almost all over the district. Besides, laterite is easily dressed into bricks when freshly quarried. Rich iron ores

64 are found through out the northern portion of the peninsula as ferric oxide and in other forms. The region also abounds in mineral pigments which are found associated with lateritic rocks, gypsum, salts, calcite, clays etc. For example, extensive deposits of soft, yellow clays used for the manufacture of paints today are found in association with the Gaj beds. This is used by the potters also. But how far were these a part of Harappan trade goods we cant say.

Similarly, archaeologically invisible materials or as

Champion (1988) puts it:

commodities that cannot be thought in purely materialistic and physical terms (eg) goods of organic substance such as food, wood, feathers, woven textiles and so on We must in any case realize that the nature of any centre periphery relationship is likely to have been based at least as much on the intangible elements of allegiance and social intercourse as on exclusively economic (1989:15-16)'

In this regard it is important to note items like salt, which forms an important produce of Saurashtra. The chief salt pans are near Morvi in Rajkot, Pindara bay in Jamnagar, Porbander in Junagadh and at Jafrabad, Mahuva, Talaja and Bhavnagar in the

Bhavnagar state (Gazateer 1880). Besides, Saurashtra once covered in dense forest, particularly in the central plateau where all rivers rise, could have yielded many forest products like teak, honey, fuel etc. The Gazateer (1880) also reports that from the

10th century onwards, the exports from Cambay included indigo,

65 cotton thread and cloth, thick carpets, bed steads, lac, silk, honey, prepared vegetable products like dyes and animal products like leather and worked ivory articles. Most important although were manufactured articles like agate ornaments to Malabar,

Arabia, the Red Sea, East Africa etc. (Ibid 1880:187-198). Among the chief imports were included metals like gold, silver, copper, tutia (eye salve), lead, vermillion and album; diamonds from

Deccan, rubies, topazes and cats eye from Ceylon and turquiose, emeralds and lapis lazuli from Persia (Ibid).

Keeping this in mind , we can say that except for the vast coastline and the black cotton soil there seems to have been nothing abundantly available or inviting as a resource which could be exploited for surplus production by the Harappan traders.

66