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The Creation of Muhajirat in America

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The Creation of Muhajirat in America The author(s) shown below used Federal funding provided by the U.S. Department of Justice to prepare the following resource: Document Title: The Creation of Muhajirat in America: Social Media As a Platform for Crafting Gender-Specific Interventions for the Domestic Radicalization of Women Author(s): Janet I. Warren, D.S.W., Gregory Saathoff, M.D., Terri Patterson, Ph.D., Don Brown, Ph.D. Document Number: 255237 Date Received: September 2020 Award Number: 2016-ZA-BX-K002 This resource has not been published by the U.S. Department of Justice. This resource is being made publically available through the Office of Justice Programs’ National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. Note: Graphic images of violence have been redacted. Image content is described in the text of the report. ABSTRACT: THE CREATION OF MUHAJIRAT IN AMERICA The impetus for our study was two-fold: first, to inform the field of terrorism risk assessment specifically as it pertains to women; and second, to create a dynamic, multi-dimensional risk model for use by the intelligence community (IC) in monitoring at-risk individuals according to their fluctuating levels of threat over time. Derived from earlier theoretical work using the Situational Action Theory, we empirically explored the application of a Moral-Situational Action (MSA-EV) risk model of extremist violence to determine its usefulness in identifying women, who have become radicalized, and through this radicalization actively sought involvement in direct action related to violent extremism. The MSA–EV risk model contains three domains reflective of propensity, mobilization, and capacity building, which were coded quantitatively and qualitatively using a 41-page protocol made up of bilateral risk and protective factors and case narratives for vulnerability and scenario-based analyses. The model was assessed using 300 women that were selected from a total sample of 1,462 women identified as being involved with extremist violence. The second primary component of the project examined the reaction of a sample of conservative, liberal and Muslim women aged 18 through 35 to jihadist, alt-right, and alt-left propaganda using eye-gaze, pupil dilation, galvanic skin response, and facial emotion recognition along with self-report assessment of their emotions, cognitions, and arousal states when viewing the material. Their responses indicated that our sample of 45 women experienced different neurophysiological responses to different types of propaganda and that their responses to horrific images of violence were suggestive of a specific autonomic responses that appeared to be unconscious and which may serve a role in the unconscious internalization of extremist ideas and ideologies. This process could be distinct from and uninformed by rational thinking and logical decision-making. These findings are significant to the intelligence community (IC), and respond directly to the conclusions of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2019), that emphasize the need for cutting-edge research from the social and behavioral sciences at a time when technologies and national security concerns are evolving at lightning speed. Specifically, the study has provided a practical framework for improving the understanding of the evolving ways in which adversaries influence the hearts and minds of people and the ways individuals are drawn into radicalization and extremism that condones civilian violence. Study One: The Moral-situational Action Risk Model of Extremist Violence in Women On December 2, 2015, Tashfeen Malik, a 29-year old resident of San Bernardino, California, posted her online support of Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi on Facebook before she posted her online support of Abu Bakr Al-Baghdadi on Facebook as she entered the Inland Regional Center, and assisted her husband, Syed Farook, in killing 14 civilians and seriously wounding 22 more. Some months earlier, two Somali-American sisters aged 15 and 17, and their 16-year-old friend of Sudanese descent, had been detained by German officials based upon a tip from the FBI as they were seeking to travel from their homes in Denver, Colorado to Syria. These actions reflected their prior engagement online with Umm Waqqas, a nom de guerre believed to belong to a woman and one of three accounts listed as a contact for those seeking to travel to Syria in the Islamic State’s (IS) 2015 guidebook, Hijrah to the Islamic State. However, fast-forward three years, and the landscape of the jihadist movement has changed, with 1,500 foreign women and children being held in the al-Hawl refugee camp in Syria. These women are described as falling into three gang-like groups made up of Russians, Tunisians, and a combination of other westerner countries. Hoda Muthana, the only American-born person being held at the camp, has recently