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The Role of Sustainable and for Food Security and Nutrition

James Rohan CPA MBA

WorldFish, FAO and World Resources Institute has conducted research recently which will support many of the questions suggested. Principles of sustainable business should be considered as the framework seeks to have minimal negative impact on the global or local environment, community, society, or economy,while achieving an industrious objective.

Local environment will require an understanding of marine and a model similar to planetary boundaries may promote education, research opportunities and continuous improvement principles. Many of the researchers have commented on the lack of research activity in this area and justifies the request by FSN for consideration.

Rather than calories, I have proposed in the past a nutritional mass balance approach to recognise nutrition for health in food security. This would require consideration of yield and while some researchers have identified process capability, we should also explore product capability. Is nutrition compromised under stress or can it be enhanced with management?

Over 90% of the world's living biomass is contained in the oceans, which cover 71% of the Earth's surface. At present, we harvest about 0.2% of marine production.

● Marine sources provide about 20% of the animal protein eaten by humans. Another 5% is provided indirectly via livestock fed with fish. ● 60% of fish consumption is by the developing world. ● The enterprise employs some 200 million people worldwide. http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/fisheries/fisheries.html

Data exists which suggests some fisheries are over and under exploited. fisheries lack productivity but resilience of all systems should be explored. Fisheries will need a paradigm similar to Rockstroms planetary boundaries to create common standards and sustainable practice measurement. Past activity, movement of species, including invasive plants, population movement and city expansion need to be analysed as a system.

Respective contribution of fisheries and aquaculture to food security and nutrition: How and to what extent do fisheries and aquaculture contribute to food security - through which impact pathways? What is the evidence available to present fisheries and aquaculture as key ways for improving the food security of targeted populations?

Net Nutritional balance sheets

To make an adequate assessment of contribution, analysis needs to consider the components of marine resources. Data collected by FAO appears at total resources level and therefore is likely to overlook variability in availability at species level, variation in price impacting access, and variation in use such as diets impacting nutrition and non food usage. Globalisation means nutrition may be imported but quality is not appropriately assessed.

World Resources Institute reports that 90% of Fishers in marine capture are small scale. Reasons for failure to scale will change and some evidence is suggested that artisans are beginning to be overwhelmed. The industry therefore has potential to have impact on food security due to the income potential impact on food access as well as availability. It is unclear whether these small scale producers have variety in diet undermining nutritional benefits from fish.

Depletion also may be denying cultural customs . Most data seems to focus on export which is reported as 90% processed to reduce waste, whereas domestic trade is more complex.

For example, are a net importer of fish but supply high margin products to Asia. Domestic trade only accounts for 30% and is supplemented by imports. Traditional fresh fish varieties are no longer available locally. Cultural practices can be maintained or transported through globalisation. Food security must consider routines and rituals and impacts on culture if they are ceased. http://www.icis.kansai-u.ac.jp/data/journal02-v1/31_Carroll.pdf http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2012/04/05/150061991/lust-lies-and-empire-the-fishy-t ale-behind-eating-fish-on-friday

FAO also will need to include an examination of nutrition as the assumption that fish is nutritionally rich does not take into account how fish are consumed. With increasing obesity in some regions, fish may have become a vehicle for unhealthy choices. Also, aquaculture has practices that risk contamination of the .

● Inorganic chemicals: arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, selenium, copper, zinc and iron. ● Organic compounds: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dioxins and insecticides (chlorinated hydrocarbons). This is a very diverse group with a wide range of industrial uses and a chemical stability that allows them to accumulate and persist in the environment. ● Processing-related compounds: sulphites (used in processing), polyphosphates, nitrosamines and residues of drugs used in aquaculture (e.g. antibiotics or hormones). ● radioactive water from the Fukushima nuclear plant http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fast-foods-generic/5929/2 http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14815/en

But not all fish is directly consumed. Some is used in or as fertiliser.

