Soil - the Forgotten Element

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for young people · by young people · about young people Soil - the forgotten element

Earth: the living layer

Enriching soils, enriching lives 1

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 1 12/9/11 16:41:51 TUNZA the UNEP magazine for youth. To view current CONTENTS and past issues of this publication online, please visit www.unep.org Editorial 3 Desertiﬁ cation: not about deserts 4 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Getting dirty 6 PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya Tel (254 20) 7621 234 Fax (254 20) 7623 927 Youth action: saving our soils 7 Telex 22068 UNEP KE E-mail [email protected] In defence of Spain 10 www.unep.org

ISSN 1727-8902 Earth: the living layer 12

Director of Publication Satinder Bindra Black soil, black gold 14 Editor Geoffrey Lean Special Contributor Wondwosen Asnake A guide to composting 15 Youth Editors Karen Eng, Emily Keal Nairobi Coordinator Naomi Poulton The wonder of Earth’s worms 16 Head, UNEP’s Children and Youth Unit Theodore Oben Circulation Manager Manyahleshal Kebede Lifestyle choices 18

Design Edward Cooper, Ecuador Enriching soils, enriching lives 20 Production Banson Cover photo M. Steinmetz/VISUM/Still Pictures Learning on the job 21

Youth contributors Meghna Das (India); Jemima Seven wonders of the soil 22 Grifﬁ ths (Portugal); Jerry Lee (Malaysia); Kennedy Mbeva (Kenya); Luke Roberts (UK); Victoria Rogers (Northern Ireland); Michael Stevenson (Northern Team spirit 24 Ireland); Shalmali Tiwari (India); Haneesa Zahidah (Malaysia); Büyük Kolej Volvo Adventure team Keep up with TUNZA on your mobile (Turkey). http://tunza.mobi Other contributors Jane Bowbrick; Cambridge Botanical Garden; Luc Gnacadja (UNCCD); Ottmar or on Facebook Hartwig (Lumbricus); Sidhartha Mallya; Carlos www.facebook.com/TUNZAmagazine Marchena; V.K. Madhavan (Central Himalayan Rural Action Group); Philip Wilkinson (Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa); Rosey Simonds and David Woollcombe (Peace Child International).

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The contents of this magazine do not necessarily refl ect the views or policies of UNEP or the editors, nor are they an offi - cial record. The designations employed and the presentation UNEP and Bayer, the German-based International Children’s Painting do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on multinational involved in health care, Competition on the Environment, the the part of UNEP concerning the legal status of any country, crop protection and high-tech materials, UNEP Tunza International Youth and territory or city or its authority, or concerning the delimita- tion of its frontiers or boundaries. are working together to strengthen Children’s Conferences, youth young people’s environmental environmental networks in Africa, Asia awareness and engage children and Pacifi c, Europe, Latin America and the youth in environmental issues Caribbean, North America and West Asia, UNEP promotes worldwide. the Bayer Young Environmental Envoy environmentally sound practices Program and a photo competition, globally and in its own activities. This A partnership agreement, originally ‘Ecology in Focus’, in Eastern Europe. magazine is printed on 100% chlorine-free signed in 2004 and renewed in 2007 and paper from sustainably managed forests, using 2010, runs through 2013. It lays down the The long-standing partnership between vegetable-based inks and other eco-friendly basis for UNEP and Bayer to implement UNEP and Bayer has become a public- practices. Our distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint. the projects under the partnership. private partnership that serves as a These include: TUNZA Magazine, the model for both organizations.

2 TUNZA Vol 9 No 2

Tunza_9.2_Engv7.indd 2 15/9/11 09:01:50 EDITORIAL

e live, all our lives, less than 25 centimetres away from extinction. For that is the average thickness Wof the thin dusting of topsoil that is all that Soil: stands between us and a barren planet, and on which we utterly depend. And yet we abuse it recklessly.

did you know? Every one of those centimetres can take 500 years to form, yet, neglected, it can be – and often is – eroded away in • An average soil sample is 45 per cent minerals, 25 per cent just a few years. Every year more than 24 billion tonnes water, 25 per cent air and 5 per cent organic matter; the of priceless topsoil are washed or blown away worldwide, organic portion can rise to 10 per cent in a well-maintained as the land is overcultivated and overgrazed and trees garden soil. and forests are cut down. About a quarter of the world’s agricultural land, the United Nations reports, has already • The mineral portion of soil is made up of weathered rock. been degraded, and another 12 million hectares – an area the size of the African country of Benin – is lost to farming • Many soils have been transported over long distances by each year. glacial movement, water fl ows and wind, settling far from their original ‘parent rock’. Desertifi cation now threatens the livelihoods of more than a billion people in some 100 countries across the • Central and South American rain forests get most of their globe. It is at its worst in the drylands, where patches mineral nutrients from the Sahara, as soil dust from North of desert erupt and grow like a rash on the face of the Africa is transported across the Atlantic. Earth. And it is no coincidence that about 80 per cent of the confl icts that have recently broken out around the • It is the size of the mineral particles that gives the soil its planet are in arid areas where growing deserts are forcing texture, from very fi ne clay to coarse sand. Fine clay is used neighbouring peoples to compete for the remaining to make porcelain. fertile land.

• Volcanic soil is among the most fertile on the planet. And yet it is a forgotten crisis. Nearly 20 years ago – at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit – the world’s governments agreed • A healthy soil reduces the risk of ﬂ oods and ﬁ lters out to a treaty to combat it, but have done little to put the pollutants from water. treaty into practice. This autumn, when the UN General Assembly hosts a special one-day summit on the issue, will • Red and yellow soils contain iron and are low in organic offer the best chance in two decades to bring the issue matter. back to international attention. Governments must come to the table resolved, literally, to hold their ground. • Dark brown to black soils are high in organic carbon and are good for agriculture.

• Blue to purple soils suffer waterlogging.

• Rainforest soils contain little organic matter because the heat and humidity break it down too quickly for it to penetrate below the soil surface. This is why such soils degrade so quickly after deforestation, making them inappropriate for conversion to agriculture.

• Humus is organic matter that has reached a point of stability where it will break down no further if conditions do not change. A high humus content improves soil structure, promoting moisture retention and aeration.

• Bacteria and fungi secrete sticky substances that help bind the soil together.

• Soil classiﬁ cation is extremely complex: scientists have identiﬁ ed more than 10,000 soil types in Europe and more than 20,000 in the USA.

Soil – the forgotten element 3

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E Design Pics/Still Pictures Executive Secretary oftheConvention, aboutanissue thataffects usall. they contain44percentoftheworld’s world dependonthedrylandsbecause population –live, allthepeoplein people –oronethirdoftheworld the Earthwhere morethan2billion drylands, which cover 41percentof either! Although itfocusesonthe Indeed, anditisnotaboutdeserts the world’s landisaffected? land degradation, andhow much of many peopleare currently affectedby lands, isn’t it?Canyou tellushow iﬁ The Convention toCombatDesert- 4 T n g cation isaboutmore thanjustdry- v 6 TUNZA . i n d d and thepromotion ofhealthysoils.TUNZAspoke toLUC GNACADJA, the is theonly internationalagreement thatlinksenvironment, development he UnitedNationsConvention toCombatDesertiﬁ

Vol 9No 2 4 J. Sawalha/UNEP/Topham J.

www.fl ickr.com/photos/tpeek DESERTIFICATION a predictionthat climatechange will doubled since the1970s,andthereis by seriousdroughthasmore than centage oftheEarth’s landareastricken and unpredictabledroughts. The per- weather events such asprolonged change isknown tobringextreme drivers ofclimate change. Climate desertifi drivers, butthereverse isalsotrue: Certainly itisoneofthemain main driver ofdesertifi Do you feelthatclimatechange isthe in theworld. but indirectlyitaffectsevery one ofus live ectly affects1.5billionpeoplewhose Put anotherway, landdegradation dir- future ofourentireglobalcommunity. in thedrylandsisvery importanttothe tonnes ofgrain. Sothehealthofsoil land lostcouldproduce20million size ofmy countryBenin. The annual year duetodesertifi million hectaresoflandarelostevery half oftheworld’s livestock. Twelve food productionsystemandproduce lihoods dependondegraded areas, cation isoneofthemain cation, established in 1994, cation, established in1994, NOT ABOUT DESERTS cto.Ta’ the That’s cation. cation? by 2050and, to feedthemall,we will be9billion peopleonourplanet challenge. Itisestimatedthat there Population growth isaserious desertifi change. Couldyou relate thisto a majordriver of environmental suggests thatpopulationgrowth is Environment Outlook)assessment UNEP’s forthcomingGEO(Global value asafood-producing asset. increased carboninthesoilhasgreat (if thesoilishealthy thatis!).Secondly, bon dioxideandsequesteringitinsoil cantly by removing atmos warming canbemitigatedsignifi soil serves adualpurpose: fi mitigation. Carbonsequestration inthe play animportantroleinclimatechange crop varieties. given currentagricultural practices and 50 percentinmostcountriesby 2050, depress agricultural yieldsby some15- UNEP/Topham I muststressthathealthy soilcan cation? rstly, global pheric ca 1 : 2 - r- / 9

