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© 2014 Marguerite L. Andrews All Rights Reserved © 2014 MARGUERITE L. ANDREWS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTESTED CONSERVATION OF THE SNOWMOBILE COMMONS: PRIVATE LAND, PUBLIC RIGHTS, AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS IN MAINE’S SOCIAL WILDERNESS By MARGUERITE L. ANDREWS A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Geography written under the direction of Richard A. Schroeder and David M. Hughes and approved by ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey January 2014 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Contested Conservation of the Snowmobile Commons: Private Land, Public Rights, and Rural Livelihoods in Maine’s Social Wilderness By MARGUERITE L. ANDREWS Dissertation Directors: Richard A. Schroeder and David M. Hughes Nearly half of Maine’s 16 million acres of privately-owned forestland has changed hands in recent decades. As the vast industrial forest contracts under the pressures of new development and land use constraints, the effects of these changes are strongly felt by a rural populace already contending with job losses and other consequences of economic restructuring. Local communities have expressed particular concern about the impacts shifts in land ownership and management are having on Maine’s “open land tradition”—the longstanding right of the public to permissively access and use private lands. Several new conservation landowners have levied restrictions based upon environmental ethics and values that exclude some customary uses of the land, and these owners have consequently emerged for many north woods residents as the greatest threat to the private commons. Using snowmobiling as an entry point, this research grounds these large-scale economic and environmental transformations and ensuing resource conflicts within ii the north woods communities being affected. I examine how snowmobiling— arguably the most contentious land use in present-day disputes—is deeply rooted in the working forest, its tradition of common property, and rural Maine’s communities, cultures, and economies. The activities of snowmobilers, their social relations, and institutional arrangements together comprise the snowmobile commons. My research contends that snowmobiling helps to make visible various practices of stewardship, local histories and heritages, collective involvement in land management, and the diverse economies that exist in Maine’s forests. Ultimately, this dissertation reveals that the heritage of snowmobiling in Maine and its integration with various aspects of rural life have left indelible physical, economic, and cultural imprints on the landscape that are not easily swept away by seemingly inevitable forces of change. This research extends First World political ecology scholarship by exploring the history and culture of America’s snowbelt, offering new insights into the diversity and viability of common property regimes, and reframing discourses of rural restructuring and studies of the transition to post-productivism in the global north. I employed a combination of research methods including in-depth interviews with key informants, participant observation, and analysis of formal and informal documents. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to start by acknowledging the cooperation and generosity of my informants, who welcomed me into their homes and offices and spent inordinate amounts of their time telling stories and walking me through the intricacies of very complex and personal issues. I hope that the richness and intensity of those interviews comes through in this work. This eight year journey would have been impossible without a large support group consisting of faculty, fellow grad students, friends, and family. Profound thanks are owed to my dissertation committee beginning with my co-advisors, Rick Schroeder and David Hughes, who together have guided me through this at times dizzying experience with their calm, reassuring presence and extremely valuable and intelligent insights and perspectives. They remained just a phone call or email away during my four years “abroad” in Maine, particularly Rick who had a knack for knowing just what to say to get me unstuck and nudge me forward. This research reflects their constant faith in me and this project, and for that I am eternally grateful. Additional thanks to Kevin St. Martin and Trevor Birkenholtz who accepted the inevitable falling away of some lines of inquiry but still challenged me to dig deeper, and to Mark Lapping who provided me with an academic home in Maine and generously shared his office, books, time, and expertise whenever I came knocking. iv To friends: my Rutgers cohort, who provided indispensable fellowship and advice during our time together in the department: Nate, Kari, Alexis, Bradley, Za, and especially my friends, Rich and Peter—thanks for hanging with me all these years. And to folks in Portland who tolerated my friendship in absentia as I buckled down, yet were always there for me when I needed the company or help, particularly Becca and Sarah H. And a huge thank you to my extended Andrews-Smith-Lynch family who have been such a tremendous support through the years. Mom, dad, and Nel, my ever-present rock of a sister. Bill, Nancy, Amanda and Peter and their gangs: a second family that I feel incredibly lucky to be a part of. And of course my crew. Reuben, my furry little heat box who charted hundreds of hours by my side as I typed away. My sweet Hazel basil, whose arrival may have extended this project by a year or two, but I of course wouldn’t have it any other way. My life became so much more in May 2009. Thank you for continually amazing me and teaching me and making me so very proud to be your mama every single day. And lastly Patrick, whose unending sacrifices—both small and large—quite simply made this possible. I hope you truly understand how much that has meant to me, and how very lucky I feel to have you by my side. v Table of Contents Abstract of the Dissertation ........................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Background ........................................................................................................ 4 Relevant Literature .......................................................................................... 11 Areas and Scales of Study ................................................................................ 19 Chapter Overview............................................................................................ 24 Chapter 2. Conservation and the Social Wilderness .................................................... 30 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 30 The Environmental and Cultural Backdrop ................................................... 31 Romancing the Forest ...................................................................................... 38 The Snowmobile Ethic .................................................................................... 49 Enjoyment of Nature ....................................................................................... 76 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 94 Chapter 3. Maine’s Snowmobiling Heritage................................................................. 97 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 97 A Winter Tool .................................................................................................. 98 Sled Stories ..................................................................................................... 111 The Riding Community ................................................................................. 123 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 135 Chapter 4. Common Property, Private Land, and the “Public” Good ........................ 138 Introduction ................................................................................................... 138 The Private Commons ................................................................................... 139 Large-Scale Land Swaps ................................................................................. 160 Exclusion from the Trails and Table ............................................................. 178 Property Rights and Public Land .................................................................. 195 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 217 Chapter 5. An Economic Machine ............................................................................. 220 Introduction ................................................................................................... 220 Formal Forest Economies .............................................................................. 221 Rural Decline and Change in the Woods ....................................................
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