Current Trends and Challenges of Modern Management and Human Resource Development

Současné trendy a výzvy moderního řízení a rozvoje lidských zdrojů

Editors | Jana Marie Šafránková Martin Šikýř

Prague 2014

Current Trends and Challenges of Modern Management and Human Resource Development

Současné trendy a výzvy moderního řízení a rozvoje lidských zdrojů

Editors | Jana Marie Šafránková Martin Šikýř October 16, 2014 Publication from the International scientific conference Current Trends and Challenges of Modern Management and Human Resource Development, on at Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, Czech Technical University in Prague.

Internal publication, peer reviewed conference journal. This publication has not undergone language revision.

© Šafránková, J. M., Šikýř, M., 2014 ISBN 978-80-01-05660-8 Table of Contents

Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management 13

Contexts of application of trends in personnel management – posibilities of optimisation of human potential in working organisations | 13

Michaela Tureckiová The transformation of the further education connected with the generation Y rising | 17

Markéta Šnýdrová Changes in the educational structure of the Czech population and their regional disparities | 22

Jana Kouřilová The specifics of assessing the innovation effectiveness | 26

Vladimir D. Sekerin – Anna E. Gorokhova – Martin Šikýř The use of employee satisfaction surveys within HR Controlling | 29

Otakar Němec – Alois Surynek Workplace stress and its impact on job performance | 33

Adriana Grenčíková – Jana Španková – Sergej Vojtovič Human Resources Management and Management in Practice 39

Intercultural communicative competence in management and business | 39

Monika Hrebackova Using balanced scorecard in performance appraisal | 46

Ľudmila Kolesárová Some methods of examination of regional disparities in Slovakia | 51

Daniela Hricišáková – Dana Jašková Part-time work in the Czech Republic | 55

Klára Šimonová Selected labour law aspects in practice of the human resources officer | 60

Jana Vaněčková University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management 65

Practical-oriented teaching of marketing – cooperation with companies in practise | 65

Barbora Joudalová Security social services trenčín region village and in the village | 68

Elza Kočíková Promoting entrepreneurship in municipalities | 74

Jiří Macháček Health promotion in the caring professions: view of professionals in long-term care | 78

Blanka Jirkovska Survey on satisfaction in life and the level of stress of the students in the fifth semester of university studies | 84

Lenka Emrová University education and global consciousness – studies on youth generation | 88

Pavel Andres – Alena Vališová – Jitka Jurková CTU graduates on the labour market | 94

Jana Marie Šafránková

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Introduction

Current Trends and Challenges of Modern Management and Human Resource Development

Aim of the conference:

Jana Kouřilová compares the Czech Republic with developed countries in the field of changes in the Increasing globalisation, tightening competition, educational structure of the Czech population in the last developing new technologies and the changing twenty years and disparities of population educational requirements of clients are some of the aspects which structure at the regional level NUTS3. Situation is change the deeply rooted theories and shift the best characterized by a low proportion of university graduates. practices in human resource management of many Over the last 20 years situation has changed also in organizations. The main aim of the conference is to connection with a significant development of universities bring together experts from the field of human resource after 1998. But there are significant disparities among management to discuss new trends in theories and Czech regions although now higher education institutions practice, share different socioeconomic approaches in are located in all regions. order to come up with new topics and opportunities for basic and applied research. The conference will be Vladimir D. Sekerin, Anna E. Gorokhova and Martin a great opportunity to share experience, make new Šikýř explain the importance of innovations in the contacts and foster cooperation between people with development of modern national economies and discusse positive thinking and common interests. goals, principles and features of the assessment of the Part I. Current Trends and Challenges innovation effectiveness. They substantiate the dependence of Human Resources Management of the innovation effectiveness from the stage of the innovation life cycle, because the differences in target criteria of innovations determine the need for the various Michaela Tureckiová in its introductory part deals with indicators of the innovation effectiveness. They show the definition of personnel management in the context of the multidimensional effect of innovative activities and its development as a field of theory and practice, presents studies the fundamental approaches to the construction brief characteristics of the development of the discipline of quantitative indicators of the innovation effectiveness. under stthe conditions of the development of society in the 21 century. She shows the importance of optimizing Otakar Němec and Alois Surynek describe HR controlling of human potential in processes of social change, whilst which represent an important supporting activity of ensuring the effective functioning of working organizations, human resource management as well as of organizational career development or maintaining the employability of management. They consider the controlling as a system individuals. for production, processing, storage and transmission of information necessary for effective performance Markéta Šnýdrová describes the change in the demographic management activities. HR controlling is based on the composition of population, especially the Generation Y information describing the working potential of the entry into the labour market, but also population ageing, organization’s staff, and their labour activities. must necessarily bring changes in the approach to further education in all its basic components as well. This entry is Adriana Grenčíková, Jana Španková and Sergej Vojtovič primarily focused on the possibilities of effective changes describe problems of workplace stress as a natural part in further education of adults taking into account the of life, if moderate and lasting not too long. In addition Generation Y requirements in the field of work-life balance, to major life events, many stressful events are related to potential use, perpetual development of competencies, the workplace. Nowadays, workplace stress has become creativity and innovative thinking, etc. a major issue faced by employees.

Part II. Human Resources Management and Management in Practice experience of life and they are not always aware of the fact how it is regulated by the law. Part III. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management Monika Hrebackova describes the impact of intercultural context on communication competencies in a foreign (English) language, as perceptions of other cultures are currently viewed as an integral part of effective intercultural Barbora Joudalová describes experiences with teaching communication and a tool developing competitive Strategic Marketing at Masaryk Institute of Advanced advantage, especially in the corporate sector. It outlines Studies (MIAS) who is oriented practically. This is enabled Czech cultural values as seen by others and demonstrates thanks to cooperation with small companies – start-ups business examples of typical symptoms of cultural clashing joined in the InovaJet, the business incubator of Czech in effort to recognize potential faux pas ensuing from Technical University (CTU). Practically oriented teaching little cultural or social awareness. It briefly points out enables to teach in more attractive way, to involve some strategies and scenarios implementing intercultural students, to apply experience from abroad and to link elements applicable to intercultural management. up students from university to companies. This way of teaching is highly appreciated both by students and by Ľudmila Kolesárová deals with performance management companies. and its role in company success. The importance is placed on performance appraisal as one of the key processes of Elza Kočíková focuses on the role of regional development performance management. Performance appraisal has include the provision of social services for citizens. developed a lot during few decades and there are still Globalisation has not brought positive changes only new methods applying that have been invented, but not because population groups is very difficult to respond specifically for performance appraisal. Balanced Scorecard and adapt to new conditions arising. In the world there is one of the methods that are considered to provide is an ever increasing negative social phenomena such as detailed analysis of performance, it can be adapted very unemployment, poverty and crime. Many foreign citizens quickly, thanks to visualization, it is easy to read and without a helping hand are unable to find appropriate a progress of performance can be evaluated continuously, solutions to adverse situations in which many times find if the right information system is present. themselves unexpectedly from day to day.

Daniela Hricišáková and Dana Jašková focus on Jiří Macháček discusses the promotion of entrepreneurship identification, measurement, analyzing, examination at the by communities with a focus on small and medium-sized time and comparison of regional disparities are important enterprises. Small and medium-sized enterprises are really factors in the search for solutions to perceived regional important in the development of endogenous potential differences. They present the knowledge of concerning in particular Czech regions, due to the fact that they are the identification and analysis of regional disparities. They significantly connected with a given region on both the analyze regional inequalities in terms of socio-economic enterprise and social level and also represent a regional aspects. The intention is to show the development of enterprise basis. regional disparities over time. They use a few selected multivariate statistical methods for analyzing quantitative Blanka Jirkovska describes problematic of population aging, data. it has economic, political and social consequences. Planning needs of long term care (LTC) and reflecting the number Klára Šimonová reflects of the recent debates in Czech of professional caregivers responds to the demographic media on part-time jobs that was restarted by the OECD changes. Although family caregivers dominate in many recommendation on shortening the period of parental leave OECD countries including the Czech Republic, a number so that mothers will not lose their qualifications, and with of professionals in these countries will double until 2050 the verdict of the supreme court on the right to work part- (even triple in the Czech Republic). The need for the time for mothers of children under 15. For employers it is existence of quality institutions providing LTC setting is expensive and organizationally demanding, for employees linked with good working conditions and health promotion it is less money for less qualified works, because part-time of their employees. jobs in highly qualified positions are scarce. Lenka Emrová focus on research results in the university Jana Vaněčková focuses on some fundamental relations that studies. Most of the students combine the studies with are regulated by the Labour Code and necessarily fall into employment, and in addition to that, they should fulfill the practice of the human resources officer. In many cases other social roles apart from those of a student and ascertained that particularly in civil and labour law matters an employee. They are in a period of life in which they the people proceed intuitively or on the basis of their should become independent from their parents and at 10 | 11

the same time create stable close relationships for further Jana M. Šafránková describes outline possibilities of coexistence. gaining information about the position of CTU graduates and their feedback opinions on the educational process. Pavel Andres, Alena Vališová and Jitka Jurková describe The study is based upon the author´ s long-term research research realised at Taiwan and in the Czech Republic and concentrates on three main aspects of this problem – The new generations, which were born after the Velvet the professional position of the graduates, its feedback for Revolution of 1989 in Czech or the Abolishing of Martial the university as to the evaluation of acquired knowledge Law in 1987 in Taiwan, have grown up without the and impulses for the development of their further education memories of authoritarian regime and the political during regular and postgraduate study within the process atmosphere of extreme fear. Instead of this, those young of ‑life-long education. people were growing up in the internet era and under the influence of globalization which were introduced by global capitalism, consumerism and popular culture.

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Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management is provided at the level of tertiary education. According to Ulrich and Brockbank (2005), the role of personnel manager as a leader constitutes a central role at the border between operational and strategic management, focussing on processes vs. people. The essence of the leader’s role is Contexts of application of trends in personnel to cope efficiently with four defined HR roles (see Figure 1), management – posibilities of optimisation care for human potential development and providing for of human potential in working organisations functioning cooperation with other components of the organisation at a local as well as global scale. Figure 1: HR role model

Future / Strategic Focus Michaela Tureckiová

Strategic Partner Change Agent Abstract: Processes People In its introductory part, the paper deals with the definition of personnel management in the context Administrative Expert Employee Champion of its development as a field of theory and practice. It also presents brief characteristics of the development of Day-to-day / Operational Focus the discipline underst the conditions of the development of society in the 21 century. It shows the importance of optimizing of human potential in processes of social Source: Ulrich (1997) change, whilst ensuring the effective functioning of working organizations, career development or maintaining From the perspective of chronology of the development of the employability of individuals. Further, the paper concepts of personnel work, the models of human resource describes the critical external factors that affect the entire management can be considered as the most advanced in society and therefore the form of personnel work in today‘s theory terms. From the end of 1980’s, a „soft version“ of enterprises on a global scale. The next part focuses on human resource management has been gaining ground in the basic trends in personnel management, as they result theory. Storey (1989, in Armstrong, 2006) describes this from the scientific literature and comparative research. approach as „treating employees as valued assets, a source The final part of the paper deals with the possibilities of competitive advantage through their commitment, of optimizing of human potential in the environment of adaptability and high quality (of skills, performance and working organizations. It summarizes approaches for so on)“ (p. 9). Practice applies a working mix of „hard“ differentiation of employees, particularly in terms of their and „soft“ versions of human resource management contribution to the working organization. Included are combining efficiency of organisation’s functioning and also possibilities for targeted institutional support of all development with the support for the development and basic target groups in the context of corporate training engagement of employees. A focus on the development of and other opportunities for learning and development in employees’ potential and the sharing of the execution of working organizations. personnel processes among all managers is characteristic Keywords: of the concept of people management. This term is used personnel work; socioeconomic factors; human as a synonym for a strategic approach to the management resource development; trends of people in work organisations and emphasizes the role JEL Code: of non-personnel managers in personnel work and in I25 Education and Development; 015 Human processes of social change. Development Introduction 1 Organisational (internal) context of people management

In its development up to now, personnel management has undergone the phases of administration, The concept of human resource management puts management(ship) and leadership (see also Bush, 2011 to emphasis also on the integration of human resource compare it with development of educational management). functions (processes) since the very beginning In practice, personnel management is applied as a cross- (see Michigan School, in Armstrong, 2006, p. 4). cutting discipline. Personnel administration continues In the model of competency based management it then to be its part and a source of data on employees. At the follows up with the integration of the strategic planning of level of everyday management, personnel management organisation’s human resources with business planning. is practised by specialists whose professional training A central category in such model of personnel work is Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

a set of competencies, i.e. actually required capacities the context of personnel work in it are also affected by of employees at all levels of organisational structure the national context (and currently, international and needed to attain the vision, mission and goals of the transnational / global) and the sectorial context. Table 1: Corporate training activities in the Czech Republic organisation (Dubois, Rothwell, 2004). In connection with the concept of people management, Urban (2003) writes about a personal dimension of management. People management can be defined also as a concept „in which Type of corporate Company size (No of employees) training activities the organization ... focuses on the development of staff; it Small Medium Big Total (%) also examines ways of identifying and assessing training (-49) (50–249) (+250) needs and performance requirements and how they On-the-job training 40 47 56 47 relate to the needs and requirements of the organization; Of-the-job training 30 52 61 48 objects of evaluation are also a range of empowering Self-education 31 38 42 36 employees and internal communication“ (Tureckiová, 2010, p. 51). A precondition for the application of At least one of these 68 91 96 86 people management is the application of strategic human resource management (Armstrong, 2006). The Source: Matoušková, Kofroňová (2006) – translated M. T. internal situation of strategic planning, management and 2 External context of people management development of human resources is primarily influenced and major trends by: ways to care for the intellectual / human capital of the organization that lead to obtaining and maintaining competitive advantage through people; human resource development (especially talent management programmes); The general framework in which the current work emphasis on leaders and human resource competencies organisations operate is constituted primarily by the of managers; completion of the strategic role of HR / processes of globalisation (in our region, europeisation is also business partnerships, internal personnel counselling, being mentioned). The interconnection of national states including career counselling. Concurrently, changes have and their economies brings a diversity of customers as well been taking place in the content of the aforementioned as employees from diverse socio-economic environments. roles of professionals in human resource management In developed societies to which the Czech Republic belongs, and in the quantity of time they devote to them. According the demographic factor of ageing population is gaining in to the Survey of Global HR Challenges... (WFPMA, 2005), significance. Other typical features include (i)migration personnel departments devote almost 24% of time to and various types of integration measures designed to executing the role of strategic business partner, followed provide social and economic inclusion. The development by 23% for the role of an administrative expert, 19% of various types of technologies is also a factor. Human for the role of a change agent, 18% for the role of a(key) resource management and development increasingly relies player and 16% for the role of an employee champion on information and communication technologies (ICT and (pp. 9–10). The role of a „(key) player“ complements the e-personnel work), including social media. Besides obvious aforementioned role of a leader by additional activities advantages, ICT brings also a number of problems. Job „that make a difference by acting as a coach, architect, designs and qualification structure are objects of change, and designer, facilitator“ (p. 10). employees and groups of customers who cannot use these technologies are marginalized. The final shape of personnel work in a particular work organisation is, of course, affected by a number of Current society is highly demanding as regards flexibility other internal factors. One could name, for instance, and adaptability of individuals. The effect of external the company size (number of employees), ownership factors studied currently by means of the STEEPLED structure, organisation’s orientation on a particular type analysis, was predicted in an alternative of the PESTLE of customers/clients, type of organisational structure, analysis as early as in mid 1990s by Kotter (1995). prevailing style of management/leadership etc. It was According to other authors, market saturation and shown in the Czech Republic that the growing size of a slowdown or regression of development in advanced an organisation and a growing share of foreign capital economies of Europe and North America have a rather are linked with an increasing percentage and diversity negative effect. The centre of technological as well as of opportunities for the development of employees’ economic development has been shifting to Asia, South potential (Matoušková, Kofroňová, 2006; see Table 1). America, South Africa and partly in Russia (Strack et al., 2012, pp. 24–27). Environmental factors have This section can be summarised by stating that there is been growing in importance as well, also in changing no universally applicable and optimal model of personnel characteristics of social relations (social environment). work. The internal environment of the organization and More recently mentioned ethical factors include values, 14 | 15

related also to socio-cultural and historic factors. The In essence it emphasizes correct selection, adaptation, essence, purpose and role of education in the society optimisation of development potential and sustainability have been changing. A formal education of even the of each committed worker and an efficient performance highest degree no longer guarantees lifelong employment management. This considerably widens the possibilities (see Keller, Tvrdý, 2008). for providing learning opportunities to individuals in their diverse working positions and roles. At the same time, The relevance of external factors also for the application of however, it is necessary to operationalise the objectives trends in personnel (people) management is clear primarily of corporate training and human resource development, from the situation on the labour market. Together with all and to analyse educational needs of pre-defined groups the outlined effects, the so called paradox of labour market of employees. The basis for strategic approach to shows itself in the Czech Republic: On the one hand, there optimisation of human potential in working organisations is a growing group of job applicants for whom it is difficult is no longer constituted only by identified differences to find and keep a job, and on the other hand there is a long between the current and desirable („ideal“) competency term shortage of specialists in certain fields.. Optimisation profile. Successful organisations develop their competency of the number of employees is sometimes a different, less models also on the basis of shared company values. Rather painful name for a downsizing of workforce, the reasons than to deficits, they refer to development possibilities at for which are not always objective. In spite of that, one can the level of knowledge, skills and attitudes of employees, find also other explanations, connected with the internal positive internal motivation and commitment of environment of individual work organisations or sectors employees. Institutional support for employees‘ learning as well as with the overall socio-economic situation and is constituted by corporate training in these organisations. further anticipated development of the society. In most Also other activities of human resource development developed countries, changes on the labour market and are implemented, including organisational development. in the development of organisations‘ human capital are According to Bartoňková (2010), the strategic axis of connected primarily with the ageing of the population. This corporate training is a combination of an approach from additional paradox involves a lengthening productive life organisation to individual (organisational development) with a concurrent increasing threat of joblessness for and from individual to organisation (individual certain age groups of employees. It concerns primarily development, usually in the competency management fresh graduates and workers aged 55 and above. The concept) (p. 55). older workers in the Czech Republic include also a higher proportion of individuals with a lower completed education Only at this level of human potential optimisation, which further increases the risk of their exclusion from systematically planned and executed training and the labour market. A reverse correlation applies as well, developmental activities can be effectively combined with meaning that a higher completed level of education “just-in-time” trainings, and with support for continuous improves the labour market opportunities for older workers individualized development of pre-defined groups of (Cimbálníková et al., 2011, pp. 13–18). It can be expected employees (target groups of corporate training and that the concept of management and development of development. See Figure 2 for basic recommendations on the employees‘ potential, taking into account their age, how to proceed with corporate training within individual will be applied more extensively (a broader concept of target groups). age management, the so-called generation management). Corporate social responsibility, work-life balance/integration, The emphasis is on the development of strengths of diversity management, etc. are also discussed in the above these employees and on allowing them to develop within contexts as important global trends in people management the organisation. Thanks to e-/m-learning, corporate (see also Strack et al., 2012). training is accessible to all employees that are further provided with the so-called catalogue (“open“ or “public“) 3 Strategic approach to optimisation of human courses in various combinations based on pre-defined potential and its institutional support criteria and mutual agreement. For most companies at this level, blended learning is the basic organisational form. Corporate training is monitored, evaluated and As a part of strategic approach to corporate training improved on a continuous basis. The use of ICT support and human resource development one can consider also and on-the-job training is becoming more prevalent. the concept of talent management. From its original Support is given to mutual learning (formal, non-formal interpretation as “war for talents“ from external sources, and informal), even across companies. At this level, it gradually shifts to individualised methods of work with companies commonly form knowledge networks (often people in organisations which in principle view each through ICT or shared e-learning training programmes). employee as a talent (Horváthová, 2011). In this concept, Introduction of a knowledge management strategy and the use of the “talent” designation is non-terminological. creation of knowledge and/or virtual communities is not Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Figure 2: Corporate training objectives and main activities for different target groups

Source:

Based on Hroník (2007), modified a translated M. T.

unusual. It is at this level that the advantages of blended and power within the company and thus with different learning can be best applied, as it is not an enclosed set training and development needs and different levels of of methods and techniques, but rather a “laboratory of individualised care provided to them within corporate improvement”. The development of corporate training and training and other developmental activities. Conclusion blended learning leads to the use of actual problems in companies as opportunities for education, learning and development. Thanks to this, differences are fading away between formal, systematic corporate training and the The basis for further optimisation of human potential possibilities of self-directed learning and programmes in working organisations is primarily the knowledge of individual development and various types of learning. and suitable application of global trends and the best Mutual learning is encouraged. Changes in the employees‘ practices of people management. Strategic analyses of an behaviour leading to improved performance, desirable organisation’ external and internal environment and an development of competencies and to their successful extrapolation of trends in further societal development conduct represent the basic measure of training constitute also an important source of information. effectiveness and quality. Characteristics of the required Institutional support to corporate training and other change and the parameters of performance measurement developmental activities resides primarily in the and evaluation are defined in advance. The contribution application of a strategic approach to corporate training and importance of each employee can be monitored and support of learning styles of different types of and measured in a formal evaluation process (broader employees (axis of differentiation and integration); concept of performance appraisal). In reality it may mean in the use of suitable management skills and techniques that two originally separate HR processes are integrated in people management; application of blended-learning into a single possible one – appraisal of an employee and and creation of conditions for learning (including team his/her development potential, including the setting of and organisational learning). References performance and development objectives for the upcoming period. The outputs from such formal appraisal become Strategic human resource one of the dimensions which, together with the importance management of working position, create a matrix dividing all employees Armstrong, M. (2006). of the organisation into four groups with different work – A guide to action (3 ed.). London and results and aspirations, different levels of responsibility Philadelphia: Kogan Page. 16 | 17

Firemní vzdělávání. The transformation of the further education Bartoňková, H. (2010). Praha: Grada Publishing. connected with the generation Y rising Theories of educational leadership and management Bush, T. (2011). (4 ed.). London: Sage Publishing Ltd. Age Management. Markéta Šnýdrová Komparativní analýza podmínek a přístupů využívaných Abstract: Cimbálníková, L. et al. (2011). v České republice a ve Finsku. The change in the demographic composition Praha: Asociace institucí of population, especially the Generation Y entry into the vzdělávání dospělých ČR. labour market, but also population ageing, must necessarily Competency-Based Human bring changes in the approach to further education in all its Resource Management. Dubois, D. & Rothwell, W. (2004). basic components as well. The fact mentioned brings also USA: Davies-Black Publishing. changes in both the target audiences objectives, contents Rozvoj a vzdělávání pracovníků. and characteristics, and the sort of the didactic technologies Hroník, F. (2007). used. This entry is primarily focused on the possibilities Praha: Grada Publishing. of effective changes in further education of adults taking Vzdělanostní společnost? into account the Generation Y requirements in the field of Chrám, výtah, pojišťovna. Keller, J. & Tvrdý, L. (2008). work-life balance, potential use, perpetual development Praha: SLON. of competencies, creativity and innovative thinking, etc. It Leading change. also states further questions on education in adulthood, Kotter, J. P. (1995). Boston: Harvard especially the intergenerational learning and the education Business School Press. as a part of lifelong learning, learning in the whole range Přístupy inovačních of life, and with different depth of knowledge acquired, of podniků k získávání a rozvoji lidských zdrojů. Matoušková, Z. & Kofroňová, O. (2006). skills, of experience imparted and of the value orientation of Praha: NVF-NOZV. the young, medium age and older generations. Creating People Advantage 2012 – Key words: Mastering HR Challenges in Two-speed World Strack, R. et al. (2012). Further education, Generation Y further [online]. professional education, competence JEL code: Retrieved September 15, 2014, from http://www. peoplemanagementforum.cz/data/file/hrdata/bcg_ J110, I250, J24 Introduction creating_people_advantage_oct_2012.pdf. Andragogická dimenze personální práce. Tureckiová, M. (2010). (unpublished internal source). Nowadays the situation on the labour market in the field of Human resource champions. the further education of adults changes, which is connected Ulrich, D. (1997). Boston: with the change in the economically active population Harvard Business Review Press. structure, of relatively fundamental character. On one hand The HR value proposition. the working life is prolonging subject to the prolonging Ulrich, D. & Brockbank, W. (2005) length of life and in reaction to the economic sector and Boston: Harvard Business School Press. the Governments requirements in the developed countries Řízení lidí v organizaci – personální rozměr of the world, on the other hand a new generation enters managementu. Urban, J. (2003). the labour market, its requirements to the world differ Praha: ASPI. and it sees the world from a different point of view than all the previous generations. If we wanted to classify this HR global challenges: Yesterday, today WFPMA – World Federation of People Management generation in regard of time, they are the people born and tomorrow Associations (2005). between the years 1976 and 2000. In this connection it [online]. Retrieved September 15, 2014, from is appropriate to mention, that, in the company language, http://www.wfpma.com/sites/wfpma.com/files/PDFs/ the term Generation Y is used for these people. The term hrglobalchallenges.pdf. was first used in the Advertising Age magazine in 1993 Contact for the generation of children born between 1985 and 1995. The Generation Y classification in time is not totally consistent, but we can say that now it is possible to classify PhDr. Michaela Tureckiová, CSc., Masaryk Institute it as people born between 1976 and 2000. Also the term of Advanced Studies – Czech Technical University in Prague, used for this generation sometimes differs according to Kolejní 2a, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic, different authors, in The USA it is sometimes called the [email protected] Millenials, in Europe than the Generation Y. As mentioned Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

above, this generation has totally different requirements population, and therefore these changes have to be reflected to education in general, to further education and to the within the scope of the further professional education working conditions. So the competences respected and problems. These changes are connected especially to the preferred by this generation come to the fore. In regard to Generation Y entry on the labour market (the Generation “So that an the fact that this entry works with the term competence, it Y term was defined in the introduction of this entry, but individual was able to keep up on the labour market, which is appropriate to classify it in this introduction. it is necessary to state that this term is either accepted or is changing and globalizing all the time, and was a successful refused by experts). and satisfied person as well, he or she not only has to be equipped with a professional qualification and expertise, The statistics show that although on the one hand in recent but before others also with a unique ability to successfully years the number of people with a university degree in act and develop his/her potential based on the integrated the population rises relatively profoundly, which can be set of his/her own sources, and all this in the real context understood as a positive trend, on the other hand, especially of diverse tasks and situations in his/her life.” the new secondary school leavers and university graduates (Veteška, belong to the most endangered groups on the labour Tureckiová, 2008, s. 12). Armstrong´s definition (Rankin market. (CSO, 2014) (2004 in Armstron, 2009) specifies competences as skills and behaviour that companies expect from the employees The reason of this fact is that the school leavers and during their job performance. Then follows the explanation university graduates often have vast theoretical knowledge, that competences can express both expected outputs from but do not have any working experience, or their working the individual´s side and the way the actions are performed. experience is very low. The situation is more serious because of the fact that especially those age groups belong to the In most cases, competency or competence is measured by Generation Y. The members of this generation basically differ a criterion of performance for a particular working situation. from the generations of their parents and grandparents in We can say that people are prepared to a different extend their expectations and goals. A great emphasis is put on the to use behaviour needed to handle the task effectively. work-life balance, usage of technology and educational and Sometimes skills, knowledge, confidence or emotional developing activities (quoted acc.to Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, “a flow of knowledge, skills, experience and intelligence is missing. Also Horník (2007) defines 2014). According to the survey published by Kubiatko, characteristics that support achieving of the goals.” competence as Halaková, Nagy, Nagyová in 2013, the Generation Y members differ from the Generation X members, especially by the fact that this generation grows up in the world of developing For the purpose of this entry the professional competence technologies and is surrounded by them from its early will be seen as a combination of knowledge, skills, personal years (Kubiatko, Halaková, Nagy, Nagyová 2013 in Průcha, characteristics and values that result in a behaviour 2014). This is the first generation to gather information expression which can be watched and measured. thanks to those technologies available and does not need an authority which would get the information across to In regard to this fact it is necessary to adjust the methods its members (Espinoza, Ch., Ukleja M., Rush, C., 2010). and techniques used within the scope of the educational Nowadays Generation Y represents 27.4% of the population activities, so that they conform better to the requirements and one can assume that in 2025 it will represent 75% and changes in the population and on the labour market. of the labour force. The questionnary surveys performed The research probe conducted by Tureckiová and Šnýdrová by the companies Hays and Deloitte showed not only a great (2014), which will be presented in the following, confirms emphasis on the requirements mentioned above, but before the results of the researches conducted by Hays (2011) others, creativity and innovative thinking, which, together and Deloitte (2014) companies, and points exactly to with the possibility for further career growth, form the basic the necessary changes to be made in the field of further conditions for working at a company or organization for education and further professional education. this generation members (Deloitte, 2014 a Hays, 2011). It is noticeeable from the studies conducted that the Generation Transformation of Further Education Connected with Y representatives are highly economically active, they claim the Generation Y Rising a higher standard of living, feel greater responsibility for their social security and stress their personal vocation. The results of the questionnary surveys conducted also The development in the demographic composition of point to the fact that challenges are very important for the population in the Czech Republic and also other Generation Y, and it is not so substantial, whether they socio-economic factors point to necessary changes in the work for a big and well known company or not, but rather approach to further professional education as a part of if there is a possibility of personal development within life-long education. It is clear that a brisk change occurs the company. As for the position focus they accept a job in the requirements and goals of the economically active which is not routine and see positively, if they can try 18 | 19

more positions in a company. Working for a company that and development, the willingness to bear the risk and stresses innovative thinking is one of their most important responsibility, their flexibility in using flexible workload and viewpoints by choosing the employer. Actually especially the willingness to work from home, creativity and innovative innovative thinking plays a decisive role by choosing the thinking, new ideas, and the viewpoint from which they employer for 78% of the future managers questioned, see the things. Then they mentioned positive changes in on the other hand most of the respondents understand processes, the long-term effect in the career monitoring, that the company they work for does not support creative the desire to reach the work-life balance, the willingness to thinking very much. According to the respondents the commute, their active approach to work and the willingness management approach (63%), operational structures and to work hard, and, of course, the issue of CSR, and the practice (61%), employees´skills and attitude, and a small possibility to use new approaches within the scope of the diversity within the companies (39%) belong to the biggest human resource management. In regard of competences innovation barriers (Deloitte, 2014). As mentioned above, the respondents assessed positively the language and ITC the Generation Y prefers fulfilling their own goals, and so processes skills of the Generation Y members. In answers its members do not have problems with changing a job to the question directed to the limits of employment of this and go to work for a company which offers them better generation members the respondents identified as a limit: conditions. This indicates problems connected with loyalty the too strong emphases given to education and development and with the psychological contract change, which shifts opportunities, higher claims to the career planning, a home its content back from a contract based on a relationship office claim, higher financial claims, the need to change the to a contract based on a transaction. However, one cannot procedures, low or lacking loyalty to the employer, distorted say that the low employee loyalty applies only to the information or delusions about work, leading to frustration, members of Generation Y, this is a common issue in all the possible lack of work habits, the unwillingness to work in generations across the labour market, the lower-age groups a “dirty environment”, and high motivation maintenance loyalty is lower than that of the older ones. The researches requirements. In regard of competences then the lack conducted on the influence of age upon the relation to of communication skills was identified. The relatively the employer confirmed, that younger employees expect fundamental finding within the scope of interviews was the rather an interesting job, opportunities for education and fact that the respondents indicated as limiting also a low pleasant atmosphere, while older employees stress the quality and high amount of private schools, the lack of “nowadays everybody has a university degree, but most of the security at work (Freese, 2007). The results of the research apprenticeships leavers, and last but not least the fact that students and graduates do not have any working experience” probe, carried out via the form of structured interviews in spring 2014, confirm the trend in the Generation Y requirements and expectations to some extend (quoted (Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, 2014). acc.to Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, 2014). The research probe was focused on university students from 20 to 24 years of The interviews results confirmed so the fact that the age. In the evaluation of the factors important for choosing Generation Y members never more want to dedicate all their the employer the respondents agreed less or more with life to work, they prefer working hours and the place where the results of the research studies already carried out by the employment is situated, they want to use various means the companies Hays and Deloitte, though in different order. of modern communication, and in the whole they pursue the The respondents put the career growth possibility in the long term effect in both the career and the education. Also first place (80%), a friendly team and environment in the survey conducted by Engage Hill company from 2008 to the second (60%) and the motivating financial evaluation 2012 corroborates the emphasis on the flexibility and the in the third place, followed by the employer´s brand life-work balance (Engage Hill, 2012). (50%) and a creative working environment (50%). The respondents indicated the ideal working environment In the field of competences remarkable changes in the as an environment, where the communication works, language and ITC skills and in the communication skills of where there are open and friendly relations and where the the people on the labour market are in progress. We can say employees can reach the work-life balance. When questioned that language skills of the Generation Y members are higher which of the benefits, in their opinion, is the most motivating than the language skills of the Generation X members. The by choosing the employer, in accord they indicated: flexible standard by the Generation Y members is to speak at least one working hours, the holiday got beyond the bounds of the more language except of English. A huge change occurs also Labour Code, the possibility to use new technologies and in the field of ITC skills, because the Generation Y members the cafetérie system (quoted acc. to Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, are the first generation to use ITC technology from their early 2014). Further questions were directed to the opportunities years of age, and they take it for granted, as mentioned above. and limits, which the respondents see in the Generation Y employment. It is very interesting that the respondents It follows clearly from the above that it is necessary put among the possibilities, following out of employing the to change the curriculum of further education and further Generation Y members, the willingness to further education professional education in its goals, methods and forms, so Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

that it conforms to the requirements of the people on the couching and mentoring, and implementation of virtual labour market. We define further education as an education, education. Within the scope of company education it is which is a part of lifelong learning, following the education also important to support the participant´s motivation to in the early stages (Průcha a Veteška, 2012). Further educational activities, which should be run as “learning professional education then has a part in further education by playing”, the adult participants of the activities should and indicates all the forms of expert and professional not be forced to anything. Also, within the education education, which a person is going through during his/her process in companies, the acceleration of intergenerational active professional life after preparing professionally for education and education of the companies management his/her career within the scope of education in its early about the intercultural management and the diversity stages (Průcha a Veteška, 2012). issues is very important.