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1 6 : 4 1 : 5 4 need to increase our food production by 70 per cent in the next 40 years. That is a big ask. If we consider that 1.9 billion hectares of land worldwide have become degraded since 1950, the challenge is even greater. Behind that is another serious challenge: the risk of overexploitation. If the population grows in a starving world, humans are likely to overexploit and degrade the land more and more. In addition, we would lose the capacity of soil to sequester carbon, contributing negatively to climate change mitigation. Humans can be drivers of the problem but they can also be the solution. And the solution is feasible: land degradation can be reversed. J. Salam/Still Pictures

can still chose sustainability by making Young people who are enthusiastic Are modern, intensive farming prac- sustainable agriculture and forestry about nature and the environment can tices a factor? And how does this cornerstones of the green economy. In be front-line players in the collective relate to the rich world’s levels of fact, two-thirds of the degraded lands fi ght against desertifi cation. I have met consumption? offer restoration opportunities. Land many young people who have taken degradation can be prevented, degraded the time to teach themselves about Current increasingly intensive soil lands reclaimed and drought mitigated desertifi cation and how they can help use is leading to signifi cant land using sustainable techniques for land drylands by fair trading, tree planting degradation. Mostly due to erosion, and water. For that to happen, policy and saving energy. But I wish schools 24 billion tonnes of fertile soil disap- makers, governments, farmers, scientists would teach more about desertifi cation pear each year. and communities must work together. and sustainable development to help Virtually everyone in rich countries Investment in sustainable land man- more young people understand the depends on the drylands for food. The agement is a local concern, a national issues better and support the search for wheat, rye, oats, barley and olives interest and a global obligation. Thus it solutions. we eat or the cotton clothes we wear must be given priority at the local level Think about this – a drought can have their origins in drylands. But to increase income, to improve food occur anywhere, whether in deve- land degradation threatens not only security and to contribute to poverty loped or developing countries. But in the rich world’s consumption but also reduction; and at the national and developed countries, drought doesn’t global food security. Moreover, if the global levels to help alleviate hunger kill people. What is happening now land is further degraded and becomes and malnutrition, to reduce poverty, in Somalia and other East African no longer productive, rural people will to protect the world’s climate, to safe- countries would probably not happen be forced to abandon their farms and guard natural resources and ecosystem in Australia. I invite young people to migrate somewhere else in order to services, and in many cases to preserve think why a drought implies famine make a living. cultural heritage. in one place and not in another, and All these things point to the import- There is a need to document and what would be the total cost of action ance of sustainable land management. evaluate success stories and assess now and that of inaction for our Farming is needed to feed the ever- their impact on ecosystem services. common future. increasing population, but this can be Sharing success stories helps others done in a sustainable manner so that take similar action for achieving their we no longer degrade arable land. own goals, or for scaling up their Sustainable land management helps practices. Moreover, there is a great improve local livelihoods, reduce need to clarify the impact of different hunger, restore natural ecosystems and sustainable land-management prac- mitigate the effects of climate change. tices and adapt and optimize them under different conditions. And there is still a need to raise awareness of the

Are you hopeful for the future? What causes, the context and the impacts of M. Hamblin/OSF/SpecialistStock do you feel are the key things that can inappropriate resource use. be done?

Our generation could set humanity on And lastly, how can young people in the path to sustainable development or particular help ﬁ ght desertiﬁ cation in to self-destruction. The good news is we their own lives?

Soil – the forgotten element 5

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1 1 / 9 / 2 1 ltration ltration , meaning , meaning , soil is not Lumbricus Lumbricus outings persist in school classrooms for for in school classrooms outings persist ow did I come to spend my days on an ecobus? my days on an ecobus? spend to did I come ow I did with my the gardening Maybe it was all of the shows 1960s, or the wildlife in the father Lumbricus very year at the Bayer Young Environmental Envoy Envoy Environmental Young the Bayer at year very mobile to a a visit in Leverkusen, conference by a photovoltaic powered and classroom laboratory ‘But when young people come to to come people ‘But when young ‘But as far as I’m concerned, you can’t learn without learn can’t you as I’m concerned, ‘But as far importance and global soil. The local ‘Which brings me to ‘These lessons give only a glimpse of soil science to to a glimpse of soil science only give ‘These lessons roof is a highlight for the young environmentalists. Housed environmentalists. the young for is a highlight roof named bus, the lab is in a 7.5-tonne and biodiversity. Under natural circumstances it takes 10 it takes circumstances Under natural and biodiversity. to a minute of soil, and it takes 1 millimetre produce to years and soil at an alarming rate, fertile losing are it: we destroy rise to will give soil worldwide of productive the loss I fear problems. major social and political era – from Jacques Cousteau to Bernhard Grzimek to David Grzimek to Bernhard to Jacques Cousteau – from era study me to prompted of nature And my love Attenborough. University. Cologne at and geography biology say is: “If you One thing I always hands dirty. getting your If you the water. go into to have swim, you to learn want to – nature go into to have you ecology, about learn want to that observed I’ve of teaching, In my years once!” at least of experience direct losing increasingly are people young but or insect metamorphosis, plant growth – not just nature collecting many of our students, So for bad weather! even discover soil or digging to forest in steep invertebrates of under a lot riverbank, in a muddy soil layers different experience. is a new weeds, and, according theme of mine, soils is a favourite of natural and the German Union of Soil Sciences the International to in ignored often too Society, a subject that’s Soil Science is fundamental with water, soil, along Yet the classroom. agriculture, to planet, and is connected on the life for and ﬁ storage water production, water afforestation, always a favourite subject: they think it’s just dirt! We teach teach We dirt! just think it’s subject: they a favourite always of with a bundle an ecosystem them that soil is actually The methods we and many helpers. processes important age group to according soil differ to close get children use to look a microscopic offer ones, we the little For and interest. obtain soil to Older pupils drill into at the soil inhabitants. soil different observe can a “soil-sausage”, so that they a soil sample’s might analyse students mature More layers. its presents team In the end, every acidity. determine pH to further use back in the for and documents it digitally results classroom. In our humble teaching. worth a subject well but it’s children, who do such an important the worms named after – ecobus than more reached have – we the world job for undercover we’re know going. We keep and plan to people, 70,000 young seen some of the documented making an impact: we’ve of results E ‘H years. But best of all is when pupils from years past return as return past years of all is when pupils from But best years. bringing their own themselves, teachers young adults, now by digging in.’ about nature learn pupils to earthworm, and it demonstrates Ottmar Hartwig’s enthu- Hartwig’s Ottmar and it demonstrates earthworm, – and a education and environmental nature siasm for thought our soil. The TUNZA team for particular passion without talking to Ottmar be incomplete would soil issue and why he thinks that educating about what he does, about soil is a matter of urgency. people young

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1 1 / 9 7 / 2 1 Soil – the forgotten element Soil – the forgotten there. With the support of our parents, With there. advised and engineers who school, trees us on soil structure and what to plant, we started a campaign to enough raised We inform the public. Then donations to plant 4,000 saplings. joined in and planted local government we aim 15,000 saplings. Ultimately, to plant 400,000 trees on the site, the most appropriate cedar, preferably for the climate. Our success will im- the soil, rehabilitate habitat for prove organisms, and create a park in living will be able to play. children which Haneesa Zahidah Haneesa Zahidah ing post versity, gathering versity, soil right where they are. Browse our compost guide (see our compost guide Browse soil rightare. where they saving our soils our saving duced about 50 kilos of etween 1980 and 2005, 40 million into were thrown tonnes of trash

the 100-hectare Ankara Mamak CityAnkara the 100-hectare Dump without proper care. Closed since 2005, the dump threatened to off and still gives pollute groundwater we learned bad smells. In our research, the structure of can destroy that waste and produce soil, pollute groundwater harmful toxic gases. 60 per cent of the area is piped Today, methane, but the remainder to extract decided to create a forest We lies idle. B Büyük Kolej team, Turkey team, Turkey Büyük Kolej 2011 Finalist Adventure Volvo of Waste, Oxygen Instead as a waste management system in moreas a waste giving while and institutions schools compost samples; seeing, touching away and smelling soil helps people realize composting can be. valuable how with the mixture to about the 60 perwith the mixture to and vegetable and chopped cent level, with covered are added. It is fruit scraps and more scraps cloth, and stirred daily, The is full. are added until the container to a sack compost is then transferred weeks. and left to mature for two is a particularly good method Takakura country that produces rice, for any are only used as the husk and bran feed or otherwise thrown for chicken Takakura In 2010, I introduced away. uni composting at my from the cafeteria and organic waste setting up a small composting site at In two Architecture. of the Faculty months we pro compost, used for landscape gardening begun a training now on campus. I’ve in a neighbouring project at a school state; they intend to use their compost in their science garden. I plan to carry on promoting com Volvo Adventure Volvo BYEE 2010 in lled tempeh cient and ve days in days ve YEE) and Volvo Adventure young environmentalist programmes. environmentalist young Adventure Volvo YEE) and nvoy (B 7