Variability and timing of catch compared to sustainable operations

There are multiple standards in sustainable sourcing which impacts on investment and purchasing behaviour. Rather than best practice, natural variation in fish stocks should be explored to identify breeding and natural attrition of the food chain. The red list should identify causes and opportunities for improvement and reported with localised statistics with gps data. What are these concept boundaries?

Reporting of annual statistics fails to reconcile potential for a “hunger season” in fish. Although it is suggested that 90% of the catch is preserved, suggesting stockpiling, losses by species need exploration. For example, research shows 10% of catch in Nigeria was unmarketable, a further 5% lost in storage crates and up to 13% lost in jute bags. Dry fish has a shelf life of up to 4 weeks.

This would suggest industry standards and access to appropriate storage discussions is advisable given the potential waste.

Further location and choice of storage to offer yield may be conflicting with cost control efforts. Trends in profitability and yield from methods should be explored further to ensure viable triple bottom line approaches are considered.

Aquaculture has grown to 40% of fish supply as a result(see FAO, World Resources Institute). This has grown with , with fish byproduct also producing fertiliser for food plants and producing greater potential yield than hydroponics alone.(see Asian-Pacific Aquaculture 2013) Feed for aquaculture demand is a growing resource use.

Quotas and catch limits also have an impact on price. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2727e/i2727e01.pdf http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-diseases/freshwater-pests/species/carp/control -information http://www.murrayriver.com.au/fishing/ http://www.charliecarp.com/download/Charlie%20carp%20fact%20sheet.pdf http://articles.latimes.com/2003/sep/13/local/me-sbriefs13.6 http://www.seafoodforaustralia.com.au/seafood_for_australia/seafood_for_australia.phtml http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/176723/South_Australian_Seafood_ Market_Summary_2012.pdf http://www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/josephjk/Aspects%20of%20the%20PostHarvest%20F ish%20Handling,%20Storage%20in%20the%20Middlebelt%20of%20Nigeria.pdf http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/fishanswer_fulltext.pdf https://www.was.org/ http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/blog/venture-capitalists-embrace-sustai nable--fish http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/scale-traceability-seafood-industry http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-18/lobster-price/5165582 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/16/china-shark-fin-soup_n_4452897.html

Women and food security: What is the specific role of women in enhancing food security in fisheries and aquaculture sectors? What are the threats and barriers to this specific role and why and how should this role be strengthened?

Women make up 46% of small scale fisheries including pre and post harvest but make very little income. Food security has a traditional view and food access needs to consider the impact of same sex marriage or choosing not to marry. In some parts of Africa, stories of transactional sex to purchase fish suggest it may be attributing to HIV Aids. Research indicates gender bias but increasingly, women are taking up greater working roles.

● In many parts of the world, women engage in collecting mollusks and near-shore fishing using small hand nets ● use gear to fish near-shore and off-shore in canoes or boats ● women support men’s fishing activities by engaging in pre- and post-harvest subsistence tasks and managing the household while men are away at sea. ● They might also support men by providing much needed credit for boats and gear

Customary beliefs, norms and laws and unfavorable regulatory structures of the state, reduce women’s access to fisheries resources, assets and decision-making . Governance particularly can undermine participation and food security.

The impact of industrialized fishing has been found to push artisanal male fishers out of business and to undermine the livelihoods of female traders. New industries may bring new opportunities such as women taking up seaweed cultivation or harvesting sea cucumber, or finding employment in factories, where working conditions are often poor. It would appear researchers are suggesting women are taking up work men prefer not to do.