“expert and comprehensive employee In this context we can speak about professional andragogy, • In relation to the demographic changes in population education and training in employer´s organizations in all of which we can define as (aging, Generation Y rise) the possibility to impart the resorts” experience between the members of the older and (Švec, 2008,). younger generations shows as an opportunity and should be supported by the companies management. Without doubt it is possible to designate the individual´s Nowadays many older employees are afraid to impart increase in competence level as the objective of further their experience to their young colleagues, because they professional education. Murphy-Witt a Stamer-Brandt feel apprehensive about loosing the job, about high (2007) created a model of a key to the future, in which pressure on work performance, about frequent need to they came out from the young German prognostic Horn´s impart experience connected with high fluctuation in thoughts. This model gives emphasis to the competences companies, and about loosing their know-how. Positive necessary for the future. The basis of the key is formed by assets of the intergenerational experience imparting are power, self-confidence and a forward-looking attitude to life, the motivation rising on the older employees´side, the the framework is formed by education and the unique key is knowledge rising on the younger employees´side, the age given by 8 key competences: creativity, media competence, discrimination prevention, creativity rising, preserving communication skills, flexibility, stress resistance, the tacit knowledge within the company and the team organisational skills, ability to resolve conflicts and team dynamics rising. At the same time this practice is a very spirit. All the researches introduced in this entry comfirm economical method of education and proves a good the validity of the model mentioned. In regard to the fact quality of open communication in an organisation. that the Generation Y members themselves are aware of the drawbacks of their own generation, especially in the • The need to focus educational activities on the area of field of communication skills, it is necessary to focus on this communication and communication skills, and then direct area Y (Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, 2014). the participants in educational activities towards a higher degree of citizen tolerance and humility. Stress more In relation to the aforesaid, it is essential to mention the practically attuned forms of education, especially the curriculum reform, that brings changes in the content and technical ones and crafts. Within the scope of educational objectives of education. The task schools should fulfil is activities use the energy and positive thinking of the not only to impart knowledge, but, before others, to teach participants in the educational process. Include into the how to deal with information and acquire the so called key educational activities also the health education both competences, which will enable people to assert on labour physical and especially psychical individuals´ healthcare, market. At the same time it is essential to stress the fact that which is exposed to a permanent stress in today´s the curriculum reform totally neglected the area of tertiary environment. The solution in this area is then in the education, as well as the whole sphere of professional and tendency to a healthy lifestyle. In regard to the demographic further professional education. development of population a need to focus educational activities on working ability maintenance during the life The focus group results, focused especially on the and on personal responsibility enforcement followed possibilities of the curriculum changes in further out of the discussion. Although Generation Y stresses professional education, indicated the following (quoted acc. the area of education and development, it is necessary to Tureckiová, Šnýdrová, 2014): to emphasise the need of lifelong learning all the time, not only to their members, but to all of the population. Conclusion • The need to adapt the content and the forms of education, and the need to change the methods of education chosen, i.e. focus primarily on the methods which link theory and practice, e.g. workshops, case studies, shadowing, stages In conclusion it is possible to state, that in regard to the in partner organizations and in different departments, modern-day trend, which focuses on the emphasis of, 20 | 21

Research Work – Generation Y (Výzkumné šetření – generace Y). so called, key competences and, at the same time, on the Hays: (2011) change in requirements and objectives, on the Generation 2011 [online]. Available on the internet from Y members´as well as the employers´ sides, it is necessary http://www.hays.cz/?gclid=CN-q2pbtsL0CFa-WtAodf2oAGg Development and Employee Education to change the content and goals of the curriculum, in both (Rozvoj a vzdělávání pracovníků). tertiary education and the whole area of further education Hroník, F. (2007) and further professional education, in such a way that would Prague: Grada Publishing, help improve the quality and efficiency of the individuals 2007. 240 p. ISBN 978-80-247-1457-8. in their professional career. The competence of the future Prepare your Child for Life (Připravte své dítě do života). will be created by more or less interconnected expert Murphyová – Wittiová, M., Stamerová-Brandtová, (2007) skills, life-long education, but also by genuine personal P. skills. Developing competences in the pedagogical and Prague. Grada, 2007, ISBN 978-80-247-2082-1 Professional Education of Adults (Profesní andragogical interpretation is the task of the upbringing, vzdělávání dospělých). as well as of the scholar system, life-long education and Mužík, J. (1999) experience in life. We will see in the future, how successfully Prague : Codex Bohemia, 1999. 200 p. the supply and demand on both the companies side ISBN 80-85963-93-0 Andragogy Research Paper (employers and educational institutions) and the Generation (Andragogický výzkum). Y members side will be satisfied. Nevertheless we can Průcha, J. (2014) say, that if all the sides participated do not manage to link Prague: Grada Publishing, 2014. together their mutual requirements and goals sufficiently, ISBN 978-80-247-5232-7 Dictionary of Andragogy there will be negative consequences for everybody. References (Andragogický slovník) Průcha, J. Veteška, J. (2012) . Prague: Grada Publishing, 2012. Human Resources Management – 296 p. ISBN 978-80-247-3960-1 Latest Trends and Methods, (Řízení lidských zdrojů – Andragogical Knowledge Systematization Armstrong, M. (2007) Nejnovější trendy a postupy). (Systematizácia poznatkov andragogiky). th Švec, Š. (2008) 10 edition. Prague: Grada In Tokárová, Publishing, 2007. 800 p. ISBN 978-80-247-1407-3. A., Matulayová, T. (eds.) Social Pedagogy, Social Work Education in Companies – Strategic and Social Andragogy – Current Theory and Practice Approach in the Employee Education (Firemní vzdělávání – Bartoňková, H. (2010) Issues (Sociálna pedagogika, sociálna práca a sociálna Strategický přístup ke vzdělávání pracovníků). andragogika – aktuálne otázky teórie a praxe). Prešov: Prague: Grada Faculty of Arts at University of Presov in Presov, 2008. Publishing, 2010. 208 p. ISBN 978-80-247-2914-5. p. 107–110. ISBN 978-80-8068-927-8.

Czech statistical office. (2011). /online/ Sttatistics Available Tureckiová, M., Šnýdrová, M. (2014). The Curriculum on the internet from http://www.czso.cz/csu/redakce. Transformation of Further Professional Education in the nsf/i/statistiky. /cit. 05-10-14/. Czech Republic with Emphasis on Changes in Competence Requirements (Proměny kurikula dalšího profesního Czech statistical office. (2011). /online/ Sttatistics Available vzdělávání v České republice s akcentací na změny on the internet from http://www.czso.cz/csu/redakce. v požadavcích na kompetence). /in printing/ Development and Human Resources nsf/i/statistiky. /cit. 30-10-14/. Management (Rozvoj a řízení lidských zdrojů). Tureckiová, M. (2009) Deloitte: (2014) Millennial Survey 2014 [online]. Available Prague: on the internet from http://www2.deloitte.com/global/ University of Jan Amos Komensky Prague, 2009. 128 p. ISBN en/pages/about-deloitte/articles/2014-millennial-survey- 978-80-86723-80-8 Competence in Education positive-impact.html (Kompetence ve vzdělávání). Tureckiová, M.; Veteška, J. (2008) Engage Hill: [online]. Available on the internet from http:// Prague: Grada Publishing, 2008. www.engagehill.com/ 160 p. ISBN 978-80-247-1770-8 Managing the Millennials: Discover the Core Competencies for Managing Today‘s Workforce. Espinoza, Ch., Ukleja M., Rush, C. (2010) Act No. 111/1998, Higher Education Act Contact

John Wiley and Sons:2010.192s ISBN 978-0-470-56393-9 Organizational Change and the Dynamics of Psychological Contracts: A longitudinal study. Freese, C. (2007). PhDr. Markéta Šnýdrová, Ph.D., Working place: ČVUT, Ridderkerk: The Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, Address: Ridderprint Offsetdrukkerij B.V. Kolejni, Prague 6, e-mail: [email protected] Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Changes in the educational structure of the Czech This paper is aimed at changes in the educational structure population and their regional disparities of the Czech population in the last twenty years and disparities of population educational structure at the regional level NUTS3. In this paper data of the Czech Jana Kouřilová Statistical Office related to population older than 15 years are used. Abstract:

The Czech Republic, in comparison with Changes of educational structure of the Czech population developed countries, is characterized by a low proportion and the university development of university graduates. Over the last 20 years situation has changed also in connection with a significant development The educational structure of the Czech Republic population of universities after 1998. But there are significant is different from the educational structures of the developed disparities among Czech regions although now higher countries. By comparison, the Czech population is education institutions are located in all regions. characterized by a low proportion of university graduates, but also a low proportion of people with only primary The paper is aimed at changes in the educational structure education or no education (see EC, 2010). But situation has of the Czech population in the last twenty years and changed since 1993. Fig. 1: Changes of the educational structure of the CR disparities of population educational structure at the population (population older than 15 years) regional level NUTS3. Keywords:

population, educational structure, university, university graduates, disparity, region JEL Code:

I20, I23 Introduction

Development of countries and regions is conditioned by a lot of factors which can be divided in two groups – universal and specific factors. Universal factors are generally valid and indicate their importance in the development of both successful and lagging regions. The universal factors include the existence of strong Source: author´s graph according to data of the Czech Statistical centers, accessibility, institutional environment, research, Office (2014) development and innovation and their links to business and public sectors and also educated and flexible human During last 20 years the share of people over 15 years old resources. Specific factors include the conditions for the with a university degree has increased from 7.8 per cent development of tourism, site of important raw materials, in 1993 to 16.7 per cent in 2013. Contrary the share of the environmental conditions, etc. (Wokoun, Krejčová, population with only primary education or no education Kouřilová, Damborský, Pělucha, 2014) has significantly decreased, from 27.6 per cent in 1993 to 14.9 per cent in 2013. The shares of persons with secondary Human resources are one of the main universal factors. education (with or without maturity) are relatively The existence of an educated and skilled workforce is constant. a necessary but not sufficient condition for economic, social and cultural development of countries and their There are some reasons of these changes, such as a switch regions. Educated people tend to recognize the importance of generations (older generations in the Czech Republic of education and deepening the skills that improve their tend to have a lower achieved level of education), growing flexibility and increase their chances of good job prospects. importance of higher education in the Czech society (Možný, 2002) and above all improving access to education Availability of education is one of the basic conditions related to development of universities, especially after for improving of the population educational structure. r. 1998 in connection with the adoption of the new Law Universities play a key role in a preparation of educated on Higher Education, which allowed the establishment of and skilled people and also can influence development private universities (Kouřilová & Vlčková, 2010). activities in territory (see Lundvall, 2002, OECD 2005, Saaravirta, Consoli, 2006, Peters, 2006, Kouřilová, Vlčková, At the beginning of the period, in 1993, 23 universities with 2010). 105 faculties were in the Czech Republic and all universities 22 | 23

were state-owned (ČSÚ, 2010). Now there are, under1 the by the suburbanisation processes in relation to Praha data of Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth , 26 public (Ouředníček, 2003). Tab. 1: Shares of people with primary education universities, 2 state universities and 43 private colleges or no education and higher education, 1993 and 2013 and universities. Traditional educational centres, Praha and Brno, continue to play the most important role in the tertiary education system. In most of regional centres there are public universities with a relatively wide range of study region basic higher fields. Jihlava, the centre of the Vysočina region and Karlovy education education or no (university Vary, the centre of the Karlovarský region, are exceptions. education graduated) In Jihlava College of Polytechnics was founded in 2004 and 1993 2013 1993 2013 in Karlovy Vary only departments of Faculty of Economics of University of West Bohemia in Plzeň are there. Private Czech Republic 27,6 14,9 7,8 16,7 colleges and universities are also mostly located in the Praha 17,9 8,5 18,2 32,0 traditional educational centres, above all in Praha (see more Středočeský 30,1 13,6 5,3 16,0 Kleňhová, 2010, Kouřilová&Vlčková, 2010). Jihočeský 28,3 15,3 6,6 15,0 Plzeňský 26,2 13,4 7,0 14,8 Over 20 years the number of students has significantly increased. While in the academic year 1992–1993 a total Karlovarský 30,6 20,6 4,9 9,6 number of students was 114 thousands (ČSÚ 2010), in Ústecký 30,4 20,7 4,4 10,3 the academic year 2013/2014 it was 368 thousands (ČSÚ, Liberecký 28,7 17,5 4,8 14,7 2014). Structure of study fields of university graduates also Královéhradecký 27,0 12,9 7,0 13,8 significantly changed above all in favor of social sciences Pardubický 27,6 14,9 6,0 13,2 (Kouřilová & Krejčová, 2013). Vysočina 31,7 15,5 5,3 11,5 Disparities of population educational structure among Jihomoravský 26,9 13,9 9,6 21,2 regions in the Czech Republic Olomoucký 27,9 16,9 7,2 12,4 Zlínský 29,2 16,1 7,1 13,6 Although availability of universities has improved, there Moravskoslezský 30,7 17,4 5,7 14,6 are significant disparities in the educational structure of the population among regions at level NUTS 3, especially in the share of people with primary education or no education Source: author´s table according to data of the Czech Statistical and in the share of university graduated. Differences in the Office (2014) proportion of the population with secondary education are not so significant among regions. As mentioned above, the educational structure of the population of the CR regions is changing. But intensity Table 1 shows the differences among regions of the of these changes is different. In the whole country there Czech Republic regarding the representation of people is a decline of the share of people with basic education, with basic or no education and university graduates. It during last 20 years by 42 per cent (see Figure 2). The most is not surprising that Praha, as a capital of the CR and its significant decrease of people with only basic education is economic, social, administrative and cultural centre, has possible to note in Praha and the Královéhradecký region. the highest share of university graduated and the lowest Contrary the lowest decline is characteristic for Ústecký share of people with basic education. With regard to (28 per cent) and Karlovarský region (29 per cent). university graduated, the Jihomoravský region is on the second position followed by Středočeský region. With The figure 2 shows an increase in the number of university regard to basic level of education Praha is followed by graduates in all regions of the Czech Republic. The Královéhradecký and Plzeňský region. On the other side Středočeský region is distinguished by the largest increase Karlovarský and Ústecký regions are characterized by (in 2013 more than 3,6 times as much in 1993), slightly the highest level of basic educated people and the lowest lower growth is in the Liberecký region. On the other hand, share of university graduated. Educational structure is very there are two regions with the increase of the number of closely connected with economic and social conditions, university graduated less than 2 – Praha and Olomoucký history, settlement, culture and traditions of regions. In region. The relatively low increase in Prague can be Středočeský region the situation is also strongly influenced influenced by the concentration of university graduates in

1 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, on-line http://www.msmt.cz/vzdelavani/vysoke-skolstvi/prehled-vysokych-skol, [2014-08-08] Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Prague before 1993 and the above-mentioned processes (from 7,4 per cent in 1993 to 11,6 per cent in 2013). of suburbanization. In Olomoucký kraj the low growth of The shares also increase in regions Jihočeský, university graduates is probably a reflection of economic Ústecký Liberecký, Pardubický, Jihomoravský and conditions (a lack and a structure of jobs) and the structure Moravskoslezský. Fig. 3: Regional structure of university graduates (shares of study fields. Fig. 2: Growth of number of low and high educated persons of all university graduates older than 15 years in the Czech in regions, index 2013/1993 Republic), 1993 and 2013

Source: author´s graph according to data of the Czech Statistical Office (2014)

Source: author´s graph according to data of the Czech Statistical University graduates find jobs mainly in large cities Office (2014) therefore they settle either directly in these cities or in their neighborhood. It means that also settlement In the Czech republic the number of university graduated structure of the region is one of factors which influence people older than 15 years was 647,5 thousands in educational structure of population. The other significant 1993 and 1 495,7 thousands in 2013. But their regional factor is a structure of the regional economy and related distribution is uneven due to the economic and social job offers. An important role is also played by the offer development of regions. Figure 3 shows shares of regions of study programs and the employability of university on the university graduates in the Czech Republic. Praha graduates in the regional labor market. These factors as a capital of the Czech Republic is characterized by and a lot of others such as social relations, personal concentration of university graduates but their share preference, identification with the territory, cultural needs has decreased. One of factors which have influenced this are reflected in the educational structure of population decrease is suburbanization. In relation to suburbanization in regions. processes, a number (and also a share) of university graduates has increased in the catchment area around Based on the above mentioned information it is possible to the capital, in the neighboring districts of the Středočeský divide regions of the Czech Republic in terms of educational region. structure and its changes over the past 20 years into several groups:

The university graduates are concentrated also in st the Jihomoravský and Moravskoslezský region due to 1 group – regions with relatively stable educational changing role of their regional centres Brno and Ostrava. structure characterized by high share of university Especially Brno is profiled as an important centre graduates: Praha, Jihomoravský; of public and private services, science and research, nd education. The share of the total Czech population 2 group – regions with significantly rapid growth of with university degree decreased between 1993 and university graduates: Středočeský, Liberecký;

2013 in regions: Praha (the most significant decline rd from 28,3 per cent in 19963 to 23,1 per cent in 2013), 3 group – regions with educational structure similar to Plzeňský, Karlovarský, Královéhradecký, Vysočina, the national educational structure (but with lower share of Olomoucký and Zlínský. On the contrary the Středočeský university graduates): Jihočeský, Plzeňský, Královéhradecký, region is characterized by the most noticeable increase Pardubický; 24 | 25

th 4 group – regions with relatively higher share of the people as economy development in the region and relevant job with only basic education or no education: Moravskoslezský, offers, cultural and social relations, settlement structure, Zlínský, Olomoucký, Vysočina; urbanization and suburbanization processes, etc.

th 5 group – regions characterized by a high share of the Finally, it should be noted that a university education itself people with only basic education or no education (more is no guarantee of getting a good job. An important role is than 20 per cent) and a low share of university graduates played by field of education and the personal qualities of (less than 10,5 per cent): Karlovarský, Ústecký. people – their willingness to work, continue to learn and Conclusion – final notes improve their skills. References

Trh práce v ČR – časové řady 1993 až 2013 The educational structure of the Czech population older than 15 years has changed quite significantly over 20 years. ČSÚ (2014). , However, these changes do not appear with the same on-line http://www.czso.cz/csu/2014edicniplan.nsf/ intensity in the whole Czech Republic. There are significant publ/250130-14-r_2014, [2014-08-08] Školy a školská zařízení 2013/2014 differences among regions above all at the shares of people with only basic education or no education and at the shares ČSÚ (2014). , on-line of university graduates. http://www.czso.cz/csu/2014edicniplan.nsf/p/230042-14, [2014-08-18] In 2013 a high share of the population with only basic Demografie, revue pro výzkum populačního education or no education is typical for Karlovarský and Kleňhová, M. (2010). Terciární vzdělávání ve 20leté vývoje Ústecký region, Moravian regions (except Jihomoravský retrospektivě, region) and also Liberecký, Jihočeký a Vysočina regions are , 52 (4), ISSN: 0011-8265 also above the national average. Praha is characterized by the lowest share of the people with only basic education or Kouřilová, J. & Krejčová, N. (2013). Vývoj vysokých škol v ČR Regionální studia no education (only 8,5 per cent). po roce 1990. Případová studie Vysoké školy ekonomické v Praze. , 6 (2), 39–47. ISSN 1803-1471. The University in the Learning On the other side Praha is a place of concentration of Economy university graduates. There live almost a quarter of Lundvall, B. A. (2002). university educated Czech population, the share of , DRUID Working Paper no 0206, university graduates on Praha population is 32 per cent in ISBN 87-7873-122-4 Česká společnost: Nejdůležitější fakta 2013. Praha is followed with a large gap by Jihomoravský o kvalitě našeho života region on the second position (more than 21 per cent ). In Možný, I. (2002). other regions the shares of university graduates are below . Praha: Portál. ISBN 80-7178-624-1 Building Competitive Regions. Strategies and the national average. The lowest values​​ of the share of Governance. university graduates are achieved in Karlovarský (9,6 per OECD (2005). cent) and Ústecký region (10,3 per cent in 2013). Report. OECD, 2005, ISBN 92-64-00946-9 Sociologický časopis/Czech Sociological Review, 39 In terms of educational structure and its changes over Ouředníček, M. (2003). Suburbanizace Prahy. the past 20 years it is possible to divide regions of the (2). Sociologický ústav Czech Republic into five groups: (1) regions with relatively AV ČR, Praha Higher Education, Development, and stable educational structure characterized by high share the Learning Economy of university graduates, regions with significantly rapid Peters, M. A. (2006). growth of university graduates, regions with educational , on-line http://www.philosophy-of- structure similar to the national educational structure, education.org/pdfs/Saturday/Peters.pdf, [2010-05-02] Higher Education regions with relatively higher share of the people with only and Regions basic education or no education, regions characterized by Robson, B. & Drake, K. & Deus, I. (1997). a high share of the people with only basic education or no . Report 9, Centre for Urban Policy Studies, education (more than 20 per cent) and a very low share of University of Manchester, on-line dostupné na http://www. university graduates (less than 10,5 per cent). leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/report9.htm [2007-04-22] Regional Development, Education and Innovation: A Case Study on University Although the accessibility of higher education has Saaravirta, T. & Consoli, D. (2006). Graduates in Finland improved for the last 20 years, it can be stated that regional differences in the educational structure of the population , on-line http://www.proact2006.fi/ have persisted. This situation is affected not only by chapter_images/304_Ref_A28_Toni_Saaravirta.pdf [2007- access to education, but also by many other factors such 04-22] Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Regionální studia 3 Vlčková, V. & Kouřilová, J. (2010). Vývoj vysokého školství na innovations (new means of production, technologies, území České a Slovenské republiky. (2), products and services). The goal of the paper is to explain 34–45. ISSN 1803-1471. the importance of innovations, the assessment of the innovation effectiveness, the structure of the innovation Konkurenceschopnost regionů Wokoun, R. & Krejčová, N. & Kouřilová, J. & Damborský, process and the quantitative indicators of the innovation Evropské unie a České republiky. M. & Pělucha, M. (2012). effectiveness. Ústí nad Labem: UJEP, 2012. Тhe importance of innovations ISBN 978-80-7414-534-6. Contact

In present conditions, innovative activities are seen RNDr. Jana Kouřilová, Ph.D., Masaryk Institute as an important factor in the development of modern of Advanced Studies, Czech Technical University in Prague, national economies. To survive in the conditions of Kolejní 2637/2a, 160 00 Praha 6, growth, increasing competition and intensive integration Email: [email protected] processes, any economic subjects must try to implement innovative processes. Research experience of companies The specifics of assessing that have achieved the international leadership suggests the innovation effectiveness that the key of this success is the implementation of a development strategy. By implementing such strategies leading companies differ from each other (Sekerin, 2012).

Vladimir D. Sekerin – Anna E. Gorokhova – Despite the fact that every company uses its own strategy, Martin Šikýř the fundamental principles of evolution and development of successful companies are basically the same. Their Abstract: success is based on the proper use of competitive The paper explains the importance of advantages resulting from innovative activities and effective innovations in the development of modern national use of available resources, especially of human resources economies and discusses goals, principles and features and human capital (Kucharčíková, 2014). It should be of the assessment of the innovation effectiveness. noted that the new knowledge and skills, the research It substantiates the dependence of the innovation and development activities, by themselves do not create effectiveness from the stage of the innovation life cycle, a successful economy. The key to sustained competitiveness because the differences in target criteria of innovations and welfare is the successful application of the research and determine the need for the various indicators of the development results, it means the successful application innovation effectiveness. It shows the multidimensional of innovations. In many cases, the management of the effect of innovative activities and studies the fundamental research and development activities, their planning, approaches to the construction of quantitative indicators organizing, staffing, leading and assessing, is strategically of the innovation effectiveness. more important than the actual execution of research and Keywords: development (Babikova et al., 2014). innovation effectiveness, innovation process, Тhe assessment of the innovation effectiveness innovation life cycle JEL Code:

O31 Introduction Innovative activities, as well as other types of economic activities, are carried out only if they benefit the economic subjects. That is why the assessment of the innovation The economic growth potential of an economy subject effectiveness is an integral part of the development and is determined by the availability of natural resources, implementation of innovative projects. Decisions on the state of physical and human capital, the quality of the financing of innovative projects should be based the institutional environment, geographical factors on calculations of cost-effectiveness, but in relation to or natural conditions. However, even in countries innovation processes, there are specifics of assessing their with similar conditions of economic performance effectiveness, due to several reasons. The main ones are the and natural resources are marked different levels of following (Sekerin & Gorokhova, 2013a): performance and different rates of economic growth. This is explained by different levels of innovative • The innovative projects are characterized by the more activities of economic subjects and, as a consequence, wide range of participants in comparison with by uneven level of implementation and diffusion of investment. 26 | 27

Тhe structure of the innovation process • In a total amount of costs of implementation of innovative projects, the considerable part is made by expenses on scientific researches and development. For effective management of innovative activities it is • There is a need of coordination of interests of founders, necessary to properly structure the innovation process, producers and users of innovations. it means to define its separate stages. The approaches of scientists to the definition of particular stages of • The innovative projects are characterized by the use of an innovation life cycle are various. Having generalized many criteria for assessing the effectiveness, as well as them, we propose to distinguish phases, stages and the use of qualitative criteria, especially in the scientific steps of the innovation process that are summarized in and research stage of the innovation process. table 1. Tab. 1 Phases, stages and steps of the innovation process

The assessment of the innovation effectiveness is necessary: Phases Stages Steps

• When selecting areas for further research and Creation of Science Basic research development activities and realizing innovations the commercialization of innovations. Pilot studies Research Applied research • When choosing the direction of practical use of innovations. Development Design Production Pilot production • When selecting available innovative projects for Commercialization Introduction Market entry implementation. of innovations of innovations Diffusion of Industrial (mass) • When developing the business plan of the innovative innovations production project. Source: authors • When selecting innovative projects applying for participation in innovative programs. Features of different stages of the innovation process, having regard to their target criteria, cause the need The analysis of the innovation effectiveness should be based of application of various indicators of the innovation on the following principles: effectiveness in their realization. The main criterion of carrying out the basic research is the possibility of • Integrity of innovative process – the specified process obtaining a scientific effect. It should be noted that represents set of projects, each of which is a uniform the effectiveness of the basic research for the next interval complex of works and actions; of time in principle cannot have a value. The main criterion of commercialization of innovations is either the size • Calculation of opportunity costs – the assessment of profit, or a payback period. of the innovation effectiveness has to be based on the accounting of the missed benefits caused by possible The effect of innovations is multidimensional, including alternative options of use of resources; following types of effects: economic, budgetary, commercial, scientific, technical, technological, economic, financial, • Accounting of all consequences of implementation social, ecological or informational (Sekerin & Gorokhova, of each innovative project, both economic and 2013b). noneconomic. In its most general form, the cost effectiveness represents • Variety of stages of the innovative project – at various the ratio of the forecast effect to the costs of the stages of development and implementation of the implementation of an innovative project. The innovation innovative project, its effectiveness is defined again, effectiveness should be defined concerning the objectives with different levels of detail. of the development of social and economic systems. In this case it is advisable to classify them using an objective tree. • Taking into account the existence of different participants of the innovative project, discrepancy In assessing the innovation effectiveness, the first step of their interests and distinction in the cost estimations is to formulate the requirements to the socio-economic of the capital. system as a whole, and the second step is to make Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

detailed lists of elements and their characteristics, understanding the advantages and disadvantages determining the costs and outcomes. These lists must of currently used methods of the assessment of necessarily include description of physical elements the innovation effectiveness can contribute to the arising from the realization of innovation processes as improvement of these methods. References well as dynamics of their creation, cost elements and effectiveness parameters. In fact the main idea of the Экономическое обоснование assessment of the innovation effectiveness consists инженерных проектов в инновационной экономике: in adequate definition of both cost elements, as well Babikova, A. V. et al. (2012). Учебное пособие / Economic Justification of Engineering as effect elements from the realization of innovation Projects in the Innovation Economy: Textbook processes. (1 ed.). The quantitative indicators Moscow: INFRA-M. of the innovation effectiveness Periodica Polytechnica: Kucharčíková, A. (2014). Investment in the human capital social and management sciences as the source of economic growth. There are three basic approaches to creation of quantitative , 22(1), 29–35. Инновационный маркетинг: indicators of the innovation effectiveness, reflecting the Учебник / Innovative Marketing: Textbook effectiveness of innovation processes by comparing the Sekerin, V. D. (2012). costs and benefits. (1 ed.). Moscow: INFRA-M. Оценка According to the first approach, the alternatives инвестиций: Монография / Investment Appraisal: of an innovation process are projected on the basis Sekerin, V. D., & Gorokhova A. Y. (2013a). Monograph of approximately identical target characteristics and the choice of the most preferred option is made according to (1 ed.). Moscow: ARGAMAK-MEDIA. Виды эффекта the criterion of minimizing costs. The second approach is от реализации инноваций / applied in conditions of a strict budget constraint on the Sekerin, V. D., & Gorokhova A. Y. (2013b). Известия МГТУ «МАМИ» realization of an innovation process. The alternatives are Types of effects of differentiated according to characteristics of functional implementation of innovations. , elements, collectively focused on approximately the same 15(1), 258–263. Contact total cost, and the choice is made according to the criterion of maximum effectiveness. The third approach is applied in a case when the alternatives are differentiated according to both the criterion of effectiveness and the criterion of Vladimir D. Sekerin, Dr.Sc., Prof., Moscow State costs. In this case, it is necessary to apply criteria on the University of Mechanical Engineering (MAMI), Institute basis of relative indicators of absolute or incremental of Economics and Management, Department of efficiency on a unit of value or expenses, also absolute or Economics and Industrial Management, 107023, Moscow, incremental. Bolshaya Semenovskaya str., 38, Russian Federation, [email protected] In the case where the criteria indicators, somehow affect the assessment of the effectiveness of more than Anna E. Gorokhova, Ph.D., Moscow State University of one, the method “acceptable range of values” can be Mechanical Engineering (MAMI), Institute of Economics used to establish these parameters. Then excluded from and Management, Department of Economics and Industrial consideration all alternatives of the innovation process in Management, 107023, Moscow, Bolshaya Semenovskaya which at least one of the characteristics of criteria misses str., 38, Russian Federation, [email protected] the selected range. This allows you to narrow down the set of options considered and thus use a more serious Martin Šikýř, Ing., Ph.D., Czech Technical University procedures expert analysis to select the best option among in Prague, Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, a few alternatives. Kolejní 2637/2a, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic, Conclusion [email protected]

The knowledge of modern methods of the assessment of the innovation effectiveness has a great practical importance, because it allows managers to make qualified decisions in the field of innovation and effective use of limited resources of the organization. In addition, 28 | 29

The use of employee satisfaction surveys activities understood as controlling is not precisely specified within HR Controlling and known. It is seen as a management function in addition to planning, organizing, motivating and providing background information (Král, 2010). Controlling performance here Otakar Němec – Alois Surynek does not decide, but its importance lies in the provision of information. In the German concept, the approach to Abstract: controlling is more comprehensive. Controlling is understood HR controlling represents an important as a management tool, which is responsible for coordinating supporting activity of human resource management as well the planning, control and information data base so that it as of organizational management. The authors consider the seemed to improve business results (Horváth, 1992). controlling as a system for production, processing, storage and transmission of information necessary for effective In a narrow concept, we can say that the basic function of performance management activities. HR controlling is controlling is to provide relevant information, prepared based on the information describing the working potential simply, clearly, distinguishing the different levels of decision- of the organization’s staff, and their labour activities. making owners or managers (Scholleová, 2009, p. 17). There are used different sources of information, including the personal data collected on employees, data from The task of controlling is to identify adequate indicators the research of staff or the data of state statistics about through which can best describe and evaluate the processes employees and the labour market. In their paper, authors in the organization. Personnel controlling the search for bring the sum of knowledge on HR controlling and present indicators of the labour force and employees in order to the use of employee satisfaction surveys as sources of identify current job performance, prospects and potential information for HR controlling. for future job performance, working conditions, willingness, Keywords: discipline, etc. controlling, HR controlling, job satisfaction, The meaning of HR controlling employee satisfaction survey JEL Code:

M12, L25 Introduction Opportunity to apply controlling in human resource management derived from the general definition of controlling. HR controlling will be different from financial HR controlling is understood as an effective tool for controlling. But if we come out from the assumption that human resource management. Its usefulness is generally controlling is a strategic management tool that works with recognized. The problem of HR controlling is the diversity not only financial, but also other indicators, then the use of in the conception of this phenomenon and its definition controlling in human resource management is legitimate to other HR activities. The problem also lies in the and rational. It is one of the possible management tools production of correct information, which is necessary for supporting management decision-making, implementation the formulation of HR strategy of the organization. Use of and evaluation of the organization’s strategy in human personal information collected in traditional organizations resource management. is obvious, but this information is not enough. Additional resources should be sought to provide a more accurate Human resource management refers to activities related to description of the initial conditions of the HR strategy. management and leadership of employees in an organization, The paper focus on the identification of various sources including job design, employee selection, performance of information for HR controlling and presents the use of management, employee compensation or employee training. employee satisfaction surveys as important and useful The overall objective of human resource management is to sources of information for HR controlling. The paper is achieve expected organizational performance by achieving fulfilling one of the tasks of the research project of the desired employee performance (Šikýř, 2011, p. 607). The Faculty of Business Administration of the University of successful achievement of this objective requires effective Economics Prague: “The crucial aspects of the development tool for examining and assessing the effectiveness of the of business competitiveness of national economies in the implementation of HR policies and practices and their impact global economic system” (IGA 02 VSE TD010093). on employee and organizational performance. Such a tool is HR controlling (Bušina, 2014, p. 187). The nature of controlling

The intention of the application of HR controlling in an organization is to plan, analyse and judge the development There are differences in the Anglo-Saxon and German concept of decisive quantitative and qualitative HR indicators, of controlling. In the Anglo-Saxon concept, the scope of such as the number of HR professionals in relation to the Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

overall number of employees, professional structure and satisfaction varies in content and content must be accurately qualification level of employees, revenues, costs, added identified. The importance of employee satisfaction can be value per employee, rate of fluctuation, absenteeism and changed into time. Therefore, employee satisfaction surveys accident rate of employees, success in filling vacant jobs should be repeated regularly. from internal and external sources of employees, efficient The use of employee satisfaction surveys used of funds for remuneration, training and development of employees, etc. The objective of the application of HR controlling in an organization is to create and implement an effective system of human resource activities that will There are basically three sources of information for HR ensure desired employee performance and so expected controlling: the personal data collected on employees, data organizational performance. (Bušina & Šikýř, 2014) from the research of staff or the data of state statistics about employees and the labour market. HR controlling uses both quantitative and qualitative indicators. Various indicators are used for each HR Personal data in the organization varies according to the activities. These indicators must cover mainly recruitment needs of the organization. Statistical data are relatively fixed and selection of employees. For example, indicators form and structure and is necessary for the needs of the must describe the situation associated with the advent organization to interpret. Research data content are also of employees as the cost of advertising, the number of consistently identified and changes according to the specific responses to the ad, the number of accepted applicants, needs relate more to areas where satisfaction is concerned. the dwell time employee in the organization, number of The phenomena themselves are qualitatively homogeneous employees who leave the organization during the trial – it is in the case of employee satisfaction surveys on period, the proportion of recruits to the total number opinions and attitudes. of underlying selection interviews. Phenomena such as number of employees or undesirable and excessive turnover The research on employee satisfaction can provide and its causes are indicators describing the output of the interesting information about employees. It can monitor employees of the organization. For example, the indicator several purposes. In the classical concept of satisfaction total number of employees who left during the reporting is an expression of social psychological atmosphere in period or the individual departments is commonly used. the workplace. In terms of the empirical survey is seen as Length of employment, reasons for leaving, employees or the level of employees’ attitudes. In this sense, they are more can be monitored by other criteria. designed standardized tests satisfaction and best known are the following: Incapacity of employees is another of the fields in which they are generated indicators describing the state of • Overall Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (OJSQ) was first employees in the organization. Costs are associated with described by Warr, Cook and Wall in 1979. Job disability as by individual departments. Special attention is satisfaction is defined as “the level at which the person paid sick leave, which is the cause of an accident at work. interviewed marks the satisfaction of the internal and The prevention and the costs of preventive measures, health external factors of work” (Warr, Cook & Wall, 1979). checks, etc. are associated with it as well. • Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) is a tool to Indicators of trends in average wages, salaries, share of measure satisfaction using several different aspects of labour costs in total costs employee benefits different the work environment (Swafford & Legg, 2009). groups of employees are monitored in the area of remuneration. Also, employee satisfaction with pay, • Brayfield-Rothe Job Satisfaction Questionnaire measures benefits, working conditions etc., is investigated. HR basic employees’ attitudes to their work. The measure professionals can monitor the number of employees who of agreement of the respondent herein expresses the have undergone evaluation for the period, time-consuming position to work on a five-point scale (Powell, 2009). evaluation, the costs associated with the introduction of the evaluation system. Job satisfaction of employee and Employee satisfaction is in practice one of the most watched credibility of the evaluation system is also monitored in areas of applied organizational sociology. Monitor employee the employee evaluation process. Education is seen as an satisfaction is important for several reasons: investment in employees at present. Indicators of efficiency of investment in education, which are based on the cost of • It is assumed that satisfied employees are generally education, are monitored for this reason. more productive work efficiently, better and faster.