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Youth action: action: Youth

we will dig 30-centimetre holes into into 30-centimetre holes we will dig The will percolate. water the which holes will be fi termites, attract manure to chicken help create and break it down which will then plant these We fertile soil. as trees, such holes with indigenous Prunus africana genus of stones the lines so that eventually lines of trees into will be transformed help stabilize the – a forest that will moisture. down soil and further draw our stones, just begining to lay are We and the residents are eager to give a long-term project based It’s it a try. and depending on on trial and error, the results we will seek more support, both fi at least three It’ll take government. the wait. worth but it’s years, The Green Team Green The BYEE 2010 st-sized st-sized cordons pierreux , salmonella and other ll. Instead, why not use – ll. Instead, why along contours, retaining along contours, retaining E. coli e’re always looking at modern looking always e’re looking to the future. solutions, diguettes ts into two or three cars, so can be ts into two The main problem is that the public main problem is that the public The products are dirty; thinks that sewage unsafe. But research that they’re not. Ironically, that they’re shows farmers tend to use a much Malaysian a mixture more hazardous fertilizer, dung, which of peat soil and chicken harbours dangerous bacteria. stressing presentation by I begin my the importance of environmental it as about (if I advertised conservation come), then no one would sewage present the biosafety and reuse aspects I’ve So far, products. of treated sewage managed to complete 12 campaigns in all the residential dormitories in exhibition My interactive school. my fi nature, and taken on the road. I love more of Malaysia’s to see want don’t for the being destroyed environment sake of landfi have? we already – what and save Kennedy Mbeva, Kenya, Kenya, Mbeva, Kennedy W In May if we look back? But what farmers in how 2010, I read about re-greened degraded Burkina Faso stones to capture laying land simply by a simple, inexpensive moisture. It’s the community. project and involves arid an Yatta, it to I decided to take they where area in eastern Kenya, mainly for maize and beans grow has been land Their subsistence. and due to deforestation degraded leading to practices, poor agricultural soil erosion. project, still in its pilot stage, The of fi rows laying involves called stones in rows or rainwater and preventing topsoil from topsoil from and preventing rainwater eroding. In front of these stone lines,

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food waste in, and organized other in, and organized other food waste other village students to collect wastes. excrete castings, rich earthworms The We phosphorous. in nitrogen and but ourselves, vegetables grow don’t castings at worm we use some of the in our fl school also sell We green and beautiful. now villagers, using the a lot to farmers and profi fencing or gates. project has cleaned up our This even villagers have village; many in their taken up vermicomposting in the last three And homes. own promoted the method we have years, to 26 schools. Think Globally, Eat Locally Eat Globally, Think saving our soils our saving ron- ed the d nalist cation tags. n India, government-run schools in schools n India, government-run meal, a midday areas provide rural but students only eat a little and throw a little and throw but students only eat and In our village, food the rest away. used to be thrown waste agricultural buildings, outside directly into drains them and causing pollution blocking and disease. we learned about vermi- At school, for turning culture as a solution and asked into fertilizer, organic waste department our municipal agricultural us, and came to train They about it. free of cost. offered us earthworms So we dug three square pits, each measuring a cubic metre, lined them with pebbles, and added a mixture of dung and earthworms. matured cow to throw asked the food workers We Shalmali Tiwari, team Green Battle, India Battle, Green Tiwari, team Shalmali fi 2011 Adventure Volvo I £500 (about $800) in another envi £500 (about $800) in another envi fun mental competition, which purchase of soil and seeds. purchase such decided to plant vegetables We as carrots, potatoes, onions, beetroot be harvestable that would and spinach begin, as before the summer holidays canteen staff are The well as herbs. particularly keen to try new recipes Teachers produce. using our when to grow ask about the herbs and how pupils ask while certain vegetables, garden The to cook certain foods. how brings the community together. primary Next we helped the nearby We patch. veg to start their own school something child each to give wanted bags to take home, so we made grow containing fabric, each from recycled vegetable, seeds of an easy-to-grow instructions and identifi and we hope been a success so far, It’s for to expand, running workshops our community and other interested schools. Youth action: action: Youth T. Claudius/BIOSphoto/Still Pictures 9

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You have beenamazingly successful asafootballer, Thehistory ofAndalusiaisone ofgreat agricultural You come from AndalusiainsouthernSpainand

Vol 9No 2 1 In defence 0 World Cup(2010)for Spain.Attheendof2010heplayed his50th the UEFA European Football Championship(2008)andtheFIFA (2003-04) andtheUEFA SuperCup(2004),allwithValencia CF;and (2001-02 and2003-04),theCopadelRey (2007-08),theUEFA Cup Cup (1999),asilver medalatthe2000Olympics; theSpanishLeague has won almost every honourfootball hasto offer. FIFA U-20World C consecutive undefeated international match –arecord. Earlier nity withthenatural world? this year, hewasalsonamedDrylandsAmbassador to the currently playsfor Villarreal CFandSpain, Carlos Marchena, who entral defender United NationsConvention to CombatDesertifi of Spain (UNCCD). TUNZAmanagedto catch upwithCarlos in between hisinternational dutiesandpre-season cation. MuchofLas training. countries. Ialsorealized that manyofthesecountries – most oftheworld’s drylandpopulations are indeveloping desertifi of thecountries suffering from poverty alsosuffer from those ofmychildhood.Iwas shocked to fi and visitwonderful places, includingvery different onesfrom CM: desertifi TUNZA: work itinasustainable way,withoutdegrading it. for usto enjoy thislandanditswonderful ecosystems and Moors, now known astraditional knowledge –itispossible management techniques –includingthoseintroduced bythe management. Andthanksto manythousand-year-old soil Andalusia isarable, soconservation dependsonitsgood landscapes andavery pleasant climate. But almost halfof necessarily negative. They create themost beautiful tanker coming to deliver water to allthefamilies… water shortages, especially inthesummer. Iremember abig and years ofpoorproductivity –we have always suffered from and lived ontheland.Idoremember problems withdrought And itwasawonderful setting.Iwaswith people whoworked CM: of drylands? the Moors. Didthat,too, give you aparticularunderstanding But over theyears Ihave learned thatdrylandsaren’t Drylandssetthescene for mychildhoodandadolescence. Myprofession hasallowed meto travel allover theglobe cation, butthenIlearned thatthisisnocoincidence Couldyou tell usaboutyour concerns about cation? cation nd thatsomany 1 2 / 9 / 1 1

1 6 : 4 2 : 0 6 T u n z a _ 9 . 2 _ E TUNZA: specifi convinced that,united, we can transform ourconcerns into they are thekey to thefuture. young people oftheworld notonly have avital role to play– global problem affecting allcountries withoutexception. The desertifi climate. However, there are various techniques to combat to 75percent ifyou consider thecharacteristics ofour cent ofSpainisatriskdesertifi that desertifi are far worse offthan we are inSpain.Idon’tmeanto say TUNZA: sequester carbon andactually emits itto theatmosphere. by thesoil.Conversely, erosion reduces thesoil’s capacity to cent ofthecarbon dioxide produced byhumansiscaptured powerful instrument to fi desertifi unsustainable exploitation ofwater resources. fi forest change), itisalsoaresponse to humanfactors, suchas to acombination ofnatural factors (exacerbated byclimate people. Thoughitistruethatdesertifi of resources andtheforced migration ofatleast someofthe increasing thelevels ofpoverty. Thisleads to overexploitation suffers, reducing people’s capacity to live offthelandand involving water shortage andsoildegradation. Productivity and itsimpactuncertain. Desertifi CM: infl climate change,orhave otherfactors hadamajor desertifi fact, only ifwe remain united and are aware ofthecauses of see policymakers take full account ofcollective opinion.In consumption isanimportant partofthis.Iwould alsolike to preserving thesoilmeanspreserving theirfuture. Responsible to preserve it,andcan raise people’s awareness that of thesoil,whosustain andnurture it,can promote initiatives management. People whoare aware oftheenormousvalue tion isaseriousproblem, asignofunsustainable land CM: message for ourreaders, theyouth oftheworld? TUNZA: for whichIamanAmbassador. still much to bedone.Spainplays a vital role intheUNCCD, achieved, bothatinstitutional andscientifi with thosewhoactually usetheland.Muchhasalready been agenda andasamatter ofpublicawareness, working closely to beeffective, theissue must beprioritizedbothontheworld sector. Ifmeasures suchasearly warningandmonitoring are desertifi that theenvironment hasbeendestabilized. Thefi during thesecond halfofthelast century happenedsofast CM: issue for your homelandanditspeople? n g v uence? 6 Desertifi And therelationship between climate changeand Ithinkagoodstart would beto realize thatdesertifi Economic development andtheindustrialization ofSpain Theeffects ofclimate changeondrylandsare complex . i n d c actionto reverse theprocesses ofsoildegradation. d

res, pooragricultural methods,rural exodus orthe cation willwe beable to reverse the process. cation now requires decisive actionbythepublic

cation thatalsohelpto reduce poverty. Iamfi cation isnotjust one-way. Thesoilcan actasa Doyou feel thatdesertifi Doyou thinkthatdesertifi

