Gendered Aspects of the Soviet Deportations From

CEU eTD Collection GENDERED ASPECTS OF THE SOVIET DEPORTATIONS FROM LITHUANIA WITH THE CASESTUDY OF WITH THE THE OPERATION ‘ In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of European Master in Women’s and Gender History Supervisor: Professor Francisca de Haan Department of DepartmentGender Studies of Central European University Central European Raminta Biziuleviciute Raminta Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Submitted to Submitted 2012 By VESNA’ , MAY 22-23,1948 CEU eTD Collection exile. roles. Isuggestdeportees’ that madegender a differencesignificant in their experiences of numbers of women menand in exile, and Lithuanian deportees’ assumptions about gender account into taking it narratives read these is to necessary in However, exile. harsh conditions family members and other needy sometimes andinpeople, ways other strove to survive under variousfrom care ofsurvival,they strategies compulsory take work apart of continued to their asmore as presented thanmenlife in active their they developing depicted during exile: were in were often claimwomen them that meto memoirs allows deportees’ Lithuanian of reading as membersbut of ‘culpable’ groups( Soviet actors (guerilla headsof Soviet warriors, anti- individual active as not deported were women cases many in that I suggest memoirs. analyzed official Soviet documents regarding deportations and Lithuanian deportees’ policiesthough seemed tobegender-neutral.order In to answer my Ihavequestions research Lithuania, World of context movement (Second in deportations the War, resistance armed anti-Soviet 23, 1948, when 40,000peoplearound weredeported. I am presenting waysthe in which the biggest mass fromdeportation Lithuania under code the name ‘Vesna’ (‘Spring’) in May 22- distantregions of Union Sovietthe in 1940s–early the Iparticularly on 1950s. focus the to Lithuania from deportations Soviet the of aspects gendered analyze I work this In dekulakization and collectivization policies) made deportations gendered, even kulaks Abstract kulak , nationalists and/or anti-Soviet elements). My i households or collaborators with the Nazis) CEU eTD Collection ‘Vesna’, 57 May 22-23, 1948...... 3. Deportations from Lithuania in 1945-1948, andthe operation massthe of deportation 20 2. Historical context...... 10 Literature review...... 1 ...... Introduction 3.3. Gendered implications of the policies of the deportation 72 ‘Vesna’...... 3.2. Planning 65 and executing the ...... operation ‘Vesna’ 3.1. Background to the deportations 57 in 1945-1948...... 2.3. The Soviet deportations: 55 broader context...... 40 ...... movement in July 1944; re-startthe of deportations from Balticthe countries; beginning guerilla of the 2.2. Lithuania during Nazi the occupation (June 1941-July return of the 1944); Sovietsthe to the first Soviet occupation in June 1940; the first mass deportation 20 in June 1941...... 2.1. The social and political independent situation of Lithuania 1918-1940; (non-) reaction 1.2. Analyzing memoirs from 14 a gender perspective: ...... literature 1.1. Literature 10 regarding the ...... Soviet deportations 2.2.3. Beginning 50 of the guerilla ...... movement 2.2.2. The return of the 44 Soviets in July 1944...... 2.2.1. Lithuania during the Nazi occupation 40 (June 1941 -July ...... 1944) 2.1.5. First mass 38 deportation ...... in June 1941 2.1.4. (Non-) Reaction to the firstsoviet occupation 32 in June 1940...... 2.1.3. Lithuania’s international relations in 30 the interwar period...... 2.1.2. The economic and social situation of 26 independent Lithuania ...... 1918-1940 2.1.1. The political situation of independent 20 Lithuania, 1918-1940...... Table of contents ii CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 128 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 122 ...... Primary sources 116 ...... Appendices 112 ...... Conclusions 4. The life of Lithuanian deportees 80 in exile as ...... narrated in memoirs . eote’mmis...... 126 2...... Deportees’ memoirs 1. Archival 122 material...... Appendix IV. Short description 119 of the analyzed memoirs...... Appendix III. Map: Forced migrations in the Soviet 118 Union in 1947-1952...... AppendixMap: Forced II. migrations from regionsthe annexed by USSR,1940–1941.the SSR in the Union 116of Soviet Socialist Republics...... Appendix I. Map: Political and ethnic division of the USSR. The location of the Lithuanian 4.2.Narrating 98 the gendered ...... experiences of exile 4. 1. Dominant 84 topics in ...... the memoirs ...... 117 ...... 4.1.3. 93 The years of ...... life in exile 4.1.2. 88 A journey to the ...... place of exile 84 ...... 4.1.1. Arrest iii CEU eTD Collection (Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 2010), 131. New York: Central EuropeanUniversity Press,2004), 4, 305-320; Naimark, Norman K., 1 Polian, Pavel, medical help often difficult to access; both deportees and experienced prisoners access; both deportees helpoften to difficultmedical scarce, was camps in the and inexile both food etc.; mining, construction, forestry, - inwork industries to had same the forced often labor, they to subjected they were freedom theirwas constricted, exile experiences: deported to similar sharedsome into exile. sent were members family remaining their while executed, or colonies In labor camps, addition, those who many cases those were triedfor political weresentenced toprisons,crimes who were weresentenced sent to the camps. toAlso, during -some variouscrimes for opposite life their committed deportees, inexile, camps as deportation and wasthose perceivedtheir who as a milderwereterm penalty, serving after people some system: penal Soviet same of the as parts in they were related in the campsall, of First camps. the and exile the between link only the not is this and - Affairs) were releasedNarodnyy vnutrennikh komissariat del; Eng. ThePeople’s forCommissariat Internal not into freedom but into exile, and the Gulag – the NKVD (Rus. resettlement. diedUnion.of Sovietthe million 1–1.5 Around asa forceddeportees of result the by the planners of the deportations,most frequently to the Far North and the Far East appointed destinations at tothe resided they places the from transferred were forcibly million died. An additional14 million people wereimprisoned in Gulagcamps,the out of whom 1.5 around 6 – 7 million experienced exile, which means that they the institution supervised which same by the conducted The deportations were around existed) Gulagofficially when the period (the and1960 Between 1930 Against Their Will 1 Among deportees the werearoundthere 130thousand Lithuanians. . The History and Gepography of Forced Migrations ɇɄȼȾ Introduction , ɇɚɪɨɞɧɵɣɤɨɦɢɫɫɚɪɢɚɬɜɧɭɬɪɟɧɧɢɯɞɟɥ 1 in the USSR the in Stalin‘s Genocides (Budapest, , CEU eTD Collection 2 See, for example, Norman K. Naimark K. Norman example, for See, Soviet movement, deportations as part of genocidal policies, and etc. However, when deportations asof part‘bigger’ issues: the deportations’ role insuppressing the anti- the discuss historians other journals, inscholarly orlessarticles brief more published whose work I will shortly for Eugenijusof arethedeportations only Grunskis, analysis: except object primary present in the literaturescholars’ review, existingand several research. authors Inwho the Lithuanian case, in only narratives ofboth Lithuanian political anddeportees. prisoners a few researches Sovietonly, though my initial ideagender. for this workmention image a homogenous and of deportees political prisoners, disregarding their was to researchcamps and exile is not always clear and is sometimes entirely indiscriminate, not Gulag to the between differentiation the in which thescholarship) and media memories, experiencesonly reason) and to create nottheitwas certainly served(though in turn, anddetails. This, same characteristics an image the of of number a share the often narratives their penalties deportees) as and prisoners as both terms in the Soviet served Union subsequently of them some factthat tothe anddue inmates, Gulagthe camps’ (in collective ɩɨɫɟɥɟɧɢɟ spetsposelenie; sometimes referred to as exile settlements, in Russian in Russian as exile settlements, to referred sometimes spetsposelenie; (Russian: farspecial settlements from not the away locations in Also,some were situated and camps etc. free citizens, prisoners/deportees various forms of violence and humiliation by officers, guards, fellow Western and Lithuanian both from different extent some to is work My To make the distinction more clear, I decided to dwell on deportees’ memoirs deportees’ dwell on to decided I clear, more make distinction To the of and deportees of experiences similar extent certain a (to reasons those For 2 , ssylnoye poselenie) where deportees were forced to live. Stalin‘s Genocides 2 . ɫɩɟɰɩɨɫɟɥɟɧɢɟ ɫɫɵɥɶɧɨɟ , CEU eTD Collection policies andprocesses. policies to look for ways in which thediscussing reasons the such of deportationa massive organizing in he 1948, nor tried gender of the deporteesevery from single Lithuaniadeportation in1940-1953,buthe go did deepinto not played a role in deportationalready to some extent analyzed by Grunskis, who has given overviews was of deportation almost‘Vesna’ the that here noted be to has It work. scholarly any in majority before memoirs, been hasnot the of which deportees’ ten analyze discussed case concentrating on concrete the of mass in the deportation andMay to 1948, deportees. of those known than public Western to the are better Vilensky etc.) Simeon Eduard Kuznetsov’s, volume memoirs of women’s “Till My Taleis Told” edited by memoirs (Evgenia Ginzburg’s, Aleksandr Varlam Solzhenitsyn’s, Shalamov’s, rather than of deportees, withwork researchers prefer Toker), to of testimonies Gulagthe inmates, camps’ which is probablyat dueleast to the factby scholarsthat criminal nature politicalof Sovietthe regime. And whenit comes to analysisthe memoirs, of of prisoners’RussianSoviet origins policies working morein oftenregard in referredthe to West variousto as revealeda part(for of national Stalinistexample, that thepolicies andSoviet Leonaethnic of terror, deportations unitsas an example or as areof a the proofalsoI also use in my work. not of oftenthe a topic as such – they are Grinkevi if even isof it one-Daliarather than a political a deportee same often the prisoner, of memoir a analyze to tend authors Lithuanian memoirs, of analysis the to comes it such, from Lithuania as analyze deportations the to have Meanwhile decided I my research of phase preparatory the scholarship, Western the concerns What þLnjWơ ’s Lietuviai prie Laptev ǐ j nj ros 3 (Lithuanians by Laptev Sea)which (Lithuanians the CEU eTD Collection 3 Scott, Joan Wallach, influenced the deportation policies of categorieswhatinto andauthorities, Soviet of the influenced deportation the policies situation historical what and class, and gender about assumptions What 1) In short, my main questions are the following: societies. ‘other’ differenthistorical toorganize situations inorder andconceptualize theirand own way relationshipssignifying of which of power”, people useinvarious ways in sexes,and a the between […] primary perceived basedon differences relationships In my work I use thememoirs, and I am using gender as the main category conceptin my analysis. in their isit narrated as in exile, lives deportees’ into look to am trying I Secondly, and whatconsequencesit had for Lithuanians on political levels.and private wereinvokingsupporters particular categories intheirpolicies and public discourse, The first set of questions in my itin memoirs. werelater tellingtheir about workdeportees is how the Soviet authoritiesprojects and policies, the organization lifeof in exileand as well as the ways in whichtheir the Sovietintelligentsiaregime. tothe informing Such assumptions were deportation Lithuanians, and resistance and especially of presupposed peasants wealthy activity/passivitydeportees), ‘inherentand other characteristics’ men of and women, by and by assumed deportations, the plannersof (assumed the to gender roles ‘assumptions’ forlives. actual Iam With consequences people’s word the referring situation influenced policiesthe of deportations, andhowthis had various gender,class about assumptions andnationality, and contemporary the historical officials’ Soviet in how am interested I that means which deportations, of layers personal and between official relationsanalyze the to am trying I myIn work Gender and Politicsthe of History 3 gender 4 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 42. as a “constitutive element of social CEU eTD Collection experiences, this difference experiences, of wasoften to gendersocialization “due who subjects, the Pascale Rachel HolocaustBos, whowasanalyzing questions similar inregardto often deportations the andlifedeportees’ experienced According to inexiledifferently. itthat is crucially important to look into deportees’ gender,female because andmale was done, in deportations most the on research some when even but ofdeportations, Soviet the theoverlooked cases the factor of deportees’partly have West the in and Lithuania in scholars only not explained, genderI As was ignored. I believe deportees? men and women share them narrate to ways the and topics What about? talking understandings about their life to corresponding aspects of seeascontrary inexiledidthey or gender roles and norms? in 4) Howdid What narrate their memoirs? the experiences deportees gendered What aspects they saw as worth inexile?) division of example, for (How, react forced togender-neutral diddeportees Lithuanian labor Lithuanians’ own perceptions deportees’ of influenced gender in experiences exile? and gender about assumptions authorities’ Soviet the did ways what In 3) as the main ‘anti-Soviet elements’, who were deported? shared by authorities Sovietthe havefor thelives were of Lithuanians: whotargeted which were social order the about assumptions those consequences did What2) thanmenweredeported?) more women fact that led tothe authorities’ assumptionssocial about inclasses WhatLithuania? historical situation – Sovietsuch reveals the What as“banditsupporters kulaks” about categories menthough werewere deported, assumed tobe “headsthe of women (Why in documents? contemporary the weretranslated assumptions those 5 kulak households”? CEU eTD Collection 6 History, Supplement 7, 44, 1999), 7, 10. Gender,Class, Race and Ethnicity 5 University Press, 2003), 32. Women, the Nazis, and Holocaustthe male and female. deportees’ gender –theirand own societies’the assumptions and understandings about in my werenotwork, always entirely butwere different, undoubtedly influenced by show which,asIhope in to ways, their narrated remembered and experiences particular grew upandlived with specific on discourses gender”. 4 Bos, Pascale Rachel, “Women and the Holocaust: Analyzing Gender Difference“, 34-35 Difference“, Gender Analyzing Holocaust: the and “Women Rachel, Pascale Bos, Boris, Eileen; Janssens, Angélique,“Complicating Categories: AnIntroduction” in Bos, Pascale Rachel, “Women and the Holocaust: Analyzing Gender Difference“ in Difference“ Gender Analyzing Holocaust: the and “Women Rachel, Pascale Bos, wealthy/wealthier peasants or intelligentsia. class tothe of andasbelonging as Lithuanians targeted women – they were rather for men and different policieswerenotparticularly deportation the for example, more significantly than gender: lives shapeddeportees’ categories aforementioned the state or religious creeds particular belongingnational to suchas of sense categories, age,ethnicity, the class, of the deportees, and I believe that in many cases some of concern the ‘Vesna’ deportation. Most of them I found in Lithuanian Special in Lithuanian found I them of Most deportation. ‘Vesna’ the concern which documents analyzing am I questions, research my answer to order In would be notless relevant. intersection here)and mentioned which their were not (and factors some categories aforementioned other onthe aresearch though thegenderaspect, on concentrate religious orphilosophical creeds andfeatures of character. certain having ages, of particular females males alsobut and as a certain to class, belonging Lithuanians, as only not policies those of implementation the experienced deportees the gender-neutral, policies were often deportation Sovietthe mentioned, is gender tobeanalyzed.as I categories, important Though, intersecting several I should emphasize here that I do not see gender as separate from the other the from separate as gender see not do I that here emphasize should I , eds. Eileen Boris, Angélique Janssens (International Review Social of Review (International Janssens Angélique Boris, Eileen , eds. , eds. Elizabeth R. Baer and Myrna Goldenberg (Detroit: Wayne State 6 5 However, I believe that being one of one being that believe I However, 6 4 In this work I decided to Men and women also Complicating Categories: Experience andExpression: CEU eTD Collection in wererelated withexile deportation the due policies to which weremorethere official documents and memoirs I am also attempting to reveal how the experiences of my analysis In experiences. various with coping their described they how and talk (not) they did experiences gender-specific what about in exile: experiences their In my memoirs,am to seehow of deporteesrepresented I reading those attempting Soviet Union). Among them, six are written by female andfour by male deportees. time when they were published,written is not indicated, but I would guess i.e. that most of them wereduring written around the see in please appendix majority IV; of the cases time was when a memoir particular the first years after of which were publishedin early in 1990s Lithuania (for fullthe listand descriptions the collapse of the most memoirs,is sources deportees’ of group my other mentionedearlier, As I categorieswhat weregender-blind. extentthose see to fighters, peasants and other categoriesthe which the usedtodefineofficials armed anti-Soviet non-armed and people who were targetedvarious groups of Lithuanians. Inmy reading of documents,those Iam looking into for deportations, andto belookedat asapart of general Soviet of the to discourse officials’ attitude also to official concerningdocuments Soviet deportations the from Lithuania important are Secondly, etc. documents, in official indicated were people deported of numbers familiesfor deported what howfiles werecompiled, wereorganized, deportations understanding deportations: the initiating about whowas how deportations, general a provides which information, some contain they Firstly, ways. two wereuseful infootnotes indicate documents (chapter 3). Those myfor in research inlanguage translated toLithuanian or (Russian) various whichI publications skyrius; LYA VRM dokument (Lithuanian: ypatingojo Lietuvos archyvo reikal Vidaus Affairs of Documents Departmentthe of Ministry the the of Internal Archives, ǐ skyrius), and somewere publishedin original 7 ǐ ministerijos dokument ǐ CEU eTD Collection 28. detached from the other categories of social of from organization. categories social other the detached gender of wasone which it factors the have determinedwas never this diversity, though demonstrate that them.I wantto narrated later and theexiledealing experiences with were deportees of people, wayshowthe the diversity affected policies of deportations expect todisclose avariety of experiences: toshow various ways in which Sovietthe I experiences deportees’ of my analysis into gender of category the introducing By andnarratingown experiences them. their wereconceptualizing in deportees the which policies. Secondly, particular Iam how assumptions haveinfluencedshowing ways the Sovietinformed waysin the deportation assumptions have which those concrete analysis offers an example of revealing gendered assumptions about the social order and deportations from My the Lithuania. analyzing providing for perspective an alternative existing historicalas knowledge mainly the contribution toown my see I 7 Bukowski, Jacek, “Biographical Method in Polish Sociology” in of the society” which appeared in certain circumstances and for particular reasons. andforparticular in circumstances certain of society” which appeared the of […]andconsciousness individual attitudes representations “subjective of the and and historiography which I usedfor contextualizing deportations the as memoirs documents, Sovietdeportees’ the approach Irather truth’; some ‘historical reveal to attempting am not I sources secondary and primary of my reading In family members abletoworkhard physical (others work werechildren and elderly). women than men in special settlements, and many women arrived to exile as the only some of the literature on deportations and on gendered experiences inexileand ondeportations andon gendered experiences literature some of the briefly present in whichI literature review 1) with the (chapter my I start work truth’. ‘the representing directly it is nor objective, created, and I am aware that were documents in context which those andtoapprehend the recognize attempt to none of the documents which I am analyzing is fully 8 Zeitschrifi fur Soziologie , vol. 3, no. 1 (1974): 7 I CEU eTD Collection gendered experiences of exile as they were narrated in the deportees’ texts. in deportees’ the they were narrated of exile as gendered experiences looking into the mainis memoirs: for Chapter4 deportees’ am questions earlier. the mentioned dedicated I topics which mostconcern of thethose ‘Vesna’ memoirs deportationsee as making the most sense for me. In chapter 3I am analyzing whichin documents share, May 22-23, and1948, tryand tryto tohistory filteranswer of Lithuania andto the Sovietsome Union in ofthe first half of the 20 claim to be ‘the true’ version of ‘historical facts’ – it is only one way of not does narrating events of my representation herestate that I have to 2, chapter especially the andmy ingeneral. In deportations moreinregard to work, detail Soviet the and first the mass fromdeportation inLithuania 1941. In chapterthis I also discuss territory during SecondWorld the War, the anti-guerilla Soviet warin 1944-1953, Lithuania’s into incorporation Sovietthe in Union 1940, the situation in Lithuanian of historicalthe contextof history Lithuania’s independentstate inas 1918-1940, deportees’ narratives, which I use for my work. In chapter 2 I am giving an overview 9 th century, which I CEU eTD Collection about the conditions of deportees’ lives in exile she also uses some personal lives some personal deportees’ alsouses inexile she conditions the about of deportees’ various officers’ correspondence, official reports, etc). reports, official correspondence, officers’ various Soviet Union in andbases1930-1931, herresearch mostly on archival material (orders, Settlements her in Viola’sLynne depotations.Soviet 1933 ,mass mass purges or killings. Only few a center authors theiraround the research in Gulaglaborthe camps, terror-famine Holodomor) (the in Ukrainian inSSR 1932- deportationsthe a as aboutpart of Stalinistthe policies of such terror, as imprisonment Union Soviet isRussia andthe are not massive.casestheauthors In most writing about narratives. were subjectedtodeportationsUnionwho to/in Soviet the andfor analyzing deportees’ ways of applying gender as in deportations general, and2)more specificliterature, in suggest which authors the a category of analysis forgroups: regardinginto1) literature Sovietdiscusshere be the two can divided discussing experiences which my andliterature I will of The methodology the framework theoretical research. of those will herediscuss only publicationsthe which directly and significantly shapedmy 1.1. Literature regardingtheSovietdeportations 1.1. Press, 2007). 9 assume that in Russian historiography is there more research focuseddeportations. on 8 Viola, Lynne, Viola, However,I did not analyze Russian scholars’’ works, and I acknowledge this drawbackas a ofmy research; I Soviet to and in deportations the concerning literature scholarly of body The In this chapter I will briefly present some literature which I use in my research. I (2007) examines one of firstthe waves of massthe deportations in the The Unknown Gulag:The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements 8 Among them is Lynne Viola and Norman K. Naimark. The Unknown TheLostWorldStalin’s of Gulag: Special Literature review 10 9 findings her substantiate To (Oxford: Oxford University Oxford (Oxford: CEU eTD Collection that in the initial stage the Soviet authorities saw deportations as the way achieve astheway two to sawdeportations authorities Soviet in initial the that the stage over the pragmatic one. pragmatic the over Norman K.ideological Naiman, emphasizedaspect the of as deportations prevailing deportations, Soviet the of researcher other findings, Viola’s contradicting Partly or religious communities. does notbut discuss deport reasons the to othergroupsof the people –ethnic, national here only analyzes whichtargeted deportations planners. for the Soviet important most wasthe which deportations punitiveof pragmaticaspect iti.e.the butthe was notthe vast natural resources”, Union’s of Soviet extraction the the forand colonization force labor unfree seen as“an of ideological meaning becamedeportations secondary, andthedeportees’ were mainly around 1931-1932the toshow high-rankingthat officers correspondence among Soviet more important. became aspect practical the soon very labor, through people’ the of ‘enemies the forge’ to suppress ‘classthe enemies’of Sovietthe state, anddiscussed possibility the ‘re- to means asoneof the perceived deportations aspect, ideological on the had concentrated findingsinternal initiallyexile. Her show that though planners the deportationsthe of the ideological presents pragmatic aspectsof and the to people millions sending several When talking aboutthedrivingforces of massdeportationsthe in 1930s,the Viola muchwas not in different 1940s-earlythe 1950s –the periodwhich I am researching. how was carrieddeportations life out, the ofthedeportees in which exile organized) institutions weremass involved inorganizing the deportations, how were the for what what reasons, (whoweredeported, deportations Sovietof the structure general documents – their memoirs and letters from exile. In her work Viola presents the 12 11 10 Naimark, Norman K., Ibid, 61. Viola, Lynne, Viola, The Unknown Gulag:The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements 10 Viola quotes extensive parts of official orders, reports, and the reports, orders, of official parts extensive quotes Viola Stalin‘s Genocides 12 In his book (Princeton; PrincetonUniversity Press, 2010). Stalin’s Genocides 11 kulaks –supposedly wealthy farmers – (2010) Naiman(2010) acknowledges, 11 However, Viola However, , 58-61. CEU eTD Collection from from Lithuania, only Grunskis Eugenijus did acomprehensive research of all waves of deportations Soviet the about writing are who historians, Lithuanian the Among partisan armedwar (1944-1953). anti-Soviet causing problems regime for the –resistingleadingand aprotracted collectivization authorities’groundless, perception (not of though) Lithuanians asanational group reasonsforthe mass butasmuch important more Isee deportations, Sovietthe haveUnion. of Lack of beenone parts might laborcheap force Soviet distant of the the numbers of from deportees countriesother and regions) wastoprovide alabor force to people from Lithuania in 1940-1941 and 1944-1953 (and keeping in mind even bigger samethe as Naimarklight Idonot does: think the main that deport 130,000 reasonto deportations. ɧɚɪɨɞɵ ɧɚɤɚɡɚɧɧɵɟ real, potential imaginedor enemiesby exiling ‘punishedthe peoples’ Russian: (in point of view (and Isubscribe tohis opinion), ideologicalthe – repressingaspect the from basis,Naimark’s political and, onnational/ethnic and were targeted were deported which most more: wasdecreasing of groups even other factor ofeconomic importance special settlers, in Russian c in Russian settlers, special called (also of deportees themortality rates factors medical other care and conditions, lack absencethe shelter or food, of be for whichwould severeclimatic adequate tools, idea of economical efficiency of deportees’ labor wasBut, he claims, already in too verythe beginning of deportationsthe (1920s– 1930s) farthe away from reality – given their labor for colonization and industrialization of desolate areas of the Soviet Union. enemies ( class destroy punish varied) samere-educate the / to atthe (rhetoric goals /to time – to 15 14 13 Ibid, 94,98, 120, 133, 135. Ibid, 61-69; 95-96. Naimark, Norman K., kulaks 15 As Iwillin 3,show chapter Iperceive the deportations of Lithuanians in and others who were seen as opposing the Soviet regime), and to use , nakazannye narody) – very soon became , nakazannye narody) –verysoon primary the of goal Stalin‘s Genocides ɩɟɰɩɨɫɟɥHɧɰɵ , 60. , spetsposelency) were gross. were , spetsposelency) 12 14 Gradually the 13 CEU eTD Collection probably probably importantare mostthe Vytautas Tininis’(2003) published in 1996, only few works on thishave subject appeared.Among them was book aforementioned Grunskis’ of edition last be the researched: after more to scholars thinkin that regard totheSovietdeportations from Lithuania there is nothing Lithuanian madeother has work comprehensive Grunskis’ seemsthat it However, analyze. archives: wasdifficultthere to find anything whatGrunskis did quote, not refer toor Sovietthe deportations from Lithuania. This was confirmed bymy research own in the in archivalsources based ahuge on to the of regard data, because hepresents amount deportations and the deportees’ lives, his work was still very useful formy own research, the of aspects gendered about talks nor system, economical or social political, suggest any aspartof deportations Sovietthe the of deeper analysis Grunskis doesnot volumes compiled andedited by him, which I indicate in footnotes. the Though research; many translatedtoLithuaniandocuments which I refer tocanbe found inthe A survived,lot etc. whichof data I usein chapter 3 of this comes work from Grunskis’ many how to, sent were they where to, belonged they classes social what exile, into the residents of Lithuania were planned to be deported and howmany actually were sent numbers of deportees the during all massthe from deportations Lithuania: howmany of on mainly the and mass material concerns concentrates the deportations, which archival well as of a number of articles and chaptersLithuania which 1940-1941,1945-1953], includes aselection variousof documents,as of other books. gyventoj mass deportations. He is the author of the several times republished book Terrorized Lithuania, 1938-1991], ed.Kedys,(Klaip J.P. Residents of Lithuania, 1940-1952] in bendruomen Residents of Lithuania, 1940-1941, 1945-1953] (Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, Pasaulio lietuvi 16 Grunskis, Eugenijus, ǐ tr ơ , 1996); Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 mimai 1940-1941, Lietuvos gyventoj Terorizuojama ir naikinama Lietuva 1938-1991 ǐ tr ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais [The Deportations of the Residents of 13 ơ da: Ryto spaustuv ǐ deportacijos 1940-1952” [Deportations of the The Crimes ofTheCommunist 16 He bases his work on the on work his bases He ơ , 1994). [Deportations of the [Destroyed and Lietuvos ǐ CEU eTD Collection written written and about oral accounts) thesources of strength which helped them to survivein in Siberia 1941-1957”analyzes in waysthe which Latvian the women both (in told Women Latvian Survival: and Nation, “Women, article herin Lazda (2005) Mara experiences. exiles’ the of research their into memoirs analyzed someand deportees’ andintroduced a genderstories, oral dimension Those authors stepped further than analyzing the official documents: Soviet they work of women historians Tiina Kirss and Mara Lazda is particularly inspiring forme. time and with isnearly The sameintensity the as from Lithuania, miscellaneous. more Latvian and situation, Estonian wheretheSovietdeportationsplace took atthesame about onnumbers, concentrate scholarly work andto the theconcerning deportations official researchdocumentsthe historians Lithuania mostto chose inWhile in more detail 3. in chapter even genocidal. Sovietthe regimeviolating rights andhumans’ wascriminal, dignity,in and some cases part of the criminal Soviet policies, and use their extensive data to support the claim that Population in 1944-1953 dedicated to the deportations, tothe dedicated 1944-1953Regime inLithuania http://www.komisija.lt/Files/www.komisija.lt/File/Tyrimu_baze/II%20Sovietine%20okupacija%20I%20etapas/ 18 režim 1944-1953. The Role of the Political Bodies, their Local Subdivisions and Collaborationists of the Soviet Union Soviet of the Committingin Collaborationists Crimes and in 1944-1953.Vol. 2]. (Vilnius: TarptautinSubdivisions Local their Bodies, Political ofthe Role The 1944-1953. vaidmuo vykdantnusikaltimus 1944-1953m. nusikaltimai Lietuvoje 1944-1953. Soviet Nazi and and Soviet Occupational Regimes Lithuania],in 2008); Tininis, Vytautas, 1.2. Analyzing memoirsfromagenderperspective:1.2. literature režimo nusikaltimams Lietuvoje Nusikaltimai/Tremimai/ENG/A.%20Anusauskas.%20Galutinis%20variant.pdf 17 Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, ǐ nusikaltimams 18 The issue of presenting the Soviet policies as genocidal I will discuss will I genocidal as policies Soviet the presenting of issue The Ƴ vertinti, 2003). Deportations of the Population in 1944-1953 Deportations of the Population in 1944-1953 . 17 deportationsTininispresent the Anušauskasas Both and Ƴ vertinti [The International Commission forthe Evaluation of the Crimes of and Arvydas Anušauskas (2008) ǐ S ą II tomas [The Crimes of The Communist Regime in Lithuania in , where a separate comprehensive chapter is comprehensive chapter , whereaseparate jungos politini 14 ǐ strukt ơ Komisija Naci njUǐ , 1-3, , vietini (Tarptautin ǐ ,accessed March 15,2012. j Deportations ofthe ǐ ǐ padalini ơ komisija naci irSovietinio okupacini Komunistinio režimo ǐ bei kolaborant ǐ irsovietinio ǐ ǐ CEU eTD Collection clothes which they felt were appropriate for women and etc. assigned todo,sexual harassment, the lost possibility look ‘womanly’to by wearing as women: they tell about ways, presenting‘men’s in their daily experiences exileaspainfully identities challenging their work’ - as they understood it – which women were 1949 Siberian called avolume and edited, Deportations” she “Survivorship and Eastern the Exile: EstonianWomen’s of Life Narratives 1941and the exile. wasinformed My own work byof hertwo the publications: article (2005) works on Sovietthe deportations from Estonia andparticular in women’s experiences several Kirss published Tiina as Lazdadid, memoirs, femaleAnalyzingdeportees’ national ethnic or boundaries. different their notwithstanding women, other with connect to possibility the as well as exile, Siberian of conditions harsh in the in themselves found they which men’s, with strength”, their physically and psychologically copinggreater strategies in comparison finding with from examples narratives,women’s where women’s theynarrated “innate something whichhelped them surviveto in many cases. and amongdeportees whom those inmetthey exile -guardsand deportees) as other and in in family society roles women’s assumptions prevailing present they stories intheir deportees’: (evenin their if share women which manyLatvian Lazdanoticeddeportees’ one moreaspect deportees. thosenarratives, assumptions and men for women forsomedeportees important Lithuanian 4, those topics werealso and which were they,different I could among add, fellowshareexile. withLatvian Lithuanian women 22 21 20 Studies 19 Ibid, 7. Ibid, 7. 