Employee satisfaction surveys can enter useful information • Satisfied employees go to work instead, and it is not into the system of HR controlling. Information about the necessary for basic labour force activity; 30 | 31

• Satisfied employees have fewer reasons to change jobs, functioning of workers‘ organizations. Therefore, attention satisfaction reflects a higher degree of employee loyalty; should also be devoted to the evaluators. This means it is necessary to describe exactly the person evaluator set of • Dissatisfaction and the final form of employee turnover personal characteristics. jeopardize relationships with clients. Environmental factors

Satisfaction can be seen as an important prerequisite for efficient use of labour potential employees. Dissatisfaction is an obstacle that connects only with low target, the Factors of the physical environment are a complex employee asks. Job satisfaction can also be a criterion for expression of several others. These factors include evaluation of HR policies of the organization. Here is a direct conditions such as lighting, noise, cleanliness, air flow, proportionality – the greater satisfaction, better staffing temperature, dust, or aesthetic mastery of space. It is policies and better organization cares about employees. confirmed and generally known that workers feel better in In this case, job satisfaction is actually a description of a well-equipped workplace. Work in such an environment a state. From this it is clear that employee satisfaction is attracts more people. According to Kollárik (1986) good a reflection of the state of the organization or its parts. One environment has even a share the popularity of professions. can also say that job satisfaction is an indicator of the level Unpleasant, dirty, noisy environment causes dissatisfaction of management, as the flaws in it strongly reflected in the on the contrary, workers and the general unpopularity of attitudes and feelings of workers. work in such conditions. The type and nature of work Job satisfaction is described in Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Here there are two types of factors. Hygiene factors (level of working conditions) have only a maintenance role. Satisfaction with factors such as working Working in concrete form will vary depending on many environment, type of work, social environment, etc. is characteristics, and this is reflected differing levels of expression suitable conditions. Dissatisfaction with them satisfaction among individuals. If the job description creates disincentives. In terms of organization is needed is simple and routine brings negative phenomena such to monitor these factors and strive to maintain the desired as boredom, decreased interest, fatigue, depression, level of performance. Motivational factors associated etc. The more complex work activities, on the contrary, with stimulating people to better performance – hence are a possible precondition satisfaction. The employee, motivators. They are a precondition for the exercise of however, must cope with such work. Otherwise, the complex work activity and bring internal employee satisfaction. will intensify job dissatisfaction. These include, for example promoting personal growth, advancement opportunities, and enough work awards According Kollárik (1986), individual professions provide (not just financial). These factors contribute to the job different opportunities to satisfy workers. In particular, satisfaction of persons. highly skilled labour, socially highly valued and attractive offers more opportunities and possibilities of job Two-dimensional structure needs arose in accordance satisfaction. For example scientific activities are among with the structure of motivation and satisfaction: 1) The those that require higher education, providing interesting system needs avoiding inconveniences; 2) The need of job, getting a higher status, greater prestige. Self-realization personal growth. Hygiene factors are not characterized and satisfaction of higher needs is more likely just in by such features, which could lead to personal growth. science. An important aspect is according to Fritz (2006) Therefore, they are not so relevant for individuals. workload. Overloading is a negative factor as well as Motivators are, however, factors of performance of insufficient workload. A heavy load causes stress and results work and are thus necessary for personal growth. They in psychological problems of lack of rest. influence psychological stimulation and fulfilment of Compensation the individual persons. Just motivators have a dominant position from the viewpoint of job satisfaction and working behaviour (Kollárik, 1986). A wage is basic financial reward for work of persons. It Bedrnová & Nový (1998) have criticized this theory in allows the worker to satisfy a wide range of needs. This the strict assignment of ever facts to one of the groups of function is dominant and often has a decisive motivation factors. According to them, the inclusion of salary (wages) influence. It ensures the existence of the worker and his to hygienic factors is debatable. Overall job satisfaction of family. Wages are also a source of social prestige. Worker employee in the organization is determined as an average sees awards its own work contribution, involvement in evaluation (and expressing satisfaction) of each page work and contribution to society in prize money. Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Two fundamental aspects are observed in connection with dissatisfaction with the whole group or business, and not job satisfaction with wages: 1) the amount of wages is taken just the manager. as the basic remuneration for work done and is assessed taking into account the current needs of the worker. The The chief executive is effective when he is attentive to new higher level of needs increases satisfaction in its the needs, interests and attitudes of their subordinates. original level. Satisfaction is associated with an increase in He is effective when he creates the conditions for the remuneration; 2) justice remuneration is tied more to the effectiveness of the whole group in equilibrium with actual evaluation work and express its importance for the the optimum level of satisfaction, and he considers and workplace, organization or company. Output per worker respects the satisfaction of their subordinates as a source is also compared with the work performance of other of pretentiousness. The proper head should discover employees, whether on the same level or at other levels. and appreciate their subordinates at all good, pointing to Basic wages may increase the holiday allowance, various the target results. The influence of manager to employee bonuses and allowances. satisfaction is closely related to the previous one. He can influence on course of work activities and their effects in Fellow workers a workgroup. These facts then enter into the experience of workers.

Social environment of workers is made up of working A good leader should trust, praise and motivate their groups, individuals or other entities. Satisfaction with work subordinates. He should properly delegate tasks and group has a significant effect on overall job satisfaction. The responsibilities to them and try to encourage teamwork. structure, occupancy and group cohesion are important Destructive and negative leadership on the contrary item of job satisfaction. A cohesive group meets the needs destroys work effort lacks of incentives reduces productivity of social contact. From experience it is known that good and employee performance. (Fritz 2006). relationships contribute to satisfaction of the workers Personality of workers and a positive attitude to work and organization. Bad relationships cause disharmony in the team. Frequent conflicts are indicators of disturbed relationships within the group. Personality characteristics of individuals affect their relationship, attitude to work and the overall balance There are four main areas of social environment. of work and non-working life. Working conditions and Relationships with co-workers, cohesion, position in the their impact on worker satisfaction are dependent on the group, and progress of adaptation belong to them. These level of actual personal characteristics. First of all, job aspects are intertwined combine. They allow you to meet satisfaction is directly dependent on the individual needs the needs related to the social conscience of man. Hence, and their hierarchy. The level of satisfaction is different for they make a great extent worker satisfaction in work in workers with the currently highlighted existential needs or general. Conversely, job satisfaction has a positive impact on development and self-realization needs. Conclusion labour relations. (Kollárik 1986)

Fritz (2006) writes about the importance of interpersonal relationships in the workplace. She argues that if the HR controlling is an important supporting activity of relationship does not work as it should, this can be changed human resource management as well as organizational from the work that the worker is otherwise quite happy to management. The authors consider the controlling the chore. Disagreements and misunderstandings between as a system for production, processing, storage and colleagues are by her frequent reason for job dissatisfaction. transmission of information necessary for effective performance management activities. The objective of the Management application of HR controlling in an organization is to create and implement an effective system of human resource activities that will ensure desired employee performance Managers are key figures in the work process and and so expected organizational performance. HR controlling significantly affect not only the efficiency of the group, but is dependent on the production of information describing also the attitudes of the group members to the organization, the working potential of employees and their labour the work activities and their subjective dealing with the activities. There are used different sources of information, given conditions. The leadership, management, control and including employee satisfaction surveys that can provide organization of people are tasks of the managers. These interesting information about employees, their motivation, activities directly affect the subordinates, and are often abilities, results and behaviour. This information can be one of the main sources of job satisfaction, respectively used in developing and implementing effective HR policies 32 | 33

and practices that will allow achieve the overall objective Warr, P., Cook, J., & Wall, T. (1979). Scales for the measurement Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52 of human resource management in the organization – to of some work attitudes and aspects of psychological well- achieve expected organizational performance by achieving being. , 129–148. Contact desired employee performance. References

Psychologie a sociologie Doc. Ing. Otakar Němec, CSc., Department of Personnel řízení Bedrnová, E., & Nový, I. (1998). Management, University of Economics, Prague, Winston (1 ed.). Praha: Management Press. Churchill Sq. 4, 130 67 Prague 3, Czech Republic, [email protected] Ivey Business Journal Belcourt, M. (2001). Measuring and managing the HR function: A guide for boards. , 65(3), PhDr. Alois Surynek, Ph.D., Department of Managerial 35–39. Psychology and Sociology, University of Economics, Prague, Human Resource Management in the Winston Churchill Sq. 4, 130 67 Prague 3, Czech Republic, Building Industry Bušina, F. (2014). [email protected] (1 ed.). Praha: Wolters Kluwer. Workplace stress and its impact Bušina, F., & Šikýř, M. (2014). Human Resource Controlling on job performance and Human Resource Management: Practice of Small and Controlling in SMEs – Beyond Numbers Medium-Sized Building Companies in the Czech Republic. In Kubíčková, D. (Ed.), (pp. 469–476). Retrieved from http://www. vsfs.cz/ Adriana Grenčíková – Jana Španková – Sergej Vojtovič controlling/?id=2156-sbornik-a-vystupy Spokojeně v zaměstnání Abstract:

Fritz, H. (2006). (1 ed.). Praha: Stress is a natural part of life, if moderate and Portál. lasting not too long. Excessive stress can have serious Controlling psychical and physical consequences. In addition to major life Horváth, P. (1992). (4 ed.). München: Verlag events, many stressful events are related to the workplace. Vahlen. Nowadays, workplace stress has become a major issue faced Spokojnosť v práci by employees. It is common for stressed employees to eat Kollárik, T. (1986). (1 ed.). Bratislava: unhealthy food, smoke, drink alcohol or lack exercise. As Práca. a result, increased levels of cortisol, the major stress hormone, Manažerské účetnictví may occur. In the present study, we investigated stressors Král, B (2010). (3 ed.). Praha: in the Freescale company which affect the job performance Management Press. and health of employees. The main objective of the study was to identify single types of stressors affecting employee Christian Education Journal Powell, D. (2009). Skilled and Satisfied: Research Findings job performance and assess their severity and frequency. In 6 Regarding Executive Pastors. , addition, the study attempts to identify symptoms of stress (2). and ways of coping. The novelty of the study lies primarily in applying theory into practice, verification of hypotheses and Ekonomie a Management Reissova, A., & Hrach, K. (2011). Personální controlling proposing recommendations for the company in question. 14 a řízení personálních procesů. , Currently, the Freescale Semiconductor company employs (1), 70–82. an international staff consisting of more than 100 specialists Investiční controlling who have made a vital contribution to the company success. Scholleová, H. (2009). (1 ed.). Praha: The management of the company place great emphasis on Grada Publishing. quality of project management process and quality of software products. Consequently, the company can benefit from the Journal of Swafford, L., & LEGG, J. (2009). Determinants of Job survey and implement the recommendations proposed in Allied Health 38 Satisfaction Among Radiation Therapy Faculty. managing employees in order to reduce or eliminate the , (3). negative effects of stress on well-being of employees and their job performance. Keywords: Šikýř, M. (2011). Determinants of employee performance: International Days of Statistics and how to achieve sustained competitive advantage. In Loster, job performance, stressor, stressful events, Economics T. Pavelka, T. (Eds.), working conditions, ways of coping JEL Code: (pp. 606–614). Retrieved from http://msed.vse. cz/files/2011/Sikyr.pdf O15 Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Introduction

answered that they are not able to cope well with stressful situations in workplace. We encounter stress in all domains of our lives. Stress is a natural part of life, if moderate and lasting not too long. To assess respondents’ views on whether stress affects their Excessive stress can have serious psychical and physical job performance, we asked ”Do you think that stress can consequences. In addition to major life events, many have an impact on your work performance and motivation?” stressful events are related to the workplace. Several studies Results are provided in the Table 1. Tab. 1 The impact of stress on work performance show that the effectiveness of an individual decreases and motivation with inadequate working conditions, such as poor lighting, improper ventilation, high level of humidity, unsuitable temperatures, etc. These physical stressors must be taken into consideration as they cause stress and decrease work Number of responses effectiveness. Reduced work hours and well organized shift strongly agree 32 65% work can increase work quality and productivity. Even agree 16 33% though eliminating physical stressors is neither complicated neither agree nor disagree 1 2% nor costly, employers continue to ignore them. Plamínek says that people encounter situations that may cause stress disagree 0 0% on a daily basis (Plamínek, 2004). Grenčíková, Navickas strongly disagree 0 0% consider stress to be one of the features of today’s society strongly agree 32 65% (Grenčíková, Navickas, 2013). Work-related stress is one of the biggest health and safety challenges that we face in Source: compiled by authors Europe. According to studies conducted, nearly one in four workers is affected by it, and studies suggest that between Any type of stress has an impact on everything we do. If 50% and 60% of all lost working days are related to it. This stress is being experienced in workplace, it will ultimately represents a huge cost in terms of both human distress and affect performance as well as the achievement of both impaired economic performance. Stress at work can affect personal and organizational goals. In this respect, 98% of anyone at any level. It can happen in any sector and in any respondents are convinced of the impact of stress on their size of organisation, therefore as maintained by Armstrong, job performance. The responses indicate that respondents attention should be paid to stress reduction (Armstrong, experience primarily negative type of stress, whereas 1999). Stress affects the health and safety of individuals, but positive stress, also called Eustress, is necessary and often also the health of organisations and national economies. leads to better performance of individuals. We found that a mere 36% of respondents said that the stress they Method experience in the workplace has rather positive than negative effects on them. For 8% of respondents, the pressures at work provide a healthy level of stress that drives them The survey was aimed to establish a correlation between forward. Some 48% of respondents stated that stress has stress and productivity of the employees working in the a negative impact on them. We can sum up that stress has Freescale Semiconductor company, the Czech Republic. an adverse effect on human body and if not managed or A questionnaire was adopted as a method of research in the treated it can lead to significant medical diseases. Negative study. We distributed questionnaires personally to employees type of stress is called distress. Therefore, it is important that of the Freescale Semiconductor company based in the town employees know what to do to handle and eliminate it. Since of Rožnov pod Radhoštěm. The survey was conducted in work-related stress is a major issue in many countries and in the month of November 2011 and had 50 respondents. different kind of workplaces, preventive measures should be Respondents were 43 males and 7 females of almost all age given priority. 8% of respondents could not say whether the groups, excluding the age group to 20 years as the majority of type of stress is positive or negative. employees hold higher education qualification. The workforce of the company is stabilised, the majority of respondents have We precisely defined the basic concepts used in the been working for the company for more than 6 years. questionnaire as it was assumed that not all respondents are familiar with the subject area. There are 45% acutely Results stressed employees, whereas acute stress may take several minutes or a few hours and disappear within a few days. We are of the opinion that this is the type of stress experienced The research results indicate that 41% of respondents are by most of the employees of the Freescale company. Next, not able to assess their ability to cope with stress. On the 38% of respondents frequently experience anticipation other hand, another 41% of employees are able to cope well stress. Anticipation stress refers to the anxiety and emotional with stressful situations. The remaining 18% of employees fatigue suffered before meaningful life experiences, whether 34 | 35

positive or negative. 8% of respondents stated that they Most respondents agreed that time pressure is the most experience posttraumatic stress and the remaining 9% frequently experienced work-related stress factor (16%). of respondents experience chronic stress. Eventually, 13% of respondents consider workplace conflicts, whether these employees experience long-term stress, so to say between colleagues or superiors, to be a stress factor. pathological in nature. Respondents’ responses related to Insufficient time to complete a project makes stressed symptoms of stress can be found in Figure 1. 12% of respondents. Other factors are the following – bad Fig. 1 Symptoms of stress interpersonal relations (9%) and poor work organization (9%), conflicting instructions by superiors (8%), job duties and responsibilities (6%), fear of being dismissed in the current economic crisis, low salary, deteriorating labour relations and excessive requirements from employers (4% each), working environment (3%). We can therefore conclude that the employees of the company have almost ideal conditions for performing their jobs. Other stress factors stated by respondents include business trips abroad, communication barriers when cooperating with foreign companies, insufficient qualification of colleagues and absurd requirements from superiors. Source: compiled by authors Next, we investigated the ways of coping with stress. Respondents could mark more than one option. As shown, Responses obtained can be found in Figure 3. Fig. 3 Ways of coping with stress symptoms can vary tremendously from one individual to the next. While one stressed person may experience feelings of sadness, the other may suffer from anxiety or nervousness. 19% of respondents marked irritability as the most common sign of stress and 15% of respondents marked nervousness as the second most common symptom of stress. 10% of respondents experience anxiety under stress, followed by another 10% who report concentration difficulties at work and the remaining 10% feel exhausted. When under stress, 9% of employees experience anger and 8% of respondents have sleep disorders. Stress-related insomnia makes them feel tired and nervous and employees lose their productivity. 5% of respondents feel indecisive when important decisions Source: compiled by authors are to be taken. Another 5% of respondents lose self- confidence under stress, which makes them more vulnerable. It is a well-known fact that everyone experiences stress, but Symptoms of stress include nervousness (4% of employees), different people cope with it in different ways. Therefore, sadness (3% of employees) and 2% of respondents marked we investigated what the preferred ways of coping with the option of „other“ (for instance atopic dermatitis or upset stressful events are. If follows that sleep is considered stomach as marked by two respondents). The most frequent important in coping with stress (21%), entertaining friends stressors in the workplace are illustrated in Figure 2. or practicing sports (18%), relaxation and massages in Fig. 2 Stressors in the workplace wellness centres (16%). It is evident that coping strategies vary across individuals. Other ways of coping include reading books, magazines or watching TV (6%), drinking alcohol (5%), playing computer games (3%), smoking (2%) and using drugs (1%). “Other“ responses accounted for the remaining 4%.

Overwork can affect how employees do their jobs. However, respondents reported not feeling overworked (35%), feeling rather overworked (29%), being not able to decide whether they feel or do not feel overworked (29 %). Almost 6% of respondents do not feel to be overworked and a mere 1% of respondents reported feeling tired and overworked. The extent to which employees of the Freescale company feel Source: compiled by authors overworked is shown in Figure 4. Current Trends and Challenges of Human Resources Management

Fig. 4 The extent to which employees feel overworked

Some respondents feel that their superiors lack understanding and empathy. If they did not, they would feel much less stressed. This finding can be regarded as a guide to improve labour relations in the workplace. Hence, employees need to be treated with empathy and understanding to feel less stressed in the workplace. Moreover, some respondents complain that they are not informed about any layoff plans well ahead time. Layoffs are painful and stressful for everyone, and it is advisable that employer take the initiative and announce that reductions might be necessary. Source: compiled by authors The biggest benefit provided to eliminate stress is flexitime The following question was to identify whether respondents as stated by many respondents. Moreover, employees can feel being under time or psychic pressure. Responses are work from home and take advantage of a well-being scheme. summarized in Table 2. In addition to luncheon vouchers, the company provides the Tab. 2 Time or psychic pressure in the workplace employees vouchers that can be used for sports activities and relaxation. A group of respondents appreciate friendly relations among staff and the fact that everyone is on a first Number of responses name basis with everyone else. Going by first name is a part of the corporate Open door policy. It is worth noting Very often 4 8 % that the employer is trying to react to stressful situations Often 22 45 % without hesitation, no matter how petty. The employer Rarely 23 47 % wants the employees to work out their problems as soon Never 0 0 % as possible. Employees can also approach the employer as he is interested in work-related problems and ready to help Source: compiled by authors them. Moreover, we found that personal qualities are also taken into consideration when interviewing applicants, It is apparent that there is a number of employees who are i.e. balanced and relaxed candidates are taken on to keep in charge of too many projects and tasks which they are not conflicts to a minimum. able to complete in the deadlines given. On the other hand, there are also employees who can manage their time and Some of our respondents stated that real project planning assignments well. focused on project complexity plays an important role. Moreover, flexibility should be in place regarding projects, Respondents’ views on whether the employer eliminates i.e. the intended start and finish dates should be met, stress are illustrated in Figure 5. however in special cases deadlines should be allowed to be Fig. 5 Elimination of stress and its effects in the workplace extended. We agree that it is stressful for those involved if the project is to be finished by a specific target date, which is unrealistic for various drawbacks. Discussion

Work-related stress is experienced when the demands of the work environment exceed the employees’ ability to cope with them. Stress is not a disease, yet can ultimately lead to both physical and psychological health issues. Stress should not be viewed as an individual’s weakness, but Source: compiled by authors an organizational problem. Nevertheless, stress is not only harmful as small amounts of stress is desired and helpful in From our perspective, it is very important that the employer overcoming obstacles. (Praško, Prašková, 2007) know about his employees being under stress and do something to eliminate it. The responses revealed that 48% Job stress has become a common problem in a workplace. of respondents rather agree that superiors address the issue It usually occurs when a person faces a threat or challenge. of stress, 30% cannot say, 8% of respondents do not agree, It may also occur if one has fear of losing his or her job or of 8% agree and 6% rather disagree. failing to complete certain assignments. However, stress can 36 | 37

be induced by positive factors as well, such as for instance or a massage treatment benefit to be covered 50% by the promotion. It is not only work-related stressors that cause employer and 50% by employees. Those are the benefits stress in individuals, but also major life events, such as which were common in the past years. References marriage, child birth or divorce. Therefore, managers should closely monitor the employees’ behaviour, and step in Personnel Management. quickly and effectively if necessary because prolonged and intense stress adversely affects their work productivity. Armstrong, M. (1999). Praha: Grada Publishing. ISBN 80-7169-614-5 Human Behaviour in There are three major causes of job stress. The first cause Organizations. is the working environment. When employees work in Grenčíková, A. Navickas, V. (2013). a poorly lit, noisy or small and poorly ventilated rooms, they Plzeň: A. Čenek. ISBN 978-80-7380-481-7 Self-control. are much more prone to stress. The next are the stressors related to the intensity of work, such as for instance when Plamínek, J. (2004). Praha: Grada Publishing. employees are given too many tasks with short deadlines. ISBN 80-247-0671-7 Assertivity against Stress. The third group of causes of stress comprises poor interpersonal relationships, including superior/subordinate Praško J., Prašková H. (2007). conflicts, bad-mouthing colleagues or unhealthy rivalry. Praha: Grada Publishing. ISBN 978-80-247-1697-8 Contact Most people think of stress as a negative experience, which may not always be the case. Stress can also be a constructive force stimulating higher performance in employees. It is important to recognize negative stressors and avoid them. Ing. Adriana Grenčíková, PhD., Trenčianska univerzita A. Dubčeka v Trenčíne, Fakulta sociálno-ekonomických The Freescale company has a well-developed welfare vzťahov, Študentská 1, 911 50 Trenčín, system. Flexitime scheme eliminates employee stress [email protected] while the core time when they have to be present at work is between 10 am and 230 pm. The scheme has PhDr. Jana Španková, PhD., Trenčianska univerzita many advantages, such as better work-life balance, fewer A. Dubčeka v Trenčíne, Fakulta sociálno-ekonomických commutes, less fatigue, more days off and lower sickness vzťahov, Študentská 1, 911 50 Trenčín, rates. Other benefits provided to employees are the home [email protected] office and well-being schemes. In addition, we recommend massage therapy vouchers be provided to alleviate or doc. Sergej Vojtovič, DrSc., Trenčianska univerzita reduce back pain after sitting at a computer for hours. We A. Dubčeka v Trenčíne, Fakulta sociálno-ekonomických would recommend the massage treatment vouchers to be vzťahov, Študentská 1, 911 50 Trenčín, provided for each employee at least once in three months [email protected]

38 | 39

Human Resources Management and Management in Practice positions, since subordinates take cues on how to communicate from those above them. So what can we as managers and leaders do to improve intercultural communication in our organizations?

Intercultural communicative competence The aim of this paperis to outline some cultural concepts, in management and business aspects of cultural adaptation, the relationship between culture and language, to identify a set of strategies for helping achieve better understanding, and to explain Monika Hrebackova their relevance for international management and the impact of these culture-bound aspects in practical communication. It also outlines Czech cultural values Abstract: as seen by others and demonstrates business examples The paper describes the impact of intercultural of typical symptoms of cultural clashing in effort to context on communication competencies in a foreign recognize potential faux pas ensuing from little cultural (English) language, as perceptions of other cultures are or social awareness. currently viewed as an integral part of effective intercultural Concepts and Terminology communication and a tool developing competitive advantage, especially in the corporate sector. The paper identifies the components of intercultural competence, such as attitudes, knowledge and understanding; it also The two modifying adjectives frequently used in compound analyses different aspects of perception in other cultures, nouns with communication are intercultural and cross- including stereotyping, attitude toward time, negotiations cultural. Some authors differentiate intercultural and and some critical issues and their influence on intercultural cross-cultural on the basis of how they define culture communication in international teams and businesses. (Kramsch, 1998a): cross-cultural implies meeting of It shows different models of cultures, compares poly- two cultures across the political boundaries of nation chronic and mono-chronic cultural standards,considers states. Intercultural, on the other hand, may also refer to explicitness in communication and attitudes to hierarchy, communication between people from different (ethnic, individualism and indulgency. It outlines Czech cultural gendered, social) cultures even within the same nation values as seen by others anddemonstrates business state. However, we distinguish between cultures on the faux pas examples of typical symptoms of cultural clashing in effort basis of their language use and for this purpose we use the to recognize potential ensuing from little cultural term intercultural communicative competence. Also, as we or social awareness. Itbriefly points out some strategiesand follow the recent trends in applied linguistics, we can hardly scenarios implementing intercultural elements applicable to recognize the difference between the two most frequently intercultural management. used adjectives communication and communicative. Keywords: Therefore we find it reasonable to use intercultural Culture, Competences, Communication, Czech, communicative competence in this paper. Lingua Franca, Business Introduction Another concept explaining communication across cultures isthe cultural intelligence model which is based on theories of intelligence (Earley and Ang, 2003). It shows The rapid development of communication and transportation many similar features as the intercultural communicative technologies has gradually transformed human society into competence theories, however a deeper analysis to a global community in the 21st century, in which intercultural ensure validity and reliability of such assessment is due communication competence becomes a necessary ability to an independent research. We present only a short for people to interact appropriately and effectively with outline of cultural intelligence in this paper with the aim each other. However, in an intercultural dialogue or to illustrate the diversity of current scientific concepts. international trade, we are inevitably facing the challenge What is culture? from communication barriers such as cultural stereotype and prejudice, identity conflict, language deficiency, and „Culture hides more than what it reveals, and strangely the lack of interaction skills. Only through the acquisition of enough, what it hides, it hides most effectively from its own intercultural communication competence (ICC) can these participants.“ problems be minimized in the process of global interaction.