1 How can we allhelp?Doyou have aparticular 1 cation has far-reaching consequences; itisa cation isnotaseriousproblem for us:35per ght climate change.About20per cation andthisincreases cation willbecome abig cation isaphenomenon cation isreally about cation isaresponse c levels, butthere is ght against rmly ca-

www.ﬂ ickr.com/photos/jasiot UNCCD Jörg Bandell UNCCD www.ﬂ ickr.com/photos/jasiot Soil –theforgotten element 1 2 11 / 9 / 1 1

1 6 : 4 2 : 0 9 Earth: the living layer

ost of the land surface of the planet is covered in a Soil textures layer of soil – ranging from only a few centimetres 0 M 20 to several metres thick. It is made up of inorganic matter (mineral and rock particles), organic matter (decaying

plants and animals), living organisms, many of which are

microscopic, and air and water.

Clay 4 Per cent silt Soil forms as parent rock (bedrock) crumbles over time, 0 and air and water get between the particles, causing further Silty

chemical and physical changes. Plants then take root, Sandy clay 60 80 Per cent clay clay binding the soil particles together, attracting animals and Silty Clay loam organisms like moulds and fungi, and protecting the soil Sandy clay loam from being blown or washed away. Soil texture depends clay loam Loam 100 on the size of the particles that make it up, ranging from Sandy Silty very coarse sandy soils which are highly aerated and drain Loamy loam loam sand Silt quickly, through silty soils to very ﬁ ne clay, which drains 0 Sand 20 40 60 80 100 100 80 60 40 20 0 poorly and can rapidly become waterlogged. A loamy soil – Per cent sand including particles of all sizes – is best for growing plants. Source: FAO/CUP

The suitability of soil for agriculture oils vary in their fertility and ability Cultivated areas and land reserves % of total land area Sto hold water and nutrients in the in the developing world right amounts for agriculture. According Latin America / Caribbean 12 Too cold No problems to the FAO, only 11 per cent of the Sub-Saharan Africa 6% 11% world’s land area has soil that can be Too wet 10 Land under cultivation 10% farmed without need for improvement. in 1990 The rest is too wet, too dry, too shallow, Additional land under 8 too cold or chemically unsuitable, or cultivation in 2010 Land with potential for Too dry just too steep. Most of the land that cultivation 28% 6 Too is best suited for agriculture is in the shallow South Asia 22% northern hemisphere – North America, 4 East Asia (excl. China) Billion hectares Europe, Russia and China. Worldwide, North Africa / only about a third of all potentially culti- Near East 2 Chemical problems vable land is in use, but this proportion 23% varies from region to region. Source: FAO 0 FAO Source:

Land suitability for cultivation

Mainly productive crop, pasture and forest land Mainly suitable for crops if improved Mostly suitable for forest Mostly suitable for forest, tree crops or permanent pasture Mostly suitable for grazing, marginal for cereals Mainly unproductive

Source: FAO 12 TUNZA Vol 9 No 2

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 12 12/9/11 16:42:12 Soil degradation waterways, exhausted land and soil Major types and causes of soil erosion, has led in recent decades to degradation n regions where there is plenty of a resurgence of interest in traditional Physical degradation Imoisture and organic matter – such organic farming methods. 4% Chemical Water as prairies – a few centimetres of soil degradation erosion can form in 50 years; in cold or dry In many regions of the world, the 12% 56% regions it can take thousands of years. problems that emerged with the MAJOR But it takes very little time for it to intensive use of chemical fertilizers Wind TYPES become degraded. Erosion – by wind have been compounded by poorly erosion or water – is by far the commonest managed irrigation. Irrigated crop- 28% cause of soil loss, and is most likely land is far more productive than rain- to occur where there is no vegetation fed cropland, and accounts for more to hold the soil in place. Clearing than a third of the food we produce. Agricultural Overgrazing forests, overgrazing, cultivating crops In China, for example, more than 40 activity 35% 27% on steep slopes, or in very large ﬁ elds per cent of arable land is irrigated. with no windbreaks, can all lead to However, irrigation combined with UNDERLYING erosion. This has a severe impact on poor drainage can lead to a build- Industrial CAUSES activity the role of soil in ecosystem health, up of salts in the soil that renders it 1% such as its ability to act as a ﬁ lter for unproductive, and many hundreds of Overuse of pollutants, its role in the hydrological thousands of hectares of arable land vegetation Deforestation (eg fuelwood) and nitrogen cycles, its carbon storage are lost to waterlogging and salinity 30% 7%

capacity and its ability to provide a every year. Source: FAO/UNEP habitat for biodiversity. Looking after what we have hold the rain and reduce surface water Even the richest soil rapidly loses It might seem as though we have runoff. The planting of windbreaks and nutrients when it is put to work for food vast untapped soil resources for crop building of embankments also prevent production. Traditionally, land was kept production, but most of the land that is wind erosion. Increasingly, attention is healthy through the addition of organic not currently cultivated is either forests also turning not just to keeping the soil fertilizers like animal manure and plant or wetlands, which provide other val- where it is, but to maintaining its bio- waste, which both supplied nutrients uable ecosystem services; is set aside chemical balance. This means taking and maintained the soil structure. With for other uses, including conservation; an integrated approach to farm pro- intensiﬁ ed farming in the 20th century, or would require massive inputs to ductivity and biological diversity. It people increasingly turned to mineral become productive. So it’s vital that means under standing soil-plant-water fertilizers to improve crop yields. Used our cultivated land is properly looked require ments and suiting the type of in the correct quantities alongside after. Much can be done. crop to the type of soil and the local careful maintenance of soil structure, climate. It means maintaining wooded such fertilizers contribute greatly to Ploughing around the contours of hills areas adjacent to croplands, and it food production without harming the (instead of vertically) prevents heavy means rotating crops and restrict ing soil. Their overuse, however, and the rainfall from washing away soil, as does grazing animals so that land has time attendant problems of contaminated the maintenance of wooded areas that to recover.

Areas of concern for soil degradation

Serious concern

Some concern

Stable land

Non-vegetated land

Source: WRI/UNEP Soil – the forgotten element 13

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 13 12/9/11 16:42:12 T u n z a _ 9 . 2 _ E the Amazon’s ancient in biochar,thesecret treasure thathaslainhiddenin more greenhouse gasemissions? Theanswer maybe sequester carbonANDprotect theatmosphere from 14 wasn’t untilthe Japan hasatradition ofamendingsoil withcharcoal. Butit Ithaslong beenknown thatashescan help techniques to prepare fi improve soil:manytraditional farmers use slash-and-burn – biocharmadefrom wood –isthebest-known example. but doesnotcombust, aprocess called pyrolysis. Charcoal heat (about500°C),low-oxygen environment sothatitburns dung, leaves, boneoranyotherorganic material inalow- Biochar isformed byheatingbiomass suchaswood, animal What isbiochar,andwhatdoesitdo? rainforest. and producing lushveget thousands ofyears, theearthhere wasstill fertile andmoist, wastes insmoulderingfi biochar byaccident, leaving organic waste to burnwithother biochar. Itislikely thattheseearlierinhabitants discovered soil mixed withpartially burnedorganic material called Buthow hadsomanymanagedto settle inaplace Wherever greenery waslush,theearthbeneath itwasblack: where soilwassoinfertile? Diggingingave theanswer. – for thousandsofpeople, asure signofcivilization. grow crops –includingcotton, dye andstaple foods like maize water asnatural irrigation.These fi to protect crops from yearly fl forests were humansettlements. They thenfound fi domestic implements, bonesandlarge urns,suggesting these forest islandswere mounds,someupto 18metres high,fullof islands offorest dotted thearea, andwithinthesestrange ButinAugust 2002,agroup ofarchaeologists who Llanos deMojoattheedgeofrainforest, inBolivia.Dense set outto fi needed to sustain large populations. are well known to betoo poor for theintensive agriculture of suchacivilizationdefi settlements. Thisseemedto make sense:theexistence Spain’s. Butsubsequentexplorers found nosignofthese plex societiesalong itsbanks,enjoying landasfertile as in 1540andreported densely populated stretches ofcom- explorer, Francisco deOrellana, crossed theAmazonriver as ElDorado, alegendary kingdomofgold.OneSpanish Amazon rainforest for signsofanancientcivilizationknown For hundreds ofyears, explorers scoured thecentral The discovery ofblackgold T black gold Black soil, thousands ofyears. n g v 6 TUNZA . i n d improve soilproductivity tofeed more people, less fertile aspopulationsgrow. Whatifwe could he world isgettingwarmeranddrier,soils d