4-5. 1941-1957“, Siberia Women in Latvian Survival: and Nation, “Women, Mara, Lazda, Lazda, Mara, “Women, Nation, and Survival: Latvian Women in Siberia 1941-1957“ in 1941-1957“ Siberia Women in Latvian Survival: and Nation, “Women, Mara, Lazda, 19 According toLazda, many women deportees’ construct their stories in particular , vol.36, issue 1(2005): 1-12. 22 15 20 21 As I will show in chapter show will As I Lazda substantiates her substantiates Lazda She WhoRemembers Journal of Baltic CEU eTD Collection also their age when the events took place and when they narrated stories, narrators’ stories, narrated they when and place took events the when age their also account oneinto has gender, take but deportees’ notonly the narratives to narrators’ the motherhood. genderand solidarity strategies, coping and 4)specific demands andmodels of threatthe of sexual violence; women 2)shifts ingender “men’s roles, doing work”; 3) I will show, were alsoimportant for Lithuanian women deportees: 1) the body, sexuality, thematic foci which are very similar to Lazda’s findings, and at least someIn of which, Estonian as stories, which is not for Lithuania.true women’smy men’s is dominated narrative canonical accounts Estonian the that claims Kirss stories, their of Siberian inhand, both though Estonianthe and theLithuanian cases more women survived totell exile, Kirss distinguishes four main they were active historical agents, and they as themselves such. andthey tell about historical agents, they were active lives, for andemploying they various strategieswere searching of survival, therefore them to close people’s the and own their about decisions important most the making whoin many women issues: were those were cases which ledtoseveral important settlements, special the to deported were men than women more – implications its and (which is more lessor similar toLithuanian case, asIwill in discuss 3andchapters 4) all she talks aboutthe statistic data regarding Estonia deportations to Union Sovietthe which coverI alsotry inmy aspects, Firstto of important very work. several analyses analysis of the Soviet deportations from a gender perspective known to me, Kirss Survives 26 25 Siberian Deportations” in Deportations” Siberian 24 Tartu University Press, 2004). Tiina. Kirss, Siberian Deportations” in Deportations” Siberian 23 Ibid, 22-23. Ibid, 22. Kirss, Tiina, “Survivorship and the Eastern Exile: Estonian Women’s Life Narratives of the 1941 and 1949 Kirss, Tiina, “Survivorship and the Eastern Exile: Estonian Women’s Life Narratives of the 1941 and 1949 (2004). She Who Remembers Survives: Interpreting Estonian Women‘s Post-Soviet Life Stories 26 In this same article Kirss emphasizes that when analyzing those topics in topics those analyzing when that emphasizes Kirss article same this In 23 In the aforementioned article, which is in general the best example of example best the in general is which article, aforementioned the In Journal of Baltic Studies Journal of Baltic Studies 25 Iwill talk about this more in chapter 4. , vol.36, issue 1(2005): 22-23, 27-29. , vol.36, issue 1(2005): 13-38; 16 24 On the other the On (Tartu: CEU eTD Collection through language”,through when researchers arenot lookingfor ‘truth’ butfor reconstructions perception of “reality [as] not only positional and subjective butalso in constructed and The importantother issue Bosdiscusses is contemporary scholars’ (including herself) experiences. miscellaneous of understanding caseand aclearer concrete the view of are level education takeninto factors and account, other gets amoreone exhaustive with his together narratives) gender, her or class,age,ethicidentity, andnational and revealsparticularitbrings aresearcher tocases closer discourses, universalized/universalizing the and pluralitymale-centered often dominant, the challenges it research: the to brings of experiences.feminist scholarshipshe thediscusses differences which gender asan analytical tool which might be also applied to the narratives of Baltic deportees. BasingIf her analysis on narratives, the Holocaust of analysis the in tool analytical an as narrator’sgender using for argument (in case of dealing with which I already shortly in presented introductory the part. volume Pascale Rachel Bos’s “Women Holocaust: and the Analyzing Gender in Difference” the offering theissues of dealing with the survivors’ memoirs and oral accounts, the work whichmost I see as important body literatureandvast in to of of regard theoretical Holocaust experiences the the insightsinformed concerningmyresearchtoagreatextent. Among the Holocaust literature a the them, to subject were who people of andexperiences the and policies Soviet the theoretical and Nazi the between comparison explicit any make not do I work this in Though framework and etc. implications for my research context insocial background, the narrativethe which its wasideological presented, is 29 Wayne State University Press, 2003): 23-50. Expression: Women, the Nazis, and the Holocaust 28 27 Ibid, 24-25, 34-35. in Difference“ Gender Analyzing Holocaust: the and “Women Rachel, Pascale Bos, Ibid, 18, 22. Experience andExpression: Women,theNazis,andHolocaust 27 , eds. Elizabeth R. Baer and Myrna Goldenberg (Detroit: Goldenberg Myrna and Baer R. Elizabeth , eds. 17 28 provides Bos In this essay Experience and (2003), 29 CEU eTD Collection significant ways. Most importantly, she offers a comprehensive analysis of the waysin the of analysis acomprehensive she offers importantly, Most ways. significant in my research informed work Jolluck’s self-presentation, of women’s strategies Asians. ‘prostitutes’, ‘child-murderers’, ‘Asiatic’ ‘animal-like’ ‘barbaric’, Russians and Central ‘criminals’, to especially nationalities, other of women’s of that to in opposition women as identities their present to tended women Polish narratives in their that out found that they were sufferinginterrelation not asof theirindividuals self- and group-their identification but asexile parts as Polishexperiences of women,the when about andtelling author, tothe According forthem. important Polish werecrucially identities their feelingPolish nation. women She were also SecondWorldthe War weredeported to Sovietthe Union, their striving national and gender to emphasizevalues and etc. Jolluck’s research revealedthe thatin the case of Polish women, who duringsignificance feeling ofnational identity, which,and shefinds, had a directlink tocreeds, prejudices, narratives of Polish deportees were shaped by the narrators’ gender, social class, their Women intheSoviet Union during World War II chose to presentis themselves, Katherine Jolluck’s (2002) and experiences their reconstructed deportees the which in ways the for looking of and discourses as narratives deportees’ with dealing of text exemplar me the For influenced by their assumptions about gender norms and gender roles. were see how their narratives to attempting inexile, and their experiences narrated women and men in which ways the on concentrating am I truth’ ‘historical the unearth to seeking than rather Bos’s: to similar very is which approach an using Iam work articulate their experiences. their articulate i.e.forand theways representations, in and individualswhich conceptualize particular 32 University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002). 31 30 Ibid, 259, 268, 276-278. Jolluck, Katherine, Ibid, 30. 32 Though my analysis of Lithuanian women’s memoirs did not reveal such Exile and Identity: Polish Women in the Soviet union during World War II 30 As I already briefly explained in the introduction, in my in introduction, in the explained briefly already As I 18 . 31 The author analyzes how the how analyzes author The Exile and Identity: Polish (Pittsburgh: CEU eTD Collection research, will be introduced in willberesearch, introduced followingthe chapters. in my work. Some using otherindirectly or am directly I which literature authors, the of list full a not certainly is This whose findings and insights were significant for my narrative. with canbe a nationalist etc.) inextricably situations, related she actin particular should how woman, be a to mean it does (what norms gender about assumptions which 19 CEU eTD Collection existed with nations. with other existed Lithuanian independence proclaiming separation Lithuania’s from any tiesstate that Vilnius Assembly, September 18-22 1917.On 16 February Council1918 the declared reality. to ideas closer century, only andsocial political the upheaval of FirstWorldWar the brought their independent an of re-establishment of ideas the developing were intellectuals Lithuanian or at least inEurope autonomous19 rule.Lithuanian However, state the alreadyprocesses in theof formationend of the 19of nation-states which were going on in and the establishment of the three-men presidency led by Antanas Smetona. A led by Smetona. Antanas of three-men andpresidency establishment the the of Lithuanianthe National Council into the State Council holdinglegislative powers, provisional Lithuanian which constitution was adopted, thetransformation announced Germany had the right toself-government. In beginningthe of November 1918a Prince Max of Germany on15Octoberannounced 1918that countries occupiedby only after available became actions administrative independent therefore occupation, 2.1.1. Thepolitical situation of independent Lithuania, 1918-1940 June 1941 reaction tothefirstSovietoccupationinJune1940;massdeportation The social 2.1. andpoliticalsituationofindependentLithuania1918-1940;(non-) 33 the during formed persons was 20 of consisting Council National A Lithuanian Since the end of the 18 Lane, Thomas, Lane, th century reached the borders of the Russian Empire as well. Though well. as Empire Russian the of borders the reached century Lithuania: Stepping Westward th 33 century Lithuanian territories were under Russian tsar’s At that moment the state was still under German under still was state the moment that At 2. Historical context 2. Historical (London: Routledge, 2001), 5. 20 th CEU eTD Collection any action without cabinet’s approval. without any action tothe was subordinate cabinetthe but president presidentthe by majority.a two-thirds The minister wasappointed prime by the (in assembly legislative Lithuanian: figurehead. The establishedin constitution the of 1922, with presidentthe of as state the more less or a who were also predominantlypeasant origins andsupposedly towork for willing intereststhe of their constituents, peasants. A highly democratic form of government was discredit this form form of this democracy. discredit multifold to crises and tended cabinet establish This ledto coalitions. to workable inclined not were which parties of proliferation the into resulted democracy multi-party models and not always consistent with the local situation. One of the western from problems adopted was structure was that constitutional such that claim scholars Various freedom of press and assembly, which mainlywere againstcommunists.directed paragraph guarantee civil individual rights, freedoms andof rights minorities, and includeda of equal rights for women, but there were some legal restraints on the Nationalist Party, which inemergedfor the 1924, time being remained aminority. permanentconstitution in 1922. Constituent Assembly was elected by suffrageuniversal inApril it introduced a 1920; and state. the torelations suchas between church inregard the had unsolvable some disagreements, they though Populists, and Democrats Christian of coalition of domination the example 36 1918-1940 38 37 organizations. front some behind and underground 1920s 35 34 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Between1920 and 1926 four parliamentary elections took place. Ibid, 20-21. Ibid,15; Eidintas, Alfonsas, Žalys; Vytautas, Ibid, 5-7. (London: Macmillan, 1997),122-123. 38 Lithuania: Stepping Westward More radical parties, such as the Social Democratic Party, or the or Party, Social Democratic the such as radical parties, More 37 34 untilHowever, 1926 wassomethere continuity,for The majority members of the Assembly were of Lithuania in European politics: The Years of theFirst Republic, , 19; Communists, were proscribed in1919 but reappeared in the 35 This democratic constitution claimed to claimed constitution democratic This 21 Seimas Seimas , andthepresidentcould take not ) had the) powertodismiss 36 CEU eTD Collection soon appointed him the head of state, though soon appointed himthehead major of the state, of assembly groups - Populists communist plot. communist 17 Decembercoup on under pretext from the 1926,of savingyounga state the Lithuanian army an example to follow. Lithuanian army officers organized a similar authoritarian authoritarian rule until his indeath 1935. Armed Forces and the Minister of Military Affairs of Poland, which generally meant his ind’état May which he1926, after became Primethe General Minister, of the Inspector system, which parliamentary culminatedthe of instability similar a facing was Poland in time, same itsthe At former Head of Statecountry. Marshal Josef Pi of ‘Bolshevization’ of betraying and‘Polonization’ government nation, the the of aggression treaty on 28 Septemberbriskly military stirred 1926 circles: they accused the cut defense expenditure concurrent with signingthe of Soviet-Lithuanian non- Basanavi included some leading figures of Lithuanianthe independence such movement, as political intentionsarouse wasalready alarmenough into the Nationalist Party (which minority raised the requirement toincrease the number of Polish schools. This cluster of landholdings,introduce andcivil to of birthsregistration andmarriages; the Polish cutting for religious budgets in the teaching sizeschools, reducethe of ecclesiastic andfor amnesty those whowere imprisoned under thoselaws; Populists suggested communists, at mainly aimed were which restraints legal of removal demanding were created. Democrats –Social interests various was reflected which aprogramme formulated They parties Minorities and Democrats, Social Populists, of consisting coalition ruling new the and support, losingwere Democrats Christian 1926 by However, 39 41 1926” in 40 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lane, Thomas, Lane, of d’état Coup ofPilsudski’s Background Economical and Political Ideological, “The Joseph, Rothschild, 39 Political Science Quarterly þ ius and Smetona), but the decision to retire some senior army officers and to Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward 41 The army leadership was close to Antanas Smetona, and the Antanas Smetona, to close was leadership The army , Vol. 78, No. 2, June (1963): 224-244. , 22-23. , 23. 22 40 Pi á sudski’s coup d’état offered the offered d’état coup sudski’s á sudski’s coup Seimas CEU eTD Collection totalitarian leader: he was often accused of leader: he force; of he touseexcessive alsohis was often accused totalitarian reluctance himselfSmetona wasand described a aslackingtemperament for personality requisite ideology so penetrate not did deepinto publiclivesthe of asincitizens extreme cases. undoubtedly itauthoritarian, was neither fascist nor intotalitarian general, ashis However, topersonal leader’ssuperior freedom, the supreme. will variousdemands ofhistorians theHis ideology was highly nationalist: anindividual was declared tobe subordinate to the nation, disciplinedictators. of totalitarian in style the People, the of Leader the wasproclaimed Smetona concluded and conformity that to though the national Smetona’s will was declared regime was Seimas granted almostgranted absolutepower: he without couldlegislate latter did not determine the re-electionas radical the1928constitution was not Nevertheless, leaders. as theoneof 1938 -the of president, so heforbidden whichaltogether, led toarrestsand imprisonmentthe ofmany opposition had perpetual reign and was political parties, apartfrom werefirmly Nationalistthe andin Union, restricted, 1936 it of asan was referredof activities 1922constitution. The the though all to amendment Nationaliststhe authoritarianthe took They route. decreed anew in constitution 1928, with Smetona government nationalistfor of –instead they safe right-wing were seeking exactly soon itwhat butbecamewas not clear this supportedthecoup, that Democrats beginning of 1927, and was not convened for nextthe nine years. TheChristian and Social Democrats - boycotted the session. The thesession. -boycotted andDemocrats Social 33. Anušauskas, Arvydas (Vilnius: Lietuvos gyventoj 43 277. Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 Lane, Thomas, Lane, 44 42 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Sužied Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija , etc. ơ lis, Saulius A., Saulius lis, 42 Lithuania: Stepping Westward inUnion 1933, Nationalist the of In addition, convention the during Lithuania: Stepping Westward Historical Dictionary of Lithuania (London: C.Hurst, 1983), 13; , 24-26. , 27-28; Misiunas, 27-28; Romuald J., Taagepera Rein. ǐ [Lithuania 1940-1990: History of occupied Lithuania], ed. genocido ir rezistencijos tyrimo centras, (2005) 2007), 30-32.; 23 (Lanham and London: Scarecrow Press,1997), 276- Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 43 Seimas Seimas dissolved itself in the approval, dissolve The Baltic States: 44 , CEU eTD Collection women’s participation in the state’s government became possible only on the local level. local the on only possible became government state’s in the participation women’s – three (1923) out of four78, in out thirdthe under (1926)- of 92, butSmetona’s rule in the first in the members, 150 of women out eightwere there Assembly Constituent (1920) In the Russians. during Nazi occupation and were involved in killing Lithuanian and Polish Jews, Poles, Germans served voluntarily who to occupation of SovietA survived thefirst those part memberspersecutions, many weresubjected to killed. deported, them of were arrested, After Soviet the inoccupation June 1940 Lithuanian Unionits Riflemen’s was closed, more to than members, 15 among62 thousand in them thousandaround women, 1939. become members. In it its 1936 becameto theChief subordinate of Army,the growing 1919. The main aim of unionthe was military Both womentraining. andmen could in established organization paramilitary voluntary a nationalistic Union), Riflemen’s society. though it notdoes mean thatanti-Semitism and anti-Judaism were absentfrom indicate Smetona’ssources supportfor strong the Jewish community in Lithuania, the of most and retained, were minorities of schools and denominations religious subsidies to enterprises, byandeconomy dominated private state was co-operatives court The system independent, werepermitted. organizations themarketremained civic and social most constrained, were parties political of activities the Though againstdiscriminate minorities.did not ethnic did not have oratorical power. In addition, at least in the official discourse he seemingly Holocaust in Lithuania 48 47 Evaluationof the Crimes of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania, 2004), 22-45. Anti-Semitism in Lithuania (19 46 1972), 33-35. 45 Sužied Ibid; Lane, Thomas, Lane, Ibid; Sabali Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 46 nj ơ nas, Leonas, wasthe organizations biggest One of the 48 lis, Saulius A., Saulius lis, Seimas (1922) were there five women out of 90 members, in second the Lithuania in Crisis: Nationalism to Communism (Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi,2011), 89-90. Lithuania: Stepping Westward Historical dictionary of Lithuania th century tomid-20 , 63. th century (15 June 1940)) 45 , 27; Vareikis, Vygantas, 24 , 255-256;Voren,Robert van, Lietuvos šauli (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, (International Commissionfor the ǐ s Preconditions of Holocaust. ą junga Undigested Past: The (Lithuanian 47 CEU eTD Collection around 1,400membersaround in with comparison a few years hundredsten earlier. Lithuanian Communist Party, existingin undergroundthe from 1918, already had rule. Leftist organizations andby were stronger, growing of end the 1930’sthe the andof determination parties Smetona’sunderground and the organizations to overthrow hardeningsentiments anddifficultcitizens anti-governmental were situation economic almost absolute they perceived as participatingin sedition, and the constitution of Smetona1938 granted power. Thesemilitary arresta police finebanned, hadand the the or aright to trial without whomever restrictionsgettingharsher:in 1936 allpolitical apart from parties Nationalistthe Union were of human rights, disrespect rightthe vote to in local elections, ashavingwas property a precondition suffrage.to of the will of the period the between fourth third the the and Klupšien Among 49members of fourth the at least three thousand additional votes which she got were whichgot sheconcealed. votes were additional thousand at least three and falsified poll the that was was some indicate there evidence that sources the though women. no were there Union, Nationalist the of candidates the from only and existance http://www.parlamentostudijos.lt/Nr4/4_politika_Jureniene.htm Women’s Council its and activities statein the in 1930s-1940s] in Grunskis, Eugenijus. Grunskis, Lithuania. from deportations regarding decrees Committee of Lithuanian CommunistCentral the of Party- Secretary First consequently, the and state the of among the Secretary other First the was things, he Republic: he also signedSocialist Soviet most of the Lithuanian Organization1908-1940” in was Antanas Snie of LKP chairman the 1936 Since Russians. as percent 14.2 Jewish, as percent 30.6 Lithuanians, as subscribed 52 51 50 Parliamentary System the in First Lithuanian Republic (1918-1940)] in 49 http://www.parlamentostudijos.lt/Nr3/Istorija_Truska.htm Around 54.4 percent of the members of Lithuanian Communist Party (LKP) inthe beginning of 1940 Kar Jur Truska, Liudas, “Parlamentarizmo I Lietuvos Respublikoje (1918-1940) bruožai” [The Features of ơ As mentioned before, in the second half of the 1930s Smetonas’s regime was þ nien iauskait 49 ơ The onlywas allowed in womanwhoparticipate theelections to –Eugenija –gotaconsiderably high number but of votes, less than malethe candidates, ơ , Virginija, “Lietuvos moter “Lietuvos Virginija, , ơ , Indr þ kus, who later, from the summer1940 until 1974, held the highest political positions in ơ Lietuvos gyventoj , “For Women’s Rights, Church and Fatherland: The Lithuanian Catholic Women’s Catholic Lithuanian The Fatherland: and Church Rights, Women’s , “For Aspasia , vol.1 (2007): 141-142. ǐ ǐ tr taryba ir jos veikla valstyb jos veikla ir taryba Seimas ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija , which was elected after nine years of non- nineyearsof after waselected , which Seimas 25 ,accessed23, 2012 March . (1927-1936)most women again lost ,accessed March 22,2012 . Parlamento studijos ơ je XXa. 3-4 dešimtme 3-4 je XXa. Parlamento studijos , 20, 22, 281. 50 , vol.4 (2005), In addition, in 52 þ iuose” [Lithuanian iuose” , vol.2 (2004), , 32, 91-92; 51 CEU eTD Collection infields; professional positions took agronomists after finishing newly established were dispersed into individual variousgranges; improvements allowed having more landholding in which forstarted 1919 andlasted nearly years. villagestwenty Many One of the main modifications during the interwar period depression was strongly detrimental to Lithuania’s export economy. was a radical reform of which dairy be to profitableproducts, proved even worldthough the economic promoting agriculture export-based economy with an emphasis poultry meat,on and major partner Russia tradingmain became partners trading United Kingdom and Germany, whilewith formerthe was of a low scale. After West: its towards international independence,trade Lithuania establishing re-orientated he seized power, Smetonarailways, telecommunications -whichwas undeveloped Russianreign.After during was new thegovernmentwasfunding -roads, infrastructure factories communication inbut were 1939 there only 40,000industrialabout inworkers Lithuania. Along with citizensthe living in areas, engaged in rural farming. Industrialization was increasing, of most Lithuania agricultural,with period remained predominantly interwar In the leader,i.e. as a positive course of events. in authoritarian Sovietto overthrow the 1940 asthe accepted opportunity occupation that time had already lost the trust of the majorityby of people, President the andthat some of testified them initially contemporaries several way, possible best in the situation safeguarding independence Lithuanian andthat they were ablemanage to every and his capable of military the thathe, Lithuanian citizens ensuringwere government was Smetona tensions political international growing of face the in Though 2.1.2. Theeconomic and social of independentsituation Lithuania1918-1940 54 53 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija Lithuania: Stepping Westward 53 , 11-13. , 35-36, 40. 26 54 CEU eTD Collection animals into private and industrial farms. industrial and private into animals schools; they were introducing new crops and more efficient species of plants and Around one third inall of students institutionshigher of the education were women, and were attending students institutionshigher newly in education establishedof 1939. comparison with more than two thirds of populationthe in 1897. Around four thousand beginning of the By significant. the were Lithuania independent of achievements cultural SecondThe WorldRussian - 2percent. War only populationthe in March1939,Jewish - 7percent, German Polish- 4percent, -3percent, 5.9 percent around80percentof constituted asLithuanian whodefined ethnicity areas), those their of people predominantly of non-Lithuanian ethnic background. Overall were (in cities and in rural illiterate,13 percentin 27 percentin1913 to 1940. Like in previousthe period, city were dwellers in increased offrom residents towns the shareof the more significantly: dwellers changed rural and urban of proportion in the change the However, crafts. and industry in percent difficult. comparatively high taxes and low paymentfor products were making peasants’ lives with together inThese factors, therural of areas. residents overpopulation into resulted fromemigration Lithuania which was ongoing until end the Firstthe of WorldWar mass of abatement this, the addition In hectares. to 30 biggerthan percent were 1930censusthe 45percent of all farms weresmaller than and10 hectares only 10 tothedata of offarms:minuteness according inefficiency the One of was reasons of the loss-making. even forbecame and several years efficient of economic depression the Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 58 decreased. residents German of loss and 1939) (October Klaip region of Vilnius incorporation the before calculated was ofcitizens background 57 56 55 There was no operative university in the territory of Lithuania from mid-nineteenth century until 1920. Thomas, Lane, Ibid, 22. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija ơ da (March1939) , after which the proportionof Jewish andPolish residents increased, and share of 56 8.1 inand only involved agriculture percentpeople of were In 193973.8 Lithuania: Stepping Westward 57 , 26, 28. , 9. Such, constitution of the population in regard to the ethnical , 20-21. 55 27 However, agriculture was not highly not was agriculture However, 58 CEU eTD Collection as the membersstrong claims for theequal rights of women and men, andto turn their focus onwomen of the initially nation their diminish to them led gradually which clergy, male its and church the on who should exercise 410 branches 42,000 andaround membersin -were various1940 to extents dependent their(LKMD, Lithuanian Catholic Women’s Organization, established in 1908) which had roles through social work, women’s organizations -thebiggest of them was during Catholic interwar period. evident the and andremained women secular occurred During first the in women’s in1907 aclearcongress Lithuania betweenCatholic clash a homogenous group,andconstitute their werechanging goals time. throughout not did organizations Women’s Lithuania. interwar in the prevailing still was situation Such perceptionmembers efficient of nurturers of society andeducatedwives. andLithuanian children not muchthat for women’s wellbeing assuch,so but that they would becomemore of the women were searching forways the establish to conditions for women’s education, but questions men and Both project. nationalist of the but asapart rather as separate not perceived related 19 late in the situation women’s Lithuanian with discuss intelligentsia Secular started organizations. andreligious to need the toimprove political,organizations could more operate or less freely.Among them were many women’s social,underbuthuge regime, Smetona’s numbers ofvarious social, educational, cultural restraints strong experienced groups political the of most cultural mentioned, already As women’s University Education ( in 1928some of them established Association the WomenLithuanian of with Organization1908-1940”, 129. Women and their activities in Lithuania in the first part of the 20 ofthe part first the in Lithuania in activities their and Women 61 60 2012. 59 Kar Balkelis, Tomas, Jur ơ þ nien iauskait ơ , Virginija, ơ , Indr The making of modern Lithuania modern of making The ơ , “For Women’s Rights, Church and Fatherland: The Lithuanian Catholic Women’s Catholic Lithuanian The Fatherland: and Church Rights, Women’s , “For Lietuvos moter Lietuvos moter ǐ draugijos ir j ǐ , baigusi th (London, New York: Routledge, 2009), 69-70. ǐ century. In many cases those issueswere In many those cases century. veikla XX a.pirmoje pus 28 ǐ aukšt Lietuvos kataliki ąMƳ th century] on century] moksl ą , s www.lsc.su.lt ą ơ jung je ǐ [The Organizations of Organizations [The moter ą ). 59 ǐ , accessed March 13, March , accessed draugija 61 60 CEU eTD Collection actions. activitiesfrom wasableregulate organizations’ them andprevent state radical the to conferences, butontheother hand itsand financial through close supervisionsupport involved ininternational movements women’s by in participating congresses and thedevelopgetfor andfact on theto its handactivities one organization to allowed governance. representthem internationally support women’sand to inparticipation state the establishedin in1928 unite to order all organizationswomen’s in Lithuania, to nor LMS neither joined LKMD Nonetheless, rights. women’s ground: common the shared still organizations those differed, their weredefining slightly aims women secular with latter. the cooperated in fruitfully LKMD, cases smaller than several but organizations, secular The Women’sLithuanian League) established in 1922and both uniting religious and time the at organization umbrella biggest The situation as first of all important for the wellbeing of the Lithuanian state. women’s of improvement the and rights equal for demands their presenting often were and they from not project, nationalist the separate werealso agendas organizations’ conscious religiousness and their responsibilities for family. Press, 2006), 73. 19 Biographical Dictionary of Women’s Movements and Feminisms: Central, Eastern, and South Eastern Europe, 66 “For Women’s Rights, Church and Fatherland…”, 142. 65 Fatherland…”, and Church Rights, Women’s “For repeal. Jur repeal. women, whichwas issued by Smetona‘s government in November1926, and their endeavour resulted into law‘s 64 in Kaunas] in organizations women 63 62 Jur Jur Forexample, they cooperated in opposing the introduction of law restricting the employment of married Kar Ibid, 140, 142, 144. th and 20 Lietuvos moter ơ ơ þ nien nien iauskait 66 ơ ơ ơ th , Virginija, “Lietuvos moter , Virginija, nien centuries 65 ơ andby this state, the financially supported was latter organization The , Indr ơ 64 , Virginija, , This proved that though the ways in which religiously affiliated and affiliated religiously in which ways the though that proved This ơ , eds. Francisca de Haan, Krassimira Daskalova, Anna Loutfi (Budapest, New York: CEU , “Kitiems ir sau: moter sau: ir , “Kitiems Lietuvos moter ǐ taryba Lietuvosmoter (LMT,Lithuanian Women’s Council), which was Kauno istorijos metraštis, ǐ ǐ draugijos ir j taryba ir jos veikla valstyb ǐ draugijos irj ǐ draugij ǐ ǐ 29 veikla XXa.pirmoje pus veikla Kaune“ [For others and oneself : activities of :activities oneself and others [For Kaune“ veikla ǐ veikla XX a.pirmoje pus vol.6 (2005): 144. Lietuvos moter ơ je XXa. 3-4 dešimtme 62 women’s liberal More ơ je ǐ , 13. s ơ ą je 63 junga , 8.; Kar 8.; , þ iuose”; ( LMS, þ iauskait ơ , Indr ơ , CEU eTD Collection autumn 1920 until spring 1938Poland andLithuania were notin relationship.diplomatic happened only in 1939 October when Sovietsthe ‘gave itback’ to Lithuania. From which Vilnius, retrieve to intentions the abandon not did Lithuanians but Kaunas, became capital temporary Lithuania’s century. fourteenth the from Lithuania capital of be fact the the to mainly this that based on city used which thiswere Lithuania, areafor toleave region,seized andoccupied of regardless precedent agreements Vilnius the the Western itWestern recognized countries independent in Lithuanian state countries1918, other morewere reluctantto doso. the Germany acknowledged Though complications. without few yearswerenot first the particularly and independence Lithuanian of period years’ twenty-two The interwar period. subsequent mentions chapters participatingin any women’s organization during the in the am analyzing I memoirs whose authors the of none However, deported. were or any wereclosed, organizations, and manyother of membersfledtheir either Lithuania like associations, all women’s 1940 summer in occupation Soviet first the After interwar InOctober period. 