In business the primary responsibility for communication in any organization rests with people in management Edward T. Hall (1914–2009) Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

The picture of an iceberg is well-known in English facts, planning, preferring truth to diplomacy. Southern teaching circles. The iceberg in James Cameron‘s film European, Latin, African and Middle-Eastern countries Titanic is classic in visualising the perils of an unseen are typified as Multi-Active, centred on relationships, mass. As shown in Figure 1, the hidden mass of an iceberg feelings and often pursuing multiple goals simultaneously. is a good comparison to show how hard it is to see or East Asia is typically Re-Active, never confronting or fully understand cultures and this acquire intercultural interrupting and following harmonising, solidarity-based competence. strategies. Figure 1: Iceberg Model of Culture Figure 2: Cultural types, the Lewis Model

Source: http://www.crossculture.com/

Mistakes and misunderstandings, uneasiness and being uncomfortable or embarrassed, are typical symptoms of cultures clashing. Therefore linking language and culture in an educationally relevant way is essential and recognising potential “faux pas”, raising the awareness of cultural differences, and finding cultural and socially acceptable Source: Image by James Penstone, opengecko.com reactions to cope with situations where the other active partner is not even aware of a cultural “faux pas”, appears Culture is developed through language and each language in the centre of intercultural communicative competence provides a new view and a new angle to a land, its people, in a foreign language. their lives and beliefs. Language is the key to tell their stories and their history. And this is where intercultural Practically, this can imply changing some aspects of competence – or incompetence – begins. With mistakes conventional communication approaches, designing and misunderstandings, with uneasiness and discomfort, new elements and identifying and focussing on elements sometimes even embarrassment. which have often been held back. Emphasising practical communication and the role of polite discourse, degrees Apart from Hall´s iceberg model of culture demonstrated of formality, registers of language styles, and combining in Figure 1, there are several other theories: the pyramid these with awareness-raising excercises with respect model developed by Hofstede, the onion model by to culture-bound conventions and country-specific rules Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, or the Lewis model lie at the heart of good intercultural communicative (Figure 2) which provides a practical framework for training in a foreign language. The goals in second understanding and communicating with people of other language acquisition are slowly shifting in the direction cultures, and can be expanded with other features, such of avoiding conflict, minimizing misunderstanding, as Hoefstede’s cultural dimensions (see Figure 5). Lewis checking comprehension and responding in adequate classifies cultures and cultural standards into Linear- ways. Needless to stress here that knowledge, implicit Active, Multi-Active and Re-Active, or some combination. or explicit, cannot be omitted. Broadly speaking, Northern Europe, North America and related countries are predominantly Linear-Active, Speaking about intercultural communicative competence, following tasks sequentially using logical thinking, however, we need more than just knowledge and skills. 40 | 41

If one in many definitions characterises communication as the value of different cultures and becomemore sensitive producing and understanding discourse in a given context, to the verbal and non-verbal cues of people from other in intercultural context we speak about exchanging ideas cultures, while cultural adroitness shows that people know and meanings by individuals who may have different what to do and what not to do and that they will be ableto assumptions and feelings. communicate more effectively without offending any parties. As competent language users we should be aware that Cultural Intelligence and its components language opens doors to the world but each language provides only one particular view of the world. Our understanding is filtered through our own culture. Culture is revealed through using the language. In the face of cultural adaptation issues, Earley and Ang (2003) propose a model of cultural adaptation called The examination of discourse features may well provide ‘Cultural Intelligence’ (CQ) which illustrates a different useful information for intercultural understanding, as it concept and deals with three main components is the language which ultimately makes up interaction, demonstrated in Figure 4: metacognitive/cognitive; and it is almost always a person’s use of language which motivational; behavioural. Figure 4: Compotents of CQ based on Earley (2003) defines our perception of their intercultural competence. Interestingly, language is almost entirely ignored in the many definitions of intercultural competence which are used to provide the basis for training curricula and tests, the results of which can have crucial effects on individuals’ careers. Competence can be usefully defined as “...the ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilising psychosocial resources (including skills and attitudes) in a particular context. For example, the ability to communicate effectively is a competence that may draw on an individual’s knowledge of language, practical IT skills and attitudes towa rds those with whom s/he is communicating.” (OECD 2003) Figure 3: Intercultural Competence Dimensions The cultural intelligence is defined as “A person’s capability for successful adaptation to new cultural settings, that is, for unfamiliar settings attributable to cultural context” (Earley&Ang, 2003). The authors introduced the abbreviation CQ with relation to IQ, and other intelligences such as emotional intelligence (EQ).

The first component of CQ, metacognitive/cognitive CQ refers to a person’s cognitive processing to recognize and understand expectations that are appropriate for cultural situations. It can be further broken down into two complementary elements: knowledge and experience. Based on Chen and Starosta (1996) Metacognitive knowledge refers to what and how to deal with knowledge gained in a variety of circumstances while metacognitive experience refers to conscious Intercultural competenceas seen by Chen and Starosta experience about what are relevant experiences and (Chen and Starosta, 1996) is presented as a three-part how to incorporate them as a general guide for future process that leads to ‘cultural awareness’, ‘cultural interaction. sensitivity’ and ‘cultural adroitness’. This can be seen in Figure 3. Cultural awareness, where once people become People from certain cultures possess metacognitive more self-aware they tend to be better at predicting the characteristics that differ from people from elsewhere. effects of their behaviour on others. After people learn International management studies often confirm that something about other cultures, they know how to adjust differences in the pattern and style of decision making of their behaviour to better meet the expectations of the Western and non-Western cultures related to distinctive new institution. Cultural sensitivity includes values and metacognitive experience. For example, deep-rooted attitudes such as open-mindedness,non-judgmental differences in experience, culture and values in Asian attitudes and social relaxation, in order to understand economies may imply diverse management practices Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

than those in the West (Rowley and Poon, 2008), The approaches involved include: hence requiring different CQ from managers and business. Valuing cultural diversity and pluralism of views and practices

The second component of CQ, motivational CQ, is Respecting people who have different cultural affiliations a self-concept which directs and motivates oneself to from one’s own adapt to new cultural surroundings. Knowing oneself is not sufficient for high CQ because awareness does Being open to, curious about and willing to learn from and not guaranteed flexibility. A certain level of cognitive about people who have different cultural orientations and flexibility is critical to CQ since new cultural situations perspectives from one’s own require a constant reshaping and people and managers must be motivated to use this knowledge and produce Being willing to empathise with people who have different a culturally appropriate response. According to ‘cultural cultural affiliations from one’s own self-representation theory’ (Erez and Earley, 1993), the ‘self’ can be thought of as embedded within a general Being willing to question what is usually taken for granted system of cultural context, management practices, self- as ‘normal’ according to one’s previously acquired concept and work outcomes. Early (2003) conceptualizes knowledge and experience motivational CQ as: intrinsic motivation – the drivers of performance that originate from within an individual; Being willing to tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty and self-efficacy – people’s belief that they can be effective on a given task. These are both key aspects Being willing to seek out opportunities to engage and for organisations, management and performance, of cooperate with individuals who have different cultural course. orientations and perspectives from one’s own

The third component of CQ, behavioural CQ, reflects The knowledge and understanding which contribute to the ability to utilize culturally sensitive communication intercultural competence include: and behaviour when interacting with people from cultures different from one’s own. This CQ component Understanding the internal diversity and heterogeneity of reflects a person’s and manager’s ability to acquire or all cultural groups adapt behaviours appropriate for a new culture. Again, the need for this for management and organisations is Awareness and understanding of one’s own and other obvious. people’s assumptions, preconceptions, stereotypes, prejudices, and overt and covert discrimination Unlike ICC, cultural intelligence concept works with dimensions such as cognition, motivation and behavior Understanding the influence of one’s own language and but there are clear similarities. CQ is also applicable across cultural affiliations on one’s experience of the world and of cultures as it studies the ability to successfully communicate other people with people in the global world. Searching differences may be due to a comparative study in an independent research Communicative awareness, including awareness of the fact analysis. that other peoples’ languages may express shared ideas in a unique way or express unique ideas difficult to access The Components through one’s own language(s), and awareness of the fact of Intercultural Competence that people of other cultural affiliations may follow different verbal and non-verbal communicative conventions which are meaningful from their perspective Intercultural competence is a combination of attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills applied through Knowledge of the beliefs, values, practices, discourses and action which enables individuals to understand themselves products that may be used by people who have particular and others in a context of diversity, and to interact and cultural orientations communicate with those who are perceived to have different cultural affiliations from their own (Council of Understanding of processes of cultural, societal and Europe, 2011), to respond appropriately, effectively and individual interaction, and of the socially constructed nature respectfully when interacting and communicating with such of knowledge people and to understand oneself and one’s own multiple cultural affiliations through encounters with cultural The skills involved in intercultural competence include skills ‘difference’. such as: 42 | 43

Multiperspectivity – the ability to decentre from one’s own information learners get about the target language often perspective and to take other people’s perspectives into does not influence their own identities and the ways in consideration in addition to one’s own which they formulate ideas about their own language and their own culture. Skills in discovering information about other cultural affiliations and perspectives An intercultural orientation in a foreign language therefore seeks to transform students’ identities in Skills in interpreting other cultural practices, beliefs and the process of language learning so that they would values and relating them to one’s own understand that culture is not merely information about different people, but a framework which these people use Empathy – the ability to understand and respond to other to exchange ideas, negotiate meanings and understand people’s thoughts, beliefs, values and feelings social reality.

Cognitive flexibility – the ability to change and adapt one’s A deeper insight into particular national cultural attitudes way of thinking according to the situation or context based on Hofstede‘s research and the research of his colleagues, is provided in country scores describing Skills in critically evaluating and making judgements attitudes to power distance, individualism, masculinity, about cultural beliefs, values, practices, discourses and pragmatism, certainty avoidance and indulgence, on products, including those associated with one’s own cultural the dimensions of national culture. Hofstede studied affiliations, and being able to explain one’s views thousands of cultures from all countries and compiled them into a great source of knowledge for many to Skills of adapting one’s behaviour to new cultural compare cultures differences for economics and social environments – for example, avoiding verbal and non-verbal reasons. A sample chart showing scores of the Czech behaviours which may be viewed as impolite by people who Republic is presented in Figure 5, compared to values of have different cultural affiliations from one’s own Russia and Vietnam, which are geographically located to the East of the Czech Republic, and Great Britain, Linguistic, sociolinguistic and discourse skills, including representing the Anglophone culture and geographically skills in managing breakdowns in communication seated in the west. Figure 5: Developed from Hofstede´s 6-D Model

Plurilingual skills to meet the communicative demands of an intercultural encounter, such as use of more than one language or language variety, or drawing on a known language to understand another (‘intercomprehension’)

The ability to act as a ‘mediator’ in intercultural exchanges, including skills in translating, interpreting and explaining.

While attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills are all necessary components of intercultural competence, possessing these components alone is insufficient for an individual to be credited with intercultural competence: it is also necessary for these components to be put into practice http://geert-hofstede.com through action during intercultural encounters. People often profess attitudes and often acquire knowledge and The description through Hofstede´s 6-D Model gives skills which they fail to put into practice. For this reason, the overview of 6 main features: the power distance in order for an individual to be credited with intercultural (need for and accepting authority and power, tolerance to competence, they must also apply their intercultural unequal distribution of power), individualism (I or WE as attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills through a group), masculinity (prevailing masculine values such actions. as being the best or feminine values such as liking what you do), uncertainity avoidance (avoiding risk, preference Another thing that is seldom brought to people´s attention of structured and unambiguous situations), pragmatism is their own comprehension of certain cultures and cultural (truth depends on a situation, context and time) and concepts. Foreign language knowledge often remains indulgence (low score in indulgency shows low tolerance, separated from the knowledge and understanding of the tendency to pessimism and less emphasis on leisure first language and culture. This means that the cultural time). Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

A note on Hofstede´s cultural frameworks Figure 6: Value Differences between Western and Non-Western Cultures AdaptedfromKohls (1981); Marquardt and Kearsley (1999)

Since it was first published in 1980, Hofstede’s culture Western Non-Western Impact on framework has been incorporated into the work of CulturalValues CulturalValues Project academic researchers and intercultural trainers alike. Management Although we mention his findings above and do not wish + to question the value of his research, it is worth pointing out some of the shortcomings of the methodological Individualism Collectivism/Group basis for which he has been frequently criticised. The Achievement Modesty X methodological criticism points out that cultures are Equality/ Hierarchy – not limited to values, nor are they extremely stable, Egalitarianism + culture may be an effect, not only the cause, geographical Winning Collaboration/ boundaries are not optimal for clustering cultures, low Harmony scores and ranking may create a false perception of cultural Guilt Shame X homogeneity, and finally matched samples are not always (internalself-control) (externalcontrol) helpful for the study of cultural differences and can lead to Pride Saving face X+ cultural stereotypes. Respectforresults Respectfor status/ Implications for Intercultural Ascription Project Management Respectforcompetence Respectforelders – Timeismoney Timeislife – Action/Doing Being/Acceptance – Cultural patterns at work reflect cultural patterns in the Systematic/Mechanic Humanistic – wider society. Project managers share the cultures of their Tasks Relationship/ – society and of their organization with their project teams. Loyalty For instance, project management techniques and training Informal Formal – packages have been developed almost exclusively in linear- Directness/ Indirectness – active, individualist countries, first of all in the USA, and Assertiveness are based on cultural assumptions that may not hold in Future/Change Past/Tradition – other cultures. For instance, the ability to communicate Control Fate –+ “bad news” and to manage performance are considered + key skills for a successful project manager. However, Specific/Linear Holistic in managing international projects involving partners Verbal Non-verbal from e.g. reactive societies, one has to bear in mind that (+) = Positive impacto- (-) = Negative (X) = No discussing a person’s performance or abilities openly with fcombiningbothvalues impactofcombi- direct impact him or her is likely to clash head-on with the society’s on outcomes ningbothvalues on outcomes harmony norm and may be felt by the subordinate as an on outcomes (cultureclash) unacceptable loss of face. Such societies have more subtle, indirect ways of communicating feedback, such as through Strategies for Achieving Mutual Understanding in the withdrawal of a normal favor or verbally via a mutually Intercultural Communication trusted intermediary.

In such cultures greater attention is also given to the obligations of relationships and to unique circumstances. Intercultural management strategies include a number of Friendship has special obligations and hence may come different elements as indicated in Figure 7. We illustrate first. Accordingly, less attention is given to abstract legal some of those which refer or may pose obstacles to mutual codes. In linear-active cultures, the law and social norms intercultural understanding. may take precedence over friendships. “Keep it short and simple (KISS)” is the pragmatic The items in Figure 6 identified as having a negative impact suggestion to people using business correspondence on project management clearly portray a clash of cultural today. This is helpful if we mean the exhchange with values and represent areas in which conflicts may occur Northern European or North American business partners. in project teams. Team members need to complete project Convincing empirical evidence has been provided, however, tasks efficiently and make value judgments on courses of to show that in large part of Asia, the KISS strategy might action, based on information not applicable in their own be considered inappropriate. If positive relationships are cultural environments. sought by means of correspondence with e.g. new partners, 44 | 45

much face-work is expected, which may feel alien to many competence is developed in order to enable them to Europeans or North Americans and they may need explicit understand, appreciate and respect each other across training. cultural differences, and to enable them to contribute Figure 7: Communication Competencies for Intercultural actively to societies that benefit from diversity. Developing Interaction (based on Spencer-Oatey and Stadler, 2009) intercultural competence in the English language has been a powerful tool for achieving this as over 74% of Intercultural Intercultural Communication Strategy Competence communication is carried out by non-native English speakers (Gradol, 2006) and there is an increased interest in intercultural competence-based communication which Communication Chooses modes of communication that suit has become a competitive advantage for many managers, management the particular communicative purpose project teams and businesses.

Establishes and agrees to suitable communication protocol This paper has presented some concepts and frameworks for intercultural communicative language competence. Takes steps to deal with communication It recognises that it is a complex and dynamic process in problems line with EU trends which needs to be incorporated in management training, however, there are still unanswered Allows adequate time for achieving questions for future debates. satisfactory understanding References Building Elicits background information that of shared is needed for mutual understanding/ Bennet, M. (1993): Towards Developmental Model of knowledge negotiation Intercultural Sensitivity. Yarmouth: ME Intercultural Press.

Exposes appropriately own intentions Byram, M. (Ed). (2003): Intercultural competence. Active listening Signals that listening is taking place Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. and Regularly checks and clarifies the meaning Attuning of important words and phrases to ensure Byram, M. (1997): Teaching and Assessing Intercultural that all participants get the same meaning Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Notices potential misunderstanding

Observes and pro-actively studies indirect Byram, M. / Nichols, A. / Stevens, D. (eds.) (2001): Developing signals (intonation, body language, eye Intercultural Competence in Practice.Clevedon: Multilingual contact) Matters.

Learns to interpret the signals The British Council (2013): Culture At Work – the value of appropriately in different contexts intercultural skills in the workplace. Free download from Language Adapts to the recipients proficiency level http://www.britishcouncil.org/culture-at-work-research_ adjustment and to maximize comprehensibility Adapts especially in aspects such as: speed, march_2013.pdf Stylistic frequency and length of pausing, sentence flexibility structure, use of idioms, use of accents and Council of Europe (2001): Common European Framework dialects of Reference for Languages. Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Structures and highlights information by using discourse markers, sequencing information, using visual or written aids Council of Europe (2011): Living Together: Combining Diversity and Freedom in 21st Century Europe. Report of Builds a repertoire of different styles to suit the Group of Eminent Persons of the Council of Europe. different purposes, contexts and audiences Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing. Language Confident to use foreign languages learning Chen, G. M., &Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural Tries out words and expressions in unfaminilar language communication competence: A synthesis. In B. Burleson (Ed.), Conclusion Communication yearbook 19: 353–383. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Crystal, D. (1997): English as a global language. Cambridge: Intercultural encounters have nowadays become Cambridge University Press. an everyday occurrence for large numbers of managers in many countries. Therefore it is vital that their intercultural Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

Earley, P. C. and Ang, S. (2003), Cultural Intelligence: Schmidt, P. (2007): In Search Of Intercultural Understanding. Individual Interactions across Cultures, Stanford, CA: Stanford Vienna: Meridian World Press University Press. Spencer-Oatey, H. and Stadler, S., (2009): The Global Earley, P. C. (2003), ‘Redefining Interactions across People Competency Framework, Competencies for Effective Cultures and Organizations: Moving forward with Cultural Intercultural Interaction, The Centre for Applied Linguistics, Intelligence’, Research in Organizational Behaviour, 24(1): University of Warwick 271–299 Contact Graddol, D. (2006): English Next. The British Council: free downloadfromhttp://www.britishcouncil.org/learning- research-english-next.pdf Monika Hrebackova, PhDr., Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies at Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 6 Hall, E., Hall, M. (1990): Understanding Cultural Difference. Kolejni 2a, [email protected] London: Intercultural Press

Hofstede, G. (2001): Culture‘s Consequences. Comparing Using balanced scorecard values, behaviours, institutions, and organizations across in performance appraisal nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Hofstede, G. / Hofstede, G. J. (2005): Cultures and Ľudmila Kolesárová organizations. Software of the mind. New York: MacGraw-Hill. Abstract:

The article deals with performance management The Hofstede Centre (2012): http://geert-hofstede.com/ and its role in company success. The importance is placed czech-republic.html on performance appraisal as one of the key processes of performance management. Performance appraisal has Camerer R., Mader, J (2012): Intercultural Competence in developed a lot during few decades and there are still Business English. Berlin: Cornelsen Schvulverlage new methods applying that have been invented, but not specifically for performance appraisal. In the competitive Kohls, L. R. (1981). Developing intercultural awareness. environment, companies are getting to understand their Washington, D.C.: Sietar Press. employees as valuable assets that can make difference between success and failure. Therefore they put a great Lewis, R. ( 2005): When Cultures Collide,London: Nicholas effort on translating corporate culture, mission and vision Brealy Publishing into individual objectives of every employee. They look at employees’ performance from more than one perspective Lewis, R. ( 2008): Crosscultural communication: the Visual and an employee takes an important role in setting objectives Approach, London: Nicholas Brealy Publishing and evaluating performance. To be able to react quickly on changes or unexpected results, controlling methods are Kramsch, C. (1998a): Language and culture. Oxford: Oxford used. Balanced Scorecard is one of the methods that are University Press. considered to provide detailed analysis of performance, it can be adapted very quickly, thanks to visualization, it is Kramsch, C. (2001): The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English easy to read and a progress of performance can be evaluated to Speakers of Other Languages.Cambridge: Cambridge continuously, if the right information system is present. University Press. 201–206. Keywords:

performance management, performance OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and appraisal, Balanced Scorecard Development (2003): The Definition and Selection of Key JEL Code: Competencies. Executive summary.URL: http://www.oecd. M12, L25 org/dataoecd/47/61/35070367.pdf [accessed 06/10/2010 Introduction

Rowley, C. and Poon, H. F. (2008), ‘HRM Best Practices and Transfers to the Asia Pacific Region’, in Wankel, C. (ed.), 21st In a current competitive environment, topics such as Century Management: A Reference Handbook. 209–220. performance, effectiveness, knowledge, competitive Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications advantages are more and more discussed at management meetings. People are the most important source of these characteristics. Companies are getting aware that 46 | 47

performance of every single employee can distinguish can be explained like in figure 1. Goals need to be clearly between success and failure. A company is a living communicated by line managers and high performance than organization where everyone has to understand its mission depends on capabilities, motivation and working condition. and know how he or she can contribute to it by his or her Not only HR managers, but mainly line managers are every day job. Transmitting corporate objectives to individual responsible. Fig. 1 Basic Performance management principle ones, manage and measure them is crucial. Therefore performance management is getting higher importance. Performance appraisal is one of the stages of performance management and also is one that is developing a lot. Traditional methods are going into the background and new methods are applied. There are few characteristics of them: they are very detailed; they allow assessment from more than one side (not only managers evaluate); they combine financial and non-financial perspectives of performance, they connect individual performance with corporate performance. The purpose of this article is to characterise Source: Newlands & Saee (2012, p. 177). trends in performance management and performance 1.1 Principles and process of performance appraisal methods and show Balanced Scorecard as one of management the modern performance appraisal methods that is a complex system of vertical and horizontal relationships between each performance perspective. The author has an experience from a pharmaceutical company where Balanced Scorecard has The overall objective of performance management is to been implemented for sales force part of a business. develop and improve the performance of individuals and teams and therefore organizations (Armstrong, 2009, p. 59). 1 Role of performance management in a company

It should be not used as a control of employees but as a way to encourage them for better results. Performance The role of HR management in a company success has management is considered to be effective, if it is completely been many times discussed. Competitive forces in the in line with organization’s environment, it is integrated into international business environment are pushing companies other HR processes and it is applied to all employees (Šikýř, to constantly develop their sources of sustainable 2012, p. 113). competitive advantage. Employees’ competencies and the speed at which these competencies can be transformed According to Armstrong (2009, p. 61), performance into high performance are crucial for long-term company management has five basic principles: success (Newlands & Saee, 2012, p. 175). Performance management as one of HR management competencies is • Agreement – goals that need to be achieved are agreed. getting high importance in company success. • Measurement – different indicators, standards, targets are used. Performance management is defined as a process of • Feedback – only constructive feedback reinforce future permanent improving performance (abilities, motivation, performance. activities and outputs) of individual employees and the • Positive reinforcement – it is made for future organization as a whole (Šikýř, 2011, p. 611). Performance development and compensations. management is a continuing dialogue between managers • Dialogue – it is not only top-down process, but it works Plan and the people they manage. The dialogue is based on vice versa as well. goal achievement, performance analysis and constructive feedback, and leads to performance and personal These principles can be translated into the performance development plan (Armstrong, 2009, p. 4). management cycle. Fig. 2 Performance management cycle

When speaking about performance management, it is needed to see it from both perspectives: performance of an individual employee and performance of a company as a whole that are closely depended. Specifically, performance management is about aligning individual objectives to organizational objectives and ensuring that individuals MonitorAct uphold corporate core values (Armstrong, 2006, s. 496). Transferring corporate goals into individual performance Source: Armstrong (2009, p. 62) Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

In practice, the process of performance management has Performance appraisal should be linked with other HR three stages (Šikýř, 2011): management activities such as job design, employee Performance agreement selection, employee compensations and motivation system, • – it is made between managers trainings and development, created by corporate culture and employees and includes two aspects. Firstly, it is and organization development strategy. an agreement about particular elements of performance 1.3 Traditional and modern methods that are relevant to requirements and objectives of the of Performance Appraisal job and the organization. Secondly, it includes also agreement on further development and trainings. Performance management

• – it is everyday management Goal (2008, p. 26–53) is describing several traditional and and leadership of the employee to meet given modern methods of performance appraisal from those requirements and achieve expected goals of the job. several is chosen. Performance appraisal Ranking straight

• – provides feedback from is an easy method to compare the manager to the employee and vice versa through performance of a large number of employees and rank the appraisal interview at the end of the agreed period. them from the most efficient to the least one. Can be It is concerned on the employee’s performance, possible used to compare people in different units in order to ways how to solve eventual problems and agreement salary increase, promotion etc. But does not anything on performance requirements for the next period. say about individual motivation, differences in behavior etc. Assessment on Linear rating scale Employee should be aware of possible compensations when their performance meets the expectations. is a very popular technique, because allows to evaluate employee from many Performance Appraisal as a part of performance perspectives. On the other hand, it is very subjective and management results differ from appraiser understanding of criteria and scale of assessment. Evaluation by a group As defined above, performance appraisal is a final step of performance management. But it is not meant that it should is reducing subjectivity from be done as the last one. Forms of performance appraisal manager´s side. The group discusses the standards can differ. The formal one is characterized as periodic (after of performance and the actual performance of the one quarter, one year, reassignment etc.), but informal employees. Evaluation of employee costs one is coming from performance management cycle and it is an ongoing process that is a part of daily job and daily is a technique used in interactions between manager and employee. Performance accounting books that is aimed to show a return on appraisal is a performance management tool that allows investments of every employee. It can be used only for some managers to control, lead and support employees in their jobs, such as salesman, where investments/expenditures every day job in order to achieve expected performance and return can be calculated. and realize strategic objectives of the organization. The purpose of formal or informal performance appraisal is to Traditional methods mentioned above are still used in gain information on performance of employees and provide a combination of them to eliminate their negatives and them with feedback in order to improve their performance bring their positives into appraisal process. They usually (Bušina, 2014, p. 177). serve as supportive methods to the modern methods. 360-degree feedback

There are several reasons why performance appraisal is is considered to be a multi-level and needed in every organization (Hronik, 2006, p. 15): multi-source feedback which means that an individual is evaluated by “stakeholders” and it measures in a great detail • Organizational culture reinforcement and strategy a behavior, knowledge, attitude and skills for achieving communication – it is used for top- down communication a goal. Stakeholders include managers, peers, colleagues, of the most important business principles. customers, subordinates and the subject himself. It is mainly used as a tool for competence identification and • Interests alignment – it is used for alignment of development. Management by objectives (MBO) organization goals with individual goals of every employee. is a method designed • Performance increase – it is directly connected to a real by Peter Drucker that puts a big impact on setting performance in order to manage and increase it, unless objectives. Objectives need be in line with corporate it is just an administrative load. objectives and reflect employee´s contribution to them. 48 | 49

Results are more important than the methods. Since the strategy into comprehensive performance measured objectives are set by the employee himself it supports his that provides the framework for strategic measurement motivation to fulfil them. Objectives are agreed by manager and management system. It emphasis on achieving financial and it is manager´s responsibility to check frequently a level objectives by performance drivers such as customer, of objectives fulfillment as well as provide feedback. Process business processes, learning and growth. Therefore, BSC of MBO is cycled and basically comes from performance consists of four perspectives: Financial management cycle shown in Figure 2. Human Value Accounting as Asset • – to succeed financially, how should we is one of the most appear to our shareholders? Customer discussed and most difficult method that requires a lot of time to collect and evaluate data. Basically, human • – to achieve our vision, how should we resources are understood as assets that company invest appear to our customers? Business Processes in, in order to make a profit from them. On one side, costs of employees are calculated such as salaries, trainings • – to satisfy our shareholders and etc. and on the other side, employees’ contribution to customers, which business processes should we excel at? Learning and Growth the business is expressed by monetary value of services provided by employees, usually measured by productivity • – to achieve our vision, how or value added. If a company loose well trained employee, should we sustain our ability to change and improve? it can be considered as assets decrease, on the other hand, when company hires from outside full prepared Every perspective includes objectives, measures, targets and person, it is meant to be assets increase. In the sectors particular initiatives. BSC is simply a chain of causes and of high competiveness, besides machines or material their implications. For instance, excellent services (internal human resource assets are playing the important role. business process) bring satisfied customers. Satisfied Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) customers create good worth of month that brings other is based on customers that increase sales (financial perspective). This evaluation of behaviour of an employee in particular job chain of causes and implicatios works also vertically. BSC situations. Employee rates himself and he is confronted with can be leveled from total business to single unit, department a manager´s rating based on common standards. or to individual that helps transform strategic objectives to Centre of Assessment operational ones. Fig. 3 Balanced Scorecard is a method well-used for training and development identifications and managers trainee selection. Candidates are asked to solve a potential business Financial situation and their performance is rated according to acceptance such as “more than acceptable”, “acceptable”, and “less acceptable”.

Modern methods of performance appraisal are bringing experiences from other fields to HR management. They better understand a necessary to align individual objectives with corporate objectives; they are mostly focused on future performance; they bring other stakeholders into evaluation process and they confront employees with real situations. All these allow employees understand better their contribution to company success. Balanced Scorecard is a new tool that is exploring its usage in performance appraisal, because it combines all the characteristics of BusinessLearning Processes& Growth modern appraisal methods mentioned above. Source: Kaplan & Norton (1996, p. 9) 2 Balanced Scorecard as a modern performance appraisal method 2.1 Application of BSC in performance appraisal

According to its authors, Kaplan & Norton (1996, p. 2), BSC is a controlling tool that includes financial and non- Balanced Scorecard (BSC) provides managers with the financial measurements. Therefore the application of BSC is instrumentation they need to navigate to future competitive very wide and can be applicable for those parts of business success. BSC translates an organization’s mission and where not only financial results, but also non-financial Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

Learning and Growth perspective performance is important. Mentioning modern performance appraisal, there is an effort to evaluate a performance of a single employee from more than one perspective. BSC can Learning organization allows employees to learn in order be a tool that combines accounting performance appraisal to increase their performance. The process of learning is methods with methods based on behaviour, motivation and collective and at all levels of organization (Folwarczna, job attitude. 2010, p. 147). This definition explains also a principle of learning and growth perspective in BSC. Organization can 2.2 Vertical model improve its ability to learn only via its employees. They have to know in which areas they need to improve knowledge that the company can be successful in strong competitive The principle of BSC is to transform vision and mission environment. threw strategic objectives to operational ones as shown 2.3 Horizontal model in figure 3. It enables managers to communicate and align corporate objectives with employees’ ones. This is also one of the principles of successful performance appraisal system. There are not only connections between different levels of BSC (from total business to single employee), but also one Financial perspective perspective inside BSC influences performance in the other perspective. BSC is a closed cycled model as shown at figure 3.