Vol 9No 2 1 4 nd ElDorado didﬁ terra preta terra elds for tilling, for example. And terra preta terra res. Despite beingabandoned for ed logic, astheAmazon’s soils ation inthemidst ofaninfertile discovery that scientists began ooding while taking advantage of nd signsofcivilizationinthe elds were bigenoughto , orblackearth,for elds raised

Map source: www.gerhardbechtold.com M. Steinmetz/VISUM/Still Pictures amended withbiocharandotherorganic material. some cases, an800percent increase inyieldwhensoilis fore limitscrop production. Scientists have documented, in based soilsinparticular,inhibitsplantgrowth andthere- aluminium toxicity inthesoil,which,while natural inclay- the availability ofnutrientsto plants,thisguards against making itless acidandmore alkaline.Besidesincreasing biochar to regenerate itself. Biocharalsohelpsraise soilpH, material, ithelpsincrease itscarbon content, allowing the plants grow. Andbecause microbes live anddiewithinthe provides ahabitat for themicrobes thatlive insoilandhelp absorbs andholdswater, releasing itinto thesoilslowly. It First, biocharhelpsretain vital plantnutrients soil, muchdecreasing theneedfor fertilizers. Second, it such asnitrogen, phosphorous, calcium andsulphur inthe far-reaching benefi to realize thatbiocharhadsomany startling andpotentially Theheat generated by creating biochar can be used for energy, making feedstocks dodouble dutyas emissions would bereduced byupto 12percent. and soilrather thananopenfi and-char, whichrequires aslow burnunderalayer ofstraw practise slash-and-burninstead prepare fi smaller scale, scientists have calculated thatiffarmers who which isenergy-intensive andproduces emissions. Ata landfi example –we’d recycle material thatwould otherwisegoto Thishasgreat implications for closing carbon loops. – includingfrom forestry, agriculture andlivestock, for If we were to make biocharfrom industrial by-products atmosphere. oxide emissions, rather thanletting themescape into the mixed into soilalsohelpsitretain methaneandnitrous where itremains inertfor thousandsofyears. Biochar the carbon into theair,pyrolysis fi slash-and-burn combusts organic material, releasing all As ifthatweren’t enough,biocharsequesters carbon. While Carbon sink ll where itwould produce methane,orbeincinerated, PERU COLOMBIA Rio Branco BOLIVIA

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1 6 : 4 2 : 1 4 T u n z a _ 9 . 2 _ E the atmospherewhen thepeat isharvested. regenerate. Inaddition,thebogsreleasecarbondioxideinto rare habitatsthatarebeingharvested fasterthantheycan based compostsalsohelps preserve peatbogs. These are produces methane,apowerful greenhousegas. it takesupspaceand,astheorganicmaterialdecomposes, atmosphere: when compostablematerialisthrown intolandfi and othersoilfaunatolive there. the soilstructurenaturally, encouraging microbes, worms and keepingsyntheticsoutofyour garden–andimproves replaces theneedforsyntheticfertilizers–saving you money M A guidetocomposting from? While agricultural andotherorganic waste isplentiful, fi the biomass neededto create enoughbiocharto fertilize solution, manyquestions needto be asked. First, where will to save theworld from carbon emissions. Butaswithany about biocharfi With allthesebenefi So what’s thecatch? agricultural residues into biocharfor gardening. which would provide heatfor cooking aswell asprocessing ful pollutants into homes)withpyrolysis-based stoves, placing traditional cooking stoves (whichoften emitharm- biofuel. Even smallhouseholdscould create biocharbyre- elds andsequester substantial amountsofcarbon come n g v 6 Making your own rather thanusingcommercial peat- Composting helpskeepgreenhousegasesoutofthe . i n d d

1 5 fertilize andimprove soilsthenatural way. It into anutrient-rich mixturethatcanbeusedto aking compostisaway ofrecycling organic waste hitp tie/w.ica.r .Pre/S/pcaittc Christoph Steiner/www.biochar.org E.Parker/OSF/SpecialistStock Christoph Steiner/www.biochar.org rst spread, itwashailed asasilver bullet 1 ts, it’s nosurprisethat,whenword 2 Continued overleaf overleaf Continued 3 > ll

Gui Dan/www.fl ickr.com/people/42526397@N00 be partofthesolutionto 21st-century problems! prevent desertifi Butifwe can really fi reduce theneedfor pollutingfertilizers, conserve water and soil for centuries while makingnutrient-poorsoilsfertile, methods; anddistribution rates andmethods. effects ofvarious kinds ofbiocharfeedstock andproduction biochar, soilconditions, soilbiodiversity andcrops; the industrial scale. Research includesinteractions between and more needsto bedonebefore implementation onan the effects ofbiocharonthefi out to distribute thebiocharinto fi facilities, andfrom there to fi it can beexpensive andfuel-intensive to getitto processing cation, thisancienttechnique mayprove to elds. Systems must beworked nd awayto store carbon in eld are still beinggathered, elds, aswell. Data on Peat

Soil –theforgotten element Biochar

1 2 15 / 9 / 1 1

1 6 : 4 2 : 1 8 nown for his famous work On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin’s name may be most synonymous Kwith gallant sea farers, giant tortoises or the beaks The wonder of of fi nches. However, in 1881, the fi nal book published by Darwin brought together over 40 years of research on one of his most loved and studied organisms – the earthworm. In The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Earth’s worms Worms with Observations on Their Habits, published shortly before his death, Darwin’s fascination for earthworms resulted in the fi rst academic work to recognize the massive importance of these soil-dwelling creatures.

Earthworms (of which there are around 6,000 species worldwide, including the common earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris), provide a rich food source for many birds and other animals, forming a key component of food webs. Another essential role for these amazing annelids is the aeration, mixing and sediment reworking of soil – a process called ‘bioturbation’, which alters the physical and chemical nature of the soil. Their movement and formation of burrows churns up sediments, making them and their nutritious contents more accessible to plant roots and other soil- dwelling creatures, as well as enabling the percolation of water through soil.

Earthworms also increase soil fertility by pulling dead organic matter such as leaves into their burrows, digesting it and excreting worm castes, which are concentrated other minerals and chemicals released by the digestion of with nutrients. Castes may be up to 40 per cent richer in plant and animal matter. In good conditions, a single worm humus and ﬁ ve times richer in nitrogen than the upper 10 may produce around 4.5 kilos of castes a year, and it is centimetres of top soil, as well as more abundant in many estimated that there may be up to 432 worms per square

Continued from previous page These should be shredded to small Naturally occurring bacteria in your pieces to help encourage breakdown. organic material will have started Can everyone compost? • Greens – things like vegetable and the decomposition process. It usually Anyone with organic waste and some fruit scraps, grass, leaves, weeds, dead takes about a year to get compost space can compost. There are many fl owers and so on – are full of nitrogen from this low-maintenance process. different methods so there is probably and help rot down material quickly. In the end, you’ll fi nd brown crumbly a solution that could suit you, as • What you don’t want in this kind of compost in the bottom layers, which even small amounts of compost can heap is cooked food, dairy products can be used in the garden. If there be used to grow vegetables, herbs or meat, which can attract pests, is still material that hasn’t broken or fl owers in a patio garden, on a or packaging of any kind that won’t down, give it a stir, add moisture or balcony or in a window box. decompose, such as plastics. dry material as needed, and leave it to mature. How does it work? Containers for composting vary. They Composting is simply the breaking can be above-ground heaps covered Hot composting down of organic material with the with a tarpaulin, cardboard or a layer If you’ve got more time to spend help of microbes, worms, fungi and of newspaper to keep excess water tending your heap, hot composting insects, which turn it into a nutrient- out, mesh containers, bins with lids or will get you results faster. The bacteria rich plant growing medium. The basic below-ground pits. Most importantly, need air and water along with the compost heap starts with scraps of the bottom should be open and food, so you’ll need to keep the heap organic material of different sorts. directly on the earth so that soil fauna moist and aerated: adding water, grass Here are a few of the basics to get can make their way into the waste. cuttings, or vegetable waste when you started. needed, or woody matter if it gets • Tough or woody plant materials Cool composting too wet, and stirring often. Keeping – shrub and hedge trimmings, straw, For cool composting, simply pile and a lid on the bin or plastic sheeting shredded newspaper and bits of mix your organic materials into a over your heap will keep the compost cardboard such as toilet rolls – that heap or in a bin, and carry on adding at a high enough temperature to are slow to break down are called more material to the top. When you encourage bacteria, which eat the browns. They contain a lot of carbon. run out of space, stop, and let it sit. sugars and nitrogen in the fresh

16 TUNZA Vol 9 No 2

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 16 12/9/11 16:42:24 encourage conditions that favour earthworm multiplication and survival.