1920the Polish led army bygeneral Lucjan the in concerns biggest Lithuania’s of one was Poland with relationship The intentions. city, and Vilnius, though of free itgrant status the to possibility the wasconsidering of Nations and League the declared a Lithuanian capital,Klaip was under the threat city have to port political expressedleaders the determination with Lithuania of of Polish not clearly anddefined, not stay did stable during years. those Though Lithuanian the 2.1.3. Lithuania’sinternational relations interwar inthe period 67 Lane, Thomas, Lane, ơ da (Memel) and the capital city Vilnius, the former was still under German rule, German former wasstill the under andthecapital city Vilnius, da (Memel) 67 Lithuania: Stepping Westward de facto , 71-77. only only in1922. The borders of Lithuania were 30 ĩ eligowski CEU eTD Collection state, heavily loadedstate, with ideas,nationalist favorable under auspices worked to drive to provide Bolsheviks with potential So support. the potency freshlythe of established predominantly Roman Catholic population; industrialthe working classwas toosmall likejustfor ownership, seemedthe revolting the private atheist doctrines awaited the granted been recently only had who peasants the for senseless sounded farms of collectivization the ideas Furthermore, wasoverwhelming. andnationalist independence Lithuanians to‘convert’ to communism – the euphoria of newly established military much because because of at but defeat pointthat way wasno there to convince efforts to establish a Republic inSoviet Lithuania in not so 1919 wereunsuccessful Bolsheviks’ the that insight Lane’s Thomas and Senn’s Alfred is Noteworthy events of 1940 asa ‘restoration’ of Sovietthe rule. the to referring regime, Communist the legitimize to in Lithuania communists the for Lithuanians and years Byelorussians. However, twenty episode this later short served LBSSR) for which existed only a fewmonths, andwasrepudiated by majority the of Russian: proclaimed establishing aSovietSocialist Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (in militaryBolshevik invadedunits Lithuania in endthe of December 1918,they 1919 firstly Russian Sovietthe army, then Poles attempted to occupy Lithuania. After in yearinvaded by severalarmies: independence LithuaniaDuring was first of the under the Nazi threat it was returned to Germany. andin 1924itwas affirmed a part of which lastedLithuania, until March 1939 when retainingin Vilnius: LithuanianJanuary force1923 the irregulars of attacked town the What concerns Klaip concerns What 68 69 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Sužied ơ lis, Saulius A., Saulius lis, ɢɨɫɨȻɥɪɫɤɹ ɋɋɊ Ʌɢɬɨɜɫɤɨ±Ȼɟɥɨɪɭɫɫɤɚɹ Lithuania: Stepping Westward ơ Historical Dictionary of Lithuania da (Memel), Lithuania was more successful in getting it in in was more successful Lithuania than getting da (Memel), , 31-32. , Litovsko-Byelorusskaya SSR,Litbel,or 31 68 69 , 169-170. CEU eTD Collection states. occupation but also provided the USSR with some additional accusations of the Baltic in face of Soviet the the only ineffective wasnot treaties, it, likebut Soviet-Lithuanian join in defensealliance, to the However, was accepted Estonian-Latvian 1934 Lithuania a border with USSR, theaggressors: while Lithuania wasconcerned aboutPolandhavedidbut and Germany, not other two Baltic countries of Klaip Germany (because were more worrieddisturbed byLithuania’s problematic situation with Poland of (because and Vilnius) about Russia. wereconstantly establishing aBaltic Entente about Theplans very fruitful. was not periodinterwarLithuania’s Estonia the andLatviaduring politicalrelationship with Lithuania byblaming Lithuanians for acting againstthe agreements. it 1940 buteven invasion couldbecause theSoviets legitimize theirto accelerated However, those treaties not only protectLithuania not did from Sovietthe occupation in Soviet-Lithuanianthe Non-Aggression Treaty in 1926 andits renewal in 1934. treaty),in (Soviet-Lithuanian peace Treaty the of 1920 signedtreaties: several Moscow had Russia Soviet and Lithuania Bolsheviks, of invasion unsuccessful the After occupied Lithuania in 1940. Bolsheviks,out which did happen not whenyearslater, twenty Sovietthe Union alignment policy, as it needed to have its western frontier reliable, especially after especially reliable, frontier western its have to needed it as policy, alignment its neutrality in January 1939. The USSR wasnotsatisfied with non-Lithuania’s In the context of growing tensions in Europe in the late 1930s, Lithuania declared 2.1.4. (Non-)Reaction to the first soviet occupation June in 1940 Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 70 72 71 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lane, Thomas, Lane, It will be discussed in chapter 2.1.4. 72 Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westard 70 , 14-15. ơ da/Memel) and distinct indications of indications of major potential distinct and da/Memel) , 35;, Misiunas Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, , 7-8. 32 71 The Baltic States: CEU eTD Collection government was reluctant to make any strict decision. Finally, after seized Germans Finally,the after makewas decision. to reluctant anystrict government had tochoose with which power to link up,butfor along time theLithuanian it was impossible toremainneutral aggressive powers Baltic countries officially - the neutrality. than passivity of policy a as more 1939-1940 of line political Lithuanian the summarize historians Some himself, would handle the situation in the most adequate way. there was nothing toworry about, and ‘the wheelman of the state’, as he liked to refer to that nation the assuring was Smetona Antanas President information. this with citizens evenbut if magnitudethe they understood of agreements,these they provide not did the knewgovernments about those secret protocols when World Second the War started, December 1989. UnionSoviet and Germany were denyingexistence the of such protocols until sphere of influence of the Soviet protocol was signed on 28 September 1939,in which Lithuania was transferred into the Union in return forMolotov-Ribbentrop secret second somethe Poland, of occupation the Polish with started war territories. Later the Lithuania was assigned toprotocol, Russia got Finland, Estonia, Latvia,Bessarabia, andGermany eastern Poland, while together with westernin thetwo countries agreedon which their spheresofinfluence. tothe secret According Poland. However, Nazi the Germany 23 Auguston 1939. The pactafter wassupplemented by protocol a secret the Pact with Sovietthe summer Molotov-Ribbentrop the Union so-called 1939, signed the After the Great Britain and France disagreed to cooperate1923, in March 1939. with the Soviet Union in Germany reclaimed Klaip reclaimed Germany 75 1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 74 73 Misiunas Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, Naimark, Norman K., Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 73 Lithuanian andLatvian muchEstonian, how clear isnot It Stalin‘s Genocides ơ da (Memel), which Lithuanians seized from Germans in Germans from seized Lithuanians which (Memel), da , 36. 75 The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 In the strained situation of being in between two between in being of situation strained the In (Princeton; PrincetonUniversity Press, 2010), 88. , 43. 33 74 , 16; Lietuva 1940- CEU eTD Collection Union. non-alignmentwith Germany was obviously leading tocollaboration with Sovietthe Stalin,because to capitulation premature sawitas Smetona’s and as amistaken decision this society accepted Some partof Vilnius. andbein assisted to state satelliteretrieving Klaip fulfillment of the treaty. claim that events the of occupation1940 werenot but actsof the assurance proper the of existence of this and occupation in June 1940 almost effortless,isofwhat and, even moreimportant, the the aforementioned made in military subsequent the presence of territory Lithuania’s Soviet the troops earlier the agreements hand, one the on Union: Soviet the with Treaty Assistance Mutual and Defense this allowed the Soviets identicalto course less of or more a events)through went later and Russia acted with agreements insimilar had who theEstonia, way which was the best for their states, and signingLatvia with (together authorities Lithuanian whether questioned be can It Lithuania Vilnius, which RedArmythe occupied the defeat during of Poland. alsooffered internal immunity to warrantingLithuanian affairs, the addition of in Union, Soviet the agreement this in Moreover, independence. its assure to order in forces military provide with need Lithuania the Soviet and Germany frontier with to needthe for this by of indicating the hazardousness considerably Lithuania’s long land and stationing the of Lithuanianon some 20,000troops werejustifyingterritory. Soviets military 1939.This10 October foron theestablishment of bases pactprovided Soviet government to sign the Pact of Defence and Mutual Assistance with the Soviet Union agree with that or without treaty this Lithuania’s would fate unlikely be and different, 77 76 78 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Ibid, 41-43. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija ơ da/Memel, Lithuania government rejected Germany’s proposal become Germany’sLithuania rejected proposal its to government da/Memel, 76 And certainly, blandishments soon Russian andthreats induced theLithuanian Lithuania: Stepping Westward 78 On the other hand, many analysts in Lithuania and elsewhere and in Lithuania analysts many hand, other the On , 37. , 55. 34 77 CEU eTD Collection actions. legal of illusion an creating with concerned was Hitler, than more he, opinion: public as a attacking canbeinterpreted for Lithuania, result and occupying of Stalin’s regard subsequentstaging of Lithuania’s ‘willingness’ tojoin USSR,insteadthe of directly actions were undertaken in order to prepare for a forthcoming occupation. The situation forThe aforthcomingprepare occupation. to in order wereundertaken actions of Lithuania in case out a service standby establisha to decided home government Lithuanian threats After the government ceased to exist,beto ask its swallowed to for good”. own but not many other bepersuaded and be bear,mouse then to tobe the hadshown the to mouse, threatening efficient Baltique (establishedin 1934) and some suspicious publications in internationalan journal Latvia, and Estonia with military alliance anti-Soviet an becreating accusedof to Moscow which theafterwards, Soviet shortly introduced was accusation second The actions. subsequent forthe covers authorities whenaccusation Lithuaniantruly was justify evidence to charges,most that historians Lithuanian nowagree and Soviet this a puresaw Soviet incharade, theLithuania.led jurists Lithuanian aninvestigation and concluded therethat was no but Primeat thatexistence time this May accused Soviets Soviet Lithuanians1940 the soldiers of two in abducting stationed wasMinister one of the main of In treaty. of the violations Lithuania’s of pretext the under occupation its pre-planned the Antanas Balticstructure Union could Soviet the 1939 October 10 of agreement after the Therefore MerkysEntente accusing itof pro-Nazi attitudes. was summonedrefusal to sign to it could only give an additional pretext for an attack on Lithuania, 82 81 80 Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 79 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 81 . 80 As David Lane puts it, “the bear could not be seen simply to swallow the The Soviet government’s decision to invoke some false accusations and false accusations some invoke to decision government’s The Soviet Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward , 16-17. 79 , 38. , 38; Misiunas, Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, 82 , 54. , 54-55; Lane, Thomas, 35 Lithuania: Stepping Westward The Baltic States: Revue , 39, 47. CEU eTD Collection incorporation of intoLithuania Soviet the Union on 3 August 1940. of course of entrance the army,the ledto which subsequent actions the the regulated Merkys. Antanas Minister, Prime lead to the lead to claiming he that didnotwant Soviets tomake him sign any whichdocuments would left country, the immediately Smetona President meet any Red Army not resistance. did government were proposing at least a short symbolic armed opposition. armed symbolic a short least at proposing were government actions wouldhave not any though Smetonause, and several members of other the decidedforce, inengaging the Lithuanian physical Sovietcabinet overwhelming that main strategic points of Lithuania from 1939. October Therefore, given the Lithuania.As mentioned, around twenty troops werealreadythousand stationed in the Soviet which1940) troops, in inwere dislocated territory Belorussian advance, entered July (15 day next the and ultimatum, the accepted government Lithuanian The demands. similar Soviets accused of “provocative anti- Soviet actions”. accused Soviet anti- of Soviets “provocative Pact”, to acceptadditional of RedArmyarrestthe and units officialstwo to the which followingform a day governmentcapable to of fulfillment ensuring the proper of the gotgovernment ultimatum the from Sovietthe Union requiring“by 10 a.m. on the Lithuanian the inFrance”, events the on eyes their had world the “all it, put to like while Nazis where approaching on14June Paris and, 1940, asLithuanian historians aggravated by the Soviet Union’s pretence of aggravated by of Union’s Soviet pretence the legitimately acting and under treaty. Western allies would come tothe rescue in case of a Soviet attack, and the situation was of Winterthe War in Finland 1939 (November – March1940) dashed hopes that the 86 ed. J.P. Kedys (Klaip Lithuania ]in Lithuania 85 84 83 Ibid, 61. Kedys, J.P., “Soviet Lane, Thomas, Lane, Misiunas Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, bolshevization Terorizuojama ir naikinama Lietuva 1938-1991 Lithuania: Stepping Westward, ơ ǐ da: Ryto spaustuv s ą jungos ultimatumas Lietuvai irjos okupacija” [The Ultimatum of the Soviet Union to of of Lithuania. Soviet representatives, who arrived straightaway after arrived straightaway who representatives, Soviet ơ , 1994),59-61. The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 86 the presidential the He granted to authorities 39. 36 [Destructively Terrorized Lithuania 1938-1991], 84 got soon Latvia andEstonia 85 However, the However, , 17. 83 So CEU eTD Collection weeks. Lithuanianindependence carry could military soldiers atleast for on operations two Union” andallarmaments whichwere purchasedduringyears twenty-two the of with army the 26 thousandof plus 62 militarythousand “Riflemen’s members trained of almost ridiculous not to invoke the military force in the case of occupation, and that Lithuanian independencethe aconsiderable wasgivenbudget military,itto the was interfere. Allies to to insist that this been and becauseexpressed, itwas notdone until 1944 itwas easy for theSovietwasUnion not an occupationpush the Soviet inout army its noncompliance1940, with have occupation the should and that to Lithuania for thereimpossible almost was ifit even that agree historians many But treaty. was no need for the occupation isWestern and complicated is similar tothe problem signingof the October1939 of face the in inaction Lithuania’s of appropriateness the of question The Soviet occupation which started in which Sovietstarted occupation 1944. July into in armed againstthe second the situation engaged andgetting resistance Lithuania, June 1941,fleeing to and Westthe trying toinform Western governments the about the found relevant: collaboratingexpress their opposition Sovietto the occupation, anddiditin ways the which they with the Nazis to determined more became Lithuanians many shock, and fluster initial the After who occupied the Lithuanian tropes. same territory in reasons to worry. that Lithuania claiming been had minute last the until representatives his and Smetona in which media, and the dark about the ongoing and events Union’s Soviet the due strict threat censorshipto of USSR were in friendly relationship therefore there were no 90 89 88 87 Ibid, 68. Ibid, 51. David Kirby, quoted in Lane, Thomas. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 88 It is also noteworthy that the major part of Lithuanian society was left in the 90 89 87 15 The newafter the June 1940wascontinuing governmentwith givenSomefacthistoriansyears during alsoaddthat the the that of Lithuania: Stepping Westward , 65. 37 , 35-36. CEU eTD Collection Union. of Soviet in theFarthe camps inlabor North terms 8-year election given and before the justreaching amass figureswerearrested prominentopposition scale.Around 2,000 whichgradually involvedwere for parliamentary repressions election the physical preparations and army Lithuanian of neutralization the of processes Simultaneous membershipin Sovietthe Union was granted on 3 August 1940. became apart asitof Union, Sovietwas the or, itsseek for put then, resolution to the press were bannedlegalized, while all political,other cultural, social organizations andnon-communist and the was party Communist the occupation the after parliament weeks several first the Within ( Lithuanian Communist Party,Antanas Snie wasin of the thehandsreal power of mentionedGeneral before, already Secretary Internal Affairs, Me Affairs, Internal Chairman of the SupremeCommunist authority. the Councilfor favorable and Lithuanians most for respectable and familiar were who ministers of the LSSR, Justasandacting Prime president A Minister of Lithuania.cabinet puppetwas formed of Paleckis and nominate Smetona’s deputy, aleftMerkys, JustasPaleckis to wing as representative theAntanas compel to Ministermanaged Dekanozov, Vladimir Union, Soviet the of ofAffairs Foreign for Commissar legislation. Deputy existing the with in out accordance be carried seem to couldsurface the on inrulecommunist Lithuania the of The introduction 94 2.1.5. First mass deportation inJune1941 92 91 93 Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lane, Thomas. Lane, Ibid, 70. Lane, Thomas, Lane, 94 which only parties from the verybeginning: the wasdeceptive The election Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward þ ys Gedvilas, who soon became the Prime Minister, though, as though, Minister, Prime the became soon who ys Gedvilas, 91 - persons officiallymain made bytwo The were resolutions , 51-52. , 51. , 51; Seimas þ kus, and the leaders in Moscow. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 38 ) was dismissed. Lithuania officially Lithuania dismissed. ) was 93 92 , 66-67. CEU eTD Collection one year after the annexation, An imprisoned numberend were elections.of estimated with the during first 6,606 the some of them a few did arrested were theelection, days terror before not andthe oppositional groups were tortured and executed. moreprobably even weredriven by fear. Asmentioned, afew members thousands of many really did - some of them were hoping vote, to for came Lithuanian citizens of percent 95.5 that is doubtful highly Though it the social and political revolution, but parliaments. obviously, is similar to every other official result of elections to the Communist participated in election, and99.19percent of them voted for theLDLS, which, invasion in June 1941. Around 17,500people werecaptured on 13-14 of June tobe massThe first from deportation was organizedjustLithuania before theGerman revolutionary’ element andimplementing fearwithin society was mass deportations. ‘counter- or Soviet anti- so-called the removing of strategies the of One Lithuanian citizens -among them were anumber of from refugees Poland. counting 17,500who inwere deported all those June1941.Not them were of indicate 35,000people around killed in/fromsources arrested, anddeported Lithuania, Lithuanian independence. incorporation into and USSR, invarious the occasions guaranteed continuity of Union’sSovietfriendship” unbreakable about mentioningLithuania’s without aword by some smaller left-wing groupings, was stating among its goals “Lithuania’s and the Proletarians’ Union],Communistparty. The main party, which was the same had government’s Lithuanianapproval could participatein election,the andsuch was only the Communist Party supplemented June Deportations], 2006. Deportations], June 98 97 96 tremimai/5255 95 ý Ibid, 85. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija ekutis, Ri 96 þ ardas; Žygelis, Dalius, , accessed14, 2012. March http://www.bernardinai.lt/straipsnis/2006-06-12-laisves-kryzkeles-xx-birzelio- 95 Official data indicated that 95.5 percent of all citizens all of percent 95.5 that indicated data Official Laisv Lietuvos darbo liaudiess ơ s kryžkel , 139. , 78-79. ơ s. Birželio tr 39 ơ mimai ą [The Crossroads of Freedom. The of Freedom. Crossroads [The junga [LDLS, Lithuanian 98 97 other The CEU eTD Collection others. various ethnicorigins:12,000 of Lithuanian,of 2,000 1,600PolishJewish, and in Amongmass Lithuania. from deportations deported those June 1941therewerepeople of later the with comparison in exceptional less or more is separation such Union: areasof Sovietthe places remote tointhe of exile weredeported while theirrelatives labor camps, from to families andsent their men were separated cases able-bodied deported to Altai regions, and Novosibirsk Kazakhstan andKomi ASSR. shopkeepers, etc -andfamily members. theirshopkeepers, etc lawyers, bankers, students, priests, -teachers, period interwar the of intelligentsia and women. than the age the of 16. Short after1941, and Lithuanian territory was among the firstones be to invaded by Nazi the army. the first mass deportation from Lithuania carried out by the Soviet Lithuania]. International Commission forthe Evaluationof the Crimes of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in 103 102 101 Lithuania. all Lithuanian Jews were deported in June 1941 in comparison with 0.5 percent of all Lithuanians who lived in100 Lithuania 1940-1952] in 1938-1991], ed. J.P. Kedys (Klaip 99 June 22 on launched was – Union Soviet the of attack German the – Barbarosa 2.2.1. Lithuaniaduring Nazi the occupation(June1941- July 1944) beginning oftheguerillamovement Soviets inJuly1944;there-startofdeportations fromtheBalticcountries; Lithuania duringtheNazioccupation(June2.2. 1941-July1944);thereturnof Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj Tarptautin Ibid, 190. Grunskis, Eugenijus, Comparatively Jewish community experienced bigger loss than Lithuanian community: around 1 percent of 1percent around community: Lithuanian than loss bigger experienced community Jewish Comparatively 100 Unlikelatermen deportations, during aslightly constituted the bigger part ý http://www.komisija.lt/lt/body.php?&m=1176284239 ekutis, Ri ơ 101 komisija naci 103 The majority membersof deporteeswere the various of organizations þ ardas; Žygelis, Dalius, Lietuvos gyventoj Terorizuojama ir naikinama Lietuva 1938-1991 ǐ ir sovietinio okupacini ơ da: Ryto spaustuv ǐ ǐ tr deportacijos 1940-1952“ [Deportations of Residentsthe of ơ Laisv mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais ơ s kryžkel ǐ ơ 102 , 1994),154. režim 40 under were deportees More 5,000 than ǐ ơ nusikaltimams Lietuvoje s (XX). Birželio tr , accessed14, March 2012. [Destructively Terrorized Lithuania Terrorized [Destructively ơ mimai , 42. . Ƴ vertinti [The 99 In most In CEU eTD Collection and real estate, formation of police and other issues. issuing started government laws concerning de-nationalization land,the of enterprises and ‘de-sovietization’ the campaign on 23 June 1941,and nextthe day provisional the arrivalMembers independence the Wehrmacht. LAFannounced of the Lithuanian of same daySoviet Union,andthe cities attacked Germany ‘occupied’those when before the towns other and Vilnius in Kaunas, uprising the started have fighters, resistance already had around 36,000 members who, supported by an additional few thousands of views. anti-Communist and anti-Polish anti-Semitic, The Front wasproclaiming itsaims tore-establish independence Lithuanian and strong exiles andlead by Kazyscolonel Škirpa, former the Lithuanian in ambassador Berlin. endthe of 1940 and had animportantunit in Berlin,founded by a group of Lithuanian Lithuanian nationalist as discourse a proof Lithuaniansthat didnot voluntarily join the members’involvement in Holocaust,the the June uprising haslater served in the by the LAF. Lithuanian Activist Front (LAF, Front Activist Lithuanian LAF. by the Kaunas Germans entered organized government, joined uprising, theso-calledand June Though the activities of the LAF were controversial, especially because of its of because especially controversial, were LAF the of activities the Though Preconditions of Holocaust. Anti-Semitism in Lithuania (19 demonstrations organised by Communists, distribution of proclamations, leaflets etc.“ Vareikis, Vygantas,wing activities of left- Jewish by the youth inKaunasreinforced was city, stereotype This their[...] participation Lithuania in in Holocaust the the to Young Comsomolpertaining role League important organisation,especially Jews asunexceptionally supporting Communism. “The stereotype of presenting “Jew-the-communist” ofit, use [...] played made has an propaganda Nationalist Lithuanian and Nazi so of1941), beginning inthe percent Lithuanian of the number Communist Party membersconsiderable in a 1939-1940 were that oftrue Jewishorigins (35 It is percent of LKP members in 1939, 16.2 authorities. Soviet the with collaborating for Jews Fights],Vol. 11 (Kaunas: LGGRTC, 1994),152-160. 106 Lithuania, 2004), 45 and number1 annex to conclusions. (International Commission for the Evaluation of Crimes the of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in 105 104 InLithuanian case anti-Semitism and anti-Communism was strongly coinciding, as Lithuanians were blaming Lane, Thomas, Lane, The program of the LAF is published in Thomas, Lane, Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lietuvos laisv , 55; , 54,56. Lietuvos aktyvist Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 41 ơ s kov th century tomid-20 106 ǐ 105 archyvas LAF the 1941 spring By the ǐ frontas [The Archive of Lithuanian Freedom of Lithuanian Archive [The th century (15 June 1940)) ) was founded in 104 ,173-177. CEU eTD Collection demised Lithuanian provisional governmentandbannedsoon theLAF,some deporting independence had only existed six weeks until in August 1941theNazi authorities June uprising as an additional forforce defeating the Soviets. envisioned latter Lithuania as amere colony Germany, wereonly of and supporting the Lithuanians expected Germans that willhelp them reestablishto independence, the that LAF the and Nazi the authorities haddifferent plans Lithuania’s for While future. occupation,would who Lithuanian helptoreconstitute it independence,soon turned out and Germany, 878French and Jews,most and of this wasdone by endof the 1941. Lithuanian Jewry), 8,000-10,000 Jewish refugeesfrom Poland, 5,000 Jews from Austria Einsatzgruppen ( policija ( Police Security Lithuanian in of Jews Lithuania. extermination joint to drive away the Soviets). explainedsupporters collaborate the need to as onlythe beway to helpedby Nazis the The most prominent(LAF andtheir later several days arrived which of representatives the authorities, aspect of their collaboration was the all means (which stronglywas not inexpressed 1940). UnionSoviet in 1940 and werewilling toreconstitute independence the of theirby state Ypatingasis b http://www.komisija.lt/Files/www.komisija.lt/File/Tyrimu_baze/Naciu%20okupacija/Zydu%20naikinimas%201 Regimes in Lithuania], Ƴ Freedom.Lithuanian Provisional Government], 2007, Soviet the from liberators as Germans greeted have Lithuanians Though The LAF and the provisional government was collaborating with the Nazi approved on 20 April 2005 108 Westward 109 huanian%20Jews.pdf 941%20m.%20vasara/ENG/Approved%20Conclusions_Persecution%20and%20Mass%20Murder%20of%20Lit kryzkeles-lietuvos-laikinoji-vyriausybe/4451 107 vertinti [The International Commissionfor the Evaluationof the Crimes of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Lane, Thomas, Lane, ý The Persecution and Mass Murder of Lithuanian Jews during Summer and Fall of 1941: Conclusions, ekutis, Ri ), established on24June 1941,Lithuanian Squad Sonderkommando , 55. þ ardas; Žygelis, Dalius, nj ) murdered Lithuanian 190,000 around ) 85percentJews (around of rys Lithuania: Stepping Westward ,accessed on March 17, 2012. ) and groups,collaborating other with German squadskilling (the . Tarptautin Laiv ơ komisija naci ơ s kryžkel , accessed on March 17, 2012; Lane, Thomas, Lane, 2012; 17, March on ,accessed , 54. ơ ǐ s. Lietuvos laikinoji vyriausyb http://www.bernardinai.lt/straipsnis/2007-07-09-laisves- irsovietinio okupacini 42 107 109 Lithuania’s proclaimed ǐ režim Lietuvos saugumo ơ [The Crossroads of Crossroads [The ǐ nusikaltimams Lietuvoje Lithuania: Stepping 108 CEU eTD Collection groups. menand West reach tothe were establishing press and armed and tryingout radio to ofillegal nets wereestablishing activists resistance warweredone: forthe preparations importantduring but tooppose, 1943-1944 organizing, andencouraging others were serve in whichGermans the units military exceptopposing to of significant, accomplishments in regard to the disruption of the Nazi regime were not considerably resistancewhich groups, clamed tobe anti-Soviet at samethe time. groups’ Those Nazi the authorities. with compliance German colonizers: knowing aboutsuch plan certainly add couldnot to Lithuanian be Siberia) deported Lithuanians East(mostly to the wereto to with replaced and the Nazis’the Europe, plan of whichcolonizing Eastern accordingleast to at thirds two of province of Ostland, but the local administration was allowed tocontinue its work. German of became the a part Lithuania camps. concentration its tothe leaders of for theLiberation inof inLithuania) wasestablished November 1943 order to integrate so-called the about out found Lithuanians Many by and outraged of arrests killings citizens. Lithuanian Lithuanian independence, Lithuanians: weredisappointed thelatter by suppression of plansthe toreconstitute volunteershundreds subscribed. of By timethat Nazis the hadlost theinitial of support register tothe Lithuanian S.S.Legion,but this tobe turned afiasco -only several implemented by one killer was completed by the other] in http://www.lituanus.org/1965/65_1_03_Slavenas.html men to Lithuanian for an appeal issued German authorities 1943 of spring In the 110 112 attention to the illegitimate incorporationcountries’ Western draw to of the Balticattempting states Germany, US and in exile intoin time theof the Soviet most 1992, Union.until existed VLIK Gestapo arrested some of the mainfigures of VLIK inMay-June 1944, the organization lost its initial capacity; 111 Šlav Stankeras, Petras,“Planas, kurio ne Misiunas Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, ơ Vyriausiasis Lietuvos išlaisvinimo komitetas ( nas, Julius P., “Nazi Ideology and Policy in the Baltic States“ in Ƴ gyvendino vienas galvažudys, bet The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 112 Lithuanians started to organize anti-Nazi organize to started Lithuanians , accessed March18, 2012 . 43 Kut Generalplan Ost nj ros barai VLIK, The Supreme Committee , 5,no. issue 557 (2011): 74-81. Lituanus, Ƴ dieg ơ kitas”[A plan thatwas not (Master Plan East) - vol.11, 1 (Springno. 1965), , 64-65.After 110 111 CEU eTD Collection all all of so-calledthe fighters”. groups “freedom resistance were more groups ready skirmishto the returning RedArmy inthan 1940. movement at adistance. movement some West,to the support of later tried Lithuanian the whom resistance to anti-Soviet part of today’s Lithuania) tooklonger,but after attacks and vigorous massive by Germans. occupied territories Lithuania, 36,000 deported to concentration forcedand labor camps in Germany or 45,000around residentsother of Lithuania inconcentration camps andin prisons addition to almost 200,000 Jewish victims, the Nazi authorities in Lithuania imprisoned Soviets. Only the occupation of Klaip Onlytheoccupation of Soviets. Vilnius on13July of majorthe soon 1944, and Lithuaniaby wastaken part over the territories in July 1944.Following onebombarding, weekof Red the Army occupied Kursk, the East and Stalingrad of battles the in setbacks experienced Germany Nazi frontthe After started moving westward. The Red Army reached the Baltic http://www.komisija.lt/Files/www.komisija.lt/File/Tyrimu_baze/Naciu%20okupacija/Nezydu%20kilmes%20piliLithuania, in Regimes (1941-1944)]. InternationalThe Commission for the Evaluation of the Crimes of Nazi and Soviet Occupation [The Confinement of the Non-Jewish Citizens of Organizations. Publication of Sources], 2004, of Sources], Publication Organizations. vaduojamoji veikla. Šaltini kalinimas nacistiniuose kal eciu%20persekiojimas/Koncentracijos%20stovyklos/Kalejimai%202.pdf others - of Polish, Russian, Byelorussian, Roma/Sinti ethnic origins. Bubnys, Ar Lithuania. Around 10 percent of them were of Jewish ethnic origins, not less than 50 percent – of Lithuanian, the115 114 113 in 1944, of summer the lasted till which Lithuania of Nazi occupation the During 18, 2012. 116 2.2.2. Thereturn oftheSovietsin July 1944 During Nazi occupation around 50,000 people were imprisoned in the forced labor camps and prisons in prisons and camps labor forced the in imprisoned were people 50,000 around occupation Nazi During Thomas, Lane, Misiunas Romuald J., Taagepera Rein, Lane, Thomas, Lane, Lithuania: Stepping Westward Lithuania: Stepping Westward ǐ ơ 116 publikacijos jimuose ir priver 115 [From Archives: The Emancipating Activities of the Emigration flee to people opportunity Around the 70,000 used The Baltic States: Years of Dependence, 1940-1980 ơ þ da (Memel) and the Curonian (westernmost Spit andthe Curonian da (Memel) iamojo darbo stovyklose Lietuvos generalin http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/6/archyvai6.htm , 58. , 58;Rupšien Generalbezirk Litauen 44 113 underground armed mid-1944, By ơ , Alina, Iš archyv in Prisons and Forced Labor Camps ,accessed15, March 2012. nj ǐ nas, : Išeivijos organizacij Nežyd ơ je srityje (1941-1944) ǐ tautyb , 64. , accessed March , accessed 114 ơ s gyventoj ǐ ǐ CEU eTD Collection 22,200, in 22,200, 1953 -36,200. Party grew rapidly:in the beginningof 1945 ithad around 3,500 members, in 1948 - Lithuanian Communist the occupation, Soviet secondyears the of first During the ways. limitedin various was state, Moscow, so their self-sufficiency, to mostministries, of of 27 subordinate were directly which work was coordinating the as wellLithuanian Communist Party, Me as the autonomy of the head figures of the newcomers from Russian, Byelorussian, Ukrainian and other USSR territories. Party the members (18percentin in1947, 38percent 1953) while themajority were Lithuania first beforeSoviet the inOccupation Junea minor 1940)constituted part of Council of the LSSR, Antanasrestored. Snie JustasPresidium itsstarted work on 14 July 1944, andsoon all institutions werealsoother PaleckisSocialist its Republic Lithuanian there-occupation of after territories.Soviet The continued to hold the office of Chairman of the Supreme during the years during war. the of the weretrained somebureaucrats new In addition,in Moscow. theircontinued activities LithuaniaSoviet –the Central Council Committee, Peoplesof Commissars and - others of higher-rank Lithuania’s Communistsfled to the East,and mainthe institutions of did cease not Whento exist. in Germans the were approaching June 1941, majority the During the three years of the46 years. next for the Nazi occupation, the it enddemolitions was seizedthe at of Soviets The Lithuania January reoccupied Lithuanian1945. Communist Party 117 Collaboration with them in 1944-1945. Conclusions, approved by Commission on 17 December 2003. 