Sales, profit, return of investments, cash flow are few of BSC is a great tool how to show to the employees the most used financial indicators for measuring company implications of their performance in one perspective to their success. When setting up the targets, company managers total performance. For instance, a performance of a sales can spread those targets among business units, departments man is usually measured according to financial results such and individual employees. Every employee can see his or as sales, return of investments etc. If he or she is performing her contribution to company’s success in achieving financial very well, it can be caused by high market share, high new results. In some jobs, like salesman, target setting is easier customer’s acquisition rate etc. Performing well in customer than for instance, back office positions. Therefore, financial perspective can be caused by excellent knowledge of the indicators such as added value or cost effectiveness might products, well- structured selling interview etc. This all is be better to use. usually supported by well- organized processes such as right segmentation and customer targeting, quick answer Customer perspective for any objections etc. On the other hand, when an employee is not performing very well, BSC can show areas where an employee needs to improve in. For example, he is losing Customers are the most important stakeholders. VIP customers, because his orientation in product portfolio Companies usually report performance in customer is low, than a manager can set up a plan to improve these satisfaction, market share, new customer’s acquisitions areas and check them in the following period. BSC provides etc. But every employee has his/her customers as well, to a manager as well as to an employee a quick root cause internal or external. If a company wants to excel in analysis of performance. performing with external customers, there are a lot of employees that need to support it. Everybody in The process of performance appraisal based on BSC a company should be aware who his/her customer is requires several conditions to be successful: and which services this customer requires. In this case, 360° feedback seems to be as a right appraisal method • objectives need to be set up in prior; to be used when targets of required behavior should be • individual objectives are in line with corporate set up in prior. objectives; • objectives need to be SMART (specific, measured, Internal business processes perspective achievable, relevant, timed); • an employee needs to understand all the implications coming from BSC (vertical, horizontal); This perspective support customer perspective. Therefore, • assessment is periodic (after year, quarter etc.); the principle is very similar. Processes that are visible for • manager and employee can check the results anytime stakeholders are at top of a pyramid. Than supporting and prepare corrections (coming from performance processes follow. Every provider of these processes needs management cycle); to be aware of his/her contribution in the processes that are • information systems support is needed; visible for external partners. • BSC is visualized. 50 | 51

Conclusion Economics

(pp. 606–614). Retrieved from http://msed.vse. cz/files/2011/Sikyr.pdf Personalistika pro manažery a personalisty The overall objective of performance management is to develop and improve the performance of individuals and Šikýř, M. (2012). teams and therefore an organization. Performance is (1 ed.). Praha: Grada Publishing. Contact a performance management tool that allows managers to control, lead and support employees in their every day job in order to achieve expected performance and realize strategic objectives of the organization. A new tool in Ing. Ľudmila Kolesárová, Razusova 1, 058 01 Poprad, Slovak performance appraisal Balanced Scorecard is a new tool is Republic, [email protected] Balanced Scorecard (BSC) emphasis on achieving financial objectives by performance drivers such as customer, Some methods of examination of regional business processes, learning and growth. Mentioning disparities in Slovakia modern performance appraisal, there is an effort to evaluate a performance of a single employee from more than one perspective. BSC can be a tool that combines accounting performance appraisal methods with methods based on Daniela Hricišáková – Dana Jašková behaviour, motivation and job attitude. The principle is to Abstract: transform vision and mission threw strategic objectives to operational ones. It enables managers to communicate Identification, measurement, analyzing, and align corporate objectives with employees’ ones. Every examination at the time and comparison of regional employee can see his or her contribution to company’s disparities are important factors in the search for solutions success to perceived regional differences. The aim of this paper is References to present the knowledge of concerning the identification and analysis of regional disparities. In this work we analyze A handbook of human resource regional inequalities in terms of socio-economic aspects. management practice Armstrong, M. (2006). The intention is to show the development of regional (10 ed.). London: Kogan Page. disparities over time. We use a few selected multivariate A Handbook of Performance statistical methods for analyzing quantitative data. While Management: An Evidence-Based Guide to delivering high Armstrong, M. (2009). analyzing the regional disparities in economic terms we performance use methods: Exploratory Analysis, Regression Analysis, (4 ed.). London: Kogan Page. Principal Components Analysis, Cluster analysis and some Human Resource Management methods of construction integrated indicator. Principal in the Building Industry Bušina, F. (2014). Component Analysis is one of the basic multidimensional (1 ed.). Praha: Wolters Kluwer. methods. Its aim is to reduce the number of interrelated Rozvoj a vzdělávání manažerů variables down to principal components. It is a useful Folwarczna, I. (2010). (1 ed.). method of classification of object into cluster. When we Praha: Grada Publishing. analyze unemployment as one of the indicators of regional Performance Appraisal And Compensation disparities we use methods: time series analysis, smoothing Management: A Modern Approach. Goel, D. (2008). time series and regression analysis techniques. Keywords: New Delhi: PHI Learning. Hodnocení pracovníků regional disparities, statistical methods, time Hronik, F. (2006). (1 ed.). Praha: series, socio-economic indicators. JEL Code: Grada Publishing. The Balanced Scorecard: C34, C52, R23 Translating Strategy Into Action Introduction Kaplan, R., & Norton, D. (1996). (1 ed.). Boston: Harvard Business School Press. The Global Business Spatial divergence, growth and increasing of regional Handbook: The Eight Dimensions of International Newlands, D., & Saee J. (2012). disparities (RD) on the level of districts of Slovakia are Management currently a problem. Successful solution for reducing (1 ed.). Farnham: Gower Publishing. regional disparities requires relevant knowledge about their size. Selection of indicators, which are then used to Šikýř, M. (2011). Determinants of employee performance: analyze the RD is an important part of their investigations. International Days of Statistics and how to achieve sustained competitive advantage. In Loster, The most commonly used indicators to measure the level T. Pavelka, T. (Eds.), of RD include socio-economic indicators. The article briefly Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

analyzes the development of RD in terms of variable rate of one in Slovakia is being monitored in two ways. Statistical unemployment in the regions at LAU 1. Office of the Slovak Republic (SO SR) is based on the Labour Force Survey. Central office of Labour, Social Affairs and Family 1 Indicators of regional development (COLSAaF) is based on the records of available unemployed. Both methodologies have lot of advantages and drawbacks. For the needs of these analyzes we used data Spatial Regional disparities are characterized by a wide range of divergence, growth and increasing of regional disparities (RD) features and processes that can be measured and evaluated. on the level of districts of Slovakia is currently a problems There are often defined as a spatial differentiation of one from database COLSAaF, reported monthly, for the period or more characters followed by mutually comparable of 2010–2014. It should be noted that more appropriate and differently high spatial units. According to the OECD, indicator for the real development of the social situation of RD is understood as economic, social and environmental regions we recommend to use employment rate. differentiations between regions. The indicators can be 1.3 Indicators of the average of monthly salary considered as statistical variables that help transform the data into relevant information. As we know from many studies, there is no single methodological approach for the select and evaluate indicators for measuring the level of Another indicator is the level of RD that analyzes monthly RD. Proper selection of indicators is influenced by many salary. Detection of this indicator is based on the factors, objective analysis and evaluation possibilities headquarters of the organization which may lead to wrong RD. The choice is influenced by statistical data, which are conclusions when analyzing RD. The main drawback is that publicly available. Indicators published by Statistical Office the dates on the level LAU 1 are not statistically monitored. of the Slovak Republic (SO SR) are not always available 2 Selected methods of measuring RD at the required regional. For comparison of regions we consider appropriate to use functional urban regions (Bezák, 2000), micro-regions (Slavík et al., 2005), maybe regions at district level. Commonly we use simple and In the scientific literature we can found a number integrated indicators. In the economic sphere the indicators of approaches to characterization RD. Methods of characterize the dimension of economic and development measurement, tools and extents (indices) can be defined potential. The most important indicators integrated in the according to various aspects. social sphere characterize the labor market (employment and unemployment). Sectional integrated indicators provide According to the mathematical complexity to simple and a comprehensive view of RD. Maybe here include quality of complex, according to time line to static and dynamic, by life and human development. For the most commonly used expressing values ​​to deterministic and stochastic, to one- indicators in Slovakia (and Europe) could be considered dimensional and integrated, according to the number of unemployment (employment), the amount of gross analyzed regions in a multiregional and biregional (Sloboda, domestic product, the amount of average wages and tax 2006). revenues of regional budgets per capita (Sloboda, 2006). Indirect methods are based on the scoring techniques 1.1 Indicator of GDP and comparison of regions based on the construction of an integrated indicator. Their lack leads to pseudo quantification of RD. Gross domestic product (GDP) has become the most commonly used indicator. According to it, we assess the Degrees of spatial polarization belong to the group of simple degree of maturity of the economics, standard of living and statistical characterizations of measurement of RD. Those the intensity of development. For the comparison of EU most commonly used rate is the coefficient of variation. regions we use the modified form of PPS (Purchasing Power The percentage expresses the intensity of fluctuations due Parities). Numbers of authors refer on the inadequacy to the average. Using the coefficient of variation we can of GDP indicator for regional research. In Slovakia, the assess the size of the RD, using the time series identify the estimate of GDP per capita in PPS is recalculated in higher change of regions (Matlovič and Matlovičová, 2011). level than NUTS III. Important tool for tracking RD rates is the spatial 1.2 Indicators of labor market arrangement and concentration:

Concentration ratios, Herfindahl´s index of geographic In this group they are rated indicators like: rate of economic concentration, Location quotient, the Gini coefficient, activity, employment rate and unemployment rate. The last Entropy, Theil´s index, Hoover´s index. 52 | 53

Fig. 1 Cartogram classification of districts into

For measuring of RD it is recommended to use comprehensive summary indicators. These indicators are the simple models of reality. To statistical and analytical tools we can classify also the method of principal components, regression and correlation analysis, cluster and factor analysis, distance from the fictional object, time series analysis and others (Michálek, 2012).

From the other complex methods we should mention a method of neural networks using self-organizing maps, use of simplicity model, econometric analysis of real SIe convergence, ... 6. Construction of summary indicator . For its 3 RD Analysis calculation we selected the scoring aggregate method. of the socio-economic field

In the previous section we mentioned selected methods and bi j i tools for analysis of regional disparities. Some of them will i n n j j m be used in the identification of RD at county level (LAU 1) where is the point value of -th key indicator from PCA m pf Slovakia (five districts of Bratislava have been excluded analysis ( = 1, …, ), = 8, and -district ( = 1, …, ), from analysis). = 74, for the positive scope , for the a. Analysis of development of RD with method of i j negative scope . is the original value of construction of aggregate indicator -th indicator for -th district. The weight in the context of developing comprehensive indicator can be defined as a value that expresses the relative importance of the v Interregional differences in the economic field were indicator comparingPCA to others. To quantify the weight 2 evaluated using a model created by applying multivariate method we used method which was based on the statistical methods. results of PCA. The calculation of weights is based on the following equation: The procedure can be summarized to following points:

v j rjs 1. Selection of parameters based on availability at LAU 1 j s vars and their penetration with indicators that are is the weight of -th indicator, is the correlation s recommended. 16 indicators were selected. coefficient of -th indicator with -th component. is the proportion of variability explained by -component. SIe 2. Exploratory data analysis (checking the preconditions SIj j for further statistical analysis). 7. Graphic assessment of development of in the period SIj of 2001–2013. If ˃ 1, we can evaluate -th district as 3. Correlation analysis and reduction of indicators based above average. If ˂ 1, we can evaluated it as below r VIF on strong multicollinearity (we assessed the correlation average district. coefficient and factor ). Three variables have been removed from analysis. Simple and weighted aggregated index form was used. Above-average districts were shown in the second cluster. b. Interregional differences according to 4. Principal components analysis (PCA). Its aim was unemployment rate using the coefficient of variation identification of key indicators and transformation to new latent variables. Suitability was assessed V statistically (Olkin´s criterion, Barlett´s test). Using the cross-correlation of three components with The coefficient of variation compares the variability of the indicators, for the creation of a summary indicator the variables with different values​​. By monitoring of the we selected 8 indicators. development of time-series coefficients of variation of individual regions we can follow the change of their position 5. By the cluster analysis (hierarchical agglomeration within the entire system of regions. k V coalescent process and Ward‘s method, non-hierarchical clustering method of -average) we identified four Coefficient of variation can be expressed by clusters (Fig. 1). relationship , where is the standard deviation and Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

Fig. 2 Development of comprehensive indicators of individual clusters.

Fig. 3 Coefficient of variance in time series and regression model

Source: SO SR. (Own processing)

(UR) is average of the values ​​of the monitored indicator. We The analysis of the evolution of the coefficient of variation we UR considered an indicator Unemployment rate . The can say that in the social aspects from May 2012 to September time serie of indicator was offset by moving averages 2013 RD decreased and from this period is increasing again. th c. Analysis of RD by Herfindahl´s index of geographical of 4 order and exponentially. For both smoothing curve R2 concentracion we estimated power law (quadratic) regression model and calculated reliability coefficient . y x x R EG 2 2 = -0,00004 + 0,0008 + 0,4308 and =0,8052, Herfindahl´s index of geographical concentration is representing 80,52 % reliability of explanation of variability a measure of geographical concentration because during y x x by model. For exponentially smoothed time series2 we its quantification we considered the size of the region estimated regression curve shape: = -0,00005 + 0,0016 (Michálek, 2012). It is expressed by the following formula: + 0,4234 with reliability 93,12 %. , yi i The estimated curve of the regression is shown with the ai exponential time series on Fig. 3. The estimated model where is ratio of the region on unemployment and the EG cannot be used to predict because it is clear from the image is the ratio of the size of region on the size of country. that the coefficient of variation from the middle of 2013, If = 0, this means that there is no concentration and again, is increasing. therefore no regional differences. 54 | 55

Fig. 4 Exponentially smoothed time series GE Regionální disparity.

Kutcherauer, A. at all. (2010). [online]. Cit. 2014-7-1. Dostupné z http: http://alkut.cz/edice_cd/cd10_ regdis_monografie/pdf/region_disparity_monografie.pdf Regionálne disparity a ich riešenie na Slovensku v rozličných kontextoch. Matlovič, R., Matlovičová, K. (2011). Prešov: University of Prešov. Statistická analýza vícerozměrných dat v příkladech. Meloun, M., Militký, J., Hill, M. (2012). Praha: Academia. Vybrané metódy merania regionálnych disparít. Michálek, A. (2012). [online]. Cit. 2014-7-1. Dostupné z http: https:// www.sav.sk/journals/uploads/12121204Michalek.pdf Slovensko a regionálne rozdiely

Sloboda, D. (2006). [online]. Cit. 2014-7-1. Dostupné z http: http://www3. Source: ÚPSVaR SR ekf.tuke.sk/re/Disparity%2520a%2520perifernost/ Regionalne%2520disparity/Slovens... Viacrozmerné The graphs in Figures 3 and 4 show a similar process GE štatistické metódy s aplikáciami. of both values. It can be concluded that the value of the Stankovičová, I., Vojtková, M. (2007). reference coefficient falls over time, so the existing Bratislava: Ekonómia. Contact concentration of the controlled variable decreases and according to Michálek (2012), during this period, the regional differences had been decreasing. Conclusion doc. RNDr. Daniela Hricišáková, CSc., Faculty of Social and Economic Relations, Alexander Dubček University of Trenčín, Študentská 3, 911 50 Trenčín, Regional disparities are made up​​ of many features and [email protected] processes in which the differences can be identified, analyzed and evaluated. There are several approaches for RNDr. Dana Jašková, PhD., Faculty of Social and Economic examination of characteristics of RD. All should provide Relations, Alexander Dubček University of Trenčín, comparable information resulting. Študentská 3, 911 50 Trenčín, [email protected]

Differences between regions are partly reflection of Part-time work in the Czech Republic differences between communities of specific regions. Size of the gap is naturally linked to different levels of concentration of economic activities. However, it should be noted that social disparities are often Klára Šimonová considered for priorities. They are the result of the Abstract: economic process and reflect the conditions of life of residents and social climate regions. To complete This text is a reflection of the recent debates the assessment of RD, it is necessary to examine not in Czech media on part-time jobs that was restarted by only their socio-economic terms, but also spatial the OECD recommendation on shortening the period (environmental). Only suitable choice of socio-economic of parental leave so that mothers will not lose their indicators, wide datasets, correctly applied methods qualifications, and with the verdict of the Supreme and procedures positively influence the interpretability Court on the right to work part-time for mothers of of the results obtained. children under 15. A summary of major advantages References and disadvantages for both employers and employees is offered, the financial issue is considered, too, and Regionálna ekonomika an overview of the situation in other European Union a politika. Habánik, J., Koišová, E. (2011). member countries is included. The advantages are above Trenčín: Sprint dva. all a satisfied and loyal worker, maintenance of skills and Základy štatistiky a využitie programu knowledge in the company, while the disadvantages are STATISTICA. Jašková, D. (2014). connected to finance. For employers it is expensive and Trenčín: FSEV TnUAD. organizationally demanding, for employees it is less money Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

for less qualified works, because part-time jobs in highly Examinations of professional competence for new qualified positions are scarce. Finally, the article also employees. And moreover, public administration should be briefly considers the specific situation in civil engineering, the first to react to unfavourable conditions of the labour where there is a majority of male employees. market; e. g. in times of higher unemployment can offer Keywords: two part-time jobs and reduce the costs of one unemployed part-time job, work hours, employment, person. parental leave JEL Code: 3 The discussions mentioned above reflected both the J29, M54 reasons of unwillingness of employers to offer part-time Introduction jobs and the disservice of the Supreme Court to mothers with small children, who claim that their position on the labour market is vulnerable anyhow and this resolution There has been a discussion on working hours for over would deepen the resistance of companies to employ them. twenty years in the Czech Republic. Recently the discussion is gaining more attention and intensity since the publication According to a study “Half and half” (Kuchařová, 2006), of the OECD economic survey in March 2014 that 20 % of employed mothers with small children (around recommended shortening of the period of parental leave 3 years old) complain that they cannot use either flexible and with the ruling of the Supreme Court from July 2014 on forms of employment or work part-time; and that in Prague the right to work part-time for mothers of children under and smallest municipalities the situation is better due to the age of 15. more working positions in services or more neighbourhood friendly approach, respectively. On the other hand, this These two pieces of news seemingly do not have much in complex study also claims that full two thirds of companies common, but the opposite is the truth. The OECD report do employ women after parental leave and are experienced is focused on economic issues, and apparently, working with part-time jobs which length vary from 20 to 37 hours mothers contribute to the growth2 of GDP more than per week. mothers on longer parental leave . The dark side of this recommendation is the negligible willingness of employers There are two possible ways how to look at part-time to offer part-time jobs. The Czech Republic traditionally jobs. The first group of entrepreneurs claims that they does not offer the possibility to work fewer hours per week, prefer part-timers, because they do not care about the compared to other European Union member countries. It employee how and when he or she does his or her work, took the lady six years to hear the decision of the Supreme they just insist on the work being done. And since they Court. And it was only five hours per week (Trachtová, can pay for six hours a day, they would be bad economists 2014; OECD, 2014). if they would offer more money for the same work. The second group claims that it simply does not pay to There is one thing that is surprising about the verdict of employ part-timers, because the costs of half-time are the Supreme Court. The organization in question was the not fifty per cent, but seventy, and they would be bad Local Authority of the city of Liberec, which is a public or economists if they would waste money on expendable government organization. Public administration should be items. the first to respect the law. Public administration should be the first to offer part-time jobs for their employees. Or are Foreign companies usually argue that they insist on there any work positions that cannot be shared? Is there full-time jobs and longer working hours because the someone who needs to be on the spot all the time? Hardly. productivity of labour is not as high as in their domestic Perhaps the only exception is mayor´s secretary. Other country. Thus as foreign companies require the same employees, including those of Building Authority, Trade performance or output, they demand more hours. Office, registry etc. can easily work less hours or share their However, it was never explained how they exactly measure job with other employee. The only two obstacles for having or even compare the productivity. Of course, there are more part-time workers is the rigid personnel department some standard formulas computing productivity, such and the additional costs for obligatory education and as output per hour or perhaps profit per one worker, but

2 Mother on parental leave is a receiver of parental allowance and the insurance is paid by the government. Working mother has earnings, pays taxes, health and social insurance. In some cases, spends more on consumption. Her child goes to kindergarten or day care center, where another person earns money for taking care of the child, pays taxes…. etc.

3 Discussions below on-line articles on the verdict of the Supreme Court, see www.tyden.cz, www.idnes.cz, www.ihned.cz, www.aktualne.cz, www.novinky.cz, or discussion in TV news www.ceskatelevize.cz, etc. 56 | 57

Tab. 1 Persons working part-time in 2012 earnings in Euros is not the same as earnings in Czech Country (EU) Women (%) Total (%) crowns. Analogically, wages of a German worker is not comparable to wages of a Czech worker, and equally, the purchasing power of a Dutch is not the same as the 1 Austria 44,4 24,9 one of a Czech. A comparative analysis of productivity is 2 Belgium 43,5 24,7 definitely needed. 3 Bulgaria 2,5 2,2

This introductory brief summary of opinions and 4 Croatia* -- -- 6 Czech Republic 8,6 5,0 perceptions deserves a closer look at some facts, too. 5 Cyprus 13,1 9,7 1 Part-time workers in the European Union 7 Denmark 35,8 24,8 8 Estonia 13,2 9,2 9 Finland 19,4 14,1 10 France 30,0 17,7 The Labour Code4 sets the obligatory working hours and exceptions – usual work load is 40 hours per week 11 Germany 45,0 25,7 and 20 days of vacation. In fact, the real work load is 12 Greece 11,8 7,6 40.9 hours per week. If we take a look at the situation 13 Hungary 9,3 6,6 in other member countries of the European Union, the 14 Ireland 34,9 23,5 average is 37.3 hours per week, while new member countries show more hours and old member countries 15 Italy 31,0 16,8 around 35 hours per week. For example, French Labour 16 Latvia 11,1 8,9 Code sets 35 hours and 30 days, for United Kingdom it is 17 Lithuania 10,6 8,8 maximum 40 hours with 28 days, Belgium 38 hours with 18 Luxembourg 36,1 18,5 20 days, etc., which means that longer hours can be also 19 Malta 26,0 13,2 compensated by more days off. However, the difference 20 Netherlands 76,9 49,2 must still have another explanation, and part-time jobs can fill the gap (MPSV, 2014). And that also means that 21 Poland 10,6 7,2 a Czech working 35 hours is included in the statistics 22 Portugal 14,1 11,0 as a part-time worker, while a French as a full-time, 23 Romania 9,7 9,1 and still there are more part-time workers in France, 24 Slovakia 5,5 4,0 as shown below in table 1. 25 Slovenia 12,2 9,0

However, every statistics has its limitations. The explanation 26 Spain 24,4 14,6 of the data is missing and we need to have a deeper view 27 Sweden 38,6 25,0 of the situation. Do all the included people work part-time 28 United Kingdom 42,3 25,9 voluntarily? How many hours a week do they work? Is their Average 24,5 15,4 wages sufficient to make their living? What is their reason to choose to work part-time? Who are these people – mothers with children, workers over 50 years of age, students? Or Source: www.czso.cz perhaps even retired people who both work and have their *data for 2012 not available; member since 2013. pension? 2 Current pros and cons of part-time jobs

At least some partial insight on who are the people is offered by a LMC survey (Nürnbergerová, 2011): 39 % of Czech part-time workers are retired people, 37 % Part-time jobs definitely have their benefits as well as workers over the age of 50, 35 % mothers on parental shortcomings. Let us take a look at the main reasons for leave, 32 % students, 30 % people with altered working dis/satisfaction with part-time working positions from the ability. viewpoint of employers and workers.

4 See e. g. Příručka MPSV pro personální a platovou agendu, Pracovní doba a doba odpočinku. http://www.mpsv.cz/ppropo. php?ID=IPB030 Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

a. Advantages for employers b. Disadvantages for employers

Employees working part-time are more likely willing to The employer, no matter how is the organizational structure work full-time temporarily during a known period of designed, has to reconsider the organization of work. In the time, therefore employers do not have to seek a stand-in case of project management, the project manager has either during holiday, sickness leave, infrequent more work load to organize the work in shifts or to have the negotiation due to extraordinary contract, etc. Employees who either power to set longer deadlines; the local authority has to share one work position or do very similar jobs are easily ensure that the office hours are always covered; substitutable by the other worker in case of absence. However, to keep part-time employees willing to work Control of performance is sometimes harder, too. full-time, it is necessary to set the schedule and to agree on the period in advance, otherwise it makes employees Costs of two people sharing one working position are dissatisfied if the end of the full-time work load is being higher than costs of one worker. There are costs of postponed for several times. obligatory safety education, adaptation process, costs of protective and personal work equipment, costs of Possibility to work less hours automatically creates loyal administration work, such as reporting to the authorities employees, especially in the Czech environment where part- (social and health insurance etc.), payroll, etc. However, time jobs are scarce. Higher level of motivation and loyalty if an employee is considered as a cost item only, the is a way to reduce the turnover rate of employees (Koubek, employer than counts profits versus expenses, very rarely 2010). a decision on increasing costs is taken. If an employee is considered as an investment to future, as modern human Less work load opens the doors for more people. Agreement resources management recommends (e. g. Koubek, 2010), on shortening the “work week” for mothers with small it is harder to count immediate and long-term profits and children, for workers who take care of their elderly parents, expenditures. Concerning the legal issue, it is necessary for people who have their parallel small enterprise or to amend or include an agreement on working hours into trade, for young people continuing in their studies, for the employment contract, otherwise identical to regular professionals who won their fight with cancer or other one. Since part-time workers have standard employment disease but are tired earlier, for many other workers who contract, the same rules apply to them as well. That means would either not work at all or be unhappy and absent- that they are entitled to receive severance payment and minded if spending the entire days at work; all these sickness benefits paid by the employer, too. And especially people are able and willing to bring their skills, knowledge, in the case of people with altered working ability this is capabilities and loyalty to their employers. a real problem (Schauerová, 2014).

Offering very short working week (under 20 hours) for In case that the wages is less than minimum wage, the basis students brings another advantage for the employer – for social and health insurance6 has to respect the minimum cheaper labour force in the beginning, trained employee wage set by the government . This means that low qualified over time, and finally a well-educated, skilled and loyal and low income part-time workers would definitely be more graduate with experience. For the student, the advantage expensive and the employer would not be likely to offer is apparent: this is the way how to cut the magical circle such a job. c. Advantages for employees of “no work during studies – no experience – unemployed graduate – in despair, accepting a job under qualifications, if any – unattractive item in curriculum vitae”. “One of the reasons for the lack of interest of employers to offer Employees are more likely to stay enthusiastic and part-time vacancies may be the absence of deeper analyses innovative about their job for longer period of time. Usually of the correlation of productivity and efficiency of part-time it is recommended to manage the adaptation process in jobs with their higher costs,5” the company during the first three months (according to claims Kokešová (2009). Hence the trial period set by the Labour Code) and ask the new there appears another research topic that would deserve worker about his fresh views and ideas about the system both the qualitative and the quantitative approach. Again. and work no later than at the end of the trial period. Later

5 Translation: author.

6 Currently the minimum wage is 8.500 CZK. Therefore if a part-time worker makes e.g. 6.000 CZK per month, his/her health and social insurance will be counted from 8.500 CZK. Source: http://www.ucetnikavarna.cz/archiv/dokument/doc-d9953v12830- zamestnani-na-zkraceny-pracovni-uvazek-a-zdravotni-pojisteni/ 58 | 59

on, the worker becomes settled and gets used to processes than men. However, most of women that are going back to and accepts them. Part-time worker keeps his/her interest work after their parental leave return to the same position. in examining processes and habits for longer time, partly Civil engineering has the greatest probability of keeping as a consequence of not spending the whole day at work, the position for the woman compared to other companies partly as a result of his or her own interest as having the that took part in the survey. On the other hand, none of the work done in the shortest time as possible. women worked for their employer during their parental leave. And less than 3 % work part-time no matter how Attention of the employee is focused on work and is not large the organization is (Kuchařová, 2006). dissolved by physiologically normal fall of attention, by phone calls with family members etc. Though women in civil engineering usually hold other positions than manual workers, that are more common Usually in case of professionals who decide to work part- for men due to higher demands on physical condition and time after certain time on full-time contract, the employee strength, the overall climate in the company (the masculine in question can keep all the benefits that relate to his or her organizational culture) hardly ever allows them to demand working position, i. e. cell phone, laptop, car for personal any allowances, more likely they are keeping track with use as well. On the other hand, these benefits mean that their male colleagues. However, their positions such as the person can work from home and can be reached via cell accountant, economist, safety advisor or controller, or other phone, too. supporting services for the company, usually do not have set d. Disadvantages for employees any 8-hour time norms and hence it should be feasible to consent part-time work. Discussion and conclusion

Apparently the two greatest disadvantages are the lower income and, in some cases, the amount of work that exceeds the ratio of shortening the working time. Definitely there are more reasons why to offer more part-time jobs, but current legislative situation does not Sometimes employees are forced to accept part-time help employers to do so. The future situation on the labor job, especially in some specific times or industries, and market will force employers to reconsider their approach, they do not have any reason to substitute free time to as the demographic development suggests. The continuous lower earnings. This situation is called “involuntary emphasis on work-life balance and the lifestyle of unemployment” by economists. This can happen e.g. in “Y-generation” will most likely lead to changes in perception times of crisis when the company temporarily struggles of efficiency of long working hours versus compressed work with insufficient demand for its production or when contracts. References political situation changes its export plan etc. The branches mentioned are above all the automobile industry, accommodation, catering, retail, services, etc. The support for temporary short-time work by the government is still CZSO. (2013). V délce pracovní doby patříme mezi problematic (Kokešová, 2009). rekordmany. [online][acc. 2014-08-27] Retrieved from http://www.czso.cz/csu/2013edicniplan.nsf/c/ Part-time workers scarcely have their career plans, even if EA002B5945 the company makes them for other employees. Kokešová, M. (2009) Zkrácené pracovní úvazky z pohledu Part-time jobs that are occupied mainly by women zaměstnavatele. [online][acc. 2014-08-31] Retrieved from contribute to the difference in the remuneration of men and http://kariera.ihned.cz/c1-36609170-zkracene-pracovni- women, so Czech Ministry of Labour recommends other uvazky-z-pohledu-zamestnavatele Řízení lidských zdrojů. Základy moderní flexible forms of work (MPSV, 2013). personalistiky Koubek, J. (2010). 3 Specific situation in civil engineering (4 ed.). Praha: Management Press.

Kuchařová, V. (2006) Zaměstnání a péče o malé děti The situation in building industry is particular because z perspektivy rodičů a zaměstnavatelů. Výzkumný ústav of traditionally7 lower ratio of women employed in sector práce a sociálních věcí. [online][acc. 2014-08-27] Retrieved (20:80) , but the women have in average higher education from http://praha.vupsv.cz/Fulltext/vz_195.pdf

7 In 2011, there were 278 488 men and 35 174 women employed in the construction sector in absolute numbers. Source: http:// www.czso.cz/csu/2014edicniplan.nsf/publ/170218-14-n_2014 Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

MPSV (2013). Zpráva o rovnosti žen a mužů v roce 2012 to know “word-splitting”. This is true in some measure but v České republice. Retrieved from http://www.mpsv.cz/ what can we do when we have to cope with the law every files/clanky/15492/zprav_rovnost_2012.pdf day and with the labour law at least five times in a week? The more wealthy ones of us have at their disposal an MPSV. (2014). Odjíždíte pracovat do zemí EU, EHP nebo experienced lawyer. The others must rely on their own Švýcarska? [online][acc. 2014-08-27] Retrieved from strengths. Key words: https://portal.mpsv.cz/eures/prace_v_eu/zeme labour law, human resources officer, Labour Nürnbergerová, V. (2011) Vývoj a trendy zkrácených Code, choice of employees Introduction pracovních úvazků v Evropě. [online][acc. 2014-08-30] Retrieved from http://www.eueffects.cz/vyvoj-trendy- zkracenych-pracovnich-uvazku-v-evrope#_ftnref2 The Act No. 262/2006 Coll., Labour Code, as subsequently OECD. (2014). OECD Economic Surveys. CZECH REPUBLIC. amended and complemented, in short the “Labour Code”, Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/Czech- regulates a wide area of labour law relations and the related Republic-Overview-2014.pdf relations. We can also find there, beside other things, many provisions that are necessarily reflected in the work of the Schauerová, P. (not dated). Práce na částečný úvazek. human resources officer. A good human resources officer [online][acc. 2014-08-31] Retrieved from http://www. must of course know these provisions or must at least be diversity-management.cz/aktuality.php?id=183 able to find and apply the same in the up-to-date version. 1 Choice of employees Trachtová, Z. (2014). Zaměstnavatel rodiči musí umožnit zkrácený úvazek, rozhodl Nejvyšší soud. [online][acc. 2014-08-27] Retrieved from http://zpravy.idnes.cz/ zamestnavatel-je-povinen-umoznit-zkraceny-uvazek-fwg-/ The Labour Code comes on at the very beginning already domaci.aspx?c=A140821_093213_domaci_zt before formation of any labour law relation come into Contact existence. Does the Labour Code in some way regulate ho to make a choice of employees? It is necessary, beside all other basic questions such as for example, whether we intend to Ing. Klára Šimonová, Czech Technical University in Prague, choice employees from our own ranks or from the free labour Faculty of Civil Engineering, Thákurova 7, 166 29 market, how many years of practice we will require and Praha 6-Dejvice, [email protected] so on, to take into account, whether the Labour Code does not lay any duties on us. No duties, however, are mentioned Selected labour law aspects in practice of the in this case. We would in vain search any provision saying human resources officer that we have to make choice of employees in this or another way. In this respect it depends strictly on us, whether the choice will be based on a recommendation, personal interview, selection procedure, or made in any other way. Jana Vaněčková The paragraph 30 of the Labour Law explicitly specifies that the choice of natural persons applying for a job is fully in the Abstract: competency of the employer, as to the qualification point The objective of this paper is to highlight some of view, necessary requirements or special abilities, unless fundamental relations that are regulated by the Labour another procedure results from a special legal regulation. Code and necessarily fall into the practice of the human This implies that only special regulations can in some way resources officer. In many cases I have ascertained that regulate the choice of employees. particularly in civil and labour law matters the people proceed intuitively or on the basis of their experience of life The legislator uses the term employer. The employer, by the and they are not always aware of the fact how it is regulated letter of the law, is someone for whom the natural person by the law. However, there remains a question whether the undertakes to perform a dependent work based on the basic possible inequalities will be balanced as such or whether labour law relation. This respective wording could be found a man will deprive himself of many rights and gladly refrain in the §7 of the Labour Code. The employer in practice himself from many duties. is someone who sends us a salary and we work for him. However, before we start to work for him we sometime do In the non-professional public there exists a widespread not meet the employer but a person who “acts on his behalf” point of view that the law is difficult, it changes frequently and his role is to choose together with the human resources and its managing needs to learn a plenty of “formula” and officer the best one of all the possible applicants. 60 | 61