Darwin was the ﬁ rst person to theorize that earthworms play such valuable roles. By setting up experiments lasting Humus 20-30 years, painstakingly measuring the natural movement (organic matter) and sinking of stones and stationary objects into the soil, he Topsoil, was also the ﬁ rst to realize that worms are at the heart of rich in organic much environmental re-landscaping. He found 2,000-year- matter and living old Roman artefacts completely buried by castings and organisms showed that worms could bury objects in some areas at a rate of 22 centimetres per decade. Subsoil, poor in organic Darwin stated of these creatures: ‘It may be doubted matter; rich whether there are many other animals which have played in minerals so important a part in the history of the world.’ This view is shared by modern-day scientists such as James Lovelock, originator of the Gaia hypothesis, who suggests that the work required to keep the entire living planet system healthy ‘is done for the most part by the denizens of the soil, the microorganisms, the fungi, the worms, slime moulds and Bedrock the trees’.

Earthworms, as an essential part of the system, are crucial to the life and health of our planet’s soils. Thus, they are crucial to the life and health of our planet’s terrestrial D. Kurmaic ecosystems, a role that, as Darwin ﬁ rst realized, more than metre of soil – that’s 432 million per hectare! It is therefore deserves our respect and gratitude. clear that these animals are major contributors to the chemical content and biological health of soil systems. By Luke Roberts, who is studying molecular and cellular Agriculturalists would do well to remember this, and should biology at Imperial College, London.

organic material, generating heat. The wormery out of a wide and shallow – which is an excellent soil fertilizer, more you stir your heap, the more plastic box. Just poke holes in the but you need to dilute it before use. these aerobic microbes will continue bottom to allow more air in, then It’s fi ne to feed some cooked with their work, and the faster you’ll line it with shredded paper or leaves, food and meat scraps to your worms, have compost. Fungi, worms and lightly moistened, and add some soil but don’t add citrus, salt, garlic or insects will be attracted to your heap and leaves to give the worms grit and onions, and don’t use fi sh, dairy, grass and will help break matter down bacteria. clippings, or anything too fatty or further. When the heap starts to cool Check with your local nursery for otherwise indigestible. down – typically within two to three the best worms to use in your area weeks – you’ll have great compost. – red wriggler earthworms (Eisenia Leaf litter With either method, in the end, foetida) are a popular choice; you’ll Leaf litter is the simplest method you’ll have dark brown, crumbly, need about 1,000 to get started if you yet: if you can collect deciduous earthy smelling material. This is best are going to provide a decent amount leaves in the autumn and have some left for two months to mature before of castings. space in your garden, it’s easy to it’s used. Now you can start feeding your make good compost called leaf mould worms with scraps, and sifting out the with very little effort. Simply fi ll a bin Vermiculture compost – actually worm castings – as or make a pile of fallen leaves, and If you mainly have food scraps – it’s being produced. Small wormeries sprinkle them with water. Leave the vegetable scraps, egg shells, meat can easily be kept indoors. pile to itself, and fungi will break scraps and so on, wormeries are a Wormeries also come in fancy down the leaves. In about a year they good bet. Worms eat the food and stacked plastic structures. Worms in will have turned into a dark-brown process it, along with ingested soil, the bottom of the structure eat the crumbly mulch that can be spread into a fi ne, mineral-rich compost food, leaving compost behind, and across soil to retain moisture and keep called castings. Actually, these cast- work their way up the trays as you out weeds, or can be added to potting ings are so rich that you must mix add scraps little by little. Empty the compost. them with normal soil before you use castings from the tray and put it on top them for planting. to continue feeding. The worms also With thanks to the Cambridge It’s easy to make your own generate some liquid – worm leachate University Botanic Garden.

Soil – the forgotten element 17

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 17 12/9/11 16:42:27 9 2 : 2 4 : 6 1

1 1 / 9 / 2 1 cult to replicate all LIFESTYLE LIFESTYLE cial fertilizers a bountiful produce harvest may never looked better. looked never of whatever reaches the ground – be it leaves falling or falling or the ground – be it leaves reaches of whatever everything literally, Quite dying. large small, and animals, process of recycling I learned that this returns to the earth. of in it and, matter builds a soil that nurtures what grows out you’re Whenever in it feeds us. what grows course, taking worth a minute to look beneath your and about it’s there! going on down feet and appreciate what’s a bit of a mis- have This led me to a feeling that we a desire There seems to be conception in modern farming. to sanitize I suppose to leave the soil – to rid it of all life: The to produce. want for the crop we a blank canvas very difﬁ problem with this is that it’s those nutrients that a teeming underground life system will Artiﬁbuild. otherwise its diet, but soil needs a varied in the short term, It seems time. quality is inevitably going to deplete over to me that I should be supporting ecosystem this complex rather than battling with it. offerings as I can as many all those learned to make to I’ve manure from our pigs and ash organisms. Compost, lovely contribute to the dark crumbly matter that from our stove It takes more beans and tomatoes sink their roots into. my but there are ways poisons, to spray than effort to weed in something Soil organisms to be covered around that. like and bare soil can quickly start so I thickly layer to erode, ‘mulch’ This up in the autumn. raked garden with leaves my the sun keeping germinating by stop weeds me to allows All my soil. onto my wandered off rogue seeds that have get dragged down eventually along with those leaves, gifts, to contribute the earthworms to the feast! By working by plants have found my I’ve with nature rather than against it,

Photos: J. Grifﬁ ths ciency but little there are likely to be there are likely ths chose to leave their slick city life in Bristol, UK, to live sustainably, off- sustainably, life in Bristol, UK, to live city their slick to leave ths chose 8 1 9 No 2 Vol

d d ast year I started a vegetable garden. I was a city I started I was ast year garden. a vegetable about self-sufﬁ girl with big ideas getting experience and no idea what I was myself n i

. TUNZA 6 v g n

18 L Jemima and John Grifﬁ and John Jemima Gifts for the mighty mud for the mighty Gifts a steep learning curve It has been Portugal. Mountains of central of the Estrela grid in the foothills with power the spring, and generating from pigs, getting water and chickens by for them, surrounded them. feelings for the soil that sustains talks about her growing Jemima solar cells. Here The complicated part astounded me: in your average average The complicated your in part astounded me: top soil square metre of happy billions of tiny thousands of different species and From of different roles. organisms a myriad playing of bacteria our feet is a hive bugs the earth to below and these little a meal creatures are busy making activity, into. But I soon became aware that my beloved plants beloved that my But I soon became aware into. dark crumbly soil seemed at their most content in that smelt rich It might sound odd to and complicated. easy to think of it as very describe It’s mud as complicated. soil is but as I dug about I had a thought: not much at all, the ultimate for us landlubbers (plants and animals alike), source and destiny Let of life! Does that sound a bit mad? me explain. E _ 2 . 9 _

z n

u T CHOICES A rewarding experience

Allotments – small plots of around 250 square metres – have been a feature of European cities since the early days of industrialization. Typically, they are owned by municipalities, and rented for a small fee to city-dwellers who want to grow their own vegetables, fruits and ﬂ owers and raise chickens for eggs and meat. You might think that in today’s industrialized world they were an outdated idea – far from it. TUNZA intern Emily Keal and her friend Lee Reid both spend time on the Reid family’s allotment – and enjoy the fruits of their labour.

hemical weedkillers and pesticides are in the armoury of the majority of farmers and land- Cowners ﬁ ghting to keep pests and diseases at bay. But the solution to a problem can become a problem, which many feel is what’s happened with food production today. There is an alternative, however, in the traditional allotments dotted around Britain. A look at the Reid’s family allotment provides plenty of food for thought, and for the table! Everything from potatoes to melons is grown organically. Mellowcat Norton, a small town in northeast England, is home to 160 Lucy Curtis > allotments where people own chickens and grow their wife Jane on their allotment only travel own fruit and vegetables. Dating back to the 1930s, these a short distance from plot to pot at their allotments provide a taste of old Britain with a new twist, home, a matter of minutes away. as people seek to balance family budgets at a time of austerity by growing their own food. Other factors coming Allotments are becoming more and into play are to eat more healthily while helping the more popular because of today’s current environment and avoiding the massively over-packaged climate, both environmentally and products on supermarket shelves. ﬁ nancially.