121 120 119 118 Ibid, 279. Ibid, 279. Ibid, 277. Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija The Criminal System of Occupational Policy - The Role of Occupational (Repressive) Structures and 117 120 Lithuanians (I refer here to the people who were citizens of 118 þ reconstitute the to longtake didnot it Therefore, 119 ys Gedvilas - to the post of Prime Minister. The latter þ kus returned to the post of First Secretary of the , 273, 276. 45 121 At CEU eTD Collection aforementioned ‘enemies ofthepeople’. general The the actions wasthat ‘enemies scheme aforementioned thereforeanalyze to apparatus, complicated herethe operatinginstitution inevery of state the I will onlymean thattheauthorities inLithuaniahave did not would theiragency. It own betoo touch not does this However, Moscow. in made decisions the on and Union Soviet the of upon Party Communist the the on dependent directly was Party Communist structuresLithuanian The involvedpeople inLithuania wereimprisoned, mobilized, forced to hide orexterminated. in the repression of the execution. deportation and/or imprisonment weresubjected categories to arrest, (including torture), against ‘Zionism’, ‘Cosmopolitism’ and ‘Freemasonry’”. People belonging toall those “fight the as this indicating officially list, this to added were origins ethnic Jewish the At end the clergy”). of 1940s,peopleof Catholic the (“reactionary Catholic clergymen representatives ofindependent Lithuania (“socially unreliable elements”)and 4) ( (“bourgeoisfarmers andunderground organizations, their2) supporters nationalists”); tasks. They four maindefined social groups of ‘enemies’: 1)partisans andmembers of ‘national and class enemies’ and organize their repression as one itsof most important forhuntIn 1944-1945 LithuanianParty Communist the determination to expresses regime in in Lithuania 1944 comparatively easy. Moscow, and it was mainly their activities considerable number with Lithuania’s of citizens collaborated authoritiesthe sentfrom which made the reconstitution of a However, republics. from by Socialistregime Soviet wereheld coming other people the Soviet years first in ten Soviet of the positions the (elite) half ‘nomenklatura’ least the of kulaks Evaluation of the Crimes of Nazi and and Soviet Occupational Regimes in Lithuania), 28. 124 123 122 ( International Commission forthe Evaluationof the Crimes of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania http://www.komisija.lt/en/ Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Ibid, 1-3. Ibid, 3-5. , wealthy peasants); 3) former politicians, officials, soldiers, other soldiers, officials, politicians, former 3) peasants); wealthy , 123 200,000 around Sovietyear occupation secondfirstthe of During the Deportations of populationthe in 1944-1953 ), 1. 46 122 (The International Commissionfor the 124 CEU eTD Collection was renamed to MGB(Rus. was renamedto of NKVD,the and existedunder the name of in NKGB 1941 andin1943-1946.Then it Commissariat for State Security; Lit. Valstyb ɛɟɡɨɩɚɫɧɨɫɬɢ (Rus. NKGB The NKVD units in Lithuania came from Russia and other parts of the Soviet Union. Chief Administrationɤɨɥɨɧɢɣ of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies). Most heads of the the GULAG(Rus. the political in repressions Sovietthe Union, whose responsibilities included supervising institutions ofinternal security.affairs and state Itwas mainthe instrument of mass Stalin’s regime, was formed in Sovietthe in Union 1934 from already existing Vidaus reikal komissariat vnutrennikh del; Eng. The People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs; Lit. The NKVD (Rus. deportations. among responsibilities, their werethemain other mass organizers of and small-scale KGB, the ‘punitive detachments’ andactivists’. ‘party-Soviet All these of structures, taken by andvarious institutions, among main the wereones NKVD,the NKGB, MGB, directives in which more concrete actions weredetermined. in more concrete directives which of Committee Lithuanianthe various Communistadopted Party resolutions and liquidate Communist Party of USSRissuedthe decrees, and requirements demands as “to such 126 Tarptautin Subdivisions and CollaborationistsLocal their of Bodies, the Soviet Union Political the inof Role CommittingThe 1944-1953. Crimes in inLithuania 1944-1953. in Regime Vol. Communist ofThe 2] (Vilnius:Crimes strukt 125 Lane, Thomas. Lane, Tininis, Vytautas, njUǐ , vietini , Glavnoye upravlyeniye ispravityel'no-trudovih lagyeryey i koloniy; Eng. banditism ơ Komisija Naci ǐ , Narodnyj Komisariat Gosudarstvenoj Bezopasnosti; People’s Eng. The Bezopasnosti; Gosudarstvenoj Komisariat , Narodnyj liaudies komisariatas) –public andsecretpolice organization during ǐ j Lithuania: Stepping Westward ǐ padalini Komunistinio režimo nusikaltimai Lietuvoje 1944-1953. Soviet ȽɍɅɚɝ as soon as possible” (1945), and then the Bureau of the Central ǐ ir Sovietinio okupacini ɇɄȼȾ ǐ , bei kolaborant Ƚɥɚɜɧɨɟɭɩɪɚɜɥɟɧɢɟɢɫɩɪɚɜɢɬɟɥɶɧɨɬɪɭɞɨɜɵɯɥɚɝɟɪɟɣɢ ɇɄȽȻ ɆȽȻ , ɇɚɪɨɞɧɵɣɤɨɦɢɫɫɚɪɢɚɬɜɧɭɬɪɟɧɧɢɯɞɟɥ , , ɢɢɬɪɬɨ ɨɭɚɫɜɧɨɛɟɡɨɩɚɫɧɨɫɬɢ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ Ɇɢɧɢɫɬɟɪɫɬɜɨ ǐ ɚɨɧɣ ɨɢɫɪɚɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ ɤɨɦɢɫɫɚɪɢɚɬ ɇɚɪɨɞɧɵɣ vaidmuo vykdant nusikaltimus 1944-1953m. , 60. ǐ režim ơ s saugumo liaudies komisariatas) was part 47 ǐ nusikaltimams 125 Ƴ vertinti, 2003), 40. The action, then, was then, action, The ǐ S ą jungos politini , Narodnyy II tomas [The tomas II 126 ǐ , CEU eTD Collection ‘Extermination Battalions’. ‘Extermination military NKDV the and indiscipline, for tendency their with problems many werehad officers Soviet inclinedconsidered to cooperatein thehigher rankingofficials repressions hierarchy participating the of organizations with the forParty them. Communist tasksthe andappointed other conducting deportations Red Army units (in anti-partisans’ attacks the Soviet terms‘fighting against Soviet rather guarding in rural against offices guerillaanti- Soviet areas from fight movement, Soviet than with the objects.important In Lithuania they were active1944-1954 in in assisting theNKVDto infight World guard military Warpartisans againstorder anti-to and to Soviet militarized semi-professional which groups were firstly established during Second the naikintoj and People, the of ‘skrebai’, inthe official liaudiesboth Lithuanian Soviet discourse: gyn ‘stribai’, slang in Lithuanian destroyers; Eng. ‘istrebiteli’; as to referred often bataliony, (Rus. detachments punitive The MGB-KGB. NKGB-MGB, NKVD-MGBor repressive politics the some writing about historians, therefore of each other, andpredecessors successors of the Soviet Union,NKVD,MGB and NKGB, intrinsically andsome KGBwere related, of them were tend to connect those structures into NKVD- Committee for State Security; Lit. Valstyb Lit. Security; for State Committee ɛɟɡɨɩɚɫɧɨɫɬɢ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɣ Valstyb Ministerstvo Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti; Ministry Eng. of State Security; Lit. ( Activists and Other Paramilitary Units] in 128 127 129 http://www.genocid.lt/Leidyba/5/juozas1.htm Starkauskas, Juozas, “Ginkluotas sovietinis partinis aktyvas irkiti sukarinti daliniai“ Ibid, 39-40. Ibid, 50-53; there were 200 garrisons (units) of internal army Lithuaniain in 1946. ơ s saugumo ministerija),s saugumo in and KGB1954 renamed (Rus. to istrebiteli to be less important andless reliable thanparty-Soviet activists; 129 On the other hand, the majority of majority the hand, other the On ǐ batalionai- the Extermination Battalions) – were – Battalions) Extermination the batalionai- , Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti; Eng. , Komitetgosudarstvennoy Genocidas ir rezistencija ,accessed on April 2, 2012) ɫɪɛɬɥɧɟ ɛɚɬɚɥɶɨɧɵ ɢɫɬɪɟɛɢɬɟɥɶɧɵɟ ơ 127 s saugumo komitetas). The activities of of the Theactivities komitetas). s saugumo 48 , issue 1, no. 5(1999): 41-65 istrebiteli ơ jai – the Guards istrebitelnyje , ɄȽȻ [Armed Soviet and Party were locals, were banditism , Ʉɨɦɢɬɟɬ 128 On ’), CEU eTD Collection administrative units –and units administrative others. headsthe oflocal andtheNKVDmadeunits who withinParty local officers decisions (Rus. ɉɪɨɤɭɪɚɬɭ office (Rus. prosecutor’s service, alsoregime the were prosecution -there the Soviet of structures the of cells repressive the only notthe important They certainly were fromand, tohelp1948, also the authorities in pursuing andaccelerating collectivization. decade of was movement, Sovietfirst second Sovietthe anti-to suppress the occupation duringthe the groups aforementioned belonging to thepeople of The primary task activeto do armed attacks. were sent endeavoringdisclose thenetswork, to of guerillafighters, whileanti- Soviet ‘Extermination butmore the often Battalion’, in wereengagedactivists bureaucratic 14,000. such special themassincreasedas numbersoccasions, to12,000- deportations,their activists’ In 1950 arming. werearound there 7,245 armedactivists, Party-Sovietbuton Party-Soviet initiated Party of the Central Committee the guerillas, by anti-Soviet local of administration Party units andetc.InSeptemberbecause of 1945, active attacks the Committees, of Chiefs local including regime, Communist the of supporters active the were aktyvistai) aktyvas, partinis Sovietinis (Lit. activists Party-Soviet activities. very in they NKVD anduseful the were therefore Lithuanian, spoke of well, area,knewterritory the with were acquainted residents the 132 131 130 Starkauskas, Juozas, “Ginkluotas sovietinis partinis aktyvas ir kiti sukarinti daliniai“, 50. daliniai“, Tininis,sukarinti kiti Vytautas,ir aktyvas partinis sovietinis “Ginkluotas Juozas, Starkauskas, Tininis, Vytautas, ɬɪɨɣɤɢ 130 In some cases Party-Soviet activists could be at the same time members of time same beatthe could activists Party-Soviet In some cases pa, Prokuratura; Lit. Prokurat Prokuratura; pa, / ɱɟɬɜɺɪɤɢ Komunistinio režimo nusikaltimai Lietuvoje 1944-1953 Komunistinio režimo nusikaltimai Lietuvoje 1944-1953, / ɩɹɬɺɪɤɢ 132 , troiki/ chetviorki/ piatiorki) – secret conferences of , piatiorki) chetviorki/ –secret troiki/ 131 nj ra) and so-calledthe ‘threes’/‘fours’/‘fives’ 49 , 41. 40-41. istrebiteli CEU eTD Collection during the years during SecondWorldthe of the Warand anti- in the of beginning Soviet the forces driving strongest the of one was West the from help attain to hope The independence. Lithuanian full restitute to in order Allies either Germany or the Soviet Union,illegal in press, which its members proclaimed with their unwillingness tocooperate and their aim to seek for helpestablishing networks, organizational gathering weapons,publishing and distributing from the Western underground.the During the years of Nazi the occupation LLAthe was engaged in young professionals established engineers, (lawyers, etc.) in LLA the in December 1941 had acquired during their ranks period the of Lithuanian independence andsome other who officers Army independence. Lithuanian for movement the of forefront the became mainly the mainly inmembers May andJune1944,theremaining affiliated with ones organizations,other leading after collapsed figures Nazi arrested the itsthe many VLIK and authorities of Although the VLIK (SupremeArmy. Red Committee for the Liberationauthorities, which were hopinguse Lithuanians’ to force tofightagainst the returning of Lithuania) almost guns from periodthe of Lithuanian Others independence. gotweapons from Nazi the battlefields during the withdrawal of Sovietsthe in 1941, some managed tosave some from years the Somehadguns the Nazioccupation. collected they the which of As mentionedin section armedthe 2.2.1., started guerilla clustering groups during Aidai, 1997), 18. 2.2.3. Beginning of the guerilla movement against the Soviets independently from the Nazi army. Lane, Thomas, Lane, army. Nazi the from independently Soviets the against fighting started and July 1944, in Lithuania entered Red Army when only re-appeared They Germans. with 133 134 Most of those who got arms and from the Nazi authorities soon deserted to forests opposing to collaborate to opposing forests to deserted soon authorities Nazi the from and arms got who of those Most Gaškait ơ 133 , Nijol Lietuvos Laiv ơ , Pasipriešinimo istorija.1944-1953 metai ơ s Armija (LLA, the and (LLA,the Freedom),Army Lithuanian of 50 [History of Resistance. 1944-1953] (Vilnius: 134 Lithuania: Stepping Westward , 65. CEU eTD Collection start instart 1944: Historian mainMindaugas Pocius definedfive reasonsfor guerilla the to movement independently from LLA.the of foraction some people, whileother Lithuanians started into groupsorganizing historians Someinitiative. suggestthat theLLA Lithuanian just framework offered the whether it was possible for the anti- Soviet partisan movement to start without the LLA have beenmassively researching this topic during lastthe 22years still notdo agree was definitely primary the source of guerillathe movement. Lithuanian historians who oppose re-constitutiondeserters from theof conscriptions the to the RedSoviet Army, and other people who feltregime. the need to by supplemented those who switched from organizationalthe manysector, Lithuanian However, this is functional fighting). started Thelatter (armed in summeroperating 1944,andwas soon not to say that the LLAleading main Ithad organizational two divisions, army etc. officers, sectors: and guerilla movement. guerilla The hopes. waiting andseeking for any significant helpfrom Westthe gradually abandoned their However, during theyears following theend of SecondWorldthe War those whowere forcibly deprived of them”, the right of all nations todwell “in their own boundaries”. will live”, to get “sovereign rights and self government restored to those who have been support for theright “of all peoples tochoose form the of undergovernment which they Roosevelt, andthePrime Ministerof Unitedthe Kingdom, Churchill, proclaimed their Atlantic (14August Charter 1941)in which Presidentthe of Unitedthe States, 137 136 135 Atlantic Charter: Ibid, 18-19. , Lietuva 1944-1990. Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija Lietuvos Laisv Lietuvos http://usinfo.org/docs/democracy/53.htm 135 The participants of the movement were setting their hopes on the on hopes their setting were movement the of participants The ơ s Armija 137 was planned to be like a state army, with local , 313-314. 51 , accessed March 18,2012. 136 CEU eTD Collection occupation. itstrengthened were before, feeling the of the against Sovietnecessity fight the to madeoccupation more people aware of atrocities of the Sovietthe regime than they killed during year one brutalities other and the experienced Soviet of first the 5) Experience of firstSovietthe people30,000 almost occupation: imprisoned, deported, West would assist themin the Soviets fromousting Lithuania; Lithuanians werealsowaiting for theCold Wartoturninto ‘real’ war during which much; do not could countries for war except Western the influence, so sphere of in Union to keepthe Baltic was allowed conference of states Soviet its the Teheran due tothe lack ofinformation long forLithuanians a know timenot at did that the USSR: the and West the between war for hoping help, countries’ Western in Belief 4) claimsSoviet joined voluntarily Union; thatLithuania Soviet the because remorse of passivity firstthe Sovietinoccupation during led to 1940 which years of independence,Lithuanian andexpress the need to them was reinforced by 3) Patriotism: nationalistic ideals andpatriotic feelings were grounded in twenty-twothe resistance groups; feeling need the todosomething tostop them made peopleleave to home and organize killed,deported, and on otherthe hand moral opposition ongoingthe to cruelties and betortured, arrested, on to handavoiding one the repressiveTerror of the structures: 2) among the first ones startto groupingintoarmed anti-Sovietresistance units; in were on WorldWarstill toserve going avoiding RAwhile was the Second the forests 1) Forcedmobilization RedArmy:the to asalready mentioned before, men whofled to and Sovietand OccupationRegimes in Lithuania, 2008), 8-9. Armed Resistance in 1944-1953. (Part 1)]. (International Commission for the Evaluationof Crimesthe of Nazi 138 Pocius, Mindaugas, Pocius, 138 Ginkluotojo pasipriešinimo slopinimas 1944-1953 m.(I dalis) 52 [The Suppression of the CEU eTD Collection about womenabout in the Lithuanian resistanceanti-Soviet were published. interested in the Lithuanian partisan partisan in war. Lithuanian the interested those to known well names are partisans’ women of andsome discourse nationalist apartof Lithuanian constitute about their activities big.stories Nevertheless, not available,butapparently proportion the inof women armedthe guerilla movementwas nodefinitejoined There action. are numbers armed the gradually some women also with some inthemilitary experience started andjoined who theguerilla movement, men older some andmen young predominantly was it beginning the in Though years. during in those activities participated resistance andsupportive unarmed active 20,000around of them perished in battles; in addition 100,000around people less wereinvolved people than resistance50,000 in1944-1953, inarmedanti-Soviet 1948- 2,300, in in 1950- 1,500, 250. 550,in1953-around 1952 around out of 30,000around in 1945, in 1946 werealreadythere only left,4,500 poeple in (1944-1953), during which numberthe of armed guerillas was decreasing very rapidly – occupied by Union. Sovietthe territories in all movements the among intense most the of one probably and longest the was war guerilla Lithuanian the that show analyses Comparative alike. and Fighters) partizanai themselves called They etc. and cellars in barns, in hiding-places and in woods themselves into unitsvarious most of sizes, of them residing insmall in bunkers groups organized men, predominantly people, armed of 30,000 around 1944-1945 In 141 http://www.genocid.lt/centras/lt/1486/a/ 1944-1953] (Kaunas: Lietuvos politini Edmundas Zubavi Women‘s Participation in Armed Resistance] in Resistance] Armed in Participation Women‘s 142 140 139 143 accessed April 9, 2012). Gaškait Ibid, 7. Smolskut Antisovietinis pasipriešinimas 1944-1953 Lietuvos partizanai 1944-1953 ơ , N., Kuodyt (partisans), ơ , Žaneta, ”Moter þ ius, LRT, 1995, available online at ơ , D., Kaš miško broliai ǐ dalyvavimo ginkluotame pasipriešinime 1944-1953m. ypatumai“ [Features of , 93-99; documentary movie “Partizan movie documentary , 93-99; ơ ta, A., Ulevi 139 ǐ kalini yearsaround for nine wenton partisan war Armed , accessed March 16,2012. (Forest Brethren), [Anti-Soviet Resistance 1944-1953], ǐ ir tremtini þ Genocidas ir rezistencija ius, B., 142 However, only a few scholarly articles http://fondas.lrt.lt/Media/ItemReview.aspx?ItemId=6916 53 Lietuvos partizanai 1944-1953 ǐ s ą junga, 1996), 366-367. laisv ơ s“ [Women Partisans] (director Partisans] s“ [Women , 2006,2(20): 53-61; ơ s kovotojai 143 140 Along with the with Along [Partisans of Lithuania All in all not all in All (Freedom 141 , CEU eTD Collection informers about the NKVD,informers about communication sustainingand activities signalwomen between groupsand- as units, as armed from women involved anti-beginning Soviet resistance, in wereactively very the songs, work at schools and in other ways. in other and atschools work songs, nurses, asfood and dwelling providers, asideological supporters theirthrough poetry, and undergroundsurrounding andof press,asdoctors areas,as editors distributors to fight against the anti- Soviet resistance. anti- Soviet against the to fight deportations; onthe hand,other Soviet authorities sawdeportations as one of means the of movementthe were fighting such policies against of Sovietthe regime as members hand, one the on deportations: the with related intrinsically is forms) unarmed GULAGcamps. the the places of exile / special settlements in distant parts of the Soviet Union rather than to in more deportedto often In they action. were masscases were the these deportations (also after his or her death) were subject topersecution and deportation, especially when movement of the any in-laws member active of fathers, sisters, mothers, who were but involvementinascertain,directmovement could Soviet authorities the resistance the not whose men, and women Meanwhile (GULAG). camps prison and labor to sent and Women in the Partisan War], 2006, War], Partisan in the Women http://www.culture.lt/satenai/?leid_id=742&kas=spaudai&st_id=3874 Lithuania‘s Women in the Resistence Movement 1944-1953] in 145 moterys-partizaniniame-kare/5343 144 Smolskut Therefore, the anti- Soviet resistance movement in Lithuania (in its armed and armed its (in Lithuania in movement resistance Soviet anti- the Therefore, Ibid. ý ekutis, R., Žygelis, D., ơ , Žaneta, “Piet , Žaneta, 145 ǐ Laisv Lietuvos moter Lietuvos ơ s kryžkel s , accessed March 19,2012. http://www.bernardinai.lt/straipsnis/2006-05-01-laisves-kryzkeles-xiv- istrebiteli ơ s. Moterys partizaniniame kare partizaniniame s. Moterys ǐ veikla rezistencijoje 1944-1953“ [The Activities of the Southern of the Activities [The 1944-1953“ rezistencijoje veikla and Party representatives’ activities in the andactivities Party representatives’ 144 Many of them were arrested, tortured, tried tortured, arrested, Manyofthem were 54 Šiaur ơ , accessed March 19,2012. s At ơ nai [The Crossroads of Freedom. Crossroads [The , 2005, issue 742, CEU eTD Collection Northern toSiberiaCaucasus SocialistNorthern UkrainianRepublic, and this the and was Soviet In Soviet1919-1920 the authorities 45,000Cossacksaround deported from the ‘genocidal’. as regime Stalinist the of policies the define Rummel, J. R. and Naimark Such groups were deported en masse, whichis why various scholars, such as Norman K. with Nazi and activities,the andsoGermany,stances on. ‘counterrevolutionary’ their ties Union againstthe Soviet–their various alleged threats accusedof authorities Soviet Soviet Socialist Republics to distant regions in the North and East of the USSR. million of them were forcibly resettled from Ukrainian SSR, Russian SSR and some the supposed the later. deportation Though territories occupied was not the only mean which repressive inby territories whichwere the andwas SovietUnion, the part of the then repeated was a campaign massive of which repressive policies itsreached peakinin 1929-1932 Dekulakization K.review, Norman and The peoples’(seeliterature the ‘punished Naimark). exiling which the massdrove in deportations 1919-1953 such as the andideological forces areasandfor colonization resources) natural forceof desolate labor (cheap reasons literaturereview, areanalyzingthe pragmatic/economic historians massive in regime.reached a only scale AsIalready Communist the under discussed as well as one of the means to colonize distant territories in Siberia, but the deportations Transaction Publishers, 1990). 148 147 The Soviet 2.3. deportations:broadercontext 146 The ‘punished peoples’,simply, toputitwere ethnic and the that national groups measure, andrepressive asapunitive deportations The RussianTsarsalready used Ibid; Rummel, R. J., Ibid, 80-88, 98. Naimark, Norman K., kulaks (‘getting rid of weresubjected to,as a resultuntil atleast mid-1930s the 2,5 Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1917 Stalin‘s Genocides kulaks ’; , 58-69. kulak in the Soviet terminology - wealthy farmer) wealthy - terminology Soviet the in 55 dekulakization (New Brunswick: campaign 146 148 147 CEU eTD Collection Lithuanians, 58,000Latvians and30,000Estonians. 130,000 million Among around of died. whom were out them resettlement, 1,5 around During all deportationsthe around6-7million of people toforced subjected many smaller-scaleother deportations ongoing literally every from year 1929 until 1952. Sakhalin and Kuril in areIslands 1951. Those only highest numbers,the but were there deportations they Japanese 575,000 experienced; around from and Koreansdeported 1944; 200,000around Ukrainians deported in 1947, but itwas not the only wave of 1941-1942; around123,000Kalmyks deported to Siberia andother regions in 1943- 400,000)sources Germans (also knownasVolga Germans) deported to theFar in North Siberia andMiddle in Asia half first the 1940; 800,000(accordingaround of to other 172,000 Koreans deported to Middle Asiain 1937; 276,000around Poles deported to Poleslived who in the territory of Ukrainian SSR deported Eastwards in 1935; around China,1933 to Mongolia, Iran, AfghanistanTurkey; and 457,000Germansaround and indeportations highnumbers: in Nomadic Kazakhs deported extremely 200,000 around were subjected mention classes. Toseveral national/ethnic that to groups only beginningthe the massive exilingnational of asand ethnic groups well as certain social CEU Press), 4, 305-320; Naimark, Norman K., 149 Polian, Pavel, Against Their Will . The History and Gepography of Forced Migrations Stalin‘s Genocides 56 149 ,131. in the USSR the in (Budapest: CEU eTD Collection the deportations were planned. However, one of the most interesting approaches comes interesting approaches most of one the However, wereplanned. deportations the when work at were assumptions what or targeted they who deportations, for need the why saw approach deportations:ways authorities asking the There aredifferent to deportations of theirfamily members and supporters. meansthe fighting of anti-Soviet partisans-orrather of terrorizing them - was ‘bandits’,elements’, ‘anti-Soviet ‘bourgeois-nationalist groups’ and like. the called were terminology in communist who partisans, Lithuanian against fight to of representatives latter the issued multiple callingfor decrees more backup andmeans Sovietsthe towithdrawfrom still Lithuania,rule. they were threatening the Soviet The them ongoingabout atrocities askingfor help. manage didforce Though notpartisans to Lithuanians,deported andmake trying to with contact Western countries andinform moved from imprisonedlands houses the to confiscated whichand or were earlier attacking Soviet offices and in officers towns andintimidating villages, who newcomers partisans or Forest Brethren, andmanaged tostay in action till 1953. around They were many men retreated to forests, military-basedorganized squadscalling themselves army, hoping it and that would still be possible independence, tore-establish Lithuanian mobilizing Lithuanian men to Redthe Army. In toavoidorder servingin Russianthe started authorities The Soviet re-established. regimewas few Soviet the days next the over and July 1944, in Lithuania of territory the to Army returned Red The Evaluation of the Crimes of Nazi and and Soviet Occupational Regimes in Lithuania), 3-4. 151 bendruomen Residents of Lithuania, 1940-1941, 1945-1953] (Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, Pasaulio lietuvi 3.1. Background tothedeportationsin1945-19483.1. 150 3. Deportations from Lithuania in 1945-1948, and theof operation in mass Lithuania 1945-1948, 3. Deportations from Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Grunskis, Eugenijus, ơ , 1996),66. Lietuvos gyventoj Deportations of the Population in 1944-1953. deportation ‘Vesna’, May 22-23,1948 ‘Vesna’, May deportation ǐ tr ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais 57 151 (The International Commission for the for Commission International (The [Deportations of the 150 Oneof ǐ CEU eTD Collection would not go so far as likein many –but instancesthey aretreated to discourse that in Lithuanian actually I call them genocidal.claiming that Soviet the policies of deportations shouldbe as treated genocidal – and Lithuanian historians, Card maintains that with support from the scholars one’s identity and links one toboth past and executing future”, the “soul murder”. of the to meaning give other that relations intergenerational and Balticcommunity, family, of relations countries, are its physical harmingdestruction, butrather “the ‘social vitality’ of the group, the of the concept the contemplating and later the authors who absorbed his theory (Claudia Card, Robin May Schott), were Soviet Union Union number Soviet this beingthelargest were organized, from of deportations the of parts distant to Lithuania from deportation of operations eight 1945 In aims of deportationthe policies and the intentions of organizersthe of deportations.the death of elements constitutive see and Card as the Patterson issues arethe which these and - in Lithuania conditions previous in the acquired have would they than identities indeported their were childhood bornor in exile gradually acquired types other of the destruction of their family and community relations; many of those who were from Orlando Patterson’s work issue 3 (Fall 2005), 153 Press, 1982). 152 Gulag.Deportations, Ethnicity and Identity.Memoirs of Children Deportees, 1941-1952“ in 155 Deportations of the Population in 1944-1953 discussion aboutusing the term ‘genocide’ inLithuanian historical politicaland discourse:Anušauskas, Arvydas. the victims of the Communist regime: partisans, deportees, political prisoners, dissidents, etc. Comprehensivethe Museum of the Victims of Genocide in Vilnius, inwhich the vast majority of the exposition is dedicated to 154 Schott(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007). Card, Claudia, “Genocide and Social Death“ in Death“ Social and “Genocide Claudia, Card, Schott, Robin M., “War Rape, Natality and Genocide“ in Patterson, Orlando, Schott, Robin M., “War Rape, Natality and Genocide“,10; Balkelis, Tomas, “Lithuanian Children in the is context Lithuanian in regime Soviet ofthe crimes the about talk to of term using ofthe instances ofthe One . 155 the term see the I Thus, http://www.lituanus.org/2005/05_3_2Balkelis.htm Slavery and Social Death: A Comparative Study soul murder Slavery andSocialDeath:Comparative A Study is one of the ways in which genocide functions. Some social death social death , 1-2. Feminist Philosophy and the Problem of Evil : theattack on group,focusingthe not on 58 as very useful in trying to explain the explain to in trying useful very as 154 However, the deportees experienced deportees the However, Journal of Genocide Research , accessed May 3, 2012. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University 13, 1-2 (2011): 10; Lituanus, , ed. Robin May . 152 social He, 153 vol. 51, vol. CEU eTD Collection nationalistmandated deportation the of “thefamilies of bandits andparticipants of bourgeois- fifth The article order this of organizations’. underground bourgeois-nationalist organizationsJuozas Bartaši Republic),Socialist 1946, the People’s this.accomplish to was appointed who Commissarhad of familythe of members Lithuanian partisans; a committee fiveof members NKVD not of theyielded Internal Affairs to theof LSSR offices(Lithuanian Sovietof the People’s which was soon given. soon was which and supreme this for askedStalinapplication,affirmed the and Merkulov confirmation, beenhadnot andasking for permission to organizetheir deported, Beria deportation. activists of anti-underground movement Soviet on territory the of Lithuania,still who informing them remainedalarge there that members numberof offamilies of the head of NKGB (People’s forCommissariat State Security),Vsevolod Merkulov, andthe Lavrentiy Beria, Internal Affairs), for Commissariat People’s (NKVD -The Mikhail Suslov, SnieAntanas were appealingSeptember 1945,the FirstSecretary of Communistthe Party of Lithuania (LKP), to the chiefauthorities stimulatedpeople’ Soviet toapply means.more severe At end the of of the Soviet purge determination society to of so-calledthe bourgeoissecurity class and ‘enemies other of the and secretBut the ongoingSoviet movementand armedresistance anti- thecommunists’ police Lithuania in oneit year,though was notbiggest in terms of numberthe of deportees. 156 Department of the Documents of the Ministry of Internal Affairs]. Fund 141, inventory number 1, number file 40, page inventory 58. 141, Fund Affairs]. Internal of Ministry of the Documents ofthe Department the files of the families of bandits’. LYA VRM dokument Bartaši 158 157 Grunskis, Eugenijus, LSSR [Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic] People‘s Commissar‘s forInternal Affairs J. Quoted in Grunskis, Eugenijus, nj nas October12th, 1945 order 81 nr. ‘In regard to establishing a commissionfor revision of þ kus, and head the kus, Bureaufor of Committee LithuanianCentral Affairs, Lietuvos gyventoj 157 step was The nextrevise to supplement thelists andfiles and Lietuvos gyventoj nj 158 nas, signed the order ‘Inregard nas, signed the order of to theliquidation ǐ tr 15, February on months, few a within Already ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais ǐ 59 tr ơ mimai ǐ skyrius [Lithuanian Special Archives, The ..., 73. , 72, 189. 