2 Allowed and not allowed questions during the choice of employees Except letters c), d), e), f) and g, this limitation does not apply, should there exist a relevant reason based on the character of the work that shall be performed and if this We are now in the stage when the person applying for requirement is adequate or in cases when it is stated in this a job sits in front of the human resources officer and the Act or in a special legal regulation. human resources officer needs to ascertain whether the given person is the most eligible one he is just searching Now let us interpret the given provision more closely. for. Now comes on posing a round of questions that should At first it is necessary to take into account that in the help him in making decisions. However, can the human sentence preceding the letters the legislator used a term resources officer really question everything he needs? Many “particularly”. It follows that enumeration of the questions is people would perhaps say that he can question everything only exemplary and not comprehensive. that in some way relates to the given position or work, the employee may probably perform. This answer is logic and Last but not least it is also necessary to determine what perhaps also practical. How could we otherwise found the really is the employer allowed to question. It follows from most suitable employee. This answer is however not quite the above mentioned provision that the employer is not right from the Labour Code point of view. allowed to ever ask some kinds of questions and these are just those letters enumerated in the exception mentioned 2.1 Clean record under the listing i.e. c), d), e), f), and g). Questions concerning the sexual orientation, origin, membership in a trade-union organization or political or religious affiliation As an example can serve the fact, that the human must never be heard on the part of the employer or resources officer informs the applicant that for the a human resources officer. Other letters i.e. a), b), and h), are personal interview it is also necessary to bring an exempted from the exception and ask the questions of this extract from the crime register in addition to another kind is possible only in the case that there exists a relevant things,. This requirement is currently quite common in reason related to the character of the work to be performed any advertisement concerning the respective supply of and if it is appropriate. Now you can yourself see that the labour and the majority of applicants for a job do not present practice, when it is quite common to attach the have great problems with presentation of this extract. extract from the crime register to the curriculum vitae, has The majority of applicants do not have any problems no backing in the Act. The extract from the crime register with this requirement because their extract from the should not be required invariably but only in such cases if register is clean. But how this situation would look like there exists a relevant reason related to the character of the in an opposite case? Do we have we to accept the fact work (Bělina, 2012). that as far as we have somehow committed an offence against the society the employer is someone who has the Of course, there remains a question, what is meant under right to know it in any case? After all, the employer also the term “relevant reason related to the character of has cogent arguments why to require an extract from the the work”. If we seek a new cook who works with the crime register. He wants to employ a person to whom he knives, is it necessary for us to know whether he did not will pay a salary from his own pocket and wants to know harm anybody in the past and can this be considered as whether by chance he is not a murder. a sufficient relevant reason? The cook works also with foodstuffs, the price of which does not leave many people Does the Labour Code solve such a situation? Yes, the cool. And what if my applicant is a thief? It is not simple answer can be found in the provision §316 par. 4). This to answer all these questions. Certain common rules are provision says that the employer is not allowed to require however based on the practice, other ones on the judicial any information that is not directly related to the performed judicature. The extract from the crime register must be work and is not connected with the basic labour law indisputably required there where it concerns the work relation. This paragraph further states that the employer is with money, were it concerns work with the underage not allowed to require information particularly on: children and so on. As far as the other questions are concerned there is always necessary to consider every case a) Pregnancy, individually. (Hůrka, 2014) b) Family and property relations, c) Sexual orientation, The mentioned thief can serve us as an example. What d) Origin if the employee will steel my food supplies? This is not e) Membership in a trade-union organization a bad question and the economic point of view is wholly f) Membership in political parties or movements, understandable but a logical answer should be that take g) Membership in a church or religious society something is possible almost in every employment. This h) Criminal law impeccableness implies that theft comes into account only at work with Human Resources Management and Management in Practice

money, pressure things or in cases when the employee is I do not want a women who will “run away” for a three year directly responsible for the stock (for example warehouse maternity and parental leave and therefore I will pose her keeper) and to require the extract from the crime register in this question in order to be sure. This situation results in other cases does not present a sufficient relevant reason for. a very frequently discussed sphere whether the employer can ask an applicant in this case rather a woman whether Let us also come back to that murder. As an employer she is married, has children and in case she has children I would like to at least know whether in my firm walks who will look after them in case of their illness. This seems about a man who has sometime somebody killed. This to be a sufficiently relevant reason on the part of the argument is also acceptable, it is however not a sufficiently employer as he needs a person, who will primarily come strong one. The common theory of the criminal law replies to work and furthermore to perform it properly and does to this question entirely unambiguously. In a simplified not need a person who will present every fourteen days way it can be explained as follows: given that I commit a paper from the physician that confirms nursing of a family a crime, it is the role of the society, in particular the court, member and consequently the respective work must be to impose on me an adequate punishment that is acceptable done by someone else instead of him. This argument is for a democratic society. As far as I undergo the sentence, sufficiently strong but again as a consequence all women, my crime is in this way punished and I have the right for who plan to have or have children at an early age, not a new start. There is also another reason for it as a man can able to stay at home alone, will be almost unemployable. be killed no matter where and a certain employment is not It is moreover very desirable from the state-constituting a prerequisite for it. Even in this case there does not exist theories point of view that women should have children any relevant reason for asking an extract from the crime and the “state” will be glad if they will have more children. register on the part of the employer. The state must therefore somehow secure that the families could nourish their children. The maternity should not Crucial for answers to all these questions must remain limit a woman in her job opportunities and the state or the fact that information on my clean record is important rather the legislator has to secure it by a sufficient statutory for the future performance of my work and not for the protection. Therefore questions concerning the family decision of the employer to accept or reject the applicant. status and children that could influence decision making of A record in the extract from the crime register in most the employer on acceptance or rejecting of the applicant do cases subjectively influences the decision of the employer not represent a relevant reason related to the character of on acceptance or rejection of the job applicant. In such the work and are therefore are not allowable. cases is in particular touched the provision of the Labour Code concerning the discrimination. At the end the worst But why the family and property background does not result could be the fact that all those who have a record in fall under the statutory exception concerning the spheres the crime register are unemployable and this is in no way of questions that can never be asked? Inasmuch as desirable for the society. there exist certain employments where your family and property background has a relevant reason related to the This implies that we should not always obediently bring character of the work. Let us mention an example. We the required extract from crime register but we should at will seek a nursemaid for our children. We ourselves have first ask, for what relevant reason, related to the character to work and therefore we need somebody to take care of of the work, the employer requires it from us. And especially our children if they are ill. Is it important for this kind of in those cases when the reason is not quite clear to us. employment whether the applicant has or does not have any children? According to my point of view certainly 2.2 Family background of the job applicant yes. A mother who has children has decidedly another qualification than a childless student howbeit with a one- -year practice of au-pair. What for example means to be Pregnancy and family and property relations belong also worried about a child understand well only a person ho to the group of questions that can be asked only, when has his own children. The question whether or how many there is a relevant reason for it. Concretely it concerns children has the applicant seems to me in this case to be the above letter a) and b) §316 par. 4) of the Labour quite appropriate and in accordance with the statutory Code. Does it mean that the employer can sometimes ask conditions. a woman whether she is pregnant? Yes, particularly in cases 3 Principle of a weaker party protection when the employer wants accept her for a position that could negatively influence her pregnancy, it concerns for example certain spheres of health case, chemical industry or physically demanding works etc. These are sufficient In place is a question why the legislator in reality classified relevant reasons for posing such a question. This is, the above-mentioned questions this way. The human however, not valid for the cases, today very frequent, that resources officer or the employer is never allowed to ask 62 | 63

some kind of questions and some questions only sometimes, do not like it, ten other people stand behind you”. On the provided that he has a sufficient argument. The answer other side it is of course always useful if the potential job is simple. The labour law is a sphere of law where the applicants will be well informed about the given problems employee and the employer are adverse parties. Their and self-consciously demonstrate that they are aware of objective is to cooperate but everybody knows that their their rights but also of their duties. References position is not equal. The employee is in many aspects at a disadvantage (socially, by information etc.) and in some Pracovní cases the employer abuses his position. The Labour Code právo (Labour law) is therefore based on the principle of the weaker party Bělina, M. a kolektiv (and team of authors) (2012). protection. The Labour Code contains many provisions, the , 5. vydání (edition), C. H. Beck. Pracovní objective of which is to protect the employee not only in the právo v bodech s příklady (Labour law in points with cases before the origin of a labour law relation but also in Hůrka, P. a kolektiv (and team of authors) (2014). examples). the course of its duration and potential termination and the employer but also the employee must abide them as they 4. vydání (edition), Wolters Kluwer. Aktuální cannot be changed even by a mutual consent of both parties. pracovněprávní judikatura s podrobným komentářem It is essential to say that this protection must be adequate Hůrka, P., Novák, O., Vrajlík, M. (2012). (Up-to-date labour law judicature with a detailed so that it does not infringe the labour market and decrease commentary). its flexibility. And find a compromise could be sometimes a very hard matter. (Bělina, 2012) 1. vydání,(edition) Anag. Conclusion

Zákon č. 262/2006 Sb. (Act no. 262/2006 Col.), zákoník práce ve znění pozdějších změn a doplňků (Labour Code In conclusion we could sum up that to be thoroughly as subsequently amended and supplemented) Contact acquainted with all these rules is never a simple thing and therefore is the work of a human resources officer harder. However, it is necessary for the human resources officers to be at least acquainted with the basic qualities of these JUDr. Jana Vaněčková, České Vysoké Učení Technické problems and not to pursue only the economic point of view v Praze, Masarykův ústav vyšších studií, Kolejní 2637/2a, of the employer in the sense of the slogan “as far as you 160 00 Praha, [email protected]

64 | 65

University Education and Research in Fields of HRM lived in 551-479 BC, is the author of quotation “I hear and and Management I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.”

Jan Amos Komenský also called the father of modern education who lived in 1592–1670 integrated among his pedagogical principles also the principle of clearness and Practical-oriented teaching of marketing – activeness. Students should have got the possibility to apply cooperation with companies in practise their theoretical knowledge to real situations and even to have the possibility to obtain knowledge from practice.

David Kolb (1939) an American theorist of education is Barbora Joudalová the author of Kolb´s four-stage learning cycle (sometimes also called as training cycle). He believes that learning is Abstract: a process where knowledge is formed by transforming the Teaching Strategic Marketing at Masaryk Institute experience. His four-stage cycle is in fact a spiral based on of Advanced Studies (MIAS) is oriented practically. This four phases: experiencing, reflecting, thinking and acting. is enabled thanks to cooperation with small companies – Applying this principle helps to deeper the critical thinking start-ups joined in the InovaJet, the business incubator of students. The experience from the real situation leads of Czech Technical University (CTU). Practically oriented to observations and reflections on that experience; they teaching enables to teach in more attractive way, to involve are absorbed and translated into abstract concepts which students, to apply experience from abroad and to link up lead into action. The action enables students to experiment students from university to companies. The idea of teaching and test which again leads to new experience. This model in a practical way is not new but still it is not applied widely. can be characterized by 4 verbs: do – which means the Such cooperation must be based on mutual convenience. concrete experience, observe – which is represented by Due to cooperation with start-ups students can work in reflection and observation, think – which is connected by real situation and solve existing problems, they work in abstract conceptualization, and plan – which transfers the teams; they practise project management including time knowledge into active experimentation. management and human resource management. Companies also benefit from this cooperation, students give them Benjamin Samuel Bloom (1913–1999) is an American independent view to their own business including analysis educational psychologist who helped to classify the of the market and subjects operating there, they help educational goals. His taxonomy of educational objectives them to remove professional blindness as well. This way was created in 1956 and consisted from three mail domains: of teaching is highly appreciated both by students and by the cognitive one, the affective one and the psychomotor companies. one. The six levels of expertise for the knowledge-based Keywords: goals of the cognitive domain are: Teaching, marketing, start-ups JEL Code: 1. Knowledge A22, M13, M31 2. Comprehension Introduction 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Evaluation Preparing the new study programmes in 2004 at MIAS we 6. Synthesis discussed the learning objectives and possible approaches to students. As we have very good reference on system Each category can be characterized by special verbs for applied in Master in Business Administration programme – example: the successful programme we jointly run with Sheffield Hallam University from 1992, we tried to apply similar 1. memorize, define, identify, … model to master programmes. In this paper I will introduce 2. explain, compare, demonstrate, … the way we are applying this in teaching marketing. 3. apply, complete, demonstrate, … 4. analyze, classify, conclude, … 1 Theory – Some Historical Background 5. criticize, evaluate, order, … 6. create, combine, develop, …

From history we know, that understanding something is Due to progress in cognitive psychology the taxonomy was usually combined with some own experience. Confucius, revised but still is very widely used. It can help us to answer the famous Chinese philosopher, politician and teacher, who questions what to teach, how to reach the educational University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

goals, how to evaluate, and is there coherence among Students have to submit their work and to present it in front objectives, instructions and evaluation? The revised version of their colleagues. The presentation consisted of three concentrates on the cognitive domain only as it is the parts – the presentation, answering the questions and the complex one. Only in some dimensions where it is necessary evaluation. even the revised version of the taxonomy works with all three domains. As the companies were of different sizes and in different phases of development it was not easy to evaluate the 2 Practical-oriented Teaching of Marketing at MIAS students work and to compare individual pieces of papers.

Practical oriented teaching is very important for students It The motivation of students was very strong as each student enables them to obtain hands-on experience and to enhance could choose company of own interest. their ability to solve real problems. Team work and project management play an important role in this process. The feedback from this year showed that students highly evaluate the practical part of their learning which can be Our Master of Business Administration programme was also helpful to the companies. validated by Sheffield Hallam University. We as the partner 2.2 Academic Years 2011/12 – 2014/15 have to keep the same quality procedures as the mother organization. All the procedures were carefully watched by the Quality Manager of the university and examined regularly by the Quality Assurance Agency for the Higher Since that time till now we have approximately Education (QAA). 80–100 students on the course. They are divided into 20 groups (4–5 members). This means that two groups are The learning process was based on own experience from working for one company. This enables students to benefit real business cases. All the participants of the programme from the feedback from other students as well. At least have at least 5 years of managerial experience. The teaching members of one of the teams know the environment and the process included the theoretical framework, case studies company very well. Beginning from 2011/12 two changes to and discussions. As part of the assessment students have to the teaching process were applied: apply theory on their own practice and to critically evaluate the existing situation and to suggest the right solution of the 1. Students work in groups – so they have to individually concrete situation. contribute to team work and they are assessed collectively. The educational objectives and learning outcomes of the whole programme and separate modules were clearly Teamwork is very popular among students, it maximizes set and were periodically checked and revised. From efficiency and reach to a common goal, it also creates that experience we can benefit in preparation of the new new ideas. They are used to work in teams and preferably programmes accredited by the Ministry of Education, Youth they wanted to form them according to their opinion. and Sports of the Czech Republic. As our goal is to give the students the opportunity to try how the real situation looks like and to contribute to the 2.1 Academic Year 2010/11 right solution they have to respect the fact that they are randomly selected and the companies they are working for are also randomly chosen. Working on projects does In the academic year 2010/11 we started to teach not mean that the project manager can choose members Marketing at the master programme Management of of the team every time – so even working in ad hoc teams Development Projects. is also the simulation of the real situation. The benefits of teamwork are following: increased efficiency, mutual The schedule of Marketing in the semester was organised support and the ability to focus more people on the same this way: in the first part of the semester just the lectures problem. Due to this type of work higher quality outcomes were given and then in the second part of the semester can be reached faster. they were followed by seminars. During them the students actively work on their individual projects – they 2. Companies arise from cooperation of Masaryk Institute have to propose company of their own selection, gather of Advanced Studies with InovaJet, the business the data and for chosen company they have to define incubator of Czech Technical University. goals and prepare marketing plan for one year including the schedule and their recommendation for next three The incubator InovaJet is opened to students and years. researchers who have some technical innovated idea 66 | 67

Tab. 1 Number of students and companies joined in the project and want to start their own business. Being part of the InovaJet means for companies financial savings (subsidized rent of the office for 18 months, services like joined reception and meeting rooms) and adviser´s Academic 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 and coach´s support (consultations and seminars year in accounting, taxes and law, communication skills, Number of 85 100 82 88 116 presentation skills, time management, strategic planning, students web consulting). Number of 85 10 10 10 N/A companies InovaJet also organises lots of networking activities (with similar companies, business people, investors, students) Source: MIAS: Internal source-Intranet and conferences were they can share good practise. 3 Organisation of the Semester Companies in the commercial incubatorst rd can be in one of ththe ththree phases: Warm up (1 –3 month),th Focusth (4 –6 month), Accelerate and develop (7 –18 month). The ideal candidates for students´ work are either in Focus At our institute ach subject is taught in 13 weeks. or Accelerate and develop phases. Week 1 Every year we address the companies in the InovaJet offering them the possibility of cooperation. As the • Introduction to the subject, teaching methods, learning companies can enter the incubator several times a year outcomes, evaluation and system of work. still new companies are interested in the cooperation. We also appreciate that some incubating companies take • Students are divided into groups randomly and the part in our project two times – as they are in different companies are drawn by lots. Contact data of phases of their development they like to obtain different representatives from companies are given to students. view to their company from students´ perspective. The cooperation is beneficial for both sides – students prepare Week 2–7 the marketing plan for the company which can give the companies different view on their own business. As • Lessons only at the university, individual consultations the owners of the innovative companies/start-ups are with the companies, and consultations with teachers are usually students or researchers with technical education available upon request. sometimes it is the first possibility to get together with marketing for them. Students can benefit from solving the Week 8–11 real market situation. • Work on the marketing plan, homework from week to The content of the presentation is the same as in the week covering a special topic/part of the plan. first year. Students present the marketing plan for the company and they comment on their team work and • Continuing contact with companies. cooperation with the company. The representatives from companies are asked to give a written feedback to Week 12 students´ marketing plans reflecting the cooperation with the company, the benefits for the company and • Students have to pass final written essay including case the tips for future. They are also invited for the final study. presentations and every year at least 50% of them take part in it personally. The teacher assesses the • Submission of the marketing plans. professional side of the students´ assignments and moderates e the discussion Week 13

The year 2012/13 was exceptional as the students had • Presentation, questions and feedback from students, the possibility to work with the Czech inventor of the representatives from companies and the teacher. rolling fluid turbine Miroslav Sedláček. As the product he 4 Evaluation had invented has several ways how to be used, each group worked only on one type of it. Mr. Sedláček was surprised by the level of students´ knowledge and he was pleased with activities the students had We have very positive feedback from students as well from realised. companies. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

The students appreciated the possibility to work in real Bloom‘s Taxonomy: KSA‘s. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, situation, to solve real problems. Some of them till this 2014, from http://www.wa.gov/esd/training/toolbox/ subject do not have the possibility to work with real tg_bloom.htm company during their studies; they work with thought-out companies only. Quick Links Menus. (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2014, from http://health.info.yorku.ca/experiential-education/ The companies are also very satisfied with this type of kolbcycle/ cooperation as they can get lots of new ideas and tips for further development. Even as simple think as mapping the (n.d.). Retrieved October 9, 2014, from http://uwf.edu/ competition is for them sometimes something new and cutla/SLO/ActionVerbs.pdf Contact surprising. Let me quote one of the representatives: “we plan our activities carefully but having the contact with students and reading their work I realised that we do not check our plans and we do not evaluate them”. Ing. Barbora Joudalová, MBA, MÚVS – ČVUT v Praze, Kolejní 2a, Praha 6, [email protected] Having data from students´ electronic evaluation for each semester, this subject is evaluated highly as well as the Security social services trenčín region village teachers. and in the village

The cooperation between students and representatives of the companies is sometimes on such level, the relationship continues and students write their master thesis there using Elza Kočíková the previous knowledge and even some of the students are Abstract: offered a part time job and later even their first full time job. Conclusion The role of regional development include the provision of social services for citizens. Globalisation has not brought positive changes only because population In this paper I promise to give the overview to our groups is very difficult to respond and adapt to new conception of practical-oriented teaching of marketing. conditions arising. In the world there is an ever increasing We successfully apply this concept for five years receiving negative social phenomena such as unemployment, poverty positive feedback from all the participants. Of course this and crime. Many foreign citizens without a helping hand are way of doing things is more demanding for teachers than unable to find appropriate solutions to adverse situations in the classic way of teaching and passing the information to which many times find themselves unexpectedly from day students. Satisfaction and positive evaluation of students to day. Keywords: as well as of companies is their reward. For future we do not plan any principal changes. The main change is caused regional development, social services, by the core of the education – each semester is different exploration JEL Code: because of different students. References R3 Introduction

A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: a revision of Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (2001). Bloom´s taxonomy of educational objectives In the framework of regional development is the (Complete ed.). responsibility of government by law to provide residents New York: Longman. and social services, which are provided primarily to Evaluation to improve vulnerable groups, which have towards other people a kind learning. Bloom, B., & Madaus, G. (1981). of drawbacks that obstruct the application of the company. New York: McGraw-Hill. Among these groups, we include disabled people, people in Taxonomy of material need, people in social need, the unemployed, the educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. Bloom, B. S., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1964). homeless and migrants and retirees. This is the citizens who are unable to provide care for his person, household, protect London: Longman. their rights and poor health. Workplace learning & development delivering competitive advantage for your Clifford, J., & Thorpe, S. (2007). Charter of Fundamental Rights of EU citizens in Article organization. 34 enshrines the right to social assistance and the right to London: Kogan Page. fight against social exclusion and poverty. Each company is 68 | 69

1 Processing Questionnaire characterized by the existence of certain groups of people who need outside help to solve their unfavorable social situations, because it can not help themselves (Rievajová, Interview automatically store data collected and 2013). Social services in Slovakia since 2009 provided in subsequently to obtain different types of outputs and accordance with the Act. 448/2008 Coll. Social Services, summaries of the results in tabular, graphical and text form as amended. The aim is to promote social inclusion and by type questions. accommodating social needs of people in unfavorable social situation. Questions were defined as selective or open and were divided into 4 parts: „Social service is a professional activity, service activity or further action or set of actions that are aimed at: A. Providing social services to the citizens of the village,

• Prevention of unfavorable social situation, addressing B. Cooperation in the field of social services, unfavorable social situation or mitigate adverse social situation of an individual, family or C. Trends in the provision of social services, community, D. Identification of the respondent. • Conservation, restoration and development of the ability of individuals to lead an independent life and to Processing questionnaires were deeper at some points promote its integration into society, divided into small and large municipalities by population and to the 5tis. In the following part of the paper are good • Ensuring the necessary conditions to meet the basic examples of environmental platform „google / forms“ for needs of a natural person, creating and processing forms. Fig. 1 Preview environment for the development of the questionnaire • Addressing the social crisis of the individual and the family,

• Prevention of social exclusion of the individual and the family „(§ 2 of the Act. 448/2008 Coll., On social services, as amended).

The above post is dedicated to the exploration of social services in the Trenčín Region. The survey was Source: own processing conducted by questionnaire method. Were interviewed in the survey questionnaire to fill in the Trenčín region After filling out questionnaires from respondents is 276 municipalities. The return of questionnaires was possible in an environment „google / forms“ using tools to 58 completed questionnaires, representing only about 21%. get different kinds of outputs. The basic outputs include Due to a lower return questionnaires, it could be expected a summary of answers. Fig. 2 Tool for questionnaire response summary that the data will not be sufficient to relevant processing, but in the more conscientious processing of data, it was found that the data cover the total region of Trenčín more than 50% representing citizens (margin in districts from 18% to 75%) and consequently that participated in the survey of the village, which are key to ensuring social services.

The questionnaire was the technical created in electronic form on the platform of Google Drive (https://drive. google.com), which is very intuitive and easy to control and processing. Publish questionnaire was sent out to email addresses offices with reference to direct on-line Source: own processing fill. Summary of responses provides several possible styles The data were then processed by the confrontation of processing. For our needs, the data were processed with data from the Statistical Office and portal Trenčín numerically, and the percentages shown in the graph for Region. each question. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Fig. 3 Visual processing responses Fig. 5 Possibility of processing summary view replies

Source: own processing

For further processing of the data was exported to Excel environment, where it is further processed as required. 2 Evaluation questionnaire

For further understanding of the context the details of the SR population and population between the regions of Western Slovakia, Trenčín Region districts and towns and Source: own processing villages Trenčín Region.

Since the survey was conducted in Trenčín autonomous For subsequent processing results are displayed in a reply region, which has 9 districts also identified the following aggregate form. The data can also handle ad-hoc directly in population figures for individual districts to 31. 12. 2011 the environment, filter, and sort them below. or exported to (Source: Statistical Office -Sčítanie population and housing MS Excel for further processing. census 2011).

Fig. 4 Preview filtering options and ordering data according to defined parameters

Source: own processing 70 | 71

Tab. 1 Population

population population population population Slovak Republic 5 399 333 Bodiná 492 Ješkova Ves 504 Podkylava 246 West Slovakia 1 841 848 Bojnice 4 966 Kočovce 1 478 Polianka 374 Trnavský region 557 030 Brezová pod 5 098 Krásna Ves 528 Považany 1301 Bradlom Nitriansky region 690 411 Bzince pod 2 099 Lazany 1 624 Považská 41 055 Javorinou Bystrica Trenčiansky 594 407 Čachtice 3 998 Malinová 884 Priepasné 368 regiondistrict Púchov 44 680 Dolná Poruba 807 Nová 11 446 Prievidza 48 739 district Myjava Dubnica district Bánovce 27 508 Dohňany 1 741 Partizánske 24 203 Pruské 2 201 nad Bebravou 37 035 Dolná Súča 2 977 Púchov 18 200 Skačany 1 288 district Partizánske 47 185 Dolná Mariková 1 430 Ilava 5 336 Skalka nad 1 183 district Trenčín Váhom 113 167 Dolné Kočkovce 1 212 Moravské 2 573 Slavnica 858 district Nové Lieskové Mesto nad Váhom 62 869 Drietoma 2 215 Motešice 802 Slopná 480 district Považská Bystrica 63 521 Dvorec 432 Myjava 12 323 Stará Turá 9 387 district Ilava

district Prievidza 60 605 Handlová 17 794 Nová Bošáca 1 149 Stupné 693 137 837 Horná Mariková 680 Horné Srnie 974 Temeš 256 Bánovce nad 19 483 Horný Lieskov 384 Papradno 2 517 Trenčianska 4 060 Bebravou Teplá Beckov 1 385 Chocholná- 1 702 Veľké 482 Trenčianske 4 368 Velčice Chlievany Teplice Beluša 5 850 Ivanovce 912 Pobedim 1 178 Vaďovce 771 Bobot 752 Jablonka 483 Podhradie 333 Zliechov 566

Source: Statistical Office – Population and Housing Census 2011

Fig. 7 Percentage of participating of municipalities representing the population with regard to the total In the districts of Trenčín region is 276 municipalities, population which questionnaires were sent out electronically. Their completion was voluntary and thus rate was 21%. The following table lists the specific municipalities that completed the questionnaire and submitted. The table below shows the population numbers for individual municipalities to 31. 12. 2011 (Source: Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic).

Trenčín had according to the statistical office of 31. 12. 2011 594,407 inhabitants. The questionnaire expressed their representatives for 281,620 inhabitants, which represents a total of 47%.

The following table is expressed in percentage of the involvement of communities in the survey questionnaire with respect to the population, which represent individual municipalities. Source: own processing University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Fig. 6 Percentage of participating of municipalities with regard to the number of villages in different districts Gradually we obtain information from the data, as the village work. Municipalities have opportunities and provide social services fairly open, as the provision of services can be made by direct provision of services by the municipality, namely from the state budget and municipal budget through projects but also through private charitable organization. It is important to provide a service, it is not important who provide service. The data then we could get some interesting findings that help in the development of strategic planning, for example. For example, in the district of Ilava almost every village provides some social services, from 21 villages in the district, only 3 municipalities do not provide any services, on the other hand, in the district Považská Bystrica from 28 municipalities, only 7 municipalities provide some Source: own processing social services.

Tab. 2 Percentage of municipalities involved in the questionnaire survey with regard to the number of villages in different districts

Districts – Trenčiansky number of participating number the percentage of participating of region of municipalities of municipalities municipalities with regard to the number in the district of villages in different districts

District Púchov 4 21 19 % District Myjava 6 17 35 % District Bánovce nad Bebravou 4 43 9 % District Partizánske 3 23 13 % District Trenčín 11 37 30 % District Nové Mesto nad Váhom 10 34 29 % District Považská Bystrica 8 28 29 % District Ilava 5 21 24 % District Prievidza 7 52 13 %

Source: own processing Tab. 3 Percentage of participating of municipalities representing the population with regard to the total population

okresy – Trenčiansky kraj počet obyvateľov celkový počet percentuálny podiel zapojenia sa obcí v zapojených obyvateľov v okrese zastupujúcich počet obyvateľov vzhľadom obciach k celkovému počtu obyvateľov

Okres Púchov 27 003 44 680 60 % Okres Myjava 18 892 27 508 69 % Okres Bánovce nad Bebravou 20 925 37 035 57 % Okres Partizánske 25 995 47 185 55 % Okres Trenčín 20 752 113 167 18 % Okres Nové Mesto nad Váhom 25 319 62 869 40 % Okres Považská Bystrica 47 731 63 521 75 % Okres Ilava 20 407 60 605 34 % Okres Prievidza 74 596 137 837 54 %

Source: own processing and Statistical Office – Population and Housing Census 2011 72 | 73

Evaluation questionnaire survey was divided and the To ensure such social services can be found in the follow- response from the perspective of representatives of up questionnaire asking whether: Offer social services for municipalities in the small village into 5tis. residents homeless persons that live in our village, is sufficient. and representatives of large municipalities answers over The question investigated the views of representatives 5tis. population. Responses were often in small villages of municipalities Trenčín the sufficiency of the supply of fundamentally different answers than in large municipalities. social services for the target group of homeless people. 27% of municipalities Trenčín region indicated that the 2.1 Social services of municipalities by type homeless are not a problem for their village. Proportion of positive responses in the case of this question 12% and the proportion of negative responses is about 32%. Social services are broken down by type, depending on the nature of the unfavorable social situation or the target A closer look at the survey, we can conclude that a large group. As an example, we present the processing of ensuring proportion of small villages considered area homeless social services hospice, which belongs to the group: persons as problematic. The highest share of about 50% Social services to ensure the necessary conditions to of positive responses is reported for the large village satisfy basic needs in facilities where of Trenčín. Relatively large portion, about one-third of this group include municipalities in both size category gave a neutral response. social services hostel, shelter, halfway houses, low-threshold Neither one big town Trenčín did not comment that the day center and emergency housing. Their characteristics homeless are not a problem for her. Fig. 9 Graphical representation answers and efficiency is precisely defined.

Hostel -is for individuals to lodge, which has secured the necessary conditions to meet basic living needs, and which has provided accommodation or not existing residential use, provided:

• accommodation for the purpose of providing shelter nights, • social counseling, and create conditions for:

• Conducting the necessary basic personal hygiene, • Food preparation, food dispensing or dispensing food.

On the territory of the TSK currently are 8 hostels with Source: own processing Fig. 10 Graphical representation of responses to large and a total capacity of 171 beds. The dormitories are often small municipalities provided only to one sex, mostly for men. Geographical distribution of this type of social services in the TSK is shown below. Fig. 8 Geographical distribution of social services hostels

Source: own processing Source: own processing University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Conclusion Keywords:

promotion of entrepreneurship, municipalities, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), instruments of In conclusion we can say that if municipalities are seeking municipal business support Introduction space for the realization of a business can focus on the social sector, but if we work systematically and strategically plan, we need to do in advance of a thorough analysis of the data. The social sector is a very broad area for the Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) represent implementation of a business. more than 1 million of economic subjects in the Czech References Republic, i.e. 99.84 % of all the entrepreneurs, who employ more than 1.8 million employees, which is 60.88% of the Sociálne zabezpečenie. working people in the Czech Republic. They participate RIEVAJOVÁ, E. a kol. (2013). by approx. 51 % in export and 56 % in import. Small Bratislava: EKONÓM, 334 s. ISBN 978-80-225-3631-8 and medium-sized enterprises are really important in Sociálna práca. the development of endogenous potential in particular HUSAKOVÁ, M. 2008. Bratislava: Czech regions, due to the fact that they are significantly Ekonóm: Ekonomická univerzita v Bratislave, connected with a given region on both the enterprise and Národohospodárska fakulta, 2008. 163s. social level and also represent a regional enterprise basis ISBN 9788022525367 (BusinessInfo, © 1997–2013). 1 The importance of small and medium enterprises http://www.tsk.sk/socialna-pomoc/poskytovatelia- for municipalities socialnych-sluzieb-v-tsk.html?page_id=61719 http://portal.statistics.sk/showdoc.do?docid=24273 Contact SMEs are according to their environment much less anonymous; their work is under the continual check of a given community. In smaller towns they usually Ing. Elza Kočíková, PhD., Trenčianska univerzita A. Dubčeka, represent all the supply of the local services. According to Trenčín, Študentská 2, SR, [email protected] the extent of the development of SMEs it can be referred to the general development of a given town. In some cases Promoting entrepreneurship the presence of particular services might be an important in municipalities factor for the migration of new residents to the given inhabited areas.