A virtuous circle is completed on the Reid’s allotment by www.ﬂ ickr.com/photos/9228131@N07 > composting anything from leaves to teabags and even 67 565 eggshells. Every year they rotate the crops using a different If you’re interested, fol low 64 94 /5 patch of ground to avoid pests and diseases and keep the the Reid’s ﬁ ve basic n o lt a best balance of nutrients in the soil. All the composted principles for growing _ m a material is eventually returned to the soil to nurture it your own! h a r naturally for the next crop. As Steve Reid said, ‘a lot of time • Soil preparation: g /

o and effort goes into the allotment, yet it’s a very rewarding digging and t o

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experience: everything we grow we eat’. Not only is their manuring. /

organically grown produce better for wildlife and the • Weeding: c .

environment, it’s also a lot healthier for the family! removing weeds i

ﬂ

from soil. w

With the current concerns about climate change, any • Composting: i

reduction in the journeys taken by our food will reduce the improving the soil by G

effect we have on the environment. It has been estimated adding vegetable waste n

that the ingredients that make up the average family that has been broken down l i

Christmas in the UK clock up about 77,000 kilometres, through natural processes. i

almost equivalent to twice round the world! These ‘food • Sowing: placing seeds in soil and J

kilometres’ all contribute to our carbon footprint, so even watering.

growing some vegetables in the garden helps combat • Pricking out: transferring seedlings from the global warming. Vegetables produced by Steve and his greenhouse to the plot when they are big enough.

Soil – the forgotten element 19

Tunza_9.2_Engv7.indd 19 15/9/11 11:24:18 T u n z a _ 9 . 2 _ E level, we helpcommunities make contour trenches using and loss ofasensecommunity ownership. Onapractical But they have beendegraded over timedueto excessive use leaf litter, whichthey usefor animalbeddingandcompost. these communities, whorely onthemfor fuel,fodder and On common lands,forests are anessential resource for people withmultiple opportunitiesto improve theirlives. seem broad, butthere’s nosilver bullet: we wantto provide conservation andespecially sustainable agriculture. Thismay issues ashealthcare, education, social forestry, soil,water an integrated approach to development, focusing onsuch 20 M about hiswork topromote sustainable development innorthernIndia. soil andretain moisture for sustainable agriculture. TUNZAtalkstoV.K. Madhavan forests andothervegetation canregenerate. Onprivate land,theissue istoconserve be washedawaybyrain. Oncommon land,thechallenge istoconserve soilsothat Soil isaparticularly importantissue inmountainousareas –astopsoilcaneasily n g v 6 TUNZA . i n d d

Vol 9No 2 2 Uttarakhand, astate innorthernIndia.We promote Group (Chirag), works inaround 200villagesin y organization, theCentral Himalayan Rural Action

ickr.com/people/vran Scalet/www.fl Michael A third soilenhancer is fi hope isthatthemicroorganisms willalsomultiply inthe enough to addworms, whichfurtherenrichthesoil.The period oftime,thesolutionhelpsbreak down thecompost organic matter asthisislayered onto theheaps.Over a comes inone-litre bottles, isdiluted andpoured over new and bacteria –into thecompost. Astart-up solution,which microorganisms –acombination ofbenefi We alsoencourage thefarmers to introduce effective compost isinapitrather thaninanabove-ground mound. prevent rainfall from gettinginto it.Bothwork better ifthe make sure thecompost iswell aerated bystirring it;and decomposition, we encourage farmers to dotwo things– rich, but,unfortunately, it’s notgoodenough.Soto improve the ground, andspread itonthefi – whichissoaked inanimalwaste –ageitin moundsabove region isto gathertheleaf litter usedfor livestock bedding In agriculture, thetraditional methodofcomposting inthis trees, shrubsandotherforest speciesto grow. regeneration assoilandmoisture levels improve –allowing fodder isharvestable. After ayear, communities seenatural with animmediate incentive: withinthree months,the mud, andplantfodder grasses inthem.Thisprovides people on theirown landsistestament to that! crop quality. Thefact thatwe have 400farmers usingthem All theseorganic methodshave resulted inbetter yieldsand with compost. use itasaseedtreatment or spray fertilizer, orfor layering days. Once itstarts to ferment, you dilute itwithwater and cow urineinapot,cover itincloth andleave itfor afew You mixtogether milk,clarifi of India,whichinvolves usingfi of soilimprovement we’ve introduced from adifferent part enriching lives Enriching soils, elds, tiltingthebalance infavour ofhealthysoilmicrobes. panch ed butter, yogurt, dungand ve thingsderived from cows.

gavya elds. Thiscompost is , atraditional method cial yeasts, fungi 1 2 / 9 / 1

1 African Renaissance

1 6 : 4 2 : 3 4 Learning on the job

It all started in 2006, when Philip Wilkinson of the Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa was working with the Department of Education in rural South Africa, introducing environmental studies into the curriculum. During long drives between schools, he and a colleague hit on an idea: sustainability commons, a place where communities could learn about sustainable technologies in a hands-on way. Schools, as places of learning and a community hub, were the perfect location.

Photos: African Renaissance ural schools in South Africa to the municipality that sustainable We brought in experts where often lack municipal services technologies are implementable in needed – such as for establishing Rsuch as reliable tap water, rural South Africa. Any money saved wind and solar energy, biogas and electricity or sanitation. All they would be reinvested in education. water treatment facilities – but on an receive is an annual sum from the everyday basis everything is built and Department of Education – often We drew up a wish list of things that run as part of the students’ daily lives: barely enough to cover costs – as we would need to turn our idea into they learn by doing. The kids grow well as basic food to provide the reality: wind and solar power, com- vegetables, tend the worm farms, run pupils with school lunches. Our posting systems and a greenhouse, solar cookers and help operate the idea, and then project, would serve biogas digesters, and so on. Today, biogas digesters, hot water heaters three purposes: making a school as with the support of individuals, non- and irrigation system. self-reliant as possible; educating governmental organizations, the Chris the children and community about Hani District Municipality and the Based on this success, the project sustainable technologies; and proving Department of Education, these all has spread to three more schools. exist at Three Crowns Junior School Recently, our municipality budgeted in the Eastern Cape, which has about nearly half a million dollars to 150 students. roll out sustainable technologies in the community at large, which wouldn’t have been possible without the participation of Three Crowns’ students.

Solar water heaters Here are a few of the technologies, Our solar water heaters are made of from small-scale to advanced, that we cheap black PVC piping normally are using at Three Crowns. used in irrigation lines and available almost everywhere. Recycled two- Drip irrigation system litre drinks bottles around the pipes The pipes are made from recycled car add a layer of insulation and increase tyres allowing water to soak directly heating effi ciency. The pupils use into the ground, minimizing loss the hot water to wash their plates through evaporation. after lunch, and now we’re building another heater to provide hot water to Biogas the kitchen. Two biodigesters produce gas by processing waste fl ushed from toilets, along Biological wastewater treatment with cattle manure and organic kitchen The wastewater from the biodigesters waste added three times a week. The goes through a biological treatment gas is used to cook for the children – facility to remove excess nutrients from along with two solar cookers. the water that could have an impact on Greenhouse surface and groundwater quality. The Worm farm The school built a greenhouse using algae grown in the system are used Our worms rapidly convert organic two-litre drink bottles. This used up to feed the biodigester, or dried and matter to vermicompost and worm some plastic waste – there’s no waste applied as an organic fertilizer. We leachate. Ten parts of water to one collection here. The school grows the also plan to use this nutrient-rich water part of leachate is used to irrigate and seedlings, cuttings, shrubs and trees in a hydroponic system to grow plants fertilize. Leachate also serves as an it needs here, and sells any extras to and to raise fi sh. insect repellent. surrounding schools.