156 CEU eTD Collection was one of the penalties. of the was one partisans werethreatened with and punishment, deportation of theirfamily members who in andagree toparticipate were going those ‘legalization’, tocontinue supporting who armedthe andto surrender.Those did organizations resistance their supporters not imprisonments, somepublic notifications wereannounced, calling participants the of with Together andongoing with groups armed succeedingpartisan encounters for newactions. werepreparing meanwhile authorities the are missing), but scope, be somemight deportationsof the especially a smallerthat documents, concerning it (though out carried deportations more no were there 1946 in that seems It five counties). people) onFebruaryorder 1946,18-21, when aroundthey 501 deported families (2,082 only withinHowever only fewfew next themselves. ‘legalized’ years,the a partisans lifelive hadbeen promised bytheauthorities. a peaceful as earlier only a propaganda trick, who and‘legalized’ those that allowed themselves werenot to Commissariat of Internal Affairs”. Internal of Commissariat “Lietuvos gyventoj forced tojoin killing-squads the ( were they cases some in movement; anti-Soviet ofthe members assumed or members the on spying 163 Truth Lietuvos gyventoj Article in the official Soviet Lithuaniancitizen. Soviet press a as motivatingoffices local the in partisans registering to and surrender:plans, their and Grunskis,movements Eugenijus. movement, turning in all weapons, informing the authorities about the other participants of resistance 162 tyrimo centras, (2005) 2007), 277. Occupied Lithuania], ed. Anušauskas, Arvydas (Vilnius:Lietuvos gyventoj 161 institutas, 1994), 423-425. residents of Lithuania, 1941, 1945-1952: A Collection of Documents] (Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos 160 159 of Lithuania, 1940-1952] in Communist Party of Lithuania]. LYA. Fund 1771, inventory number 58, file 916, pages 10-16. (Published in pages 916, file 58, number inventory 1771, Fund LYA. Lithuania]. of Party Communist Lithuania deported in 1941-1952; issued at the request of LKP CK[Central Committee of the Terrorized Lithuania, 1938-1991], ed.Kedys,(Klaip J.P. In many cases those who ‘legalized’ themselves were blackmailed or in the other ways forced into ways forced other the or in blackmailed were themselves ‘legalized’ who those cases In many ‘Legalization’- the Soviet term which meant ceasing to participate in anti-Soviet resistance anti-Soviet in participate to ceasing meant which term Soviet the ‘Legalization’- LSSR KGB [Committee for State Security] May 12 Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 160 ; the equivalent of from four Lithuanian counties (at the time Lithuania was divided into twenty- into divided was Lithuania time the (at counties Lithuanian four from 161 Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ ǐ tr deportacijos 1940-1952”, 64-65. ơ mimai... Pravda 162 Terorizuojama ir naikinama Lietuva 1938-1991 , 74; quoted from the article in the main LSSR newspaper main inthe article the from quoted , 74; It was clearfrom many examples that‘legalization’ was ǐ in the orther parts of the Soviet Union], March 12th, 1946. tr ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument stribai, 159 ǐ this fulfilling started officers responsibleThe see chapter 2.2.2. of my work). of my 2.2.2. chapter see deportacijos 1940-1952” [Deportations of Residentsthe [Lithuania in 1940-1990: The History of 60 th , 1988 certificate concerning residents of residents concerning certificate , 1988 ơ da: Ryto spaustuv ǐ rinkinys ǐ ơ [Destroyed and [Destroyed genocido ir rezistencijos , 1994),159. Grunskis, Eugenijus, Grunskis, 163 [ Deportations of Deportations Thus, initially Thus, Tiesa [ The the CEU eTD Collection were also deported. Themembers were were alsodeported. of armedmovement the resistance anti- Soviet children inmany cases article, inthis mentioned membersThough onlyadult are into sentencedeveloping the of in eternal exile 1949. years”. for 5 of Siberia districts of perpetration the of crime,the shallbe deprived of voting and rights exiledtoremote members of the family of the traitor, living with him or as his dependents at the moment liberty for aterm of 10 years with confiscation of all property”, while “remainingadult sentenced eitherNazis to death or theor, theinWestern Nazicase occupation of mitigatingstates. military who ordidthose during service tocivil applied or wasgenerally case thisarticle were assumed circumstances,Those in any other who way towere have “to collaborated founddeprivation guiltywith the of under this article were crossing to the side of the enemy, flight (by surface or air)abroad”. or (by surface flight enemy, sidethe of tothe crossing secrets, state military or betrayal of as: espionage, its such territory, of inviolability the or sovereignty, its national USSR, of the military damagedpower the of USSRthat the in LSSRfrom 1940 to1961,defined treason motherlandto the as“acts by done citizens wasineffect which Republic), Socialist Federative Soviet (Russian RSFSR of Code the Partisans were not the only grewbigger. numberspeople, ex-partisans the of ‘legalized’ ‘enemies of the state’.movementamong Lithuanians, andwith decreasethe in material support from the Article 58.1aresistance armed the of success in the of belief the diminishing the with Criminalsimultaneously istorija. 1944-1953 metai ceased to provide partisans withand help, without rescue, to come which would powers the latter Western the or couldthat war not act. partisan Gaškait the of success inthe believing stopped partisans to build/dig a bunker on their land, etc.) were deported, killed or inother ways terrorized; many others 164 e.html#58-1a Vol.35,No. 2(April 1983): 154-174. 165 till January 1952. Van den Berg, GerP., “The Soviet Union and the Death Penalty”interruptions; in the longest period during which the death penalty was outlawedwas from May 1947 The death penalty in the Soviet Union was legal most of the time, though there were some short 166 Many former supporters of the partisans (supporting them with food, shelter, medicine, allowing for the Extracts from RSFSR Criminal Code in English online: inEnglish Code RSFSR Criminal from Extracts Extracts from RSFSR Criminal Code; , accessed January 6, 2012. [History of Resistance. 1944-1953] (Vilnius: Aidai, 1997), 249-267. 166 Later the determined period of of period lifeinexilevaried, Later the determined the 61 http://www.cyberussr.com/rus/uk58- 164 165 In the Lithuanian ơ , Nijol Soviet Studies ơ , Pasipriešinimo , CEU eTD Collection Internal Affairs of LSSR, Bartaši and shelter. were still in with touch organizations, providingunderground theirmembers food with who killed or imprisoned already those of relatives also but partisans active of members of the Ministry of State Security in Moscow. This directive concerned not only family members of anti- Sovietorganizations, which hadto be delivered to Specialthe Council documents andfiles concerning the forthcoming deportations of relativesthe of charged chief of officers all counties of Lithuania with assignmentthe toprepare Kapralov,LSSR, Piotr issued thesuccessive Directive Number00123,in which he of the Soviet Union”. memberselements of and anti-soviet bandits active from distant other parts to Lithuania detection “In of DirectiveKruglov, signed regardto family 5672/K andthe deportation December 10,1946,theMinister Internal of of Affairs Union, SovietSergei the On toorganizedeportations. new orders issued authorities Soviet the Therefore supposed collaborators with Nazisthe during WWII whohadnot been deported. there were still tens of thousands of family and continuing, was Lithuania membersin movement partisan the 1946, of ofend the theAt Forest Brethren and true or revolution”. proletarian of the gains national and political, and fundamental economic, USSR the the of security external USSR, union republics, towardand autonomous thesubversion or weakening or of the USSRandthe constitutions of union worker-peasantrepublics) governmentof the power of worker-peasant weakeningthe or of subversion, the overthrow, toward directed action Crimes’ as“any councils or of their chosen mainof Article 58.1 the part subjectto also (according to the Constitution of LYA VRM dokument 169 168 167 Directive nr. 00123 of the acting Minister of Internal Affairs P. Kapralov, December24th, 1946. Grunskis, Eugenijus, Extracts from RSFSR Criminal Code. 169 In the supplement document- thethis of ordergiven by of Ministerthe ǐ 168 skyrius. Fund 141, inventory number 1,file 71, pages 284-285. Lietuvos gyventoj Several weeks later the acting Minister of Internal Affairs of Affairs Internal of Minister acting later the Several weeks nj 167 nas - it was specified who were to be considered ǐ tr ơ mimai 62 , 75. which ‘Counterrevolutionary defines CEU eTD Collection when files fortheoperation compiling ‘Vesna’. later used officers newthe –kulaks’ term ‘banditsupporters in many especially cases, to theresettlement families of – the of andbanditbandits kulaks”.supporters “In1947, regard Abakumov, 16, October Security on Viktor Minister(MGB), of State ‘banditry’ decreeof onthe andthe means of struggle against of the territory the LSSR”, Council Ministers of of Sovietthe Union September1947,on “In 29, regard to the adecree newof In theautumn orders: the issuedseveral authorities supreme the ‘elements’Soviet members and detectingof movement partisan the their supporters. Lithuanian Soviet authorities the 1947 in partisans, Soviet anti- with battles armed wereongoing from Apart mostly concerned with family. together they a were deported with compiling files district. respective of the the of anti-Committee Executive by the stated was dependence their and partisan the of family the on dependent were they if etc.) aunts, grandparents, (in-laws, together living relatives: the partisan’s wife, father, mother, brothers, sisters, and also others who were November 1947,the Lithuanian authoritiesSoviet renewed deportations. Inthe in collectivization the became Lithuania in more wide-rangingonly 1950-1953. of Balticthe region in May implementing1947, and started them in 1948. collectivization. understanding of this farmers word) –was preparation for theintended guess that of this strengthening actionsthe against number of subjects destined for prosecution and deportation. Lithuanian historians 1947; reference in Grunskis, Eugenijus, organizing collective farms in Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian Soviet Socialist Republics”, May 21, 174 173 175 172 171 dokument 170 Decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union “In regard to regard “In Union Soviet the of Party Communist ofthe Committee Central ofthe Decree Grunskis, Eugenijus, Lietuva 1940-1990 In Russian: Russian: In Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj Directive nr. 006 of the Minister of Internal Affairs J. Bartaši ǐ skyrius. Fund 141, inventory number 1, file71, pages 28-29. ɛɚɧɞɩɨɫɨɛɧɢɤɢɤɭɥɚɤɢ 173 The Soviet authorities started arranging plans of collectivization the of plans arranging started authorities The Soviet 170 : referredThough childrencases arenot tointhisorder,most okupuotos Lietuvos istorija Lietuvos gyventoj , bandposobniki kulaki. bandposobniki , Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ tr ǐ ơ deportacijos 1940-1952”,162. mimai, , 287. 63 79 ǐ 172 tr ơ It served to greatly expand the mimai, kulaks nj nas, January 18th, 1947. LYA VRM 79. – wealthy (in the Soviet 174 171 However, Various 175 In CEU eTD Collection (16,000). people ‘Priboj’ in deported), [Surf’] and1949 (29-32,000) ‘Osenj’ in [‘Autumn’] 1951 scale such deportations, as operations code-named ‘Vesna’ [‘Spring’] in 1948 (40,000 creation farmscalledandforto the of evenlarger opposition their collective presumed distant parts of the Soviet Union. Soviet parts of the distant livingin working and years,were already some cases several when deportees after only statingcases deportation,andin the chargesbefore the officers issueddocuments the or with collaboratingmovement, resistance Soviet anti- the of with participants the of members family the being with Nazi authorities during the Secondchargedwere deported were who Lithuanian of residents the In 1945-1948 most World War. In some people) were sent to exile; most of them to the Tyumen, Tomsk and Omsk regions. followingmonths six (up beginningto the of May 1,025families1948) around (3,938 supporters. werealsopeasants asfamily often deported members of partisans andtheir andmiddle-rate poor by that numbers show same the peasants; butthe given authorities be wealthy to were supposed movement resistance of anti-the Soviet participants assume that in rural the areas only assume that The Soviet authorities, basing themselves on Communistthe ideology,inclined were to later managed fleedeportation to in West tothe first course thiswar. of evaded the the youth of interwarthe period independentof Lithuaniain - 1941, some of whothose belonging the other -politicians, possibly to suspectintelligentsia groups andorganized 179 177 423-425; 143-145. 178 176 (Bothdocuments published in 10 head of the department “A” of LSSR MGB [The Ministry of the State Security]Lithuania deported P. Grishin, in 1941-1952; Certificate January about the destinations of resettlement issued by the Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj Grunskis, Eugenijus, “Lietuvos gyventoj Grunskis Eugenijus, LSSR KGB [Committee for State Security] May 12 th , 1948.LYA VRM dokument 179 178 Nevertheless, the fear of the anti- Soviet attitudes of wealthier peasants, wealthier of attitudes Soviet anti- the of fear the Nevertheless, Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ skyrius. Fund V-135, inventory number7,file 60, pages 22-24. 177 The Soviets had already deported many of those ǐ kulaks tr ǐ ǐ deportacijos 1940-1952”, 171,173, 175. deportacijos 1940-1952”, 169. ơ mimai ǐ tr could beagainst could the Sovietrule, sothe ơ , 81. mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument 64 th , 1988 certificate concerning residents of residents concerning certificate , 1988 ǐ rinkinys, 176 CEU eTD Collection families); figurefamilies); the later was specified as 28-30 peoplein a smaller carand 56-60in a around 7-8familiesbe that carried inoneper400 calculated train would car (58 cars cars which forwere partly transporting adjusted preparatory In the people. plans itwas trains. people themselves in which lorries the took them train into andlater stations, the the for place enough hardly was there as belongings, of amount an such transporting of no technical were there possibilities wasonly right: ostensible that this an indicated their belongings (per family)thisalso document provided with deportees rightthe totakeup to 1000kilograms of with them. However, the exiles in their later testimonies given on February 21 of the same year. Communist Party of Lithuania. Theorder for the mass indeportation May 1948 was of the initiativerequests of based representatives the and the on inMoscow, authorities for operation the of massdeportation the ‘Vesna’ were given by Soviet supreme the Like in the cases of the preceding and successive deportations, the principal orders of of the USSR. to work in there industrial the subordinate to theMinistryenterprises of Industry Forest Krasnoyarskregion of (6,000families tothefirstdestination, second) 6,000tothe and 12,000 families from Lithuanian the territory special settlersas toYakutASSR and the proposal of the Councilin the stated that to response order The Union byJoseph Stalin. chaired Sovietthe of Ministers of LSSR, the decision had been made to deport 3.2.Planningandexecutingtheoperation‘Vesna’ compiled by Žemaityt 182 Mongolian ASSR. Mongolian 181 dokument 21, 1948. Lithuanian translation of the document in document of the translation Lithuanian 1948. 21, also kulaks- supporters of bandits with theirfamilies from the territory of Lithuanian SSR”. February families of those living illegally, killed during armed encounters or sentenced bandits and nationalists; 180 Garmut Ibid; later the destination of Yakut ASSR was changed to the regionof Krasnoyarsk and Buryat- Resolution of the Council of Ministers of USSR “In regard to the special resettlement of 12,000 resettlement special tothe regard “In of USSR ofMinisters Council of the Resolution 182 Similarly to earlier deportations, exiles were transported crammed into cattleinto crammed transported exiles were deportations, earlier Similarly to ǐ ơ rinkinys , Antanina, “Ešelonai“ [Echelons] in [Echelons] “Ešelonai“ , Antanina, 181 concerningorganizationdocumentation, and orders other Among the , 155-156. ơ , Aldona(Vilnius: Vyturys, 1989), 47,49. 180 It was issued by the Council of Ministers of Amžino Lietuvos gyventoj 65 Ƴ šalo žem ơ je [In the Land of Permafrost], Land the [In ǐ tr ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: CEU eTD Collection Soviet Socialist Republic] Ministries of Socialist of Republic]SovietInternal Ministries escortAffairs thedeportees, together to 102officers deportationLSSRandthe of USSR, the appointed BSSR[Byelorussian its destination. reached until means of group every transportation, calculated that the tripby around wouldrailway take plus 18-23days 1–9days by other might getmight ill the during or twocarsfortrip, thedeportees’ belongings). attending staff; in some each consistingfor thedeportees, the of (58 for62 rail cars theconvoy others ofand the orders it was required personnel. and attendant to reserve one car forcars and nutrition vehicles, other routes, during thetrip, assigning officers responsible those who concerning the finely detailed of logistics deportation:the therequired number of train constitute supposed 48,000 aroundto 36,000- people,more specific wereissued, orders was which families, 12,000 of deportation the organize to initial order thisAfter forcalculated one not of per family.certainly tone belongings was so transportation the breathe, fresh airenough to was not there cars that the bigger one. 1952: dokument 17. Lithuanian translationof the document published in carrying deportees by 30April,rail. 1948.GARF, fund 9479, inventory number 1,file 427, pages 16- 187 gyventoj number1, file 427, pages 7-11. Lithuanian translation of the document published in heads of the convoy of the echelons of deportees. May 4 ChiefThe convoyof the army Ministryof the of Internal Affairs V. Bochkov: Instructionfor the 186 Lietuvos gyventoj deportees by watertransport. April 30th, 1948. Lithuanian translationof the document published in MinistryThe of Internal Affairs of USSR, Department of Transportation: The plan of carrying 1941-1952], (Vilnius:Vidaus Reikal of the of the document published in indicated], certified by the Deputy Minister of the State Security of USSR Ogolcov. The Calculationsphotocopy of the required railway vehicles forthe special resettlement,members. April - offour 1948 [day notdocuments other 185 184 dokument documents (translated to Lithuanian) published in Affairs of USSR, May 4th, 1948. GARF, fund 9479, inventory number 1, file file427, 427, pages 16-17; pages Plan of the 12-14.transportation of deporteesBoth from Lithuania, The Ministry of Internal April 30th, 1948. GARF [StateArchives Russian of the Federation] Fund 9479, inventory number 1, 183 Ibid; The Ministry of Internal Affairs of USSR, Department of Transportation: The planof Calculations of the required railway vehicles; railway required of the Calculations In some documents officers were counting that one family consists of around three members, in members, three of around consists family one that counting were officers documents some In Garmut Plan of the transportation of deportees by railways, The Ministry of Internal Affairs of USSR, ǐ tr ǐ 183 ơ rinkinys , Antanina, “Ešelonai“, 54-57. ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument In their exilesindicateinside the people memoirs that weresosquashed ǐ rinkinys ǐ tr ,159-161; 163-166. ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument , 159-161. 185 It was calculated that 30 echelons of trains were required, 1941-1952 met ǐ Ministerija, 1993), 36; ǐ Lietuvos tremtiniai ǐ rinkinys Lietuvos gyventoj 66 Lietuvos gyventoj th ǐ , 1948. GARF, fund 9479, inventory , 166-170. rinkinys [Lithuanian deportees of the years ofthe deportees [Lithuanian , 162-163. ǐ tr 184 ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: ǐ tr ơ 187 mimai 1941, 1945- of organizers The 186 Lietuvos officers The CEU eTD Collection sick orassisting giving those birth, butnotescorting doctors ornurses. might bedoubtful, frequently mention fellow asex-deportees their travelershelping the mentioned in such documents. in such mentioned during the trip), committed thefts the by convoying soldiers,the orthe inedible are food longer stops several (there were bathhouses in by so-called officers the harassments the decrees andinstructions: neither walls the of the cars covered bymuck, nor the partial of trip deportees’ the understanding placesthe to of exile relying only on the undoubtedly many mentionedwere notthings intheinstructions, and one would geta but accomplished were orders these extent what to ascertain to difficult is It documentation of process. this supervise the andto destinations, designated deliverto the deportees to the instructed to whotransfer those severely got ill tothenearest hospitals, tobury dead; the in andtoseek thehighest thestations) possible paceof Furthermore,the they were trip. from food supervise file),whether nutrition canteens (getting the was apersonal there to indication deportation, the until address home family, the of head the with kinship of kind the nationality, birth, the of year the name, patronymic name, first name, family (indicating every of of listwagon copies of the train were tomakethree passengers deportees to freightup to 1000kilograms of baggage perfamily. Additionally, they and by allowreceive brought their deportees the andto officers, documents the the give convoy andof superviseechelon were required to orders every security, the to to and byonedoctor accompanied nurses two perechelon. with 32 groups military,of of each them consisting of 25 people (officers andmen), 191 190 the heads of the convoy of the echelons of deportees, 4 May, 1948. 189 rinkinys translation of document the published in Lithuania. 4 May, 1948.GARF, fund 9479, inventory number 1,file 427, pages 12-14. Lithuanian 188 Ibid, 56-57. Garmut The Chief of the convoy army of the Ministry of Internal Affairs V. Bochkov: The instruction for The Ministry of Internal Affairs of USSR: The plan of the transportation of the deportees from , 163-166. ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai”,56, 58. 189 190 The actual presence of medical staff in every echelon medicalin every staff of The actual presence Lietuvos gyventoj 67 ǐ tr ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument 188 The appointed heads of the of heads appointed The 191 They also tend ǐ CEU eTD Collection addition to the main list of ‘anti-Soviet elements’ were preparing reserve lists, so in the so lists, reserve preparing were elements’ ‘anti-Soviet of list main the to addition beginning of 1948 regional departments of Ministry the Securityof State of LSSR in Nevertheless, this did not stop Sovietthe authorities from fulfilling the plan:from the deportation in because the advance. they deported had been warned about to flee. In some cases out of four intended having or in acquaintances connections working officers) andmanaged local the Soviet family members only one or even nonein aboutadvance forthcomingthe mass deportation (they were warned by was and relatives those to be deported. to those prompted in toavoid were of keep escape forthcoming the and a secret order the to panic deportation authorities local all, of First etc. and citizens other for deportation the of of those to bedeported, deal waysthe ideological to property, with the their explanation to thelocal unitsinitial concerningadministrative the of deportation: thecapture actions for preparation deportation of the May 1948. There22-23, weremany sentinstructions placestheir of designated exile were not only the issuedinstructions during the to deportees the of transportation of organization the to regard in orders The truth’. ‘objective than reality” some sense whichindividual toobjectsgives and situations wheninterpreting the social aremore “the out,while personal documents which necessarily carried orders were not carried official the were out: thedeportations how know if to we want another more than plausible are documents of those none Certainly, when deportees they thebrutality about talk and ferocity of Sovietthe officers. ex- of memoirs in the motifs prevalent most the of one being claim this buried, not and soldiers, escorting bythe outof the carriages thrown simply deadwere claim the to that 194 in Reconnaissance)” Methodological (a 193 17. 195 192 Grunskis Eugenijus, Research Holocaust in aSource as Document Personal ofthe Literature “STUDIES: Leociak, Jacek The record file of Mykolas Liubauskas. LYA. Fund V-135, inventory number 1, file 11627, page Ibid. 194 Lietuvos gyventoj It was not so easy to maintain this precept - many people knew 193 Holocaust. Studies and Materials, ǐ tr ơ mimai, 68 94. documents, analyzed here, are the analyzed here, documents, issue 1 (2008): 32. 195 192 CEU eTD Collection the train, volunteered for deportation in order to stay tostay inherwith children. for deportation order train,the volunteered to when herwho was were taken present mother,not children casewhen a documented might seem that no one would volunteer for deportation, we know of at least one than planned. than 39,766 people (11,345families) onthem numbersignificantly- a wasnot that lower Minister of State Security of LSSR and the deputy Minister of the according account the to or, moving,40,002 werealready there trains started of State Security of USSR, for those who were willingsame day as amatter of urgency,by andalso the allowingorder voluntarily deportation to be resettled lists.together The number of deportees was also enlarged by those who were added to the list the withdeportation the on were who their those with together home at found were who those as relatives.well as lists wereseized from reserve in placethe people their operation: of this organizers for the a setback was not deportation avoided main list whowere on the those mainlists and reserve of potential deportees. operation ‘Vesna’, almost 15,000families (56,178people) wereenlistedin both the the during families 12,000 deport to planned authorities Soviet the While the standby list. families on tothe turned theofficers deportees, intended several of escape the case of Security of LSSR D. Jefimov to the Minister of State Security of USSR V. AbakumovAccount of theabout deputy the Minister of State Security of USSR S. Ogolcov and the Minister of State as the result of summation of all accounts of the chiefs of every county of LSSR; accounts available at LYAaccounts VRM dokument LSSR; of county of every chiefs ofthe accounts of all ofsummation result the as 200 199 Lietuvos gyventoj the for operationof deportation preparations ‘Vesna’, Maythe 18, 1948. Lithuanian about translationof Kruglov the document published S. of USSR in Affairs of Internal Minister the to Bochkov V. Account of the Minister of Internal Affairs of LSSR 9 ; J. BartašiLithuania]), in Regimes Occupational Ƴ of Lithuania 1944 1953] (Tarptautin 198 197 196 vertinti [The International Commissionfor the Evaluationof the Crimes of Nazi and and Soviet Grunskis, Eugenijus, Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Ibid, 118. Grunskis Eugenijus, 200 196 ǐ tr ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuvos gyventoj skyrius, fund V-135, inventory number7, file 64, pages 1-135; Lietuvos gyventoj ơ komisija naci ǐ ǐ tr ǐ tr ǐ tr tr ơ ơ mimai, ơ mimai ơ mimai 1944-1953 mimai 1944-1953 ǐ 197 irsovietinio režimo nusikaltimams Lietuvoje 69 , 118. Author proposes this number of deportees number this proposes Author 118. , 99. 8,679peoplefrom that Thus thefact ǐ rinkinys nj nas and the chief of the convoy army , 9. [The deportations of the residents of the deportations [The , 178-179. 198 199 Although it Although When the When CEU eTD Collection those whoshouldthose be and material. deported compiling compromising listsof the deportation for preparation was updating in the step the importantAn - the number that is almostequal to the number of deportees. 41,500 people in participated execution the of operationthe massof deportation ‘Vesna’ andand morefewSoviet Party than CommunistIn activists total, thousands aof others. Union,officers 13,452 andsoldiers of army the Ministry the of Security,of State 11,446 the Ministry of State provides theofficers information partabout in whoSecurity took operation:this 2,050 officers of of LSSR, 2,500encounters’, 6,246(55 %) families and as‘supporters banditsof kulaks’.Italso officers from otherfamilies as ‘family partsmembers of bandits and nationalists who wereof killed duringthe armed Soviet families as ‘family members of and bandits sentenced nationalists’, 1,234(10.9 %) nationalists who haveillegal (whostatus’ didnot ‘legalize’ themselves), 2,423(21.4 %) 1,442(12.7 charges: %) families as ‘familywere deported members of bandits and in statistical also tothe the Thedocumentregard provides data Grunskis indicates. lessprobably more or same the evenif more ashistorian people236 weredeported, age the of 15, which is 31.1 %, 41.5 % and 27.4% respectively ; these proportions were who 12,370werewere deported those men, 16,499 women and 10,897childrenunder carried out during night the of May midnight22 (from till 5 am).It is stated of that Kaunas), whereitwas rapidly bigger towns (Vilnius, May 23,with exception of the operationthe in majorthe partof LSSR tookplace from 4 am on May 22 until 6 pm of that us informing data, statistical and technical some provide reports The official which was constructed as a which was constructed personal file of ‘headof the family’the man– usually a of departmentof Ministry the of AffairsInternal madeusually onefile perfamily unit, before the mass deportations. Anušauskas, Arvydas, 1940, and carried on this work from 1944onward. New names were constantly added to lists,the especially 202 201 Fund Fund V-135, inventory number7, file 61, pages 230 deportation of the residents of Lithuania. Around May 28, 1948. LYA VRM dokument The Soviet authorities started making the lists of the citizens who were suspected of anti-Soviet attitude in Ibid. Lietuvos gyventoj a 70 -236. ǐ 201 tr ơ mimai 1944-1953, 202 ǐ The county The skyrius. 3, 8. CEU eTD Collection working age,butin caseofhisthe absenceitcould alsobe awoman. respective family respective had tobe deported. the that stating file, the of conclusion the off signed Affairs Internal of Ministry distinctions for servingUnion, the Soviet chief the county the of of the department no and authorities Soviet the with connections significant no had family the If army.served in German the sentenced in deported, imprisoned, todeath or any who way other hadrepressed, or any relatives among Soviet Redthe Army, having anymedals distinctions or for serving the SovietUnion, having authorities or,supplemented with availablethe information about any familythe of member servingin by contrast, having file. filewas tothe the ‘agents’ Then were added of interrogatory protocol the any relatives who werefamily as indicated a if certificate and the regime, Soviet the against family’sacting person’s or ‘agents’ could announce any minor detail mightwhich be interpreted as particular interwarduring period andthe atwas present orderedat theregional Then, if office. family of a certain status economic andthe social the about and acertificate collected, local informers– -were accounts andof officers ‘agents’ petty so-called Soviet not necessary - there was no order to send files for reconsideration bytheOSO. reconsideration sendfiles no for necessary to order was not - there Special Council of the MinistrySoviet of State Security), officers but in the Lithuanian of preparatory the stage precedingthe (1941, 1944-1947) deportations sentcase of ‘Vesna’some thisof wasthe thefiles Ministry of Internal to AffairsMoscow of LSSR, where the Banditry against of of to Bureauof Struggle the Vilnius, Department Second the chieffile to to beofficers consideredhad to sign it. During by the OSO (the number1, files 11627 and 10118. 204 families. 205 203 The record files of Mykolas Liubauskas andAntanas Kazilionis. LYA. Fund V-135, inventory Resolution of the Council of Ministers of USSR “In regard to the special resettlement of 12,000 resettlement special tothe regard “In of USSR ofMinisters Council of the Resolution Grunskis Eugenijus, kulak (and in most cases it did, not necessarily because of land ownership), land of because necessarily not did, it cases in most (and Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ 204 tr This documentwas delivered with together the ơ mimai, 71 76. 203 Firstly the Firstly 205 On CEU eTD Collection the designated place of place designated of the exile. to arrival their upon file their supplemented documents new some way, the on die not did if they then, and state’ the of ‘enemies and authorities Soviet the with connections day the of deportationthe all family members hadtoanswer thesame questions about influenced by those policies. bythose influenced life of which were in realities Iwill exile, thegendered chapter in next about talk the deporting family members of and anti- familymembers guerillathe fighters deporting Soviet Therefore, in this subchapter I will try to analyze in what ways the Soviet policies of of power: system a particular aspect of itinputs her text genderedon militarization,is aspects genderalwaysof not aprimary notdoes mean that policies deportation the were As Cynthia Cockburn gender-neutral. me known includeto gender. any reference deportees’ to the explicit Lithuania from deportations post-1944 the concerning documents the of None 3.3. Gendered implicationsofthepolicies 3.3. the deportation‘Vesna’ 208 later deportations. the during than fates and ofpolicies distinction clearer isa this settlements: special the to deported were children and elderly women, while camps, the to sent were men in1941, June’ ‘Black the especially deportations, documents people under the age of 15 are referred to as‘children’, not identifying their gender.During pre-1944 207 files1, 11627 and 10118, respectively. 