Risk of mercury in fish is a contaminant found in fish that can affect brain development and the nervous system. This has resulted in Gender consumption guidelines and a poor reputation for the industry. Women only fishing tournaments have been trialled in Australia as a way to make fishing inclusive and create stories and symbols to change the culture. http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/WF_2711.pdf http://americanpregnancy.org/pregnancyhealth/fishmercury.htm http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-10-06/women-break-fishing-mould-in-northern-territor y/5001480

Sectorial trade-offs and food security: Are there any trade-offs between the sectors’ contributions at different levels or between different groups? In other words, is it possible that enhancing food security at one level (or for one specific target group, e.g. urban consumers) reduces food security at another level (or for another specific group, e.g. fishers/producers)? As part of this issue, what is the overall contribution of international fish trade on food security?

FAO already report volume splits between consumption and cultural use. As cultural use is often derived from calendar reference rather than appropriate harvest time in fish life cycle. it is unclear whether sustainability matches custom. For example, Native title legislation may give indigenous groups rights to use and fish sensitive areas. While fish may not be harvested, spawning may be disrupted, or lower food chain sources may become unavailable.

Some customs have been based on gaining yield from the whole fish but have since seen other parts of the fish being wasted. fin soup is culturally significant in China and throughout Asia. Instead of whole being harvested, a practice of and only removing fins leaving sharks to die is a recent issue. The ban on shark fin soup at Chinese banquets is an example of changing habits to support preservation of species.

Custom also needs to be considered as to non use of fish catches. In Australia, carp was introduced to waterways but is now seen as a pest with efforts to eradicate them. While FAO recognise fish are used as feedstock, a growing volume of this carp is being used as fertiliser. It appears similar efforts are being made globally. While these introduced species are a threat, it suggests the fertilizer industry may present similar problems as does the biofuel industry to food security.

Further, it suggests legal issues must be considered when discussing productivity of catches. For example, as well as size and catch limits, some species such as carp may not be returned to waterways suggesting boat storage must also accommodate environmental controls. It is likely that Australia are both proving income to and reducing availability in food insecure regions(70% of of globally consumed fish is from developing nations -WRI). In food security terms, the net nutritional balance of food movements should be considered in trade.

Environmental sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture: Beyond an obvious long-term dependence, what is the relationship (trade-offs; synergies) between resource conservation and food security? In particular what are the short- and medium-term impacts of the large number of conservation interventions (e.g. marine protected areas) that have been recently established, on the local populations dependent on small-scale fisheries?

Marine parks set up in Australia have proven the difficulty in balancing science based management and local customs. Currently, resource conservation is met with significant tradeoffs and as a result can be seen to directly impact on food security.

Conservation needs to become culturally significant through symbols, stories, routines and rituals. A synergies approach where catches are according to rebalancing nature principle will require alternative protein source, which aquaponics seems to offer. While this approach reduces need for additional fertiliser to enter food chain, it also promotes localised food production and fish as a dietary alternative.

Deep sea fisheries account for 1% of total catch, have low productivity and resilience and are currently not sustainable. Without subsidies, most of the world’s bottom fleets in the high seas would operate at a loss and be unable to fish. Methods like bottom trawling are not selective, destroying habitat and endangered fish.

Income, asset and power disparities between women and men are likely to be exacerbated by . Costs to women and children are often disproportionate because customary norms and beliefs prevent them from acquiring skills and capacities, such as the ability to swim, or access to information on impending disaster. Households are used to dealing with idiosyncratic shocks (gear and harvest losses, illness, ) but climate-induced disasters put stress on informal means of coping, such as social networks. such disasters also put strain on assets used for consumption or for investing in livelihood activities and micro/small enterprises. (WorldFish) http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-12-13/coalition-scraps-labor27s-marine-parks-manage ment-plans/5156674 http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/aquaponics-symbiotic-ag-at-genius-will-allens-urban-fa rm/ http://www.lenfestocean.org/sites/default/files/lenfest_deep_sea_rsr.pdf Governance and food security: What are the effects of the various management and governance reforms (e.g. co-management programmes) currently implemented at national level throughout the world’s fisheries, on food security? At the international level what is the role and impact of recent global programmes and campaigns such as the “International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (IPOA-IUU)”, or the implementation of BMPs (Best Management Practices) in aquaculture on food security?