expressed her deep regret for having traveled to Syria in 2014 to join the terror group and has conveyed through various news outlets that she is pleading to be able to come home with her 18-month-old son to join her family in Alabama. These sentiments appear sincere despite her previous role as one of IS’s most prominent online agitators with her Twitter feed characterized as having been “full of bloodcurdling incitement” in which it she would call for the blood of Americans to be spilled (Chulov & McKernan, The Guardian, February 17, 2019). As she now holds her little boy in her arms, the progeny of her third marriage in Syria, Ms. Muthana acknowledges her prior arrogance. She says that she was brainwashed and as she began to realize her mistake, she has left her friends and now she is alone, asking the United States to give her a second chance. These events were illustrative of concerns that served as the impetus for the current research - not only the growing threat of terrorist violence in the US but also the substantial involvement of women in it. Reports suggest that Ms. Malik was instrumental in the radicalization of her husband, that she carried the weaponry to the Inland Regional Center, and that she was first to open fire on the civilians who were meeting socially in the center at that time. Moreover, she committed herself to these acts knowing that she was leaving behind an infant daughter to be cared for by her mother-in-law, an older woman who had been present in the home as the planning for the attack unfolded around her over a significant period of time. The three young women from Colorado believed that they were traveling to Syria to marry and support the caliphate through procreation, 1 having been aided in their plans by an IS recruiter who used social media to support and guide them in the radicalization process and their efforts to plan a covert trip to Syria. The unexpected contours of this emergent threat have been further complicated by the growing presence of white nationalists and supremacists in America. Believed by some to have been fed by the highly contested dynamics of the presidential election in 2016, issues of free speech have begun to provide fertile ground for increasingly violent interchanges between the liberal left and the alt-right. While initially reflective of certain populist beliefs, the alt-right label has begun to be associated with white supremacy groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazi groups, and other white hate groups banding together to support a racist agenda. Over time, these groups have integrated pro-white sentiments into an ideology referred to as Pro-European. Professing hostility and discrimination against black Americans, Jews, immigrants, and LGBTQ+ persons, these groups started to hold rallies that initially threatened violence and then erupted into violence in Charlottesville, VA in August of 2017. Discriminating against black Americans, Jews, immigrants, and LGBTQI persons, these groups started to hold rallies that initially threatened violence and then erupted into violence in Charlottesville, VA in August of 2017. The “Unite the Right” rally that took place on August 12, 2017 resulted in the death of one woman, two men, and the injury of many more. While reflecting a predominately male membership, and a conservative stance on the role of women in society, these groups have also attracted a significant female contingent, which adheres to an anti-feminist stance and has a prominent online presence, using sites like Twitter, YouTube, Reddit, and WhatsApp to communicate their anti-feminist ideas. George Hawley, author of Making Sense of the Alt-Right, estimates that 20% of alt-right supporters are women (2017). Despite the compelling nature of the transformations observed in these women and their commitments to pathways that support violence both directly and indirectly, research has been slow to delve deeply into domestic and international radicalization, specifically as it pertains to women. In May 2015, the United Nations Security Council estimated that more than 25,000 foreign fighters from more than 100 countries had joined IS, with approximately 5,000 of these individuals believed to be European citizens or residents. Hoyle, Bradford, and Frenett (2015) in their study of female Western migrants to IS, referred to as “muhajirat,” estimated that as many as 550 of these women came from Europe. Closer to home, in May 2015, FBI Director James Comey referenced “hundreds, maybe thousands” of IS sympathizers and potential recruits across America (Johnson, 2015a, p. 1). As part of their report, ISIS in America: From Retweets to Raqqa, Vidino and Hughes (2015) released the court records of 84 individuals charged with IS-related activities in America, 10 of whom were women. They describe monitoring 300 American supporters of IS on Twitter, with nearly a third of the tracked 2 accounts purportedly being operated by women with much of their communication occurring in English.
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