206 Violence: Gender and Conflict Zones University of CaliforniaPress, 2004), 28. Cockburn, Cynthia, “The Continuum of Violence: A Gender Perspective on War and Peace” in Peace” and War on Perspective A Gender of Violence: Continuum “The Cynthia, Cockburn, However, in some documents it is stated how many women and how number many men wereinventory deported;V-135, Fund in suchLYA. Kazilionis. Antanas Liubauskas, of Mykolas files record The in any given circumstance. given any in are always also gendered, and in turn they help to construct what is a man structuringor a regimea womanand shaping itsmode of ruling. But these otherdifferentiations hierarchies, relational important be also can differentiation ethnic and class economic 206 208 , eds. Wenona Giles and JenniferHyndman (Berkeley and Los Angeles: 72 kulaks 207 weregendered; However, this However, Sites of CEU eTD Collection partisan movement andsuch aseditors distributors of press, underground the signalmen were deported were many family members of the partisans, other members of the authorities to suppress the anti- Soviet resistance. anti- Soviet the suppress to authorities ‘Vesna’ wasone means Sovietof wasthethe the fact of the deportation that deportation the influenced movement of gendering the thepartisan inwhich The second way bean not could of easy task. people’, ‘the enemies the yearsduring the of whilepostwar/guerilla war, being perceived by as authorities the the return. Even if for some of deportation, during the the tripplacesinthem to of exile,andexile,the insome cases after this was the not to prior a newresponsibilities these took role, they sick; the and elderly, the providing children, - for the family heads of householdsthe andtosearch for ways toprovidefor the familyother members labor camps,had been or killed.women Thismeant that become had to stay or the amonghiding,into already imprisoned, hadgone partisans, the deported to the were rarely had or movement, menleft:partisan middle-aged able-bodied men these were deportationin becauseat least twoof partisans andwas rapidly power made their This the deportations gendered decreasing. thesignificant participationguerilla which in war, started 1944, wasstillin ongoing 1948 though numberthe of ways. Firstly, of‘Vesna’ in As 1948 wasparticularly important. Idescribed earlier, anti–Soviet the one or inseveral those families beginTohistoricalwith,the contextoperationthe ofmassof deportation the of their which members were insubjected the to gyventoj Crimesthe of Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania, 2008), 9-11; Grunskis, Eugenijus, Suppression of Armed the Resistance in 1944-1953. (Part 1)] (International Commission for the Evaluationof the primary goals. Pocius, Midaugas. to deportations during bothperiods, and this turning point to refers the re-definitionor rather theenlargement of groups. Certainly, families of the partisans and opponents of the collectivization, of the opponents assumed and true of the elimination the as process, collectivization ofthe apart as planned were deportations Lithuania: 1944-1948 deportations were mostly aimed at repressing partisanthe movement;1948-1953 209 Some Lithuanian historians see ‘Vesna’ as one of turning points in the aims of the deportations from deportations of the aims the in points turning of one as ‘Vesna’ see historians Lithuanian Some ǐ tr ơ mimai ,115. kulaks Ginkluotojo pasipriešinimo slopinimas 1944-1953 m. (Idalis) . ‘Vesna’, as well as ‘Priboi’ in1949 was explicitly targeting those both kulaks , along with other ‘enemies of the people’, were subjected were people’, ofthe ‘enemies other with , along 73 209 This meant that among those who those among that meant This [The Lietuvos CEU eTD Collection This example shows that some women, subjected to deportations and other Soviet children and hermother, notwithstanding herillnesses and suffering. was dead, though she allowcould not die: herself provideto shehad to for her two Siberia, to family the all brought movement guerilla in the involvement whose husband, which I am here”. suffering deportation: “Danielius, I wish you to suffer eternallypain in Siberiain she, hermind, told her who husbandhad diedin prior to family’stheir hell the same kind of torments Aleksandra Vaitelien Briedis), (codename Vaitelis Danielius partisan high-ranking the of wife The ininvolvement partisanthe war,and thishave mighthad as somegenderedwell. aspects of deporteeswerenotthe (orwerenot always) supportingfamily their members’ Though in the Lithuanian nationalistishistoriography this some rarely discussed, in fifteen, documents). the ageof specified sex under the was not whose would have beenwaymoreand 41.5% 31.1%(therestthan disproportionate – children morewhom men,the were numbers there of men duringwomen and ‘Vesna’ deported the deportation of the additionalwere more women menthan subjected in allthosegroups deportation. tothe for Ifnot groups ( etc. and signalwomen, Freedom.Women in the Partisan War], 2006, grenade if they were hopelessly surrounded by the soldiers or soldiers by the surrounded hopelessly were they if grenade practice a common was It among partisans,wounded. was signalmenleg his and and signalwomensoldiers MVD by to commit a surrounded suicide been by had shooting partisans or explodingother two themselves with a ‘Vesna’. Her husband Danielius Vaitelis- Briedis shot himself ten days earlier, on May 13, 1948, after andhe 212 xiv-moterys-partizaniniame-kare/5343 211 etc. people, various with connections signalmen/signalwomenbetween various groups of partisans- carrying their messages, helping them to find and signalwomen were deported; there were mostly young boys and girls/womensettlements of variousor stayed ages inwhoLithuanian special the worked to SSR deported as were under prove, to the supervision harder was movement of resistance the Soviet anti-Soviet officersthe in and involvement agents. Many signalmen whose Those, death. to tortured were camps, labor prison, to sentenced were some varying- were movement - imprisonment, torturing, death or laborcamps. Penalties for the other members of the anti-Soviet resistance 210 Ibid;Aleksandra Vaiteliene with her two children and motherwas deported during the mass deportation ý law) Soviet the of hierarchy the (in punishment harsher to subjected were they deported; were rarely Partisans ekutis, Ri þ ardas; Žygelis, Dalius, ơ , recalled how in a momentof unbearable physical and spiritual 210 Due to reasonsthe discussed intheprevious paragraphthere 211 It was difficult for her to endure the knowledge that her , accessed6, 2012. April Laisv ơ s kryžkel http://www.bernardinai.lt/straipsnis/2006-05-01-laisves-kryzkeles- kulaks ơ s. Moterys partizaniniame kare 74 , collaborators with the Nazis), among Nazis), the with collaborators , stribai , or if they were seriously wounded. 212 [The Crossroads of Crossroads [The CEU eTD Collection members’ crimes, which was in effect in the Soviet Union for some time, or the class- the or time, some for Union Soviet in the effect in was which crimes, members’ The answer is more complexactive with collaborators Nazisthe in 1941-1944, which were all predominantly male? than the legal system of ifchildren theirmain antagonists werepartisans, heads of households,wealthy and a family’s accountability forThe its first question one might raisemen. is why the Soviets had to women deport about and in certain assumptions implicated genderedthey also waythat the women and were policies the them; of most in men than women more leaving units, family those WorldWar and only, ongoing discussedabove, didrecent the the guerilla waraffect as not Butbehada certain deported. family, gender, to one’s of irrespective belonged to the post-1944 mass deportations During gender-neutral. as read be might deportation the regulating decrees The people were deported partisanwar. the andsentiments Soviet supported as family units: everyonemanyclaiming Lithuanians that deported held patriotic-Lithuanian/nationalist/anti- who Therefore, bothLithuanian nationalist and Soviet discourses were probably whenright a lot of againstresentment the Lithuanian partisans among Lithuanian deportees. which some of womenthe tried to oppose. years the during war and of in peace, militarized processes involvement voluntary and involuntary lives’:women’s of women’s as ‘militarization issues the these Cynthia Enloe, basing herself on Virginia Woolf’s contemplation of militarism, refers to whothose didnecessarily not support guerillathe warmaterially ideologically. or whose involvementin partisanthe war resulted in the deportation and of sufferings occupational indignantregime’s policies, alsofeltat their and husbands,brothers sons, anti-resistance strategies, in addition to generalthe feeling of unfairness of the University of CaliforniaPress, 2000), 245-249; 288-289. 213 Enloe, Cynthia, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives 213 However, it seems unlikely that there was it there unlikely that seems However, 75 (Berkeley, California: CEU eTD Collection According to this Convention, this to According 1948. signed on December9, the Genocide, on Convention Nations’ United the - mainly commissions, international Historians base themselves on meaningsthe of ‘genocide’ by established various Union, genocidal. whichbecamethecountries partof andregions, were Soviet the the of most in and in Lithuania policies Soviet the that claim historians Lithuanian some Nazi theories did, nortalked openly theplansabout to eliminate certain national groups, eugenics asthe of plans such explicit includenot ideology did Although the Soviet Copelon, women’s discussing vulnerability particular wars,argues: during Rhonda destroyed. be to had others, the with along - women – elements core its of one and ‘anti-revolutionary’ ‘elements’. Topreventthe from ‘anti-Soviet’ group renewal, Sovietthe ideologists’ andauthorities’ efforts to purge society the from ‘anti-Soviet’ based ideology towhichaccording 215 1998), 71. Women and War Reader 214 Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Copelon, Rhonda, “Surfacing Gender: Reconceptualizing Crimes Against Women in Time of War“ in of War“ in Time Women Against Crimes Reconceptualizing Gender: “Surfacing Rhonda, Copelon, x x or in part, a national,ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, inwhole targets because of because targets vulnerability as women,including their and sexual reproductive They power. are They are targets becausebecause they keep the civilian population functioning and are essential to its continuity.they too Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; of the members to harm mental or bodily serious Causing Killing members of the group; Women are targets not simply because they ‘belong to’ the enemy butprecisely hatred , eds. Lois Ann Lorentzen and Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York University Press, Deportations of populationthe in 1944-1953, of their power as women [italics in original text]. 215 kulak are the enemy, because of their power as well as s’ children are also 76 1. kulaks . Itis to alsorelated 214 The CEU eTD Collection countries not as countries not representatives of classes butashavingcertain and nationalities, certain Lithuanian historiansmany maintain from weredeported that people occupied the class, which deportees’ documents their nationality tobe out turned more important than their social is not fullyreluctant torelease people belongingthose nationalities to from exile, and even in the compatible were authorities evenafter Stalin’sdeath national groups, ‘extremely dangerous’ with theauthoritiesSoviet proclaimed Lithuanians, Latvians,Estonians andUkrainians tobe official Lithuanians as anational particularlygroup, bymass deportations,isSoviet evident.The the of terrorizing the but ideology.be questioned, might territories Baltic in the regime of genocide of the nations living there, of building socialism, orelse. were plansof the those colonization, into USSR:whether the which wereincorporated general plansthe about is also it - Convention the of of articles the the about only than more is authoritiesdiscussion of the SovietLithuania, aswell in as other the occupied But regions. thehistorical and political Union, especially Stalin, for the regions 218 ajalookirjanduse sihtasutus, 2003). post-Colonial perspective“ in 217 accessed March 18, 2012. of the United Nations General Assembly on 9December 1948. 216 The first three articles of the Convention fit to describe the Soviet policies in policies Soviet the describe to fit Convention the of articles three first The The relevance of the term ‘genocide’ for describing the crimes of the Soviet the of crimes the describing for ‘genocide’ term the of relevance The Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, A 1956. to 1944 from Lithuania in Union Soviet of the Policies Cultural and “Demographic Timofei, Agarin, Convention on thePrevention andPunishment of the Crime of Genocide. Adopted by Resolution 260 (III) A x x physical destruction in whole or in part; x Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group. another to group the of children transferring Forcibly group; the within births prevent to intended measures Imposing Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its Deportations of populationthe in 1944-1953, The Sovietization of the Batic states 77 http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html , ed. Olaf Mertelsmann (Tartu: KLEIO (Tartu: Mertelsmann Olaf ed. , 1-3. 216 217 218 Therefore , CEU eTD Collection nation andits ‘wrong’ social and cultural Thus values. because of their nationality, unwanted the they reproduce could possibilities: because of theirdeported reproductive Soviet actions,Soviet belonged nor tothe in involved whoany were neither anti- hand,those Ontheother importance. secondary wereof actions of in importance primary while genderdeportation, wasof schemes the seemingly gender-neutral policies: nationality, social class, andanti-Sovietviews and of genderedin aspect deportations the ways.two On hand, one itthe foraccounts the certain aiming toeliminate strategies groups of society the tounderstandhelps the A perception of the Soviet the socialdeportation death of a certain group, which is a part of the genocide of that group. policiespoliciesabout which terror of were targetingfamilies asoneof methodsthe toprovoke as genocidal strategies or as the itwith for This connecting of concept calls the approach an link violencebetween evident doneto thatthereis claims ishere. vonJoden-Forgey Elisa researchers, very by relevant some noted families, on attacks and policies thegenocidal between link the In addition, beregime, hasgenocidal calledto policies. or genocide by this,together withothercrimescommitted of Sovietthat the representatives the (2011): 14. 220 219 Quoted in Schott, Robin M., “War Rape, Natality and Genocide” in Ibid, 28-29. groups. overlooked by researchers, who focus either onharms to individuals or onharms to this life. […] Targeting of families in genocidal violence has typically been on attacks for targets become also they societies, of life on-going the for central are the group and are crucial for both biological and cultural reproduction. Since families Asmany feminist researchershave noted, families stand in between the individual and 220 kulak families, or bourgeois 78 and genocide: 219 class, still had still to benecessarily class, social death Journal of Genocide Research , and for thinking for and , 13, 1-2 CEU eTD Collection movement or their role as the heads of headsthe of or their asthe role movement resistance in the involvement their though men, with together deported were women deportees’ experiences in experiences deportees’ exile. the to is dedicated which chapter, next the in discus will I This ways. particular affected but women men and policies alsoin the seemingly were gender-neutral, the need of a cheap labor force, especially in the forestry. In regard to compulsory labor, elements’ weaken and to and/or eliminate certain national but alsogroups, because of merelyoccupied topurge in not society regions the order from ‘anti-the Soviet the from deportations out carried and planned authorities Soviet the Obviously, to beweaker. kulak 79 households might have been assumed been have might households CEU eTD Collection 1993, 16in 1994, and4in 1995. On this list there are memoirs which were publishedin memoirs inrespectively published, were with comparison 11 in1989; in 16 in1990; 17 Grinskis’ list of publications, in those years 24 and 23 separate memoirs and volumes of prisoners’ unleashed, testimonies and reached itspeakin According1991-1992. to and criminal the aspects of Sovietthe regime,a flood of deportees’ and political would years happened have for earlier) openly ten experiences deportees’ discussing Grinkevi After Lithuanian until 1993. latter’s morelanguage. elegant latter’s memoir Armonas’ been absolutely different from what they were. For example, already in 1961 Barbara which in its form and style isnot much different from Grinkevi Grinkevi without that say to is not This exile. in Siberian experiences deportees’ Lithuanian Sovietthe deportations from canonical Lithuania, the and wayof telling about the discussforbidden previously topics,but also servedtoestablish the grandnarrative of showed that Mikhail Gorbachev’s announced Gorbachev’s Mikhail that showed Sea) - was publishedin literary the journal first one - Dalia Grinkevi - Dalia one first sentences in Gulagthe labor campsin appearing started Lithuania in The1988-1989. their served who prisoners political and deportees Lithuanian of memoirs The 222 of BaticStudies Violeta, “Deportee Memoirs and Lithuanian History: The Double Testimony of Dalia Grinkevi some ways slightly different from the earlier version. For acomprehensive analysis of this case seeLithuania, Davoli after which she was sentenced to labor camps and additional years of exile. The memoir of 1988 is in 221 Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, She wrote the first versionof her memoir in 1950, during her and her mother’s illegal escape from Siberia to 4. The life of Lithuanian deportees in exile asnarrated in memoirs þLnjWơ ’s memoir latertestimonies the of Lithuanianthe woulddeportees have , vol.36, issue 1(Spring 2005): 51-68. Leave Your Leave Tears in Moscow Leave Your Tears in Moscow þLnjWơ þLnjWơ ’s memoir was published and she was not arrested (which arrested not was she and published was memoir ’s ’s 222 Lietuviai prie Laptev in available not was memoir Armonas’ However, Pergal (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1961). 80 glasnost ơ was inpublished the United States, in 1988. ǐ j nj was opening uppossibilities to ros 221 (Lithuanians by the Laptev This publication not only þLnjWơ ’s, except for’s, except the þLnjWơ ” in Journal njWơ , CEU eTD Collection memoirs of people deported in 1941, 1945,1947 and 1948(for short descriptions of deportation,decided I not toconfine my to them. analysis In this Iexplore chapter ‘Vesna’the of deporteesby memoirswritten few a only accessto got I As Grinkevi women’s: languages, were other and books to the weretranslated school into were often known, quoted or referred madeseveral re-publishedto, theirtimes, way also published,itseems majority the that ‘model’of the which narratives, became well- many women’s stories. men Though anddeportees’ political memoirsprisoners’ were deportationsof from were grandnarrativeLithuania of the Soviet the establishment topicsthe prevailing in memoirs.the Among the memoirs which served for the countries. Baltic the from deportations Soviet the of narrative Lithuanian grand the of namely, which I analyze in this work) can be seen as representative of the same literary genre or, Almostall Lithuanian deportees’ memoirs haveonly(notreadwhich those I memories in was 1991-1992, there nosuch process of intensitysimilar later. itbutis definitely in period, than thepeak smaller becauseafter previous the of sharing and memoirs. deportees’ Thenumber ofmemoirs published in is1996-2012 unknown, newspapersincluded are not here; givennumbersthe include both political prisoners’ published until is1996 around 116. 1960s-1970sin the number Unitedtherefore the of memoirsthe which States, were alcoholism; to write about them useshe style the life, words and of sexual informal language, suchmurders, as Russian brutal as swear-words. such memoirs, deportees’ in discussed are rarely which issues about tells sarcastic, written in totally different style, tone and language than a ‘typical’ memoir of Lithuanian deportee: Skrickusin most of is Lithuanian deportees‘ memoirs, but more as a collage of separate anecdotic short stories; it is 2002 (partsalso of it I am using in this work). His memoir is not written as a story consisting of successive events, as 225 Journal of Baltic studies 224 bendruomen Residents of Lithuania, 1940-1941, 1945-1953] (Vilnius: Lietuvos istorijos institutas, Pasaulio lietuvi 223 Exceptional is Zenonas Skrickus memoir J Avižienis, Grunskis, Eugenijus, þLnjWơ 225 ơ In the subsequent chapter I will discuss one part of this grand narrative – narrative grand this of part one will discuss I chapter In subsequent the , 1996),357-359. nj , Bi , ra, “Mediated and Unmediated Access to the Past: Assessing the Memoir as Literary Genre” in Genre” Literary as Memoir the Assessing Past: the to Access Unmediated and “Mediated ra, þLnj nait , Vol. 36,No.1 (Spring 2005): 41. Lietuvos gyventoj ơ -Masiulien ơ ǐ , Garmut, tr Igarkoje kaštonai nežydi ơ mimai 1940-1941, 1945-1953 metais 223 However, publications in journals and journals in publications However, ơ 81 andothers. [The Chestnuts Do Not Bloom in Igarka], in Bloom Not Do Chestnuts [The [Deportations of the 224 ǐ CEU eTD Collection memoirs and four men’s – and, because of the topic of my research, that the authors of authors the that my research, of topic the of because and, – men’s four and memoirs women’s six analyzed I – analyze I would that those among memoirs men’s and Baltrušien some werelentme tomy during by research or their (Skrickus’s, relatives deportees Homeland) ),some Ifoundin the Central European library University and (Armonas’) Amžino memoirs I had as my personal copies (Bi copies personal my as had I memoirs European University, and itwas a limited numberofmemoirs which SomeI could get. in Central spent I which of most period, my research during touch within them have It was mostly for practical reasonsfrommemoirs, 16 to222pages long. why I analyzed these duringtendeported interchangeably. thedeportations various Idecided on focus ten memoirs - I had to Iam time deportation,memoirs therefore of the were authors’ peopleanalyzing of who to the related differences notice significant did any I not experiences, narrating exile a separate analysis. anotherone or deportation,gointobutI donot issues those inthis asthey work Onrequire the other hand, to insubject whowere deportees the among class differences were there that is alsotrue It regard to the prevailing ofvariousThe this lives. influenceddestinations deportationsvaried, also and deportees’ topics and ways whoofthose weredeported, let’sin say, 1948 or1951, and this hadvarious consequences. that survivorsthe of 1941 the indeportation most cases spentmore years in exile than to the lives Lithuanianinother deportees’ has one exile. However, to intotake account in many similar -were in memoirs cases as leastthe narrated they -at were experiences of those aspects gendered andthe experiences ‘Vesna’deportees’ the farms), collective of establishment the for preparation plus war partisan ongoing (the particular for the‘Vesna’ deportation were in a way historical political circumstances and the though that revealed research My III). appendix check please memoir every Ƴ šalo žem ơ ’s). Two ’s). importantthings, for me, werethat hadthere be both to women’s ơ je (In the land of permafrost) þLnj nait 82 and ơ -Masiulien Leiskit Ƴ ơ t ’s, Staugaitis’s, volumes Staugaitis’s, ’s, ơ vyn Ċ (Let Us (LetGo to the CEU eTD Collection conjunction. in them butdiscuss narratives, form andthe deportees’ of between contents the division this on mytext of structure the base not Ido therefore related, intrinsically as rather Though the Though texts. those produced they in which context the and beliefs assumptions, their about reality, constructing and Therefore themselves. Ilooknot only into documents –textsin areinwhich authors particular ways narrating andpresenting also aspersonal but events, particular about information contain which sources As I already noted in the introductory part, I analyze memoirs not only as historical lessless or articulated. vivid were gendered experiences andsomeand whose alike, such through gender-basedexperiences as pregnancy violence, in the conditions of exile some in memoirs gendered ofvarious of whom deportees, went aspects Lithuanian whether she or he wrote about it at all. Therefore in my work I present an analysis of the issue, another or about or one wrote every see whatauthor me, to I tried had with some outstanding cases werementioned but, due to limited amount memoirs of which I of Ididgenderedexile analyzenot aspects memoirsexperiences, in only those which lost.my Forexample, it gainedmore than practical whatconcerns work reasons, on based mostly was memoirs of choice my that fact the to due that believe I Latvia). from deportees of memoirs several include volumes aforementioned (the Lithuania from deported were who those be would memoirs about theirabout also in but experiences exile, 226 Caine, Barbara, Caine, what Biography and History and the and how aretwodifferentlevels, Idonot see them as separate but (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 75. how they wrote it and what this might tell us 83 what authors wrote 226 CEU eTD Collection writes: Masiulien deported, especiallydeported, during the firstmass indeportation 1941. J were all notmemoirsFrom it betold they the appears that were going to deportees announce thatthe family was halfgiven hour an so or getto ready leavingfor home. deportation or with momentthe of Sovietthe officers’ arrival – usually night– at to whatways to they chose talk about their experiences. gendered and in exileexperiences weregendered, ways in where Iwill deportees’ what discuss section following inthe detail more into will go I and in exile, years the about writing featuresescape) hereIwill basicmanaged of only the therefore number to delineate the places of exile (asexile. third The continuedlonger period than for others the those deportees who reached I noted earlier some journey – arrest, placeof the process parts deportation the to the exile andlifein of deportees died on thedozen of them, Idecidedway,concentrate to on three topics which are chronologically whilestrung a small important for most authorscrucially be to seemed themes certain indicates, subchapter this of of title the As the memoirs that I analyze. Though there are at least a 4.1.1. Arrest 4.1.1. 4. 1.Dominanttopicsinthememoirs Many memoirs of Lithuanian deportees start either with a short prehistory of the ơ , who was deported with her family in June 14, 1941, at the age of seventeen, 84 nj rat ơ Bi þLnj nait ơ - CEU eTD Collection their doors, aggressive Soviet officers entering, the subsequent search and order to pack to andorder search subsequent the entering, aggressive officers Soviet their doors, deportationsother usually with start a detailed description of knock an unsuspected on befamilies deported. wereTherefore memoirs to the 1947, 1948and1941, 1945, of the their that announced officers when shocked nevertheless were they reasons, other or movement resistance anti-Soviet in the involvement relatives’ their of because target the against theSovietregime, and although some people hadbeen told that they could be authorities’to apply Soviet threats toeveryone elsesuch measures be whowould acting Lithuania knew about the already deported tens of thousands commit because any wedidn’t becrime”. could arrested of people andpossible deportations,she but decided not to go into hiding: “[I]did notbelievewe that about the who hadbeen hiding since 1940, andhis friends warnedAntanina Baltrušien herhusband, example, For any committed hadnot crime. they feltthey them, because train stations wrote in their memoirs that they did not believe that this could concern Those whohad heard somecattle about rumors carspreparedfor deportation standing in secret operations andsecret operations few civilians knew top- as treated were deportations the chapter, previous in the mentioned As them. with deportations from Lithuania before, andmany notknow did what wasgoinghappen to inwhich happenedRussia Ukraine, butthere had Soviet the or notbeen mass any deportation of June 14,1941came as a shock: they only had heardaboutdeportations deportees was slightly different than of those who were deported later. For most the publication1993]),in 8. 228 1990), 12. 227 However, even though at the time of the later deportations most people in people most deportations later the of time the at though even However, In regard to the arrests and the beginning of deportation, the situation of 1941 of the situation the deportation, of beginning andthe arrests the to In regard Baltrušien Bi understand anything. I thought that the war started and we were being evacuated. being were we and started war the that I thought anything. understand Everyone was waving hands and crying. But I was in a cheerful mood, I, an oaf, didn’t þLnj nait ơ -Masiulien ơ , Antanina, ơ , J Kelion nj rat ơ , ơƳ Jaunyst niekur ir atgal ơ prie Laptev [A to Trip Nowhere and Back] (Kaunas, 2009 [first when ǐ 85 j nj and ros [Young Days by Laptevthe Sea] (Vilnius: Mintis, who 228 were going to be deported. be to going were 227 ơ about CEU eTD Collection the chaos the sheof arrest wasnot packingmost the practical fish-skineither: shoes things description of the things which they later traded for food in Siberia one can guess thatin evacuation): Masiulien the necessary things, to take enough food, to choose suitable clothes. J choose clothes. suitable enoughfood, to take necessary the to things, stressfulwere so thatoften process they managei.e.not adequately,pack actdid to to minutesindicate of and Thedeporteesalso thosefirsthours that deportation arrests. the part asignificant dedicated minutesof of tothose theirlate text night traumatizing the authors describe those moments as particularly stressful stressful momentsas and chaotic. describe particularly those authors pack in time. The to ordered a very short for suchinvasion, andthen any explanation aggressively, didnot allow sometimes belight to turned on, inmany givecases didnot peopleSovietfrom woke officers in and their sleep, some casesacted spoke numbers). different indicate many deportees therefore on than official orders, decision particular officers’ more on (as discussedin allowance the of previous the chapter, baggage probably depended a certain belongingsamount of 25 up andfood: 30 kilos,to kilos, upto upto100kilos 230 žem 229 J Though The very fact that deportations always started late at night is significant. The Bi Baltrušien from beautifulParis, mother’s painted parasol… pairs of shoes, two pairs of slingbacks, national costume […], adiary, red handbag […] ridiculous, or, as I imaginecoat!” - commanded Mom. […] Being dressed up likethisitin the midsummer Ilooked now - pathetic. […] Intoon them, put on a white smallice-skate shoes, drew on blue gaiters, put onsuitcase a hat. “Put on a fur I packed I twostarted dressing. I put on four calico dresses, [school] uniform, a white summer coat ơ je þLnj [In Landthe of Permafrost] (Vilnius: Vyturys, 1989), 47. nait ơ told how she told preparedfor deportation got (which she thoughtwas ơ -Masiulien ơ , Antanina, nj rat ơ ơ ’s mother seemed to be more aware of the situation, from the from situation, the of aware more be to seemed mother ’s , J Kelion nj rat ơ , ơƳ Jaunyst niekur ir atgal ơ prie Laptev , 8; Garmut , 8; ǐ 86 j 230 nj ros , 12. ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai“ [Echelons] in [Echelons] “Ešelonai“ , Antanina, nj rat 229 ơ often They Bi þLnj nait Amžino ơ - Ƴ šalo CEU eTD Collection her with many other deportees, which I will show in the subsequent sections. to close of lives those for the responsibility the of notion this shares She relatives. other facing pulldo deportation: and to oneself together to forone’s best thechildren and BarbaraArmonas’ understanding of a person’s, and particularly a mother’s, duty when irony bitter commit(trying suicide to as wasting presented time) one’s tells us about andthe been havepreparing”) “should hertime”, (“hadwasted tone Such anormative counterexample she told about her neighbor Petrauskien her packing sonshe “plucked spiritup alittle and started likemad”. goingwhen her on officers Soviet the woke upatnight, feeling care duty the of to take 1948, wrotein hermemoir initially though that shenot understand could what was Barbara Armonas, who was deported during the ‘Vesna’ mass deportation in May things whichJ luxurious some of those However, etc. blankets, warmboots, winter-coats, sweaters, ifor they had been given more time packing, for they probably would have taken to say it that could beused asa net,mosquito but theholes are too big”. andnightdress, apiece guipure of cream-colored which “about Russian the women used with very high heels, a black party dress, an embroidered night gown, a yellow silk Bi 233 232 231 þLnj Ibid, 43. Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, Ibid, 43. wasted her time when she should have been preparing to leave. had she because hands in her nogoods and crying children her transport], for wait Still wet shewas sent still wet to the barn with us [where people were locked in to scratches. minor only with out fished was she but well their into jumping by suicide commit to tried she came deportation the When son. old year five and daughter old …husband was in prison for political activities leaving her alone with an eight year nai family had known what was awaiting them in Siberia in the next fifteen years fifteen next in the inSiberia them awaiting was what known had family nai nj rat ơ andmother her later took served for as goods bartering. Leave Your Tears in Moscow , 40. 87 ơ , whose 233 232 231 If the If As a CEU eTD Collection they felt they belonged to was one of the reasons which later prevented them from them prevented later which reasons the of one was to belonged they felt they place the imageof idealized homelost and of feeling the is deportees’ the that important experiences in exile. experiences their native village which they inkept mindstheir during the subsequentyears of severe of view last the mention others many and Abromaitis Antanas Armonas, Barbara home. For many the travel to the train station was also a moment of a painful farewell to life: her farewell moments to of were the station, to atrain soon;be shot minutes the therefore in in truck, the which she was beingactually taken she to toldthat was was anyrelatives, inwithout ageof at the thirteen deportation 1948 about thefollowing destiny. AntaninaGarmut and fright uncertainty of moments werethe them those For station. train the to carriage ahorse-drawn triplorry by it the or a by about describing telling often deportees start beyond the polar circle where they were taken inmonths. three 1942 took beyond taken they circle polar the where were far placesof Lithuanian deportees journey1941 tothe first of thatthe indicates the andexile. in journey cases weretoldmoremost arrest pacethan rapid the to a from specialsettlementone toanother, the process of being from in released exile – memoirsthe thatIanalyzed. The subsequent parts of storythe – life in exile,moving Travellingexileis to in narrated a considerablymanner in mostcomprehensive of Polar ‘Americas’] in 236 235 [In the Land of Permafrost] (Vilnius: Vyturys, 1989),21-22. 4.1.2. Ajourney totheplace ofexile 234 The trip to exile usually lasted no less than several weeks; Dalia Grinkevi Dalia weeks; several than less no lasted usually exile to trip The Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, Garmut Grinkevi nearmy beloved Nemunas [river] anymore… Iwonder where will they bury me? My heart twinged: I won’t ever see either my Mom or my Dad. And I will never play ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai” [Echelons] in [Echelons] “Ešelonai” , Antanina, þLnjWơ , Dalia, “Lietuviai prie Laptev prie “Lietuviai , Dalia, Amžino Leave Your Tears in Moscow 236 most probably the but ways, inseveral be read This can Ƴ šalo žem ơ je , 104. ǐ j Amžino nj ros” [Lithuanians by the Laptev Sea] in Sea] Laptev by the [Lithuanians ros” , 42;Abromaitis, Antanas, “Užpoliar 88 ơ , whowas deported during ‘Vesna’ the Ƴ šalo žem ơ je , 49. ơ s ‘Amerikos‘ “ [The Amžino 235 234 þLnjWơ Ƴ The šalo žem ơ je CEU eTD Collection of their exile not because of restrictions but out of their own will. Unfortunately, there is decided or were compelled to leave to compelled again. were decided or Lithuaniavarious restrictions butdueto ex-deportees ex-political for the or prisoners stayed due bureaucratic obstacles,to insurmountable some came others backto places where they had been exiled or in other places in the Soviet Union. Soviet in the places in other or exiled been had they where places percent of those Lithuanians (which makes 31percentaround of allwho from deportees Lithuania, or39 stayed alive1960s. As Ialready mentioned 2,historians inchapter estimate thataround 40,000 until they were came back when some of them were given possibilitythe released in secondthe half 1950s- of from exile) deportees all Lithuanian not that herenoted be to has it justice sake of the For stayed in the difficulties. of hadbeen exiled, reinforced and their willingness return to to their regardless homeland they which to places the to adapt to inability in their role certain a played stations train the to way the on mind in their fixed they which towns or villages native deportees’ appeared. My reading their anddreaming about country, as setoff native to Lithuania assoon possibility the of the memoirs allowsstudy and hadpaid jobs, wereliving with theirfamilies -many me them of still were to assume that thebetter last image life of thanthe in toimprovestarted in mid-1950s the andsome of had deportees the acomparatively the first conditions the when yearseven But others. and humiliation illegitimacy, and ofinferiority exile – by of feelings clothing, and then food of shortage constant the conditions, theysevere – the exile had homes, were probablyallowed to even more important factors which prevented them from adjusting to the adapting inadapting andSiberia destinations other of exile. 