The demand of inhabitants for services and products, Jiří Macháček that they want to make use of during their lives, is continually growing. Due to this fact, the decision of the Abstract: inhabitants, where to live, depends exactly on the supply The article discusses the promotion of of a given area with these particular services. SMEs entrepreneurship by communities with a focus on small actually represent some king of a local capital and they and medium-sized enterprises. First, the importance of are usually not owned by foreign investors. Thus the business development for municipalities is explained, positive aspects mostly contribute to the given region. indicating specific examples from the past. Furthermore, Their existence contributes to a social cohesion and the the article deals with the quality of the business stability of regions. environment in municipalities, which has a major impact on the localization of individual companies. At the same They are usually more closely bound to the given region and time, there are descriptions of specific instruments they also often become sponsors of local cultural and sports for promoting entrepreneurship, which municipalities activities. The companies are also mostly involved in the may use. In conclusion, the article presents the results development of a village or the micro region. of a survey among entrepreneurs regarding their preferred ways of support from municipalities. Small The subjects can also financially contribute to a project and medium-sized enterprises are really important in or they offer their services or the products or use their the development of endogenous potential in particular knowledge to help. This is what the local municipal Czech regions, due to the fact that they are significantly representatives are aware of and therefore they connected with a given region on both the enterprise implement their support into their own development and social level and also represent a regional enterprise documents. They also try helping them in many other basis. ways, beginning with positive attitude towards their 74 | 75

application and ending with building infrastructure. current companies and to the origination of new companies. Small and medium enterprises are an important part of It is ruled by the legislative conditions that are – self- home supply, they are also in a relation with the area, -employment law, the commercial law or the enterprising where they exist and are important provider of services support law (Act No. 47/2002 Sb.). and products, especially for the local inhabitants. This is why they are and always will be an essential part of our The aim of a town should be to provide convenient economics, because there will always be businesses, that enterprising conditions for the enterprising in a town. only SMEs can provide. Although the primary interest of the local self- -administration is to provide good conditions for living of The enterprise activities are irreplaceable in development the inhabitants, the support of entrepreneurial activities plans on all the levels, from the European to the municipal. is really important for the local administration due to the The practical activity of certain companies is connected following facts: with distinctive multiplication effects. As an example from the recent past it is possible to mention the influence of 1. Making use of the empty areas suitable for enterprising Agrokombinát JZD Slušovice on the development of given 2. Giving work opportunities in a town or village micro region. In the times of the highest development, 3. Development support i.e. in 1980s, there was quickly built the infrastructure (construction and renovation of roads, building new flats, 1. In almost any town or village there is a site of a former starting new social-cultural facilities, development of agricultural company (abandoned or used for some services, etc.). Consequently there were held couple of times fraudulent means) or any other manufacturing plant. in a year important sport and social events e.g. horseraces, The effort of a town or a village is to make better the markets, where people from all over Moravia were coming visual aspect of such areas and support its making use and the population of Slušovice and the surrounding micro of by e.g. making the transport access better, support in region was growing. Even the purchasing power of the dealing with the owners, and coordination of utilization people grew, which had positive effect on the development by the entrepreneurs. of other economic activities in the mentioned region. It might be opposed that this all took place under completely 2. Even in the situation when most of the people of different social-economic conditions, but with regards to a village have the possibility to get a job in a nearby the market economy would this influence be apparently town or city, the work vacancies in the villages are really distinctive. Similarly might also be mentioned the effect important. Most of the people would prefer work in the of the Baťa company on the development of Zlín region local village. The working people in the village widen in 1930s. Any significant change in economic situation of the purchasing power of the village and they also may regionally important company has its effect on municipality increase the income of the shops and services in the of the area, where the company exists. Or in other words village. In the areas with general lack of working places individual companies are always inevitable part of the there is an attempt to develop the rate of local towns and regions, where they exist (Belás, Macháček, companies or to tempt new possible investors by 2014). a cardinal theme from the point of view of the development of the village. The data about the company i.e. about the foundation, surviving or fall, is very important for the local 3. Prospering companies are willing to invest into administration of the given towns and regions. This making the environment or the infrastructure around allows them to understand the needs of the entrepreneurs the company better or in any other way financially especially in the area of localization of companies thus those support the development of the village. The village who produce as well as those who sell or give service. With can refer to the companies in case of emergency or the knowledge of the importance of the development of unexpected situations (Portál na podporu rozvoje enterprises in a town or region it will be easier to choose obcí ČR, 2014) the right way of enterprising support in the area of a town 3 Decision of localization by the companies or region (Binek, 2011). 2 Promoting entrepreneurship in municipalities The quality of the entrepreneurial environment significantly influences the localization of particular companies at a given area. The support of enterprising can be thought of as the summary of various economic and legal means that serve On the village or regional level the business environment is to the development of the entrepreneurial environment, influenced by the following factors: University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

• closeness of markets and customers, coefficients for calculating property taxes or the amount of • availability and quality local taxes. Financial instruments: of manpower, • the quality of infrastructure, Municipalities may provide • relative accessibility of material and other discretionary financial support, for example for starting sources of a business or for development of a certain type of • the willingness and professionalism of the business activities. Frequently municipalities support local government business activities that significantly contribute or will • status of a given address contribute to the development of the municipality. However, it is always necessary to take into account Any entrepreneur always thinks of all the comparative possible restrictions of public support that is given by the advantages and disadvantages of a given area, i.e. relevant legislation. Institutional instruments: attraction of a certain place. There will be a different decision in an entrepreneur who plans to realize an This is in particular the activity of manufacturing character and different factors involvement of entrepreneurs to enterprising forms of that has to take into account an entrepreneur whose cooperation in the framework of local action groups company wishes to provide some special kind of service. (LAGs) or individual development associations. Here, Manufacturing company will demand mainly the access entrepreneurs can actively participate in specific actions to material and other sources or qualified manpower. and together with other participants significantly An entrepreneur on the level of business and service influence the planning of development activities of the will keep in mind the nearness of the market and municipality. Conceptual instruments: customers, potential demand, the nearest competition, the possibility of parking, the accessibility of public A municipality is responsible transport etc. for the creation and acceptance of different development policies and land use plans. There should be also taken 4 Municipal business support into account the needs of local businesses including their potential development plans. Socio-psychological instruments:

Municipalities, compared with national governments, An important have significantly fewer tools and ways to promote tool in promoting business is communication among economic and business development. First of all they representatives of government and the business sector. If do not have enough resources to create endowment a municipality regularly and appropriately informs about (support) programs for aspiring entrepreneurs or to its development plans not only residents but also local provide investment incentives for foreign investors. businesses, it will improve the business environment in the Municipal policy measures are of smaller extent than municipality. A municipality can also help entrepreneurs those of national governments. These include the already by providing them with information from other levels of mentioned “support of the business environment.” The government. Very important is also friendly and qualified goal of many towns and villages is to ensure such business approach of the staff in a municipal office to the business conditions that will lead to creation of competitive community. Other tools: advantage for local entrepreneurs and increase the attractiveness of towns and villages for residents, Given that direct support of entrepreneurial businesses and visitors. The basic prerequisite for the activities usually alludes to the legislative conditions, the successful promotion of entrepreneurship at the local support of the development of infrastructure, offering level is cooperation between the public and private space for business or providing a variety of assistance sectors e.g. the establishment of local action groups services is the main backup for entrepreneurs from (LAGs). municipalities. Municipalities thus de facto compete for potential investors and create conditions for the general The basic tools of municipalities to promote development. entrepreneurship include: Administrative instruments: For the breakdown of these instruments there are more A municipality may by options. In recent years in developed European countries generally binding regulations affect business activities in its there was set aside a complex of instruments for municipal area. Specifically, it can be e.g. public notices on operating and regional economic policy. Tools of communal support rules (market, restaurants ...), on ban for doorstep selling, of the economy and business are distinguished by type, on conditions of various events. Furthermore, municipalities impact strength, addressees to whom they are addressed, within the scope of their competences determine as well as its content focus. 76 | 77

5 Instruments of municipal business support How, in your opinion, municipalities could help the development of SMEs?

Groups of instruments Specific instruments Technical infrastructure transport infrastructure, (Please provide up to three answers.) Tab. 1 Results of a survey among entrepreneurs telecommunications infrastructure, technical infrastructure, investing in Way to help No. of Share of Share of business industrial areas, replies replies companies creation of industrial (%) (%) parks, innovation centres, incubators offering suitable premises 42 16,34 35,90 policy management of land buying of land and properties, for business and real estate discounted rentals, revitalization of industrial grant support for the 46 17,90 39,32 areas and fallow areas creation of new jobs regional planning and placement of industry and smaller procurement 79 30,74 67,52 building regulations industrial areas on the focused on local outskirts of the city, adapting entrepreneurs of construction management promotion of local 40 15,56 34,19 to requirements and needs businesses in local of business entities, defining magazines and on of areas usable for business municipality web sites purposes in spatial plans frequently interact with 44 17,12 37,61 financial assistance and subsidies (cheap land), local entrepreneurs about policy of taxes and fees providing and arranging of their needs loans and credits, loans and credits guarantees municipalities do not have 2 0,78 1,71 a significant impact on publicity promoting general awareness business activity in the of business entities village soft and location factors care of overall appearance otherTotal ways 2574 1,56100 3,42 and attractiveness of the city, development of social infrastructure information and counselling regular information for Source: Belás, J., Buganová, K., Hošťák, P., Lusková, M., Macháček, companies about strategy of J., Májková Sobeková, M.: Podnikatelské prostředí malých urban development, support a středních firem v České a Slovenské republice for new technologies and innovations In the context of the question entrepreneurs expressed improving of administrative transparency, planning, their opinion, what kind of business support from the activities reliability when deciding on municipalities they prefer. Participating entrepreneurs in the future of the city the context of this question would like to see small public other measures preference to local companies contracts are routed to local entrepreneurs. This option is in public procurement, transfer of the interests of favoured by almost 70% of respondents. A significant effect entrepreneurs and citizens was certainly that most of the surveyed companies were from in urban development the services sector. These companies are of the nature of their strategy activities closely linked to the local clientele, and therefore such support from local community is important to them. In Source: Ježková, R. a Ježek J.: Podnikanie a jeho komunálna connection with the use of such assistance the law on public a regionálna podpora, 2011 procurement has been criticized by entrepreneurs.

To assess the impact of a real use of the above mentioned Furthermore, preferences were given to the following forms tools to support business a survey among small and of support: medium-sized enterprises was carried out in early 2014 on the territory of the Zlín region. In total about • Subsidies for the creation of new jobs 200 companies were addressed, of which 117 showed willingness to fill in the questionnaire. The author • Ongoing communication with local entrepreneurs about personally visited 106 companies and 11 companies their needs replied to the questionnaire via e-mail. Evaluation of one of the questions is listed below. • Offering suitable premises for business University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

It follows that entrepreneurs are feeling lack of Zákon č. 128/2000 Sb., o obcích (obecní zřízení), ve znění communication with representatives of municipalities. They pozdějších předpisů Contact are usually contacted only in cases when the municipality needs to arrange something. Normally, however, municipalities are not interested in opinions and concerns of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurs would welcome ongoing Ing. Jiří Macháček, České Vysoké Učení Technické v Praze, communication with representatives of municipalities about Masarykův ústav vyšších studií, Kolejní 2637/2a, 160 00 business development in the village. Praha 6, [email protected]

Within individual proposals there was mentioned several Health promotion in the caring professions: times that municipalities should also focus on skills and view of professionals in long-term care willingness of municipal officials. Officials should be able to competently advise entrepreneurs and willingly advise them within the legal possibilities to meet them, and not to „crimp“. Conclusion Blanka Jirkovska

Abstract:

Based on the above mentioned it is clear that municipalities Population aging has economic, political and and local entrepreneurs need each other. The reasons for social consequences. Planning needs of long term care the good cooperation of the public administration and (LTC) and reflecting the number of professional caregivers the business sector lie in the fact that together they can responds to the demographic changes. Although family achieve more substantial output than if they try to achieve caregivers dominate in many OECD countries including their goals separately. Public administration, therefore, the Czech Republic, a number of professionals in these within its capabilities, supporting local entrepreneurs countries will double until 2050 (even triple in the and welcomes the arrival of new entrepreneurs, because Czech Republic). The need for the existence of quality it is very beneficial for her. Either in terms of new jobs institutions providing LTC setting is linked with good or the financial terms. In case of a successful business, working conditions and health promotion of their entrepreneurs should not forget the community and should employees. play an important role in its development. References Within the reflection of the current state of health promotion and working conditions of formal caregivers in the Czech environment, we conducted a qualitative BELÁS, J., Buganová, K., Hošťák, P., Lusková, M., Macháček, probe (focus groups). The objective was to determine J., Májková Sobeková, M.: Podnikatelské prostředí malých the subjective opinions of this target group to employers’ a středních firem v České a Slovenské republice: Georg, efforts to promote their health by improving the working Žilina 2014, ISBN 978-80-8154-074-5. conditions. The key theme included the level of workplace health promotion and related positive and negative factors BINEK, Jan. Obce a regiony pro podnikatele; Podnikatelé affecting work performance. Key words: pro obce a regiony. Vyd. 1. Brno: GaREP, 2011, 64, 58 s. ISBN 978-80-905139-0-7. health promotion at work, professional Oficiální portál pro podnikání a export caregivers, long term care, work satisfaction, work BUSINESSINFO.CZ – motivation Introduction [on-line]. [cit.2013-05-02]. Dostupné z: http://www. businessinfo.cz/cs/podnikatelske-prostredi.html. Podnikanie a jeho komunálna a regionálna podpora. JEŽKOVÁ, Renáta a Jiří JEŽEK. The issue of the aging population and its economic, Bratislava: Paneurópska vysoká škola, political and social implications is often discussed among 2011, 248 s. ISBN 978-80-89447-47-3 professionals worldwide. In the EU countries, the needs associated with long-term care (LTC) are perceived as Portál na podporu rozvoje obcí ČR. Zaměření podpory one of the new social risks (Průša, 2011: 9). The focus podnikání v obci [online]. [cit. 2014-04-8]. Dostupné z: is on optimizing methods and ways of providing LTC http://www.rozvojobci.cz/news/zamereni-podpory- and on effective meeting the needs of its beneficiaries podnikani-v-obci/. (Malina 2012; www.unfoundation.org). According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Zákon č. 47/2002 Sb., o podpoře podnikání, ve znění (OECD), the number of people over eighty years will double pozdějších předpisů in the framework of its member countries between the 78 | 79

years 2010–2050, from the current 4% increase to almost maintaining favorable conditions for their work, both in 10% (Colombo, Mercier 2011). institutions and at home. Own research of health promotion In addition to demographic changes in the population in LTC professions age structure, some patterns of social behavior are also changing. For example, there is a significant increase in the role accumulation of employed women. They more often hold simultaneously the role of informal caregivers As part of a larger research problem, which is a reflection than men. Informal caregivers represent 70–90% of all of the current state of health promotion and working LTC providers in OECD countries; women are two thirds conditions of formal caregivers in the Czech environment, of them (ÚZIS, 33/12). It is usually very difficult for we conducted a qualitative probe. The aim was to determine employed women to combine working life with informal the subjective opinions of this target group to employer care (Háva 2013). In many cases, this entails adverse health efforts to promote their health in the form of voluntary consequences (Austen, Ong 2013 ÚZIS, 33/12). improvement of working conditions.

The increase in the number of nuclear families forms We selected several topics related to the concept of health another significant social trends. This leads to the physical promotion for the purposes of the investigation. This was separation of younger and older generations. In addition, the assessment of subjective health status of caregivers, more and more people in the older age living alone in as well as the psychosocial factors that contribute to the households need professional and medical assistance promotion of their health by increasing job satisfaction (Tjadens, Colombo 2011). This involves a process called. and motivation. Also, we were interested in the factors that The process of defamilization reflects the decline in the cause harm to their health in the sense of motivational and family care of elderly relatives and a shift of responsibility job satisfactional decrease. to the community, society, state and its institutions (Jeřábek 2009; Glenn 2000). The reasons for the feeling of satisfaction and dissatisfaction of employees in the workplace can have The above-mentioned demographic and social changes must a subjective character. Yet, we meet with more general be followed by planning the processes and forms to ensure factors in the helping professions. Help the needy forms LTC, including increasing the number of formal caregivers. the essence of this profession. This brings certain specifics Their numbers will double according to the OECD in in comparison with the other than helping professions. 2050 (even triple in the Czech Republic). Gross Domestic Work in LTC is very demanding and exhausting. Direct care Product growth coupled with this increase, according to workers are often exposed to stressful situations, resulting OECD calculations can rise from the current 1.2 % to 2.4 % in increased risks to their physical and mental health. (the OECD countries) and at 2,9 % (OECD countries outside Above average propensity to burnout, increased morbidity, Europe) in 2050 (Trigg 2011, Colombo, Mercier 2011). depressive and high turnover has long been observed for For these reasons, the governments of member countries these professions (Maroon 2012; Siegrist, Rödel 2005; pursuit economic efficiency of formal LTC, especially the Simon et al., 2005). most expensive part, which is a residential care (Colombo, Methods Mercier 2011). Although an effort to leave the elderly in their home environment seems to be more suitable in many cases, there are ofen poor conditions for home care. There is a strong need for institutional facilities providing The research plan was designed as a case study in five a sufficient number of qualified workers in LTC (Siegrist, facilities providing LTC. We included two LTC hospital Rödel 2005). wards, one home with special regime and two providers of social and health home services. The research sample was EU countries expect shortage of workers in LTC in the deliberately constructed from organizations providing LTC future. Therefore, the governments of some member with different forms of financing. We wanted to compare the countries try to educate professionals as well as informal extent to which coincide or differ employees’ views on some caregivers (including family members) in order to increase aspects of their health support provided by the employer the attractiveness of caring activities. In some countries under the voluntary component of working conditions are (Poland, Estonia, Lithuania), there are efforts to improve present. The hospital wards were state facilities (one in the working conditions of staff specialized in LTC sector to Prague and one in the Central Bohemia), the home with prevent its outflow to foreign countries (Průša, 2010: 21). special regime, situated in Prague suburb, was private and Quality and dignified elderly care in institutional and home the last two facilities providing social and health home care is conditioned not only by increasing the competencies services were also in Prague (one belongs to the town, of informal and formal caregivers, but also by setting and second to the Charity). University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

2 Subjectively perceived health status and its connection with the work activities The survey was conducted between May and September 2013 in the form of group discussions (focus groups). One group discussion (60–90 minutes in length) was held in each facility. The participants were composed of volunteers Subjective health status of respondents in the past year from caregivers, social workers, nurses, always in the was another topic discussed. Subjectively perceived health number of 4–7 participants in a discussion group. Direct status serves as a major determinant characteristic of contact with the elderly conditioned the participation in employee´ well-being (Kebza, 2005: 87–88). This question discussion. The total number of respondents reached 29, is of vital importance in professions characterized by of which 28 were women. increased mental and physical exertion as jobs in the LTC.

This survey was implemented as a pilot study. Given According to the answers obtained, respondents can be the objective of the investigation, which was to find out divided into two large groups. One group includes those opinions of several caregivers on their health promotion who usually feel pretty good, but sometimes they are tired in the workplace, appeared the form of focus groups as of demanding work. Second group often suffers permanent the best (Jayasekara et al. 2012). The acquired knowledge fatigue, sometimes up to exhaustion. Respondents from was used as a source of information for the preparation home care services suffer fatigue due to transfers between of quantitative phase. We focused in more detail on households of clients in all weather conditions, and also the analysis of the relationships between perceptions due to specific conditions in the home environment of of work effort and the corresponding rewards (Effort clients (for example, overheated in the homes of clients in Reward Imbalance model) and the concept of personal contrast with cold outdoor). As respondents from stationary well-being facilities claim, the main reasons of their physical fatigue (mostly backache) is moving clients and the main reason for Results their mental fatigue is excessive work stress.

We also asked whether respondents felt that their health In our research, we surveyed opinions of the status was related to the work. They responded positively in professional caregivers in LTC of their employers‘ most cases. Both the home care services and the residential effort to support several aspects of their health in the facilities workers faced with occasional back-, shoulder-, workplace. neck- and feetache due to handling clients. Furthermore, they reported occasional headaches and insomnia. The 1 Health promotion in the workplace according backache in home care employees is ofted caused by to professional caregivers the need to carry heavier baggs with food to clients. We obtained no positive answer on question whether respondents ever attended professional ergotherapy First, we examined what caring staff understands under training, where they were instructed on the appropriate the term “health promotion in the workplace”. Then we procedures for handling clients to minimize their were interested in whether the employer applies some of suffering musculoskeletal system. Respondents generally these principles and what would welcome the employees reported that they learn themselves how to manipulate in their health promotion. We can say that the staff with immobile clients during the practice. However, responses did not differ significantly in different types of these amateurish procedures instead of professional facilities. Employees associate the term „health promotion ergotherapeutic training can impaire their muscoskeletal in the workplace“ with various forms of activities that aparat. contribute to their physical and mental well-being. Mostly 3 Main loads in working life of formal caregivers they consider the current status of health promotion unsatisfactory. Respondents repeatedly mentioned these suggestions: An excessive administrative burden was often mentioned • relaxing activities: eg. massages by the respondents as a huge obstacle in the work. This • sports activities: eg. swimming, physiotherapy load takes time and energy at the expense of attention • providing water and other fluids for employees to clients or patients. Working in the caring professions • vitamin tablets: the employer should provide them is largely based on psychosocial and emotional support especially in critical year seasons of the needy. This support requires time and personal well- • vaccination, flu vaccine: the employer should contribute being of those who provide the care. If they are overloaded to the prevention of infection in critical year seasons by administration, they lack sufficient capacity for the • promoting mental health: eg. joint cultural events for care they would like to invest in their clients. This leads employees – theater, trip to internal conflict of values. On one hand, they have to 80 | 81

operate according to standardized work practices and to • infection from patients / clients or in public transport the set standards, on the other hand, from an ethical point • illness due to changing temperatures outdoors and in of view, they seek individual approach to clients, in which homes of clients / patients they do not have enough time. This internal contradiction 4 Main motivators in working life is reflected in the feelings of frustration of the professional of formal caregivers caregivers.

In addition to these general work loads, the workers in home care sector added: On the other hand, the helping professions also bring substantial immaterial rewards that constitute • lack of time for food, often needed to eat in public a reason for many workers why they like their job. transport during transit between clients / patients This is especially a good feeling from helping others or „I feel good contributing to health improvement of patients. One of when I see that the client actually goes ahead, there are • the need to travel outside in any weather during the the respondents in our focus groups said: some visible results of my work. Maybe not literally my year , we take turns there, but that the result goes ahead.

The patient gets healthier and he gets better in all, so it • lack of information about the client / patient (work) mentally calms and fulfills me.“ (eg. peculiarities in the behavior of demened people, specific habits)

Chart 1 presents a summary of the most frequent loads as mentioned by our respondents University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Chart 2 summarizes the main supporting factors as referred by caregivers. Most respondents also agreed on the positive impact of „A person likes going in this job, even if he knows work in a friendly team, as mentioned in the following that there is a lot of work, there are inconveniences. But quote. when the team is good, everything can be done.“

The word recognition for good work belongs to other frequently mentioned supporting factors. Some respondents, however, feel that they do not get enough such recognition. This fact is also reflected in the level of informal caregivers by Glenn (2000: 84), who states that a greater appreciation and recognition of (family) caregivers would not only increase their status in a societal scale. It would also contribute to increase the prestige of the helping professions. This would lead to increased interest for other social groups to engage in care. The society that values care would be not only kinder, but also more egalitarian and fair.

The discussions repeatedly suggested that the work in helping profession is for caregivers much more meaningful than office type work. Some respondents have experience with both types of work activities. Their reason for the stay in a helping profession was helping the needy, which „I definitely feel meaningfulness. brings them more internal satisfaction than office work. In the past I left health sector and worked in business One respondent said: sphere for five years. And this (helping profession) makes sense. Wwhat I was doing there (business work) did not make sense. It was a large logistics company and I held relatively high managerial function. I asked myself why [do this job]. For money? It was about nothing (business work). This (helping profession) makes sense. That´s why I do the work. And I consider the response of clients very rewarding. That‘s when you behave nicely to them and you see that they respond positively and it is good for them. That‘s what keeps me here.“

Our findings are consistent with international studies which claim that the inner satisfaction of caregivers and the feeling of work meaningfulness remains an important determinant for work in helping professions Discussion (Weinstein, Ryan 2010).

Professional caregivers working in the home care services see other specific characteristics of their field work that The group discussions with staff in LTC also showed contribute to their health and well-being: that the concept of health promotion is often perceived in connection with the provision of employee benefits. • field work is associated with a lot of movement Options of employers (in state and non-state organizations) to provide workers with these benefits, however, vary • communication with clients / patients, establishing new considerably. Since this is a voluntary form of care for relationships (with clients / patients, with their employees, it is a decision of the particular employer what relatives) part within the budget is invested in employee benefits. Although the surveyed organizations offer some types of • work in a calm home environment of clients / patients, benefits, the question remains, to what extent these benefits individualized approach have the real motivating and beneficial effects on workers, or if they rather increase the satisfaction of employees with short-term effect. Foreign studies concerning the effect of employee benefits on satisfaction and performance from 82 | 83

recent decades bring different results. However; there promotion of an aging population, as well as of formal is an agreement that the benefits are an effective tool and informal caregivers is an important topic of LTC in recruiting new employees, maintaining existing ones policies. There is a need to create a national strategy and increasing the overall attractiveness of the company appropriate to our conditions and following positive (Forsyth 2009; Tsai, Wang 2005). foreign experience. References

The main loads at work of caring professionals, we found in the empirical investigation (see Chart 1,) are consistent with those reflected in the international studies. As Austen, S., & Ong, R. (2013). The effects of ill health and Journal of Industrial Tjadens and Colombo (2011: 14) indicated, workers in LTC, informal care roles on the employment retention of mid-life Relations which consists mostly of women, often feel inadequately women: Does the workplace matter?. recognized and have adverse working conditions. These , vol. 55 (issue 5), pp. 663–680. DOI: http://dx.doi. facts induce feelings of discontent. The discrepancy between org/10.1177/0022185613494648. the expected working conditions and the reality may result in the inferior work performance, or in the termination of Bílá kniha v sociálních službách. Konzultační dokument. employment. Due to the lack of a coherent LTC strategy (2003) MPSV, Praha. Available from: http://www.apsscr.cz/ in the Czech, the social service providers have usually not files/bila_kniha.pdf enough possibilities to improve working conditions od professional caregivers continuously. Colombo, F., & Mercier, J. (2011). Help wanted!: Conclusion Eurohealth Balancing fair protection and financial sustainability in long-term care. , 17(2–3). Retrieved from: http:// www.lse.ac.uk/LSEHealthAndSocialCare/publications/ Although the OECD and EU states seek to streamline the eurohealth/eurohealth_volume_17_no2-3_individual_ functioning of LTC, there are considerable differences in the articles.aspx strategies of governments to provide quality and affordable care for an aging population. The Czech Republic so far lacks Forsyth, P. (2009). Jak motivovat svůj tým. Grada, Praha Contemporary a clear and coherent plan of care for the elderly, including Sociology ensuring adequate conditions for the formal carers as well Glenn, E. (2000). Creating a Caring Society. as for the family members who take the role of informal , vol. 29(issue 1). DOI: http://dx.doi. caregivers (Janečková, Malina 2008). org/10.2307/2654934. Nursing Outlook Within the reflection of existing working conditions and Jayasekara, R. (2012). Focus groups in nursing research: the level of support for health professionals in LTC, we Methodological perspectives. , vol. 60 investigated their view on this issue. In accordance with the (issue 6), pp. 411–416. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. results of international studies, discrepancies between the outlook.2012.02.001. expectations of employees and the real possibilities of social service providers in LTC have been shown. Janečková H., Malina A. (2008). Dlouhodobá péče o seniory z pohledu ekvity. Zdravotnictví v České republice. 1: 26–29 Professionals working in LTC must cope with mentally a Zdravotnictví v České republice, 2: 64–68 and physically demanding work. In addition, they are in daily contact with disease and with human suffering. All of Jeřábek, H. (2009). Rodinná péče o seniory jako „práce these stressful situations are accompanied by feelings of z lásky“: nové argumenty. Sociologický časopis, 45(2), devaluation. Despite these difficulties, many professional pp. 243–265. Retrieved from: http://sreview.soc.cas.cz/ caregivers are aware that their work is meaningful and uploads/b02650d7a75e5ebccff13c37a521b65c39a7d028_ necessary and come back to social profession after previous Jerabek2009-2.pdf Promoting health: knowledge and practice. experience from other jobs. Often the positive response from clients or patients and their relatives is a best Katz , E. (2000). satisfaction for them. (2nd ed). London: The Open University. Psychosociální determinanty zdraví.

Our preliminary results show a significant importance Kebza, V. (2005). not only of health risks, but also of psychosocial factors (Vyd. 1., 263 s.) Praha: Academia. such as motivation, evaluation of work performance and teamwork. The level of monitoring working conditions, Lavoie-Tremblay, M., Bourbonnais, R., Viens, C., Vezina, Journal of Advanced health promotion and supervision of professional M., Durand, P., & Rochette, L. (2005). Improving the Nursing caregivers is being underestimated as part of the strategic psychosocial work environment. development of services in LTC. Prevention and health , 49(6), pp. 655–664. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Eurohealth Malina, A. (2012) Reálné dopady stárnutí populace. Trigg, L. (2011). The demand for long-term care for older Onkologie, 6 (4). Retrieved from: http://www.onkologiecs. people. , 17(2–3). Retrieved from: http:// cz/pdfs/xon/2012/04/01.pdf www.lse.ac.uk/LSEHealthAndSocialCare/publications/ Syndrom vyhoření u sociálních pracovníků: eurohealth/eurohealth_volume_17_no2-3_individual_ teorie, praxe, kazuistiky. Maroon, I. (2012). articles.aspx (Vyd. 1., 151 s., Překlad Kateřina Lepičová). Praha: Portál. Tsai, K., & Wang, J. (2005). Benefits offer no advantage Kvalita péče o seniory: Personnel Review on firm productivity?: an empirical examination. řízení kvality dlouhodobé péče v ČR. Mátl, O., & Jabůrková, M. (2007?). , 34(4), pp. 393–405. Retrieved (1. vyd., 176 s.) Praha: from: http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.is.cuni.cz/ Galén. docview/214799218?accountid=15618

Niedhammer, I., Sultan-Taieb, H., Chastang, J., Vermeylen, G., Weinstein, N., & Ryan, R. (2010). When helping helps: Occupational Journal & Parent-Thirion, A. (2012). Exposure to psychosocial Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its Medicine of Personality and Social Psychology work factors in 31 European countries. influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. , vol. 62(issue 3), pp. 196–202. DOI: http://dx.doi. , vol. 98 (issue 2), org/10.1093/occmed/kqs020. pp. 222–244. DOI: 10.1037/a0016984. Contact

Poskytování a financování dlouhodobé péče v zemích OECD (III) (2012) – poskytování neformální péče a její dopad na zaměstnanost a zdraví. Aktuální informace Ústavu PhDr. Blanka Jirkovská, Masaryk Institute for Advanced zdravotnických informací a statistiky České republiky Studies, Czech Technical University in Prague,

(ÚZIS), č. 33/12, Praha. Retrieved from: www.uzis.cz/ [email protected] system/files/33_12.pdf Survey on satisfaction in life and the level of stress Průša, L. (2011). Model efektivního financování a poskytování of the students in the fifth semester of university dlouhodobé péče. In: Průša. (1. vyd.) Praha: VÚPSV. studies

Rechel, B., Grundy, E., Robine, J., Cylus, J., Mackenbach, J., The Lancet Knai, C., & McKee, M. (2013). Ageing in the European Union. , vol. 381(issue 9874), pp. 1312-1322. Lenka Emrová DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62087-X. Abstract:

Salavecz, G., Chandola, T., Pikhart, H., Dragano, N., Siegrist, The university studies, especially in the last year, J., Jockel, K., Erbel, R., Pajak, A., Malyutina, S., Kubinova, belong to one of the most formidable situations in life. Most R., Marmot, M., Bobak, M., & Kopp, M. (2010). Work of the students combine the studies with employment, Journal of stress and health in Western European and post-communist and in addition to that, they should fulfill other social roles Epidemiology countries: an East-West comparison study. apart from those of a student and an employee. They are in , vol. 64(issue 01), pp. 57–62. DOI: http:// a period of life in which they should become independent dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2008.075978. from their parents and at the same time create stable close relationships for further coexistence. Key words: Siegrist, J., Rödel, A. (2005). Arbeitsbelastungen im Altenpflegeberuf: unter besonderer Berücksichtigung Social Role, Satisfaction in Life, Level of Stress JEL code: der Wiedereinstiegsproblematik. Universität Düsseldorf. Institut für Medizinische Soziologie der Heinrich Heine- J110, J24 Introduction Universität Düsseldorf.