Soil – the forgotten element 21

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 21 12/9/11 16:42:35 wonders 7 of the soil Acacia trees

In arid regions drought, overgrazing, intensive farming, mining and deforestation can turn once-fertile land into desert. One way to restore the soil is to plant trees, particularly those that ‘ﬁ x’ nitrogen by drawing it from the atmosphere and making it available to other plants. These trees are typically deep-rooted, helping to retain moisture in the soil, and also improve soil structure by providing leaf litter. Acacias are popular because they grow quickly and can thrive in harsh conditions. In Hawaii, Acacia koa establishes vegetation on overgrazed lands; in India, Acacia nilotica rehabilitates degraded saline soils; in Australia, Acacia saligna is re-greening sand-mining sites. The FAO’s 2004 Acacia Project has already beneﬁ ted 44 communities in six African nations by planting acacias in vulnerable farmland. The trees help restore soil fertility, provide fuelwood and fodder, shelter crops and are a source of gum Arabic, which is collected and sold to the food industry. Mark A. Wilson Actinomycetes

A spoonful of soil can contain as many as a billion bacteria. We often think of them as ‘germs’, but these single-celled organisms are crucial to soil and human health. Different kinds do different jobs. One important group, actinomycetes, is helpful in a multitude of ways: decomposers break down such tough materials as tree bark and are responsible for that freshly turned earth smell. Frankia sp., the nitrogen-fi xing actinomycetes, work with nitrogen- fi xing host plants to accumulate atmospheric nitrogen, which plants can’t use in its gaseous form. This symbiosis allows the plants to thrive while building nitrogen-rich soil in which other plants can grow. And it was an actinomycete bacteria that provided us with streptomycin, the fi rst-ever antibiotic remedy for tuberculosis, isolated by Dr Albert Shatz in 1943. We still use these bacteria today to produce antibiotics such as erythromycin and tetracycline, proving that our obsession for killing ‘all known germs’ with disinfectants may be somewhat misguided! Graham Colm/en.wikipedia/CC

Nematodes

There are probably at least a million different species of nematode living everywhere from the surface of the soil to the roots of plants. These microscopic worms eat everything from fungi to bacteria to insects, larvae and plants, and live either independently or as parasites on host insects, plants and animals. They can consume 6.5 times their own weight daily, and along with earthworms are important in recycling organic matter into fertile soil and helping to distribute nutrients: both bacterial- and fungal-feeding nematodes release large amounts of nitrogen into the soil. Not all nematodes are welcome – the one that causes trichonosis in pigs can make us ill too, and plant-feeding nematodes can be devastating to crops. However, some insect-eating species are valued as natural pesticides, and nematodes in turn provide food for small insects and even for fungi. The fungus Arthrobotrys anchonia, for example, forms a constricting ring of cells that traps a nematode as it passes through! George L. Barron

22 TUNZA Vol 9 No 2

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 22 12/9/11 16:42:37 Dung beetles

The humble dung beetle relies almost exclusively on faeces, playing a crucial role in keeping the soil fertile and lowering levels of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide. There are around 10,000 species of dung beetle, everywhere in the world except Antarctica, and ranging from 0.2 to 17 centimetres long. There are three types: rollers make balls of faeces, sometimes 50 times their own size, and roll them into burrows; tunnellers dig below the dung; while dwellers live and breed within it. In the process they fertilize and improve the soil: rollers and tunnellers drag and bury dung up to 60 centimetres underground, distributing nutrients, aerating soil and helping water to percolate through. This also sequesters carbon and reduces the nitrous oxide – a greenhouse gas over 300 times more powerful than carbon dioxide – emitted by manure. New Zealand plans to import and release 11 species of foreign dung beetle in order to manage livestock waste and reduce greenhouse gases. Rafael Brix/GNU-FDL Water bears

The tiny and incredibly hardy water bear is often found in the ﬁ lm of water in soils, but can survive anywhere – ocean sediments, below the Antarctic ice, in mosses, in boiling hot geothermal springs, even outer space. Also known as tardigrade or moss piglet, the water bear does resemble a bear, but has eight legs and is only about the size of a full stop. Its segmented body has a brain, a digestive system (it mainly feeds on plants or bacteria, though some are carnivorous) and sexual organs, and it is prey to nematodes, amoebas and other tardigrades. Scientists are studying the water bear’s ability to enter a state of metabolic standstill – called cryptobiosis – in the face of environmental stressors such as lack of water or oxygen, low temperatures and radiation, sometimes for as long as 120 years. It may hold clues to the preservation of tissues, cells and vaccines without refrigeration. http://tardigrade.acnatsci.org Cellular slime moulds

Neither plant nor animal nor fungus, Dictyostelium discoideum is a cellular slime mould, a microscopic amoeba that normally lives independently in the soil, eating decaying vegetation, fungi and bacteria, and helping to maintain the balance of microﬂ ora. What makes it fascinating is its ability to turn from a single-celled organism into a multi-cellular body: when there isn’t enough food or temperatures become too low, the microscopic cells swarm together to form a single, slug-like – and often brightly coloured – blob. This blob moves towards warmth and light, sometimes harvesting bacteria from one place and carrying it to a more suitable location. When ready to reproduce, it shape-shifts into a plant-like structure with a stalk, which lifts a spore head high enough for spores to be scattered for germination. The slime mould’s ability to live as both an individual and communal organism is of interest to biologists studying organ and tissue development. Bruno/Columbus/Wikimedia CC Mycorrhizal fungi

Every handful of soil can host thousands of fungi species, of which there are at least a million. Best known for breaking down organic matter, fungi make nutrients available for other organisms. Among the most important are mycorrhizal fungi living in symbiosis with more than 90 per cent of the plants on Earth, surrounding and penetrating their roots. The fungi absorb sugars from the plants while spreading ﬁ laments further out into the soil than plant roots can reach, absorbing water and nutrients that they make available to the plant. We eat some of their fruiting bodies – chanterelles, trufﬂ es and porcini. Scientists recently found evidence that mycorrhizal fungi played a key role in enabling early land plants to green the Earth in the early Paleozoic era, more than 470 million years ago, thus shifting the atmospheric balance of the planet towards the oxygen-laden air on which life on Earth now depends. Strobilomyces/GNU-FDL

Soil – the forgotten element 23

Tunza_9.2_Engv6.indd 23 12/9/11 16:42:39 TEAM SPIRIT Photos: www.royalchallengers.com Photos:

In India, cricket is more than a game and can inspire people to take collective action. The Indian Premier League (IPL) team Royal Challengers of Bangalore understood this and reached out to its fans and the wider public with its Go Green initiative. When TUNZA spoke to RCB owner Sidhartha Mallya, we started by asking what lay behind the campaign.

limate change and global warming are the most critical issues facing humankind, and we at RCB believe we all must act now – not just at governmental and corporate levels, but all of us. Small ‘Cactions and lifestyle changes by many people will add up and make a signiﬁ cant difference. ‘RCB began Go Green in 2010 with a number of activities including car pooling for fans coming to matches, waste separation at stadium and its disposal through recycling and composting, collaboration with the Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation for additional buses, and a carbon footprint calculator on the RCB website (http://www.royalchallengers.com/go-green). These actions helped reduce emissions, but RCB has decided to become the ﬁ rst carbon-neutral cricket team in the world.

‘Our carbon neutrality won’t be achieved by buying carbon credits that seemingly “wash away” emissions. We launched a unique fan-driven initiative through which RCB fans each make small environmentally friendly changes in their daily lives, and pledge their emission reductions to RCB. The RCB green team is not just the 11 players on the ﬁ eld, but includes more than 100,000 fans, each of whom is contributing in his or her own way. This is a democratic green campaign of the fans, for the fans and by the fans, and they are the real heroes.

‘Our green campaign, which is guided by NextGen, an energy and environment consulting ﬁ rm, has two basic aims: to raise awareness and to get people to make lifestyle changes. For example, our sapling initiative in schools, colleges and communities doesn’t involve a mass planting. Rather we give saplings to individuals – students, teachers and others – to plant and tend. So far, 10,000 saplings have been planted across Karnataka State. Our objective is not just to plant trees and generate emission reductions, but to change people’s mindsets.

‘Similarly we don’t just promote the use of energy-efﬁ cient light bulbs, we make them easily available at a 35 per cent discount. We also urge all RCB fans to travel by bus on Bus Days – the 4th of every month – as a symbol of commitment to sustainable public transport. And our solar water heater initiative, which emphasizes the need to use renewable energy, runs renewable-energy-themed contests on social networks and encourages RCB fans to use solar water heaters. So far, 338 have pledged their emission reductions from the use of solar water heaters.

‘Personally, I’ve taken many of the green lessons learned with RCB back to my family business life. Our companies take great care managing and mitigating our environmental impacts through, for example, conserving water by recycling efﬂ uent and process water; using biomass, rice husk, in the boilers; and managing waste, achieving zero discharges at some plants. I strongly believe that for long-term success, economic growth needs to be environmentally responsible and sustainable.

‘As global citizens it is our responsibility to ensure that, at an individual level, each one of us does our bit and takes steps to preserve the planet. Join us in our green initiatives. As we say, “RCB is Game for Green … are you?”’

24 TUNZATUNZA Vol 9 No 2

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