239 Lithuanian Nation in1940-1958] (Vilnius:Mintis, 1996), 395. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 6. 238 [Let Us Go to Homeland]the (Kaunas: Šviesa, 1989), 298. 237 Ibid; Gleith, J.M., Jolluck, K. R., Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Merkien ơ , O., “Pasaulis ne be dor Lietuvi ǐ tautos sovietinis naikinimas 1940–1958 metais Gulag Voices: Oral Histories of Soviet Incarceration and Exile ǐ žmoni ǐ ” [There are some kind people in the World] in 239 However, some stayed in the destinations in the some stayed However, 89 237 Certainly, there were other and other were there Certainly, [The Soviet Destruction of the Leiskit 238 Some (New York: Ƴ T ơ vyn Ċ CEU eTD Collection the deportees were given some food (watery porridge, soup, liver sausage, etc.) which (watery liver were given etc.) deportees some sausage, soup, the food porridge, were trains it, without or robbed duringfood off trip. the their describes in a situation herdescribes wagon: train Garmut outside. on seewhatwasgoing try in fresh and to breathe air to some turns to had only andmanysmall windowson top, the describe howpeopleauthors weretaking cars The forweeks. in several they cars cattle travelled which theovercrowded describe whichvarious boats, isof part nearly memoirevery They Lithuanian of deportees. by later and train by travel is the narratives exile the part of important other The nor any of their memoirs are known to me. nostudy in done regard to whodecidedthose gonot backto toLithuaniafrom exile, waists trying to dry them more quickly. during rareand the short stops, and fathers how tied wetdiapers those around their mothers usedtohurry wash how in railway the to diapers the nextto puddles the tracks Armonas, who was travelling in the same wagon as some families with babies, recalled 243 242 241 240 dying. were people relatives; ill mentally and physically with infants, In such conditions somewomen were giving were birth, others travelling young with Some people had some food from home with them, but others were taken to the to taken were others but them, with home from food some had people Some Garmut Barbara, Armonas, Ibid, 57. Garmut their mortal agony. mortal their […] There wasceiling. the below just no bodies moaning and air sweaty among in squeeze to tomanaged I breathe. We were suffocating. The sick were wheezing in ơ ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai”, 58. “Ešelonai”, , Antanina, , Antanina, “Ešelonai”, 54. “Ešelonai”, , Antanina, Leave Your Tears in Moscow 240 242 , 51. 90 243 In some train stations train some In 241 Barbara ơ CEU eTD Collection other – helping the sick, during ornot,weretakingother each careof with that each trip people, the acquainted feeding the starving, raising and relatives, acquaintances, also made Many newfriends. of authors memoirsthe note the spirits of those who fell into de-humanization. and humiliation of feelings personal their on concentrated rather care of - needs tothem,their close formentioning sickeningexcept natural odors they by confesseddisgusted people of being taking authors None the humiliating. other the mention possible gendered aspectsof perceiving suchsetting asshameful and and stress were having diarrhea and werevomiting. heat illnesses, tobadfood, many due people, bythefact that moreeven complicated experience. inhuman and shameful humiliating, a as people other with humor orirony; write most authors about the urination inand defecation frontof natural needs in frontof the train, squattingin Only a row. a few of them this describe the stops of the train the escorting officers allowed the deportees to take care of their imagined as a decent place for one to take care of forplaceof onetotakecare herneeds.his imagined asadecent or ‘toilet’ with sheetsa bucket to make was it atused least or serve as wasmadeto a toilet, in theground ahole wagons Inmost problem. lavatory for a thatbit more reason, private. and Butthe thisdeportees was not whattried food. andscarcer eateven to worse of them were compelled they to cover the space of the most of them describe as inedible for them for them at that point. asinedible mostthem describe of 248 Ƴ 247 246 245 -nj radost’) - “Dog’s Delight”, which implies that it was not meant to be served forpeople. Bi served in dirty buckets; the liver sausage was even officially sold under the title “ title the under sold officially even was sausage liver the buckets; dirty in served of what kind of food itwas: porridge was top-dressed with rancid oil, soup was made from vegetables,rotten 244 šalo žem their of some met people destination, of places the to journey the During the is memoirs deportees’ the in often fairly appears which detail other The rat Ibid, 123. Motie Ibid, 105-106. Abromaitis, Antanas, “Užpoliar Though ‘soup’,‘porridge’, ‘sausage’ might sound as decent food,some deportees give detailed descriptions ơ , Jaunyst þ ơ ien je , 124-125. ơ , Paulina, “Kaubur Paulina, , ơ prieLaptev ǐ j nj ros ơ liai ant Pe ant liai ơ , 16. s ‘Amerikos’ “, 105. þ ioros kranto” [The Hillocks on the Shores of Pechiora] in of Pechiora] Shores the on Hillocks [The kranto” ioros 91 247 However, almostnone of them 244 However, later in later many exile However, 245 246 ɋɨɛɚɱɹɪɚɞɨɫɬɴ Sometimes during Sometimes The situation was þLnj nait 248 ơ ” (Sobachiya ” -Masiulien Amžino ơ , CEU eTD Collection herself bybangingherself her head wall. the repeatedly to and beingostracized by only the family she knew in her wagon,she decided tokill told how,seeing suffering the and death the of some of her in fellow deportees the train, she ageof alone,thirteen. She atthe wasdeported before, Asmentioned paradoxically. came from a passing train broughtback life for Antanina Garmut One which news. rumor trains andother directions of deportees’ the the relatives, about allowedsometimes aboutdifferent of toexchangeinformation trains passengers their deaths of uncured passengersthe illnesses, dueto lack fresh of but airand water, of the trains’ speedandfrequentstopping not resulted only in sufferingand prolonged of the trains, which many authors note in their memoirs. However, constant deceleration destinations following each Thisother. led totraffic jams and aslow paceof movement situations: despair. Antaninadespair. Baltrušien 249 During the mass deportations many trains were moving towards the same Baltrušien not to drink. […] Indifferent to everything I was sitting by the wall and waiting for waiting and wall the by sitting Iwas everything to Indifferent […] drink. to not lean on it. So I resolved not to eat (anyways there was nothing to eat!) until I die and to nor head your hit neither could you which to ordure, animal of layer thick a with Oh dear!- after several hits I understood that the walls are soft. They were covered bite of bread. A little food and human compassion fortified me. fortified compassion human and food A little ofbread. bite hands […]. I recovered. Good people gave me a tea-spoon of condensed milk, water, a still not separated from the families hurried to help, someone started rubbing my legs, One woman heard, she called her neighbor and tried to wake me, some men whoI felt dizzy,were I got up and tried to reach some fresh air. On my way I fell down in a faint. ơ , Antanina, Kelion ơƳ ơ niekur ir atgal , who was deported alone,, whowasdeported told about one of such , 9-10. 92 249 ơ , even if pretty CEU eTD Collection consciousness, sheheardthat“all Lithuania” wasbeing deported. and she regained stops fresh her of in tothe the air one took fellowAfter her deportees water. Those who were deported to the Southern regions of the Soviet Union – Union of Soviet Southern regions the were deported whoto the Those water. people got lost in the survive in lowextremely temperatures -up to -50ºC,endure distanceto deadly snowstorms when of a few meters deported to various regions in Siberia majority (the fromdeportees of Lithuania) had to and froze to death,were who forthem: those unusual and were harsh conditions climatic the In addition, to work in the icy medical everyone wasnoadequate there care. Not and speakRussian; couldunderstand from suffered food a constantshortage of and heavy loads of physical assigned work. they locals, and officers various by assault physical and verbal humiliation, experienced inmany They deportees the inways. for The beginningstressful life exile was of exile. Siberian the of experiences tough the shared she whom with acquaintances and relatives many soon amongshe met actually not deportees, the andAntanina’swere parents deported, that live.inspiration itto was nottrue Though strongest herin exile was join hermight her relatives that idea Antanina the For 251 250 4.1.3. The years of life in exile Garmut Garmut consciousness and dreams intermingled. Nothing ached. Legs and hands bloated. hands and Legs ached. Nothing intermingled. dreams and consciousness death. I don’t know how long it lasted, maybe a week, because days and nights, shot is not horrible with the close people! then trains will be full of relatives! […] This means, that it is worth living! Even being … if Lithuania”,“all then maybe my parents IfLithuania also? [isbeing]deported, ơ ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai”, 57. “Ešelonai”, , Antanina, , Antanina, “Ešelonai”, 56. “Ešelonai”, , Antanina, 251 93 all Lithuanian citizens werebeing 250 CEU eTD Collection presented her attitude as one of thanindignation: rather asone of herpresented astonishment attitude she of localsSiberia, but of far-Eastern-North the in samethe the characteristic she andwas deported, living inhalf-starvation instead. engaged into farming, given fertilitythe soil of the in the Krasnoyarsk region which to Russians, for what she called “intrinsic Russian laziness” – their unwillingness to get Soviet citizens) lived. localsFinnish, (Russian, also deportees,but other German, Ukrainian and ordinary which in poverty the was noticed authors many which things first the of One ordeals. andother to theattacks of wild animals extremely– weresubjected temperatures, Kazakhstan hot Tadzhikistan,to Uzbekistan, Armonas’ and Bi and Armonas’ citizens. compassion and pity – not only for deportees but other also for thefree Soviet disdain, Though one mightthe define deportees’ feelings toward needy locals as arrogance or authors of the memoirs analyzed here present their attitude more as 254 253 252 Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, Ibid, 17; Baltrušien Bi bringing some sprouts of currents and planting them next to their houses. We were of instead berries, gather to boat by going were locals the that amazed were We The shores of the Obe riverwere overgrown with the bushes of currant and buckthorn. dresses and wearing slingbacks they thought that we arrived with a circus. a with arrived we that thought they slingbacks wearing and dresses and white cambric muslin blouses. […] Therefore when kids saw us wearing colorful vyžos] Lithuanian: [in sandals peasant skirts, grey wearing were here women … all still calm, but free local citizens are already begging… We were terrified – it was only few days after the war started [June 1941], here it is þLnj 253 nait However, at least one critical remark about them was made in several texts - texts made inseveral them was about remark least critical one at However, ơ -Masiulien þLnj ơ Leave Your Tears in Moscow , Antanina, ơ nait , J nj rat ơ -Masiulien ơ , Jaunyst Kelion ơƳ ơ prie Laptev ơ niekur ir atgal ’s. Armonas harshly critiqued locals, mainly locals, critiqued harshly Armonas ’s. , 57,67-68. 94 ǐ j nj ros , 14. , 17, 21. 254 Bi þLnj nait ơ -Masiulien 252 ơ noted CEU eTD Collection some others,especially whowere those appointed to work in fishthe industry, managed per day per day in soon. 1945, and per day plus and 400gr of 600gr of butter sugar permonth in 250-300gr ofbread1942; for in achild, or otherthe settlement600gr of foran bread adultandfor a child 400gr normsinconceivably werealmost low: 300grofflour perday for aworker and 200gr quantities of food, but quantities of this accordingtothememoirs, process, wasvery slow. settlement and on period;the gradually deportees the were given/allowed tobuybigger might havemalnutrition, exhaustion,freezing, uncured illnesses andinjuries. The food rations slightly to due fall illanddie to loseenergy, theirpeople all for to long not take It did differed,boards orbricks. sometimes and timber sand, moss, turfs, depending frozen of pieces from buildings primitive built they materials, construction enough them gave seldom authorities responsible on the As another. from the to place them one weretransferring authorities the because authorities once than more cases many in themselves, by dwellings build to had often they that of in deported prisoners. by deportees Lithuanian earlieror the deportees 1941 reported the built barracks or certainbuildings public some arrived: they when places dwelling temporary speciallocals’ way living.of of Thedeportees latethe 1940s - 1950s foundoften some commentthe on to than rather aboutthemselves care to werecompelled deportees theyears,difficultfirst most the during least at time, the of mostHowever, Motie 258 this term in their memoirs, thereforeused I often also use deportees it The in given. my were text interchangeablythe deportees which food of with termquantity daily ‘rations’. the define to used themselves 257 256 255 Staugaitis, Romualdas, ‘Norm’ (Rus. Grinkevi Bi everyone next to hishouse, when they had so many stones around. least at streets, the pave not did and mud through wading were they that surprised also þLnj þ ien nait ơ , Paulina, “Kaubur Paulina, , þLnjWơ ơ -Masiulien , Dalia, “Lietuviai prie Laptev prie “Lietuviai , Dalia, ɧɨɪɦɚ 256 , norma, Lith. norma) is one of the terms which the Soviet authorities and the deportees ơ , J Lietuviai šiaur Lietuviai nj rat ơ liai ant Pe ant liai 258 ơ , Jaunyst Those who had some thingsbarter to traded them for food, þ ơ ioros kranto”, 128. kranto”, ioros ơ prie Laptev je [Lithuanians in the North] (Vilnius: Raštija, 1991), 11, 16; ǐ j nj ros“, 23. ros“, ǐ 95 j nj ros , 30. 255 257 The CEU eTD Collection have at least small gardens, where they started growing vegetables. The harvests of Theharvests vegetables. growing started wherethey small leasthave gardens, at allow them to to authorities the asked they possible farming was were territories the improvelives. their managedto In whosurvived gradually those hardest.However, the stayedcorpses on mindtheirforever. Several deportees from barracks. Gradually bodies those were partly fully by or devoured animals. wild noteable dig to graves,often deadwerethe notburied piled but afewmeters away hundred in their memoirs(1948-1949). that deportees out of 5,000 who had been deported diedto Irkutsk during first the winter the image getup fromable to bunksSkrickus gotowork; accordingtheir and more to than 1,000 of those pilesbarrack whereshelived only a couple of out women of thirty inhabitants were around of rundown deportee at Trofimovskthe island died during 1942-1943 the winter, whilein the mean that those are accurate numbers): according to Grinkevi to numbers): according areaccurate those mean that mortalityof memoirsthe authors which doesnot the they present (which rates knew Some bunks. the from up get not could they when came day the them of many for and were bloatingstarvation dueto and gangreningdue frostbites,to theyhad highfever extremities their deceases, other and scurvy ague, with sick falling Peoplewere time to pick them due to the long hours of compulsory work. had children, for except one, no cases in most but mushrooms, and nuts berries, herbs, simply stayto alive. During the short Siberian summers people were eating various wild to steal some food, but, as one might imagine, this was not enough to gain energy or 112-113. 261 Chestnuts[The Do Not BloomIgarka“] in (Kaunas, 2002), 41. 260 259 in In theirmemoirs many deportees emphasize that the firstfew years of exile were Grinkevi Grinkevi Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, Amžino Ƴ šalo žem þLnjWơ þLnjWơ 260 , Dalia, “Lietuviai prie Laptev prie “Lietuviai , Dalia, , Dalia, “Lietuviai prie Laptev prie “Lietuviai , Dalia, Due to the permafrost in many places of exile and the lack of people ơ je Leave Your Tears in Moscow , 251. 261 ǐ ǐ j j nj nj ros”, 29; Abromaitis, Antanas, “Užpoliar Antanas, Abromaitis, 29; ros”, ros”, 23, 31; Skrickus, Zenonas, Skrickus, 31; 23, ros”, , 57; Mednis, Ojaras, “Trys s 96 259 þLnjWơ ą siuviniai” [Three Notebooks] Igarkoje kaštonai nežydi , every second , every ơ s ‘Amerikos’ ”, s ‘Amerikos’ CEU eTD Collection those gardens improved their lives significantly. lives their improved gardens those salaries for their compulsory work. because elsewhere, inLithuania growing from of or parcels and theirthe relatives in mainly became possible wereallowed because the mid-1940s deportees getthe to lifetheir in exile managed tobuy a cow, some hens or animals.other Such purchases will discuss in the next section. memoirsof in themes which bedeportees’ can seenfrom a gender perspective,I which in tothem. work had places assigned malefemale, to the and deportees, subdivisions offorestry, fishery,mining and other industries, and all able-bodied adult enterprises- regional parts of various settlements Soviet wereestablished as deportees’ the of Most settlement. same in the workplace their change easily not could they from restricted leaving thewhich special settlement butalsothey were appointed to, only not were deportees the authorities local of Soviet the permission the without Workwascompulsory, and work. part of lives was important their other the However, money. additional getfound acquainted ways with freeto wealthier for them citizens, work and earn some Those who were good at some had where their or jobsdeportees they relatives better-paid wereavailable. thatknew handicraft, especiallypaid women work who could places sew and Sovietlearnedofficersbe that wantedbetter- one couldtobe bribed when to appointed orknit, to get permission to move to some other settlements where the 266 265 264 263 262 exile. in concern biggest the was food get to how that indicate Many authors Skrickus, Zenonas, Skrickus, Bi Ibid, 59; Bi Ibid, 66-67. Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, þLnj nait ơ -Masiulien þLnj nait 265 ơ -Masiulien Igarkoje kaštonai nežydi Leave Your Tears in Moscow ơ , J nj rat ơ , ơ Jaunyst , J nj rat ơ ơ , 263 prie Laptev Jaunyst deportees the acquiringexperience, some Also, , 43. ơ prie Laptev , 67-68. ǐ 97 j 262 nj ros years in later the of Some deportees , 66. ǐ j nj ros , 157. 266 Work is one is Work 264 CEU eTD Collection relationships,including sexual, with officers and free citizensin order to acquire chores, longtravelling distances togather wood, mushrooms, berries; gettinginto by medicine firewood and stealing,doing tasksadditionalbartering, theirto compulsory before work andafter taking care of sick, the children; old, the get striving to food, needy some other whichmeantpeople, heavy loads andwork responsibilities: other sometimes and members family their all of care take to compelled were women many already Therefore unable their orwere todophysical arrival. reasons, upon other work work due unable malnutrition, to to illnesses, severe climatic conditions, stress and became soon very in-laws) (parents, people caseselderly in many show, memoirs as the all work, deportees’ regarding jobs.peopleadult However, compulsory wereassigned of onlybread-winners16-17, werethe inthefamily exile.Duetothe policies husbands and brothers,many women, at least until their children,if any, reached the age fathers, their of absence the Given marked. more even became disproportion this exile weremorethere adultLithuanian women men than and deported, during the years in them in their narrated memoirs, people ways the into and exile in lives theredeportees’ into look we When are several issues to life in conditions complicated responses the to exile. be considered. As explainedvulnerability, ofsurvival strategies gender-specific invoked, women that and gendered above, the deportees’ own assumptions about men’s and women’s work, women’s sexualdeported, were men than women more that fact the of consequences the them: of some ways in which the deportations were gender-specific. In this sub-chapter Iwill explore from separation familiestheir in deportation during the June 1941,butthere weresome Lithuania mighthave seemedtobe gender-neutral,for except most adultmen’s from deportation of policiesSoviet the 3, chapter in showed already I As 4.2.Narrating thegenderedexperiencesofexile4.2.Narrating 98 CEU eTD Collection mentioning deportees’ deportees’ gender:mentioning even without circle polar the above river Lena in the fishing were herself, including Bojarskas did. Grinkevi memoirsthe defined women’s situation as more demanding men’s, than as,for example, all of not Therefore authors etc. exhaustion, a severe climate, malnutrition, conditions: jobs,lackparticular of adequate tools andclothing, andother already discussed forwere noteasy men either for womenor of because lack their neededfor of skills jobs in sectors The those industries. other and mining fishery, forestry, to assigned were men and women both deported, were they which to location the on Depending women’s work: Bojarskasexile, deportee rhetoric invokedthe of ‘natural’division men’s the of and most Lithuanian womenwomen’s in work industriesthe which physical required great strength and skills which did not have.compulsory with indignation their indicated memoirs their in deportees few A experiences. such about tell deportees the in which memoirs the from protection andmaterial In support. subsequentthe I paragraphs will examples present 268 1989), 222. 267 Mnj ros” [Sundays’ Reports from the Laptev Sea] in Sea] Laptev the from Reports [Sundays’ ros” Bojarskas, L., “Sekmadienio reportažai…”, 222. Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, clothes, shoes, climatic conditions… [suspension inpoints the original text]. surprise us, because isit natural.Butwhen women do it, and when you see their not does work] such doing [men this But jobs. those do also Men […]. flour and sugar of sacks planks, grit, clay, bricks, medžius], neša Lithuanian: in ‘trees’, word the uses digging pits, haulingfishingnets […],carrying trees[he probably means logs, but manure, carrying women scythes, with women ispainful: work women’s of view The Leave Your Tears in Moscow þLnjWơ wrote wrote about conditionsthe in which deportees,the 267 in To describe towomen’swork hisattitude Leiskit , 52; Bojarskas,, L., “Sekmadienio reportažai Laptevnuo 99 Ƴ T ơ vyn Ċ [Let Us Go to the Homeland] (Kaunas: Šviesa, 268 ǐ CEU eTD Collection adequate skills, about which some other authors wrote. which authors some other skills,adequate about dealt with their periods, or if they had them at all, and did not mention their fears their mention not did and all, at them had they if or periods, their with dealt they how describe not did authors women The upon. touched not almost were topics which Ianalyzed) (atleast these those case deportees the memoirs of of Lithuanian the periods, become possibility the pregnancyto pregnant, birth.and giving monthly ways: in certain lives women’s shape which and women, for only intrinsic camps and of the victims of war rapes, authors often mention cellarbodily of their house in Lithuania, after they had fled Siberia. issues which are Grinkevi When hard the describing labor to which wereassigned,she and deportees other felt unableher totake deadmother tothegrave pitwhich she (Grinkevi sense of powerlessness, which wasmore psychological/ emotional physical –she than 1998), 63-79. Women and War reader in ofWar” in Times Women against Crimes Reconceptualizing Gender: “Surfacing Rhonda, Copelon, Horowitz, Sara R., “Gender, Genocide, and Jewish Memory” in 272 271 270 269 In several existing studies of gendered experiences of the survivors of the Nazi the of survivors the of experiences gendered of studies existing several In Reading, Anna, Ibid, 40. Puodžiuvien Grinkevi recover, the pain was terrible. was pain the recover, was horrible. […] When hands, after arduously beating them together, were hadstarting to] to pull the fishing nets with their bare hands- there and to takewas away neither the fish. timeThe cold nor point throwingin off their clothes.drying Slept abit. Then they were putting on the same wet clothes them - and were fishing again.[…]day]. Drenched to exhaustedthe bone, and freezing, theywere running to the tents, [They strength pulled [the fishing nets] to the shore. [They] used to work 10-12hours [per [The deportees] stood in the icy water knee-deep or waist-deep, and with all their þLnjWơ þLnjWơ did ruminate not over women’s lack of physical strength or some ơ , K., “Vargai vargeliai” [Hardships and Miseries] in Miseries] and [Hardships vargeliai” “Vargai , K., , Dalia, “Lietuviai prie Laptev prie “Lietuviai , Dalia, The Social Inheritance of Holocaust: Gender, Culture and Memory ( , eds. Lois Ann Lorentzen, Jennifer Turpin (New York: New York Univeristy Press, 269 ǐ j nj ros”, 34-35. ros”, 100 Prooftexts 270 She only once mentioned her mentioned once She only Leiskit 271 , issue 20,vol. 1(2000): 177-178; Ƴ t ơ vyn Ċ , 247. þLnjWơ 272 Palgrave, 2002), 43-46; However,in ) dugin the The CEU eTD Collection deportees’ deportees’ attitude familialtowards with relationship non-Lithuanians was highly family’s her to pressure,surrendered (she marry to ready was she whom Slavka, guy Russian-Polish and stopped seeing him), shows that in some cases the Lithuanian Masiulien were documented in thecouples ofmixed ethnicoriginsalwaysnot probablyweresuch No welcomed. cases memoirs I analyzed,policies. but examples However, such asfor to see deportees small the numbers newly born of children as part of criminal the Soviet J the same ideologicalthe reasons deportations the childrenon the otherwho werehand, borntheas ideological withtheparent(s) in contextthe Soviets’given conditions, andof the chancesthe for situationa new-born to survive were small; - were probably on ambiguous: onethe hand,Lithuanians’ havinga childburden wasa effortsgreat for perception to of destroy the Lithuanianharshness was too great; our small community was dying off”. nationLithuanians only childrentwo were born in years:three “the material mental and - tempted550 around of consisting community in the that memoirs in her indicated Armonas have might been This rarity due tothe example, -for of Barbara such occasions mentioned new-born children someoneor being pregnant during theyears in exile. Some authors mentioned women givingmentionedoften was they when than peopledescribing other were herself. an author birth in a train on the wayPregnancy and birth were onlyvaguely notedin the Lithuanian memoirs,to and more exile, but rarely aroused by amenorrhea, if this was the case, as in the Jewish women’s stories. 275 273 274 exile in birthrates low the about feelings people’s that suggests comment Her Armonas, Barbara, Armonas, Reading, Anna, Baltrušien ơ ’s, whose mother and other relatives categorically forbade her datea forbade to categorically relatives andother mother ’s, whose ơ , Antanina, The Social Inheritance of Holocaust Leave Your Tears in Moscow Kelion ơƳ niekur ir atgal , 12. , 70. 101 , 46. 275 nj rat ơ Bi þLnj nait 274 273 ơ - CEU eTD Collection general events in the story: events the described towhich we would assignthe aforementioned terms by the giving not usesuch terms as ‘sexual assault’, ‘sexual vulnerability’ or‘rape’. Rather, they pregnancy, birth, ormonthly in Certainly,periods. memoirstheir Lithuanian women did of in topics memoirs than the documented the in arebetter exile were subjected partners. non-Lithuanian with families Lithuanians, as one of the reasons for some of them to stay were their newly established with more non- relationship towardsclose positive attitudes of examples other, they from were released exile in Their mightoffer the mid-1950s-1960s. testimonies stayed who in deportees or of places locationsexile in the other Union Sovietafter the the author people author tohimor the close her. or involve not did event the when especially here, quoted example in the as manner same negative. favors which they could do for deportees. also which forThe cited part deportees. suchasituation: concerns favors they do could those of Soviet officers’ demandfor women to ‘pay’ in sexual forintercourse various - Undress, it is warm here in my flat, we will play! - He grabbed me and tried to kiss. Availabe online at 279 origins. 277 or racial ethnic other of people tothe attitudes negative preconceived any express not did close - I will scream! – I was squirming and pushing him away from me. 278 276 Women’s sexual vulnerability and attempted or actual sexual assaultwhich to they Most cases of attempted or actual sexual assault were mentioned briefly, in the briefly, mentioned were assault sexual actual or attempted of cases Most Garmut Documentary movie Bi Bi […] I pulled him away and leaped to the door. relationships with non-Lithuanians which some Lithuanian deportees despised. In general, most authors þLnj þLnj He came closer to me and started unbuttoning my fur coat. my fur unbuttoning started me and to closer came He nait nait 276 ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai“, 58. “Ešelonai“, , Antanina, ơ ơ But Ishould herewe do also note that have not anymemoirsLithuanian of -Masiulien -Masiulien http://fondas.lrt.lt/Media/ItemReview.aspx?ItemId=4570 Lietuvi ơ ơ , J , J nj nj rat rat ǐ ơ ơ tremtiniai Sajanuose , , Jaunyst Jaunyst ơ ơ prie Laptev prie Laptev 277 279 Among the most frequently told stories are stories told frequently most the Among [Lithuaniandeportees in theSayan Mountains], 1998. 102 278 ǐ ǐ j j nj nj ros ros , 78. , 126.Ishould emphasize thatI talk abouthere , accessed 2012. May 15, CEU eTD Collection subsequent story, though subsequent story,itis though highly fragmentized, itbecomes clear that some time after mentioned, talked also her about determination to die thanbe rather raped.Butfrom the Then,she toapproach”. shejumped tothewater. said, “he started was not actually attempted very shipmaster’s attack the described raped: she concisely: her. Only his inebriation saved Paulina – the shipmaster fell asleep, and she fled. be raped.Soonto got shipmasterthe drunkagain,andhis told herabout rape plans to ready to jump again tothe water itandwas todie thought than rather - to be “polluted” shein was ofasecond attack in hermemoir, case and, assheclaims of shipmaster, the was afraid Shedid, boat. backgo tothe but her andpersuaded to to, she was travelling where place to the Paulina safely him take commanded to shipmaster, the he with talked be could nearby.appeared to Paulina shore,so fisherman the nottake the However, to her. She then jumped out of the boat, and was pulled from the water by a fisherman who not agree to stop and to allow Paulina to leave the boat; he got drunk and tried to attack be friendly,appeared to he trip the during verbally wasconstantly harassing her.Hedid shipmaster the beginning in the though and boat, the on them of two only were There glance. first at seem they than important more be might which clues some left story her but When the officer tried to undress her, she managed to escape. sheundress her,managed to to tried When officer the them. Shecame,soon what but understood reward the from officer wasexpecting her. pair buckskin of shoes,and she come was told to intheeveninghis to getto apartment a Soviet officer promised the narrator of the story, Bi 283 282 281 280 From the way Paulina narrated this story one might get the impression that she Paulina Motie Ibid,134-136. Motie Motie Bi þLnj 281 nait þ þ ien ien While travellingbyboattovisit she herwas attacked by brother a shipmaster. ơ ơ ơ -Masiulien , Paulina, “Kaubur Paulina, , , Paulina, “Kaubur Paulina, , þ ơ ien , J nj ơ rat also wrote howwrote fromimpeding she also sexual an escaped assault, ơ , ơ ơ Jaunyst liai ant Pe ant liai liai ant Pe ant liai ơ prie Laptev þ þ ioros kranto”, 135-136. kranto”, ioros ioros kranto“, 134-136. kranto“, ioros 103 ǐ j nj ros , 78. þLnj nait ơ 280 -Masiulien ơ 283 , to give her a She, as I 282 CEU eTD Collection suffering in particular. The image of the Madonna is not surprising given the strong the given surprising is not Madonna the of image The in particular. suffering children with mothers with snowfields, in Siberian miseries unmerited suffering grand narrative of deportations, Sovietthe in which Lithuanians as arepictured term. loaded ideologically heavy a is feel, might Motie makes this case even more complex,is that a subtitle under photography the of What if outof born was wedlock. Lithuanian, or child if he the not father was child’s sentiments in Lithuanian communities,shedeportees’ was willingnot to identify her ideological due aforementioned thattothe seems It highly possible reasons. other for birth daughter’s her with related issues avoided she be that might also it But this. at months, during which inshe was need offinancial support, she mighthave been hinting nine subsequent the Indicating raped. shewas that possible itseems in boat), the assault why mention her pregnancy, nursing delivery the or her and daughter, we can only speculate more, saying that she was born “in the North”. once only daughter firstborn her mentioned she narrative her of end the Until nowhere. mention of her small daughter’s illness in the subsequent pages came, seemingly, out birth of to herchild, did nor mention she being in close withrelationship man.A brief any events thanher studies and graduation.Shealsodiscuss didnot when how or she gave about the attempted sexual Motie sexual assault, attempted the about part the following text in the However, knew. barely she whom by a girl supported sheboat, among wrote, things, other the next that ninemonths shewasfinancially the on events the followed which period the About girl. a to birth gave she event this Permafrost] (photography is not given any page number). Caption “Siberian Madona” was probably ascribed to ascribed Žemaityt Aldona probably book, of the was editor by Madona” the photo the “Siberian Caption number). page any given not is (photography Permafrost] 285 284 MotieThough Photography is published in the same book as Motie Ibid, 138. . Though my version contradicts her own story (that she evaded actual sexual þ ien ơ andherseveral oldmonths is daughter “Siberian Madonna”, which, asone þ ien ơ detailed other events which happened at the time, she did not shedid time,the happenedat events which other detailed þ ien ơ - Petrauskien - 284 104 þ ơ ien did not mention any other important other mention not any did 285 ơ ’s memoir, It echoes the Lithuanian nationalist Lithuanian the echoes It ơ . Amžino Ƴ šalo žemeje [In the Land of Land the [In CEU eTD Collection beggingfor bread;mother care took of an orphan girl, etc. and in worked her garden the children; motherwith waspicking and blueberries had at the time; mother was buying seeds when the family was allowed tohave a garden, from farm the and sheworked, where was thosepeas potatoes with the family only food hethough was often beatenseverely by for guards this; wasstealing mother potatoes peas collect to there repeatedly andwent Antanas harvested, greenpeaswerenot some afield for survival: where motherwas essential spotted asdoingdescribed what all However,intime). memoir Antanas’ his father hardly andappears. Mother children are Antanas years wasten atthat old family stayed narrator with the (the error, bureaucratic mass deportation, indeported and1941, asa rulemen adultfrom were separated their relativesduring this support theirfellow Forexample, deportees. though Antanas Abromaitis’ family was his developingvarious strategies of enduremanagingsurvival, to greatsufferings andto father active,was strong,among ingenious membersthose of the deportees’few communities.who, Theyprobably are shown as due to some fatheris mentioned only a few times – aslooking to mapthe trying tofigure where out from the Holy Spirit. Unfortunately, Motie any without man involvedin story,the asif her daughterhad likeoriginated, Jesus, birth child’s her is mother’s Christ’s of one the to closer story her brings what that “Siberian Madonna” to Motie“Siberian Madonna” to title the applied who those that sure am I Though Madonna’s. the with connection resistance in general. There is one more way to approach is Motie waytoapproach more one There in resistance general. Catholic feelings among many anddeportees in anti-the Soviet armed andnon-armed 286 In the narratives of Lithuanians’ exile in many cases women are presented as presented are women cases many in exile Lithuanians’ of narratives the In Amromaitis, Antanas, “Užpoliar þ ơ ien s ‘Amerikos’ ”, 106-107, 110. ơ ’s photo didit,not think’s onecould about photo also say þ ien 105 ơ ’s true story was probably more dismal. 