The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/ These days high requirements are imposed on the previous/ottawa/en/index4.html individuals´ personality, their mastery of handling with stress, coping with difficult situations in life, and adjusting Eurohealth Tjadens, F., & Colombo, F. (2011). Long-term care: to the requirements of the environment and the society. valuing care providers. , 17(2–3). Retrieved The university studies, especially in the last year, belong from: http://www.lse.ac.uk/LSEHealthAndSocialCare/ to one of the most formidable situations in life. Most of publications/eurohealth/eurohealth_volume_17_no2-3_ the students combine the studies with employment, and individual_articles.aspx in addition to that, they should fulfill other social roles 84 | 85

apart from those of a student and an employee. They are in • Are there any differences in perception of the level of a period of life in which they should become independent overload and frustration from the point of view of from their parents and at the same time create stable close gender? relationships for further coexistence. Last but not least they should care about the place to live and how to earn their Are there any differences between men and women from living. So they are facing a lot of questions and more or less the viewpoint of the sphere in which stress manifests? Research group stressful situations following from them. From the reasons mentioned above we decided to monitor the students for the stress level and its expressions, and, at the same time, for their satisfaction in life, which, we presume, could be The survey on satisfaction in life and the level of stress was reflected in the ability to deal successfully with burdening carried out on a group of 43 students in their fifth semester situations. at CTU (ČVUT) in Prague. The number of 75 students was questioned and the total number of 43 students submitted According to Blatný the satisfaction in life is one of the the fulfilled questionnaires on satisfaction in life, which is key terms in the broader area of personal well-being 36% of the students questioned. From the gender point psychology. The author cited considers satisfaction in life of view 19% of men and 81% of women participated in the main element of well-being and defines it as conscious the survey, which resulted from the fact that the subject of and global evaluation of one´s own life as a whole. He study, Personnel management in industrial enterprises, is mentions also the fact that satisfaction in life is the most largely studied by women. frequent research operationalisation of personal well- -being, with which he proves the importance of this term The other three questionnaires were filled up by lower for the personal well-being concept interpretation. Most percentage of students, 37% of 43 students, i.e. 21% of the of the authors agree on the fact that overall satisfaction total number of 75 students. is determined by the satisfaction in each individual sphere of life, to which family and friends, neighbours, From the viewpoint of the other demographic the job, health and a positive assessment of one´s own characteristics, the group is homogeneous – the personality belong. Satisfaction in life is relatively stable respondents are the students with, at least, secondary in time and often changes only slightly concerning the education, 20 to 25 years old. Further characteristics were dependence on life issues. This impact of life issues is not surveyed. limited for a period of three months approximately, and then the individual usually returns to his/her original The survey was conducted in the autumn 2013 and is going attuning, to the certain level called the “set point”. (Blatný, to continue in the following years. 2005) 2 Methodology 1 Research objectives

For the survey, the questionnaire on satisfaction in life (SLQ) • To determine overall satisfaction in life and each of its was used. The questionnaire was developed by German individual aspects within a specific group of students in authors: Fahrenbergem, J., Myrtekem, M., Schumacherem, their fifth semester of university studies; J. and Brahlerem, E., and published by Hogrefe-Verlag in Gottheim in 2000. The Czech translation and the issue • To determine the students´ level of stress, if they are adaptation (together with the Testcenter) were carried overloaded or frustrated, and which sphere of their life out by Kateřina Rodná a Tomáš Rodný in 2001. The is endangered the most (cognitive, emotional, physical questionnaire is designed for an objective assessment of or social); overall satisfaction in life and for a differentiated evaluation of ten different aspects of this satisfaction. For our purposes • To determine if there are any differences in each of the we used only 9 of these aspects, with exclusion of the individual dimensions from the point of view of gender; area of relations to ones own children, considering the Research questions respondents age. We used the following areas: health, work and employment, the financial situation, free time, marriage and close relations, one´s own personality, sexuality, friends, • Are there any differences in feeling satisfied in life acquaintance and relatives, and the place to live. Each of between women and men? the ten scales has nine items which are answered within a seven grade scale (from 1 = “very satisfied” to 7 = “very • Are there any differences in perception of the stress dissatisfied”). The method serves for both the research level between women and men? purposes and also in many areas of applications. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Then the following three questionnaires on the stress level determination were used: Stress does not damage only the soul but also the body, The sources and the level of stress, and the Stress predisposition test. These questionnaires are not standardized , they are used as a supporting instrument for tentative determining of the stress level. The first one is composed of 30 items, which the respondent answers on a scale of four points according to the occurrence frequency (often, sometimes, In our research question we asked whether there are any rarely, never). The second test – The sources and the level differences in feeling satisfaction between men and women. of stress – determines if overload is the source of stress, From the research it followed that men are less satisfied or frustration. The respondent answers 2 x 10 questions, than the women in some of the spheres, and their overall again within a four point scale (always, very often, satisfaction is one point lower (4 point on average), than sometimes, almost never) The last of the tests mentioned, that of women (5 points on average). the Stress predisposition test, monitors which area is endangered by stress the most, if the cognitive, emotional, physical or social one. The test is composed of 24 questions, which the respondent answers within a five point scale according to the occurrence rate (always, often, sometimes, rarely, never). 3 Research results

In presenting the results we first focus on overall students´satisfaction and its individual aspects. Then we compare overall satisfaction of women and men, and also satisfaction in its each individual aspect from the point of view of gender. In following we ascertain the stress level Men, as well as women, are most satisfied in the sphere of and compare it with the standard for these questionnaires. the place to live. They feel average satisfaction in the sphere We focus on comparing the stress level from the point of of a close relationship, because only 2 of 8 of them live in view of gender as well. a long-term relationship. Those living in a relationship gave it 6.5 points. Another sphere where men are remarkably 3.1 Overall satisfaction in life and its individual dissatisfied is that of health and work, and they are slightly aspects within the whole group of students and from less dissatisfied than women in the sphere of friends, the point of view of gender acquaintance and relatives. In the whole women are more satisfied than men, with the lowest satisfaction in the field of health and their own personality, other spheres are on Our first research objective was to ascertain overall the average level. satisfaction of students in their fifth semester of 3.2 Stress level totally and from the point studies, studing the subject of Pesonalistics in industrial of view of gender enterprises at CTU Prague. Satisfaction as a whole was shown to be average. The students feel the highest level of satisfaction in the sphere of the place to live, probably because of the fact that most of them still The survey showed us that the total level of stress of our live with their parents in their flats. They feel average respondents is 4 points lower than the overall standard. satisfaction in the spheres of finances, free time, friends, Men are 1 point more stressed than women. acquaintance, relatives, and also in the sphere of sex. The spheres where satisfaction is lowest are those of their own personality, of health, and also that of work and employment. This shows that the students are not very satisfied with themselves. The area of dissatisfaction with their own health is relatively surprising. Low satisfaction in a close relationship is determined by the fact that 41% of respondents stated that currently they do not live in a close relationship. 86 | 87

Also the level of overload and frustration within our research group of respondents is lower than the standard. Overload is 3 points and frustration 5 points lower. As a whole we can characterize the level of overload and frustration as a medium one.

The results in comparison between men and women are somewhat more interesting and remarkable. They show that men tend more to be stressed, and the sphere affected From the point of view of gender, women feel to be more the most is the cognitive one. Men reach a high level of overloaded than men. Men, vice versa, feel to be more stress in that sphere. This means that stress manifests by frustrated. Women are harder to please themselves, poorer judgement, poor or impulsive decision-making and tend to overload themselves, while men more often process, low concentration and poorer memory. The same perceive various obstacles on the way to achieving their happens also in the social sphere, which is also stressful goals. very much within the group of men. They tend to keep away from the team and isolate themselves, their interest in hobbies and friends lowers, their sickness rate rises as well as making mistakes, and they tend to addictions. They are also a little bit more stressed in the physical sphere than women, in the emotional sphere the level of stress equals. The stress in the physical and emotional spheres is on medium level.

As the last research objective we set the task to find out the sphere which is burdened by stress the most, whether the cognitive, emotional, physical or social one. Again we monitored the results as a whole and then from the point of view of gender.

Conclusion

Sectional results of our survey indicate that the students of the fifth semester of bachelor studies showcase

ratherth slightly below average overall satisfaction in life (4 grade of 7). They are satisfied the most with the place of living. However, the fact that they are the least satisfied with themselves and in the sphere of their health is an unfavourable phenomenon. Their satisfaction is lower in The research results showed us that there is medium level the sphere of living in a relationship and also in the sphere of stress in all of the spheres, and in comparison with the of work and employment. Health, one´s own personality, standard the emotional sphere is on the same level, and the a close relationship and satisfaction at work are considered other spheres (cognitive, physical and social) are on the foundation stones of satisfaction in life by most of the level one point higher than the standard. authors. University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Keywords:

Next important output of our survey says that men on university education and globalization, average showcase lower satisfaction than women also in globalization-related education, teaching or learning each individual sphere. experience JEL Code:

The survey results showed that the students evaluated are F60, I20, Q54 Introduction less stressed than the population on average, men, again, are 1 degree more stressed than women.

The women evaluated showcase higher overload than the This international research aimed to understand and men, men are more frustrated than women. compare the various impacts of university education on the global consciousness of Taiwanese and Czech The inclination to stress within the group we monitored is university students. Globalization and transformational higher in the cognitive, physical and social spheres. changes in a society fundamentally influence the life of university students in the sphere of their studies, Men incline to be by 4 points more stressed in the cognitive privacy and professions. The themes of interest to the sphere, 1 point more in the physical sphere and 2 points researches in both the countries focused on issues of value more in the social sphere. orientation, economics and politics, the development of cultural and social capital, an informed civil society From the above we can claim that, within our research and the production of knowledge. These thematic areas group, the men are more stressed and dissatisfied than the were explored during a two-year research project women. at a theoretical level and through an international Contact comparative analysis. 1 Research methods

PhDr. Lenka Emrová, MÚVS ČVUT v Praze, Kolejní 2a, 160 00 Praha 6, [email protected] The research project shows interdisciplinary characteristics, University education and global consciousness – linking several social disciplines – sociology, psychology, studies on youth generation philosophy, economics and personal management. Theoretical aspects were processed through the standard methods; quantitative and qualitative methodologies were combined. Pavel Andres – Alena Vališová – Jitka Jurková One of the fundamental approaches used in the initial Abstract: phase of the research were a re-analysis of the relevant Taiwan and the Czech Republic share the information that is currently at the disposal of the similar experience of democratization since the end researchers in research projects carried out previously and of 1980s. Besides of such political changes these two which are at present accessible for the secondary use. countries face also impacts from the new regional/global economic integration, modern social thoughts such as One of the dominant features of the research will be post-modernism, new liberalism and the impact from a comparative questionnaire submitted to university nowadays knowledge society. The new generations, students focused on problems of higher education in which were born after the Velvet Revolution of 1989 the current conditions of globalization and a society in Czech or the Abolishing of Martial Law in 1987 in transformation. The crucial areas covered by the in Taiwan, have grown up without the memories of international questionnaire were as follows: authoritarian regime and the political atmosphere of extreme fear. Instead of this, those young people were 1. Daily Life & Globalization; growing up in the internet era and under the influence of 2. Globalization and University Education; globalization which were introduced by global capitalism, 3. Global Consciousness. consumerism and popular culture. Under such context, whether the Czech and Taiwan young generations have Research teams conducted questionnaire survey in Taiwan formed their own global consciousness? What could be and Czech Republic; the respondents of questionnaire the difference between young people of these countries? were students from Soochow University and the MIAS Furthermore, what is the influence of higher education CTU. Besides examining young people’s concern and on the formation of global consciousness of these young participation on such affairs this research compared the people? similarity and difference between Taiwan and Czech youth 88 | 89

generation as well. This paper analyzes only the results of the framework of different cultures, in this instance respondents at the MIAS CTU. a comparison of Asian and European cultures. 2 Research outcomes Research teams also discussed and form together the common questionnaire outline, examine the social and historic context of each country development, and then, 2.1 Basic information compared and analyzed the research results. Due to the historic and culture differences, we had to reformulate some initial questions so as students can understand them. A total number of 174 questionnaires were distributed and 1.1 Theoretical framework collected during seminars in academic year 2013/2014. The respondents were students of bachelor study programs; “Specialization in Pedagogy” and “Economy and Multiple Modernities The general theoretical framework for this joint Management”. Tab. 1 Structure of respondents – gender international project is the concept of , presuming that current modern societies show particular Gender Respondents characteristics, which make them similar and close. Nevertheless, these societies also differ in some of the crucial cultural features depending on which civilisations Male 78 they belong to and what historical processes they went Female 96 through during their past evoluationary development. Tab. 2 Structure of respondents – study programs Modernisation represents an overarching concept of numerous distinguished processes running simultaneously Study programme Respondents and potentiating their reciprocal effects. In this context we expect some relevant information from the area of social and cultural antropology and management diversity, Economy and Management 142 which contribute significantly to study of diversity within Specialization in Pedagogy 32

Fig. 1 Research framework University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Tab. 3 Your fathers (or mothers, in case of single parent) occupation Hradec Kralove Region 9 Pardubice Region 4 Occupation Figures Vysocina Region 5 South Moravian Region 2 Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, animal husbandry, 7 Olomouc Region 0 hunting Zlin Region 2 Mining 0 Moravian-Silesian Region 2 Manufacturing industry 10 Abroad 2 Electricity, gas and water supply 10 Civil engineering 28 2.2 Daily Life & Globalization Trade 22 Tab. 7 How often are you in touch with foreigners in your Transport, storage and communication services 17 daily life or social occasions? Finance, insurance, real estate and business 10 services Frequency Figures Public services, social and personal services 21 Almost every day 57 Education 9 Once a week 50 Others 39 Tab. 4 Your fathers (or mothers, in case of single parent) education level Once a month 25 Few times a year 19 Education level Figures Barely 20 Never 2 Tab. 8 What would be the main purposes of such Incomplete primary education 0 acquaintances PrimaryApprenticeships, school secondary education 534 without maturate examination Purposes Figures Secondary education 61 Friendship 58

University bachelor level 3 Schooling 35 University master level 48 Language learning 27 University postgraduate level (CSc., Ph.D.) 4 Tab. 5 Family social class Others 56 Tab. 9 Do you keep an eye on the following international Social class Figures issues? (multiple choices)

International issues Figures The top social class 1 The uppermiddle level social social class class 11028 International Finance, Business and Market Issues 61 International Relationship, Politics and Regional 77 The lower middle social class 33 Integration Issues The lower social class 1 Tab. 6 The place of residence Regional Safety, Military and Terrorism Issues 56 Global Environment Issue 47 Region Figures HumanEducation, Right Science Issue and Culture Issue 8841 The City of Prague 66

Seldom 34 Central Bohemian Region 43 Never 0 South Bohemian Region 5 Plzen region 12 Carlsbad Region 4 Usti Region 10 Liberec Region 8 90 | 91

Tab. 10 What’s your source of information on foreign news? 2.3 Globalization and University Education (multiple choices) Tab. 16 Do you think that university education is important Source of information Figures under such trends of globalization?

Importance of university education Figures Newspaper 73 Important, university provides students skill 145 TVs 105 Radio 34 and knowledge of globalization Internet 171

Important, university preserves the native culture 7 Other people 43 and tradition Others 3 Tab. 11 Have you ever been to any foreign country for Not important 13 a vacation? I don’t know 10 Tab. 17 Are you satisfied with our current globalization/ Vacation abroad Figures international courses? Yes 173 Satisfaction with globalization/international Figures courses Never 1 Tab. 12 Have you ever studied abroad? SatisfiedAdequate 8921

Study abroad Figures No comment 21 So so 30 YesNever 15321 Unsatisfied 4 I don’t’ know 9 Tab. 13 Knowledge of foreign languages Tab. 18 Do you think that your department provides enough globalization-related courses and activities? Foreign language Figures English language 163 Extent of globalization/international courses Figures

So so 52 German language 79 Enough 41 Other 1 73 I don’t know 61 Other 2 14 Insufficient 20 Tab. 14 Are you willing to study abroad after graduation? Tab. 19 In your opinion, what study programs are related to Willing to study abroad Figures globalization issues (multiple choices)?

Study program related to globalization Figures OfI’m course willing 7749 Economy and Management 139

I don’t think so 34 Specialization in Pedagogy 24 No way 5 Entrepreneurship and Commercial Engineering in 87 I don’t know 9 Management of Development Projects 123 Tab. 15 Are you willing to work abroad after graduation? Industry

Willing to work abroad Figures Quantitative Methods in Economy 47 History of technique 14 I don’t know 10 OfI’m course willing 9058

I don’t think so 19 No way 2 I don’t know 5 University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Tab. 20 What general courses you’ve taken before are related to globalization issues? (multiple choices) ProjectMarketing Management 7335

Visited/graduated courses related to Figures Globalization 131 globalization issues Corporate Management 55 Sociology 105 None 0 Others 2 Political Science 30 Tab. 22 Have you ever taken other globalization-related Philosophy 47 professional courses? Multicultural Education 19 Multicultural Psychology 6 Taken globalization-related course Figures EnvironmentalRhetoric, Communication Education and presentation 826 skills YesNo 16410

Social Education 18 Tab. 23 Have you ever taken any course that’s given in Social Psychology 75 English only? TechnologyLaw and Business Assessment 882 Human Resources Management/Personnel 73 Taken English course Figures Management Corporate Education 70 YesNo 14822

Work and Organizational Psychology 9 Tab. 24 Do you think MIAS CTU provides students with Leadership and Talent Management 4 lectures and seminars related to international issues and Project Management 3 topics? Marketing 37 Study program related to globalization Figures Corporate Management 54 Globalization 10 Often 8 Tab.None 21 What general courses do you think is related to27 globalization? (multiple choices) Sometimes 45 Seldom 13 Courses related to globalization issues – Figures NeverI don’t know 1016 expectation

Sociology 109 Tab. 25 Have you ever joined any globalization-related educational activities? (multiple choices) Political Science 85

Educational activities Figures MulticulturalPhilosophy Education 10644

Multicultural Psychology 49 Student clubs 3 EnvironmentalRhetoric, Communication Education and presentation 7246 Internship 1 skills Volunteer work 6 Extracurricular activities (domestic) 8 Social EducationPsychology 7827 Extracurricular activities (foreign) 11 Study group 4 Technology Assessment 14 International activity 0 LawHuman and Resources Business Management/Personnel 7243 Studying aboard/exchange student programs 18 Management OthersNever 1285

Corporate Education 38 Work and Organizational Psychology 46 Leadership and Talent Management 42 92 | 93

2.4 Global Consciousness Tab. 31 Do you think your knowledge of world history and culture is: Tab. 26 What is your opinion on the Czech Republic‘s involvement in global and international integration, eg. Knowledge of world history and culture is Figures within the European Union or the World Trade Organization? Important as it’s related to respecting to other 65 peoples and countries Extent of globalization/international courses Figures Important as it’s included in tests 79 Agree, cooperating with other countries helps 111 economy growth Not important as you don’t gain acquaintances 10 with foreigners Useless, economy development mainly relies on its 38 Not important as foreign affairs are not important 1 own development Tatab. all 32 Do you think some races hold superiority to other races? Disagree, opportunities will be limited by other 22 larger countries Tab. 27 Under current globalization trend, you think that Race superiority Figures nationalism would be

WhiteThey hold people no are differences more superior as every to the race other has races its 1676 Nationalism would be Figures own advantage

Weakened 89 Disappearing 10 The colored people are more superior 2 Tab. 33 Under current globalization trend, you think that Uncertain 33 every culture should Tab.Strengthen 28 When there’s an international political issue, what40 do you usually do? Culture should Figures

I case of international political issue I usually Figures Be blended into one unified culture 0 Be whatglobalized they are but and preserve avoid unification its own feature 13737 Pay close attention to the issue and share your 75 ownPay attention opinion with to the others issue but give no particular 84 opinion Tab. 34 Have you even been to any international volunteer activities held by organizations or institutes?

Pay no attention to the issue as it’s irrelevant to 15 International volunteer activities Figures your daily life Tab. 29 What kind of factors distracts you from Never 162 international affairs? (multiple choices)

Study program related to globalization Figures Few, but not many 12 Busy with school assignments 109 Frequently 0 Tab. 35 What do you think about the relationship between Lack of international affair knowledge 85 climate change and individuals?

Lack of access 37 Climate changes and individuals Figures Lack of relevance 28 Close, it’s related to every single individual 79 Personal effort is no place in international affairs 14 Some, but not important 76 Others 16 Tab. 30 Do you think the number of white-collar workers dealing with foreign affairs, should be Irrelevant at all 17 Tab. 36 If due to a natural disaster a country suffers severe Foreign affairs staff should be Figures damage, you will

Natural disaster Figures Increased dramatically a little bit 6516 Proactively provide whatever help you can scramble 104 Maintained the same 79

Do nothing as it’s not about our people 30 Decreased a little bit 10 Do nothing as it’s not my business 32 Decreased dramatically 1 University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Tab. 37 Do you sort waste at your residence and at work? CTU graduates on the labour market Waste sorting Figures Always, I consider it ecological and important 55

Yes, when specific containers and places for 84 Jana Marie Šafránková recycling are available Abstract:

Sometimes, if I have time 29 The objective of this paper is to outline possibilities of gaining information about the position No, I do not; so as most people 2 of CTU graduates and their feedback opinions on the No, it is useless 3 educational process. The study is based upon the author´ s Tab. 38 Do you buy fair-trade products? long-term research and concentrates on three main aspects of this problem – the professional position of the graduates, Fair-trade products Figures its feedback for the university as to the evaluation of acquired knowledge and impulses for the development of Never thought about that 36 their further education during regular and postgraduate ItOnly doesn’t when matter I see one 614 study within the process of life-long education. The aim of this treatise is to sum up the existing knowledge of how the graduates of the CTU assert themselves on the labour I do not know what it is 70 Always do 0 market, present the methods of acquiring knowledge and utilising its results in the practice of faculties as well Conclusion as complete educational processes on the basis of the needs of the labour market. The treatise is based on the conception of education at technical universities, especially The experience of time-space recombination and extension on the results of sociological researches of the graduates of is the crucial feature of global consciousness. In this study, respective faculties. Keywords: we focused on the basic characteristics of selected aspects that have an impact on the nature of academic and personal graduates, university, education, social sciences Jel Code: lives of students. References 125 Education and Development, 015 Human development Introduction

International Memorandum of Understanding between Soochow University Taipei, Taiwan and Czech Technical University in Prague, Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, Every university and its management is interested in Prague, Czech Republic, 2013. organisations, enterprises or companies where their Contact graduates work, i.e. whether they work in their line of study and how they apply knowledge acquired at a university. With respect to the feedback it is important for a university Ing. Pavel Andres, Ph.D., ING.PAED.IGIP, Czech Technical to dispose of information about knowledge which the University in Prague, Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, graduates lack and with which this faculty should provide department of Engineering Pedagogy, Kolejní 2637/2a, them or its students. This continuous dialogue between 160 00 Prague 6, [email protected] university pedagogues, practice and students relates to the position and role of a university in the system of education. prof. PhDr. Alena Vališová, CSc., Czech Technical University The aim of study at a university is now to graduate with in Prague, Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, broad professional horizon. A graduate does not become department of Engineering Pedagogy, Kolejní 2637/2a, an expert immediately by his graduation, but after he 160 00 Prague 6, [email protected] applies the methods of work in his line. Various companies, offering employment, differ in their capacity, property, RNDr. Jitka Jurková, M.A., Czech Technical University in specialisation, location and even position with respect to Prague, Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies, department competition ability. They offer the graduates good salary, of Engineering Pedagogy, Kolejní 2637/2a, 160 00 Prague 6, self-realisation, creative work, career, the application of [email protected] skills, social benefits - but also psychical enervation. The results of researches help the managements of faculties to collect basic information about the possibilities of students to assert themselves. It can be useful during the preparation of entrance examinations for individual lines of 94 | 95

study, the modification of curricula and the creation of the gained at a university and bring the gaps in knowledge into professional profile of a student and a graduate of the CTU. light. The graduates evaluate their adaptability, work in Methods their line and out of it and practical experience, considering the labour market and the possibility to assert themselves on it. Main method was quantitative sociological research. As mentioned above, the researches focused on the possibility Most of the graduates of the CTU are employees, in sample of the graduates of faculties to assert themselves on the were three quarters of respondents say that they are labour market in the period 1985–2012. They showed that employees. More than one tenth of younger graduates and the working position of them has changed evidently. Among about one third of older ones are businessmen. One fifth those who graduated from a faculty in 1985–1993 there of the graduates who graduated in the monitored period are more businessmen and managers. In comparison with have experience with unemployment. In the time of the younger graduates they have higher salaries too. research none of them was unemployed. The graduates of CTU work in various lines. Most of them work in the field of After 1990 seven researches of graduates were administration, management and design. Two fifths of the implemented (1996 – 681 respondents, 2003 – 1357 graduates from the period between 2000–2012 and more respondents, and 2005 – 828 respondents, 2009 – 380, than one half of those from the period between years 2010 – 340, 2011 – 380, 2013 Reflex 600 respondents), one 1985–1999 are managers. With respect to the individual research of ones about to take a doctor´ s degree (2006) aspects of their work, the graduates stress independence and nine researches of students (1993–2010). The results and responsibility. While their ideas of creative work of researches answer to following questions: which are come true very often, those of career, higher salary and the possibilities of graduates to assert themselves? How professional development are accomplished rarely. are they adaptable? Do they work in their line or out of it? How do they apply practically their knowledge gained at The knowledge of the official position of the graduates is a university? Which knowledge is insufficient and needs enlarged with information about the possibilities to apply to be completed out of a university? In addition, they give their line of study. One quarter of the graduates state that information that is useful for the curricula of a faculty and their recent work corresponds fully with their line of the creation of the professional profile of a student. study and two fifths of them state that their work has to do with it. It means that more than three quarters of the In the course of finding out the feedback following methods graduates of a faculty work in the line that they studied. are applied: One of important factors that influence the life of man is comparison between ideas and opinions on one hand and sociological methods, especially questionnaires, interviews reality on the other. Do ideas about work correspond with or group discussions – workshops – in which the graduates reality? The graduates lay stress on workload, the kind and of a faculty, its personnel managers and members of the intensity of work, salary, the improvement of qualification management take part; and social position, self-realisation and social benefits. The results of this comparison represent an important source the methods of the long-term comparison of students´ of knowledge both of the personality of a graduate and the opinions; needs of practice. comparison of the results of researches at individual Most of the graduates expect above all that they will have faculties with those at the CTU or other universities in possibility of creative work and self-realisation. These the Czech Republic or abroad (international survey on two factors are combined with professional development, universities graduates REFLEX 2006, 2010, 2013). better salary, the security of employment, independence, Results career and the efficiency of work. All these factors represent important values of life with respect to both ends and means. They reflect a certain degree of a graduate´ s 1 The possibilities of the graduates awareness of his role at work and in the society. In most of on the labour market factors expectations outweigh reality. The graduates expect above all creative work, the improvement of qualification, career and better salary. But the practice necessitates The aim of presentable sociological researches is to collect personal responsibility, team work ability, routine and the information about the possibilities of the graduates of power of psychical resistance. the CTU to assert themselves on the labour market, their working position, career and successfulness, find out their The ideas and expectations of the graduates differ in opinions of the practical application of their knowledge many ways from their demands. The ideas of career, good University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

salary, the improvement of qualification, the possibilities (55 %) and ability to work on PC and apply software of self-realisation and creative work have not come true programmes (64 %; nevertheless, there are evident contrary to expectations. On the other hand, the power of differences among the graduates with respect to the psychical resistance, routine and flexibility are required. year of graduation). On the contrary, the graduates find The comparison between ideas and reality according to the insufficiencies in their ability of self-presentation (34 %), expectations of the graduates of CVUT (the same results of ability to communicate with people (18%), ability to the research in 2003, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013). The manage and organise (15 %) and the knowledge of sequence of items follows the criterion of importance. foreign languages (20 %). With respect to the evaluation Table 1 of knowledge acquired at school, the opinions of the graduates from the period 1985–2012 do not differ. Ideas Reality

During the evaluation of teaching process it is important to creative work independence monitor which of it forms are appreciated by the graduates self-realisation responsibility more than the others. The results of long-term researches show the importance of workshops and seminars because good salary employment security they enable a pedagogue to discuss a subject individually responsibility qualification improvement and examine it. With respect to practice and preparedness independence at work self-realisation for a future profession, the students appreciate above all those forms of teaching in which they are allowed to In the ideas of the graduates the expectations of creative participate – for example dissertations, study projects and work, self-realisation, independence, the possibility of the workshops.The orientation of teaching relates to a certain improvement of qualification, good salary and the security degree to the students ´ abilities and skills. Some of them of employment dominate. In fact, the graduates lay stress on can be developed within the framework of the pedagogical independence, responsibility, creative work, self-realisation process itself. The development of students´ abilities and the security of employment. In the scale of criteria there can help their preparedness for work. The graduates of are not big differences among the graduates who graduated individual faculties express their opinions of contemporary in the period between years 1985–2012. demands on the labour market, required abilities and social competencies. 2 The possibility to apply knowledge acquired during graduates studies The graduates of individual faculties consider following abilities most important (this example shows the opinions of students who graduated in 2000–2012 The researches monitor whether the graduates are satisfied and how they apply their knowledge acquired 1. ability to solve problems 88 % at a faculty in their everyday activity. They monitor their 2. ability to learn and acquire opinions of teaching, i.e. both theoretical and practical or new knowledge 83 % supplementary subjects such as languages or humanities; 3. ability to communicate with people 79 % in addition, researches find out which knowledge is 4. ability to assert themselves 68 % appreciated, which gaps in it should be filled and which 5. ability for teamwork 66 % knowledge and skills are important for the graduates to 6. ability to risk 54 % assert themselves on the labour market. With respect to the 7. ability to adapt themselves comparison of the results of researches, I lay stress on those to the requirements of a firm 44 % which show the practical contribution of individual parts of a teaching programme. It can be said that in spite of the fact The graduates of individual faculties who graduated in that the monitored groups of the graduates (from the period 1985–2012 agree on their opinions of important social between years 1985–2012) differ with regard to practice competencies. In their opinion ability to solve problems, and experience, their evaluation of teaching is remarkably communicate with people and learn is important for similar. They are satisfied above all with their theoretical practice. One half of the graduates stress the necessity of knowledge. the ability of teamwork. The graduates who have been working for longer time stress ability to risk. It is possible Most of the graduates appreciate acquired ability of to deduce from the above information that in practice it is “technical thought” (85 %) and more than three quarters more important for them to be able to solve problems and of them appreciate their theoretical preparedness. In communicate with people than to adapt themselves to the addition, they appreciate ability to orientate themselves situation of an enterprise. It is good that these opinions are in their line (75 %), ability to analyse and work not advocated only by the graduates who hold high posts. systematically (83 %), special knowledge in the line The information witnesses that the graduates agree on 96 | 97

principle regardless a faculty from which they graduated Completely 2008, 2009 graduates and a year in which they did so. The differences result 1985–1993/2001–2003 from the variety of positions which they hold after finish of studies. • technical knowledge 93% (78/91) • communication with people 79% (79/75) 3 The further education • economic and commercial knowledge 50% (62/57) of the graduates of the CVUT • mastering foreign languages 58% (43/64) • law knowledge 37% (38/37) • ecological knowledge 29% (20/16) With regard to the further education of students, their interest in such a study is monitored. It relates above all These results “prove” that the graduates adapt themselves to the courses of life-long education or the study of ones to the existing conditions of market economy, economic about to take a doctor´ s degree. Life-long education after development and international co-operation. With respect graduation from a university is nowadays necessary. to social competencies, a graduate of the CTU who wants to The graduates thus complete their knowledge, improve assert himself on the labour market has to be able to solve qualification or undergo re-qualification. Interest in the problems, communicate with people, learn and participate improvement of qualification, life-long education and in teamwork. The differences result partly from the variety broadening the professional horizon helps the creation of jobs offered after graduation. Conclusion of the profile of a graduate and develops his ability to assert himself on the labour market. Three quarters of the graduates (in case of those with longer practice even 82%) have improved their qualification after graduation. Most of the graduates work in the line that they studied More than one half of them have improved it through and do not think of leaving it. They are either employees educational courses in their enterprises. One tenth of the of various enterprises or businessmen. Their experience graduates did so out of the CVUT and another one tenth with unemployment relates mostly to a period of transfer even in another line than they studied at it. The scale of from one job to another. They have various posts, but the topics of life-long education at the CVUT according most of them are organisers, managers or designers. to the interest of the graduates in them: professional and Regardless of the line they more or less participate in the applied disciplines – 41%, economy and management management of enterprises. In dependence on the year of 13%, communication with people, enterprise psychology graduation 29–55% of them hold management positions, and sociology, personnel management – 16%, theory – especially positions of first line managers, department mathematics, physics 6%. managers and general managers. The second part inquire into the problem of the application of knowledge Within the framework of life-long education most acquired at the university. It relates not only to theory of the graduates are interested in professional and but also to practice, knowledge in the field of humanities applied disciplines (one half of the respondents), the and social sciences. The results show that the graduates improvement of knowledge in the field of law (two fifths of CTU appreciate the technical way of thought developed of the respondents), economy and management (one during their study that enables them to solve technical third of the respondents), communication with people, problems in the course of decision-taking. In addition, enterprise sociology, personnel management (almost one they appreciate theoretical and practical knowledge. third of the respondents) and environmental problems On the other hand, communication with colleagues, (one tenth of the respondents). The minority of them team-work and so-called soft skills are evaluated as are interested in the improvement of knowledge in insufficient. Contact theoretical disciplines such as mathematics and physics (about 5%).The graduates of the CTU – both employees and businessmen – apply their knowledge according to the demands of the labour market. The fact that technical Jana Marie Šafránková, Ass. Prof., Ph.D., Masaryk Institute knowledge prevails (84%) proves that they work either of Advanced Studies, Czech Technical University in Prague, in the lines that they studied or in similar ones. Another Kolejní 2a. Prague 6, 160 00 Czech Republic, important field is communication with people (75–91%). e-mail: [email protected] References More than one half of the graduates links up better possibility to assert themselves with the application of Studenti a absolventi economic and commercial knowledge and mastering ČVUT CTU Students and Graduates foreign languages. The graduates state that they most ŠAFRÁNKOVÁ, J., FRANĚK, R., (2008) often apply following fields of knowledge (according to . ( ) 1.vyd. Praha: ČVUT the year of graduation) v Praze. ISBN 978-80-01-03646-4 University Education and Research in Fields of HRM and Management

Research reports from sociological research at CTU in Prague, ŠAFRÁNKOVÁ, J., (1996, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2010, 2011) Sociological surveys “Positions of CTU graduates on labour market”.

CTU in Prague

Researches REFLEX view 10. 9. 2014 online http:// www.strediskovzdelavacipolitiky.info/ and http://www. strediskovzdelavacipolitiky.info/download/REFLEX%20 2013%20Monitorovaci%20zprava%2005.%20SVP%20 PedF%20UK%202013-11-30.pdf

Authors:

Pavel Andres, Lenka Emrová, Anna E. Gorokhova, Adriana Grenčíková, Monika Hrebackova, Daniela Hricišáková, Dana Jašková, Blanka Jirkovska, Barbora Joudalová, Jitka Jurková, Elza Kočíková, Ľudmila Kolesárová, Jana Kouřilová, Jiří Macháček, Otakar Němec, Vladimir D. Sekerin, Alois Surynek, Jana M. Šafránková, Martin Šikýř, Klára Šimonová, Markéta Šnýdrová, Jana Španková, Michaela Tureckiová, Alena Vališová, Jana Vaněčková, Sergej Vojtovič Title: Current Trends and Challenges of Modern Management and Human Resource Development

Reviewers:

Otakar Němec, Martin Šikýř, Filip Bušina, Jana Šafránková Published by Czech Technical University in Prague Contact address: Masaryk Institute of Advanced Studies Kolejni 2637/2a, 160 00 Prague 6 Address: Printed by Česká technika – nakladatelství ČVUT Number of pages: Zikova 4, 166 36 Prague 6, Dejvice Editors: 100 Technical Editor: Šafránková, J. M., Šikýř, M. Scientific Editors: Michaela Kubátová Petrová Print run: Julia Boyko, Otakar Němec, Jana M. Šafránková, Michaela Tureckiová 350 First edition ISBN 978-80-01-05660-8 The partner of the conference