Fisheries and aquaculture interaction: Are there any trade-offs between aquaculture and fisheries in relation food security? In particular is the use of fish meal (to feed farmed fish) a threat to human food security?

Surprisingly, limited data is available on fishmeal volume. Optimal economic choices for food fish production are not necessarily optimal for byproduct utilization due to seasonality and scale. Nevertheless, byproduct production currently is produced despite lack of economic viability due to cost of waste disposal being higher or government mandates.

The amount of fishmeal is inverse to fish processing yield. World Resources Institute and World Fish Centre suggest fishmeal is byproduct for which there is little human consumption demand, it is produced in areas of South America where these species are abundant,and even in food insecure regions, fishmeal is imported from Northern Europe, Japan or Chile. Grinding Nemo documentary suggests “To produce a kilo of salmon takes 2-5 kg of other fish, which could otherwise have fed wild fish, mammals seabirds and humans, including in some of the poorest countries”. This would allow a rule of thumb annual production figure to be calculated but not prove viability by location.

From a systemic point of view, the food chain actively will be consuming volumes and this is a question of consumption by location and timing. Unregulated fishing is said to be overexploiting resources.Assessment of habitat and ecological limits are needed. Similar to planetary boundaries, we should consider a similar model for the marine world. Gunnar Knapp, Professor of Economics at University of Alaska Anchorage 2008 presentation gives a conceptual framework although may be limited to his region of expertise.

What is not explored is the potential for invasive species to be targeted for this purpose rather than becoming waste or fertiliser. Nor is the potential for aquaculture management to include the production of feedstock.

http://www.eeb.org/index.cfm/news-events/news/grinding-nemo-new-film-and-report-un veil-the-filthy-fishmeal-industry-which-supplies--and-salmon-farms/ http://www.iser.uaa.alaska.edu/people/knapp/personal/Knapp_IFFO08_Fishmeal_&_Fish_O il_from_Food_Fishery_Byproducts.pdf http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/WF_2971.pdf

The future of fisheries and aquaculture in the context of foods security: What future role fisheries and aquaculture will be able to play in the context of the combined impact of demographic transition (increased population and increased living standard) and climate change (likely decrease in world agriculture production capacity)?

There is clear and unambiguous scientific evidence that documents how rising atmospheric carbon dioxide is leading to increasingly acidic seawater. This phenomenon has been termed ‘ocean acidification’ and presents a real threat to marine organisms that build their structures of calcium carbonate and, by extension, the organisms that feed on and live among them. - See more at: http://www.marine-conservation.org/what-we-do/program-areas/ocean-acidification/#sth ash.eiWLEkgz.dpuf

Timing of fishing season may begin to conflict with weather conditions. Events like Christmas drive demand for in Australia and climate change may increase storm activity at peak times and needs exploration. While aquaculture and aquaponics may be considered a solution, competition for water is already leading to water scarcity. Climate change is expected to increase drought conditions.

Deluge of rain also has the capacity to increase soil runoff leading to cloudy water, and depending on depth and nutrient, an increase in algae blooms.

Increasing water temperature is already seeing the invasion of warm water fishes in catchments. http://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/ltbmu/landmanagement/resourcemanagement/?cid=stelprdb53112 59 http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013­12­19/nrn­early­prawns/5166604 http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/lake­tahoe­can­we­save­it/

Aquaponics does offer opportunity but given current food insecure regions have water scarcity, new thinking is needed. While Sundrop Farms have not used the desalination process to apply aquaponics, http://www.sundropfarms.com/, the ability to grow food from saline water does offer scope to include fish in the scenarios. The economics of the project are not yet public but in principle, suggest a technology leap frogging opportunity for many coastal communities with access to capital. http://www.youtube.com/user/SundropFarmsTV

For this reason, sustainable fish may benefit from collaboration with other research.