286 Throughout the text the text the Throughout þ ien ơ ’s story’s CEU eTD Collection a) characteristic, but as something that historically many women turned out to be capable outto manywomen turned as somethingbut thathistorically characteristic, various explanations for this, such as: shoulders (or were compelled to take) a heavier burden than men. than burden aheavier werecompelledtake) to (or shoulders their on took often exile in women that memoirs their in note deportees The wives: events men with noted related two camps.labor from their parcels Barkauskas getting in or in prisons were who husbands their to parcels send to managed sometimes women Some mentioneven deportees that while other livingin poverty half-starving,and short period butin a comparatively well-paidjob. for a andonly asworking: once officers, the Soviet for as drawingcards they were, 289 288 287 Ibid, 112. Ibid, 112. Ibid, 105-106, 108, 116. some hay”. All the camphad agood laugh. was sending you human food, now thatyou have become an animal I am sending you covered with some hay. And there was a note: “As hislong as you werewife], a human being[from parcels I good getting was one other The butcrazy. went almost man This death. to he found himselfto a post office to send him a parcel. After the snowstorm ended, she was found a frozen lover. one One[of us] was informed daythat his wife got into hea snowstorm whenreceived she was on fromher waytheir wives, though for the latter a it was boxnot always easy to sendwith one.When For example, we werea brick, [in the labor camp] in Krasnoyarsk, some of us started to get parcels carrying the heaviest load. her young age was she used to hard farm work, and,having a robust health, shewas grateful to our dear Mommy. She was For the fact thatfrom we survived during that terrible winter[1941-1942] we all have to be a big family of poor peasants […]. From women’s deal ability to situationswith stressful andas difficult inherent –not 288 106 287 Antanas says: Antanas 289 One might think of think might One CEU eTD Collection c) b) political life. In the early 1950s the situation was leastat slightly different than ten years Life in exile was not impervious couldand deeds. by belatter’s efforts overshadowed the to the changes men; children than in adultmemories of therefore former’sthe the activities deportees in the shouldone forget not among that were Lithuaniandeportees morethere the women and Soviet men. economic than active more as memoirs many in presented are in them involved and women in appeared tobecrucialtherefore deportees’ tasks survival for exile the that Yet,it orknitting,mushroomsneedlework was exactly andherbs; doing etc.). latter the (taking careof gathering elderly,the berries, people; abandoned sick, children, earningdirectly to money andwerenot aswomen’swork inrelated regarded tasks could not sufficiently fulfill these roles in exile. However, they also did not fully engage women generally men regarded as having the responsibility be the to breadwinners,men clothing,develop toacquire strategies food, operative place for dwelling; therefore the survival of the whole family depended entirely on them, and women had to many cases women arrived inparticipation war, their death, beingimprisoned having or at died; the placesguerillawithout from support war, brothers,their due or husbands to thelatter’s of the and War exileWorld Second the of conditions complicated in the relatives and family without 1950s, was any strengthenedprobably by their experience in taking careof themselves, their men ableof - which,to work, in the case of the deportations in the second half of the 1940s and in the and theHolocaust in Camps” Concentration the in Hunger to Responses Gendered 290 Forsimilar observations about the situation in Nazi concentrationpamps, see Goldberg, Myrna, “Food Talk: prevailing gender assumptions among deportees: Lithuanian men though and peoplefor the feeling responsibility close tothem:in asalready described, , eds. E. R. Baer and M. Goldberg (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2003), 161-175. 107 Experience and Expression: Women, the Nazis 290 However, CEU eTD Collection other things, insecurity during the whole trip –afeeling which withoutwas not grounds: among she saw how a girl who just stepped out of the train station was Garmut Lithuaniawere released both from to respectively. They and travelled exile alone, duringwere deported the‘Vesna’ deportation inMay ages 1948, atthe 13 andof 11, difference between women’s and men’s sexual vulnerability disappear. not did women deportees’ lives became at least slightly easier than in the firstyears in exile, the some that meant situation economic the of improvement the though even But special leavesettlements. the allowed to property (farm animals,during the first years in inexile, latethe the 1950s or 1960s already had acquired some tools or even a house) inlived whopoverty and total near-starvation deportees some conditions. Therefore which they could officers; they of establishednets useful relations andgotatleast partly adjusted tothe sell when they were barter thingsthe sentto them for orhow food, to use thoseitems andmoney for bribing earlier, people were allowedin the tomost get parcels,significantimproved situation their perception deportees’ in the that and shows memoirs the of waysalreadyanalysis due toknew their how andown withand their whomonly tickets to purchase food but also money some and goods. other torelatives’ efforts: getting but not andpeople wages started increasing, still compulsory the were gradually as described inbetter, some places more adequatedwelling placeswereconstructed. products (which during the years of impossible),war was medicalalmost care was andbuy allowedearlier offood biggerwere given –people to additional rations their trips from theirLithuania.Antanina from trips Siberia to Both Garmut in to regard man anda narratives deportee of a woman two example arethe very good 294 293 292 291 Most likely,men were also sexually harassed and raped, but forwomen it used to happen more frequently. Staugaitis, Romualdas, Ibid, 158-161; Staugaitis, Romualdas, Bi þLnj ơ nait in 1951, and in Skrickus 1958. Garmut ơ -Masiulien ơ , J Lietuviai šiaur nj rat ơ , Jaunyst ơ ơ Lietuviai šiaur je prie Laptev , 71. 293 108 ǐ j ơ nj ơ je ros inhermemoir herfeeling narrated of , 70-71. , 158-159. ơ and Skrickus Zenonas 292 However, my However, 291 Work was Work 294 A CEU eTD Collection influenced various strategies of survival,various activities in which women and men showed, madesomedifferences significant in deportees’experiences of the exile: it analyzing only a single axis of difference – genderbuteven as onefactor, this I different experiences ledto characteristics familial and other situation beliefs, creeds, age, ethnicity, religious of exile, and influenced personal But the backgrounds deportees’ werenotlessgender,social significant: class, the ways of narratingworkplaces assigned to them, the different people among whom they had live,to and etc. them. Here I different exile and placesof the was they deported, were time –the when circumstances hell. same the of horrors Lithuanian went – through use Myrna deportees termto -different Goldenberg’s memoirs. in ways in their these themselves presented hisabout lifebutcould even seducingthinkhis aboutatleast fellow passenger, or they be concerned to have not did only not who man young a as safe feeling was Skrickus was feeling insecureasayoung by becould girl and easilyattacked who someone, not only in told different buttones also weregendered in fairly obvious ways: Garmut had diarrhea, postpone had plans. and to those he However, her. with sex have he would he thought and train, inthe him with travelled importantmost detail his of trip home for him was a“damnedthat beautiful” woman food and money. and food her.She left jumpedattack herfurther thingsand off without and the travelledtrain, andnight and Atshe overheard they understood that arow others. were planning to Garmut immediately “hit on “hit darkness”. tothe heron immediately andpulled side, Unthink-able: Meanings of theHolocaust 298 297 296 295 Goldenberg, Myrna, “Different Horrors, Same Hell: Women Remembering the Holocaust" in Holocaust" the Remembering Women Hell: Same Horrors, “Different Myrna, Goldenberg, Skrickus, Zenonas, Skrickus, Ibid, 86-88. Garmut ơ was reach supposed to Novosibirsk she wastravelling among drunken sailors ơ , Antanina, “Ešelonai”, 86. “Ešelonai”, , Antanina, 296 Meanwhile, Skrickusdid mention any not insecurity:feeling of the Igarkoje kaštonai nežydi 298 Their experiences were different due to various to due different were experiences Their , ed. RogerGottlieb (New York: Paulist Press, 1990), 150-166. , 52. 109 297 Garmut ơ ’s and were stories Skrickus’ 295 In the train in which in train the In Thinking the ơ CEU eTD Collection were forbidden to return to live toLithuania: though they were officially free citizens of from back places the from many Lithuanian to they were exiled coming – deportees released in partisans, were only 1963. deportees, most of whom had been deported as partisans and asfamily members of in 59,663 in 1956; 1957; 35,741 in 1958, andalmost as late 5,000 as 1959. The last incampaign, werestill started 1954, there Lithuanians inexile 75,185 1955; 72,777 asapart discharge be though of de-Stalinization from of the released exile: deportees, encountered. they were released from exile,alive whichuntil wasthey often were due exile. percent Around40,000(31 percent of whoall or39 stayed of deportees, those released)to various restrictions deportees deportation. didwhich not they come back to live1953 which was around4,3percent of Lithuania’s population to prior firstthe to Lithuania after All peopledeported from inbetween Lithuania around130,000 were 1941 and all *** of exile. in experiences difference deportees’ made asignificant through a thorough analysis of theirmemoirs I believe Ifound waysshow to that gender less for seemed otherreasons,but important” or anddifferences discrimination sexual sexual thatunderthe anddeath impression the of and/or threat […] political persecution of (political) awareness “lack authors’ be might memoirs, duetothe which in deportees’ the expressed clearly about […] the potential always differencesinvulnerability lives.Those arenot shaped ways and other people’s importance of were involveddeportees in tomake order aliving, deportees’sexual itaffected those differences […], 302 Soviet System Lithuanian Nation in1940-1958] (Vilnius:Mintis, 1996), 395;Adler, Nanci, 300 299 301 Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Bos, Pascale Rachel, “Women and the Holocaust: Analyzing Gender Difference, 28. Difference, Gender Analyzing Holocaust: the and “Women Rachel, Pascale Bos, Anušauskas, Arvydas, Anušauskas, Lietuva 1940-1990: Okupuotos Lietuvos istorija 300 (New Brunswick: TransactionPublishers, 2002), 78. 301 diedin of all deportees) percent (21,5 An estimated number28,000 of First of all, people of Lithuanian nationality were among the last ones to ones last the among were nationality Lithuanian of people all, of First Lietuvi Lietuvi ǐ ǐ tautos sovietinis naikinimas 1940–1958 metais tautos sovietinis naikinimas 1940–1958 metais 302 It was not only the late release which prevented , 401. 110 299 The Gulag Survivor: Beyond the Beyond Survivor: Gulag The , 395. [The Soviet Destruction of the CEU eTD Collection or werewillingor not to. released earlier did not find waystocome back tolivein Lithuania, did not try do it,to whowere 1958 andsome those released of mostof but deportees after the issues, tosolvevarious in citizensSoviet employed order andin ways, that connections other Republic. Somethem of circumvented restriction this by bribing officers, using personal the Soviet Union, they were not allowed to settle down in Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Lithuanian deportees’ self-representation and narration of of their experiences. narration and self-representation deportees’ Lithuanian whodidcome not backtolive Lithuania to might offer some differentstrategies of deportees of memoirs those the cases, in several mentioned AsIalready testimonies. published in atLithuania(n), or least Ido not know about existence the of any such of not come back to live to Lithuania – there is no memoirs written by any of them and 303 Ibid, 394-396. 303 Strangely enough – given the number who of didex-deportees 111 CEU eTD Collection all due of first was towhich women, for and men for the different slightly were implications their context in whichgender-neutral, be to seemed policies deportation Soviet the of most Though the deportationsat: Iarrived which conclusions main were carried Here moreI summarize menthe women which therewere than settlements. in special out. dueto with related inexile experiences deportation policies, the reveal howthe were As I showed, narrated to inmemoirs, experiences their Iattempted and gendered which deportees why more men women than were deported. I also raised about questions waysthe in and deported, were who asthemain elements’, ‘anti-Soviet were targeted lives: who had assumptions actual for consequences and various historical situation people’s contemporary historical context influenced the policies of deportations and how those I asked, gender.how Soviet genderand officials’ about assumptions class, and the My research concentrated exile narratives. andtheir experiences deportees’ post-exile interrelated weredeportations in various forms, suchas deportation policies, on one of the toacquireorder possibleunderstanding an how the official/political and personallevels the of axesI attempted tointegrate all primary andsources secondary which I hadin gathered of analysis memoirs analyzedin ten narrated Lithuanian livesdeportees’ their which in they exile. – that is, i.e. the political climateSovietdeportations from Balticthe countries duringand after Secondthe WorldWar, and historicalKrasnoyarsk events related with forcedLithuania resettlement organized around of Lithuanians toIrkutsk, 40,000 those and deportations. the Buryat-Mongolian1948 under the codename ‘Vesna’,when Sovietthe authorities and in Moscow in I also 22-23, May in Lithuania from deportation mass the analyzed I thesis this In regions. I looked into the context of the Conclusions 112 CEU eTD Collection cultural of assumedly familiescultural society. In reproducers this havingor perspective, concept of concept interrelationthe about claim Joden-Forgey’s ofvon Elisa upon building violenceTherefore, individuals. done to familiesalso and important genocide, to andspotlight as membersbut on of ‘culpable’ groups ( Orlando that Patterson’sdeportations were aimed at family units rather than actors (guerilla warriors, heads of (guerilla warriors, actors In many casesguerilla ideologically. warmaterially or women were in resulted and deportation the of sufferings didnecessarilythose who the not support deported war partisan in the involvement whose sons, and brothers nothusbands, their at indignant as individualfeeling ‘active’ of general in the deportations strategies,addition anti-resistance to andother Sovietto unfairness anti-Sovietinexile, and some casesIalso thereturn. after somesuggested that women, subjected of the occupationalresponsibilities tothe prior deportation, trip the during placesthe in to of exile, the these took they sick; the and elderly, the children, - members family other regime’sbecome or staypolicies, the heads of the households and to searchdeported for ways to providemight for the tohave menthese thewere among partisans, the hadgone hiding, into already were imprisoned, laboralso feltcamps,members in partisanthe movement, rarely had middle-aged or able-bodied men left: or had beenwere subjected killed. to deportation partisans’ family members weresubjected to deportations, and those familiesThis which because meantSoviet Anti- of related. inextricably the were resistance participation armed the and thatdeportations women of one or severalhadarmedresistance anti-Soviet movementwas going but on (1944-1953) the toof their the when time same at the out carried only not were Lithuania from deportations social death , I argue familiesSoviet authorities asbiological , I saw and that kulak kulaks households or collaborators with the Nazis) the with collaborators or households 113 , nationalists, anti-Soviet elements). It is It elements). anti-Soviet nationalists, , CEU eTD Collection 1) themselves, their family and relatives in the complicated conditions of of Second the conditions family their in relatives complicated and the themselves, in the 1950s,was probably strengthened by their experience of taking careof capable of - which, in the case of the deportationsbe to out turned in women themany secondhistorically half that of the something as but 1940s and characteristic, issues: several understand roles during women’s life their in exile,Isuggested takingintoaccount better men.more to activeorder In asthan there are represented cases women many in that claim to me allows memoirs deportees’ Lithuanian of analysis My deportation. shockthe whichdeporteesexperienced and during firstthe hours days theirof reflected Isuggestthis phases. thesubsequent morethan exhaustively were narrated thanlife shorter initial in in exile lasted many of exile, those deportation stages cases lifedeportation, in exileand returning. arrestandjourney Though to placesthe of arrest, linear: is memoirs deportees’ Lithuanian of structure dominant The women’s hardships in exile asbigger than men’s. them had suchperception:most authors of memoirsthe Ireaddid present not as an attack on the gender Lithuaniansaw dohard deportees women -especiallythis physical forcing - to work norms and roles whichneutral – women they and men werewere assigned toused do the same to,gender-policies werealso Soviet force. Inthislabor –ascheapreasons earth regard, types of butjobs. In notsome cases,all of down-to- more for also but ideological to due only not deported were People family membersparticular for personal beingpunished culpability regime.to the havingattitudes anti-Soviet had tobedestroyed in fulltheir composition, rather than women’s ability to deal with stressful and difficult situations – not as inherent 114 CEU eTD Collection 3) 2) some of them are still shaping – their lives. which shaped–andforgender categories other of intersectionality with deportees’ in factors Sovietleadoperated the deportations could about the tofurther insights other and creeds age, race, ethnicity, nationality, class, how on research Future people’s lives. to make a living,in sexualdeportees’ vulnerability, in and waysother shaped of instrategies survival, activitiesthe women men inand undertook deportees order differences in significant experiences of deportees’ exile: it generated difference in experiences and lives deportees’ the of – axis their one just on focuses mainly analysis My gender men. than active more as memoirs many in presented are in them involved women – but even this appeared tobe in survival latter crucialtasks that for the deportees’ therefore exile one factor,mushrooms andherbs; doing needlework knitting, or Yet, it etc.). was exactly the as I showed,money (taking care of the elderly, sick, children, abandoned people; gathering berries, made engagesome in tasks regarded men ascould not sufficientlywomen’s fulfill these roles in exile.work However, they also didand not fully were notwomen generally menregarded as having the responsibility beto the breadwinners, directly related to earning clothing,food, acquire fordwelling; place family depended entirely them,on andwomen develophad to operative strategies to thesurvival wholeany the therefore work; of men able to places without the of exile to latter’s the participation in war, their death, being imprisoned orhaving died; WorldWarsupport from and thewithout guerilla war, husbandstheir brothers due or prevailing gender men among assumptions Lithuanian though deportees: and feeling responsibility peoplefor the close to inmanythem: women cases arrived at 115 CEU eTD Collection Lithuanian SSRintheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics. Appendix I.Map:PoliticalandethnicdivisionoftheUSSR.The location ofthe 1988), 16-17. Viktor, Kozlov, from Taken The Peoples oftheSoviet Union Appendices 116 (Bloomington: UniversityIndiana Press, CEU eTD Collection 1940 –1941. Appendix II.Map:ForcedmigrationsfromtheregionsannexedbyUSSR, Taken from Polian, Pavel, Polian, from Taken the USSR (Budapest: CEU 2004), Press, 122. Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in 117 CEU eTD Collection Appendix III. Map: Forced migrationsintheSovietUnion1947-1952. Appendix III.Map: Taken from Polian, Pavel, Polian, from Taken the USSR (Budapest: CEU 2004), Press, 170. Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in 118 CEU eTD Collection Back), firstpublishedin 1993, second edition in 2009; 178 pages. Lithuania in 1956. Title of memoirthe 1948 butwas andarrested deported again, spent terms invarious prisons. Came backto years and 3months old) stayed in Lithuania.Antanina illegally came back to Lithuania in husband was already hidingfor around a yearin June 1941, so he and their sons two (2,5 own inengagement various youth organizations, especially community. Esperanto Her age of 29; most probably because of her and her husband’sintellectual professions, and her Lithuania in 1993; English version is 222 pages long. Leave Your Tears in Moscow in late 1950’s, and eventually was allowed tojoin her family in the U.S.Title of memoirthe from school wasreleasedexile She age son. US.Shewasdeported withthe their elementary were daughter in Unitedwhilethe States, shewasrepeatedly apermission denied to leave to teenager their and husband her time At the household. a‘kulak’ of head as deportation, the Landthe in of Permafrost) the 1989, 16pages. Amerikos exile with a Lithuanian,father’s occupation – he was an elementary school teacher in a village. Antanas got married in cameage of his10, with father,mother and They sister. becausewere probably his deported of back to Lithuania Abromaitis in 1961. Title of the memoir memoirs Appendix IV. Shortdescriptionoftheanalyzed Baltrušien Armonas (The Polar ‘Americas’), publishedin Polar memoirs (The ‘Americas’), a volume of (Armonien ơ , Antanas. Male. Deported in, Antanas.Male.Deported ‘Black1941, duringthe June’ deportation, atthe , Antanina.Female. in Deported 1941, during ‘Black the June’ deportation, at the ơ ) Barbara. Female. Deported in) Barbara.Female.Deported during1948, ‘Vesna’mass the ; inpublished English in the US in 1961, andin Lithuanian in Kelion 119 Ƴ ơ niekur ir atgal (A Trip to Nowhere and Amžino Ƴ šalo žem Užpoliar ơ je (In ơ s CEU eTD Collection soon soon died They there. probably were deported because father’sof high inposition main the a camp wassent Father motherlabor/prison and to with andbrother. father,age of 14, her Grinkevi Ƴ 1951. Title of the memoir the of Title 1951. in Lithuania to back came and later, years two document that about out found only she but documentreinstating her citizen rightsand granting her right the tocome back toLithuania, a wasissued there months deportation the four after already because mistake, administrational herlater supported by sending parcels toSiberia. Shewassome deportedprobably due to age of 13. Her parents werehiding deportation,sothey the during andwere notdeported, Garmut Us Go(Let Homeland),to the publishedin pages. 1989; 21 (Sundays’ reportages from(Sundays’ reportages Laptev the Sea), published in a volume memoirs of he years. wasin of Title memoir his the teenage Bojarskas Laptev publishedthe Sea), in 167 pages. 1990; return return to Lithuaniain 1956. Title of memoir the professions and elitepositions.married Inexile with got a Lithuanian, they were allowed to probablycampdied and soon Deported there. because of parents’ intellectual/artist deportation at age the of 17, with her mother and two brothers. Father wassent toalabor Bi šalo žem þLnj nait ơ ơ þLnjWơ , Antanina. Female. Deported in, Antanina. Female.1948, during Deported the ‘Vesna’mass deportation the at ơ je , L.Male. in Deported 1941, during the ‘Black June’ deportation with his family; - Masiulien - (Inthe Land in of Permafrost) the 1989; 56 pages. , Dalia. in Female. Deported 1941, during ‘Black the June’ deportation at the ơ , J Ešelonai nj rat ơ . Female. in Deported 1941, during ‘Black the June’ (Echelons), published in a volume of memoirs 120 Jaunyst Sekmadienio reportažai nuoLaptev ơ prieLaptev ǐ j nj ros (Young Days by Leiskit Ƴ Amžino ǐ t j ơ vyn nj ros Ċ CEU eTD Collection North), North), publishedin 1991; 96 pages. Lithuaniaback to in together 1959. Title of memoirthe duringcommittee parliamentary Staugaitiselections). married a inLithuanian exile;came they lived (worked in in where small probablyintellectual becausethe offather’s occupation town Deported old). a regional months several them of (one office,brothers two and mother, father, with indicated) not (age knew child several languages,Staugaitis was a member of election pages. memoir of 10 with his family grandmother, ?),(brother, came Lithuania back to in 1958. Title of the Skrickus 1989; 19pages. published in avolume memoirsof the memoir the and Came sister. Lithuania backto in1960with her daughter whowas born in exile. Title of Motie Amžino book. Inmy published as Iusea ina separate avolumework version memoirs published of Sea), publishedfirst in 1988 in a literary journal; later another version of hermemoir was Lithuania’s bank. Title of her memoir her of Title bank. Lithuania’s þ ien Ƴ Igarkoj kaštonainežydi šalo žem , Zenonas. Male. in Deported 1948, during ‘Vesna’ the mass deportation at age the , Romualdas. in Deported Male. 1941, during the ‘BlackJune’deportation as a ơ , Paulina. inFemale. 1945, Deported at theage of nine hermother, with brother Kaubur ơ je (In (In Landthe of Permafrost)the in 1989; 26 pages. ơ liai antPe (Chestnuts DoNot Bloom in Igarka), publishedin 2002; 54 þ ioros kranto Amžino Lietuviai prie Laptev Ƴ 121 šalo žem (The Hillocks on the Shores of Pechora), ơ je Lietuviai šiaur (In the Land of the Permafrost) in ǐ j nj ros (Lithuanians by Laptev the ơ je (Lithuanians in the (Lithuanians CEU eTD Collection preparationsdeportation ‘Vesna’, theoperation 18,1948. May of for army V. Bochkov to the Minister of Internal Affairs of USSRS. Kruglov about the Account oftheMinister Internal AffairsLSSR J.Bartaši of 7, file 61,pages 230 of Documentsthe of Ministry the Internal Affairs].of Fund V-135,inventory number 1948. LYA VRM dokument Abakumov about the deportation of the residents ofLithuania V. D.State SecurityofUSSR to the MinisterState Security Jefimov of ofLSSR of Account of thedeputy Minister ofState Security of USSRS.Ogolcov and the Minister both versions. to cases Igive references institutas, Lithuania,1945-1952: 1941, A Collection of Documents] (Vilnius: Lietuvosistorijos 1994). I worked with originals and with translations, therefore in some tr documents were translated to Lithuanian weretranslateddocuments to inpublishedand skyrius; LYA VRM dokument (Lithuanian: Lietuvosypatingojoarchyvo Vidaus reikal Archives, Special Lithuanian in the stored now is here indicated material of majority theThe Department of 1.Archivalmaterial the Documents of the Ministry of Internal Affairs ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument mimai 1941,1945-1952: a -236. ǐ skyrius [LithuanianSpecial Archives, The Department ǐ skyrius)in Vilnius, Lithuania. Parts of various Primary sources ǐ rinkinys 122 [Deportations of residentsof the ǐ ministerijos dokument nj . Issued around May 28, nas and the chief of the convoy ofnas andthechief Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuvos Lithuanian translation Lithuanian ǐ ǐ CEU eTD Collection the Russianthe fundFederation],inventory 9479, number 1,file 427,pages 7-11. Lithuanian of the convoy army of the Ministry of Internal Affairs V. Bochkov. GARF [State Archives of Instruction for the headsofInstruction for theconvoyof echelons ofdeportees VRM dokument Directive nr.006 1946. LYA VRM dokument Directive nr.00123 Certificate about the destinations of resettlement deportees yearsof the 1941-1952],(Vilnius:Vidaus Reikal dokument LSSR MGB [The Ministry of the State Security] P. Grishin, January 10 photocopy photocopy of documentthe publishedin Security The of the USSROgolcov. by certifiedof Minister Deputy State the indicated], Calculations of the required railway vehicles for the special resettlement rinkinys of of documentthe published in , 178-179. ǐ skyrius. Fund V-135,inventory number 7,file 60,pages 22-24. ǐ of of Ministerthe of Internal Affairs J.Bartaši skyrius. Fund number 141, inventory 1,file 71,pages 28-29. of the acting Minister of Internal Affairs P. Kapralov, December 24th, ǐ skyrius.inventory Fund 141, number 1,file 71,pages 284-285. Lietuvos gyventojLietuvos 1941-1952 met 123 issued by headthe of department“A”the of ǐ tr ơ mimai 1941,1945-1952:dokument ǐ Ministerija, 1993), 36. Ministerija, 1993), ǐ Lietuvos tremtiniai nj nas, January 1947. 18th, LYA . May 4 , April 1948 [day not th , 1948.LYA VRM th , 1948;The Chief [Lithuanian ǐ CEU eTD Collection rinkinys documentwas publishedin USSR, Departmentof Transportation, April 1948.Lithuanian 30th, translation of the Plan ofdeportees’ transportation by water transport Lietuvos gyventoj number 1,file 427,pages 16-17. Lithuanian translation of documentthe was published in April Archives 1948.GARF30th, [State of fund RussianFederation],the inventory 9479, Plan ofthe deportees’ transportation by railways inventory number 1,file 40,page58. ofbandits’ ofthe the revisionfamilies files of Bartaši LSSR [Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic] People‘s Commissar‘s for Internal Affairs J. LSSR KGB [Committee for State Security] May 12 StateSecurity] for KGB [Committee LSSR dokument Published in Communist Party of Lithuania]. LYA. Fund1771,inventory filenumber 58,916,pages 10-16. Lithuania deportedin 1941-1952 translation translation of documentinpublishedthe nj , 162-163. nas 12th, 1945 October 81 order nr. ǐ rinkinys Lietuvos gyventoj ǐ tr , 166-170. ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokumentmimai 1941, ǐ Lietuvos gyventoj tr ; issued at the request of LKP CK [Central Committee ofthe Committee LKP CK[Central ; issued request of the at ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument 1945-1952:mimai 1941, Lietuvos gyventojLietuvos 124 ‘In regard toestablishing a commission for . LYA VRM dokument ǐ .The Ministry of Internal Affairs of USSR, tr th , 1988 certificate concerningresidents certificate of , 1988 ơ mimai 1941, 1945-1952: dokument . The Ministry of Internal Affairs of ǐ rinkinys ǐ tr , 159-161. ơ mimai 1941,1945-1952: ǐ rinkinys ǐ skyrius.Fund 141, , 423-425. ǐ CEU eTD Collection dokument translation families the from territory ofLithuanian SSR” ofsentencedsupporters with banditsandnationalists;alsokulaks- ofbandits their the documentof 12,000 offamilies those living illegally, killed during armed encounters or Resolution of the Councilin of Ministers of USSR 11627 ofMykolasLiubauskas Record file Record file Record file of Kazilionis. Antanas dokument Lithuanian, was inpublished 9479, inventory numberfile 1, 427,pages12-14.This translated document, to of USSR, May 4th, Plan ofthedeportees’ transportation fromLithuania 1948. GARF [State Archives of the Russian Federation], fund ǐ ǐ rinkinys rinkinys , 155-156. , 163-166. LYA. Fund inventory V-135, number 1,files 10118 Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuvos gyventoj Lietuvos . LYA.inventory FundV-135, number 1,file 125 “In regard to the special resettlement . 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