Provoking lactation by the insufflation technique as documented by the rock images of the Sahara
Jean-Loïc Le Quellec Centre d’études des Mondes africains (CEMAf) UMR 8171/Université Paris 1/Université de Provence/EPHE Honorary Fellow, School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg 2050 (South Africa) [email protected]
Le Quellec J.-L. 2011. – 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVFBTEPDVNFOUFE by the rock images of the Sahara. AnthropozoologicaΉ
KEYWORDS ɨF4BIBSBOSPDLBSUJDPOPHSBQIZTIPXTUIBUUIFëSTUEJêVTJPOPGDBUUMFJO"GSJDBDBNF Sahara, rock-art XJUITFWFSBMNJMLJOHUFDIOJRVFT XIJDIDPOUSBEJDUTGPSUIJTDPOUJOFOU4IFSSBUUTIZQPUIFTJT Prehistory milk, cattle which considered milking as a “secondary revolution” which would have allowed a better breeding, domestication exploitation of animals in arid zones.
RÉSUMÉ Provoquer la lactation par insufflation selon l'iconographie rupestre saharienne MOTS CLÉS -JDPOPHSBQIJFSVQFTUSFTBIBSJFOOFNPOUSFRVFMBQSFNJÒSFEJêVTJPOEFTUBVSJOTFO"GSJRVF Sahara, art rupestre TFTU BDDPNQBHOÏF EF EJWFSTFT UFDIOJRVFT EF USBJUF DF RVJ DPOUSFEJU QPVS DF DPOUJOFOU Préhistoire lait, bétail MIZQPUIÒTFEF4IFSSBUUDPOTJEÏSBOUMBUSBJUFDPNNFVOFjSÏWPMVUJPOTFDPOEBJSFxRVJBVSBJU élevage, domestication permis une meilleure exploitation des animaux en zone aride.
INTRODUCTION
The ancient pastoralists of the pre and protohistoric Sahara left us innume- rable images of themselves and their herds. Paintings and engravings show these herders moving with their cattle or carrying out everyday activities in their camp. In particular, one sees them looking after their animals, CVUPOFRVFTUJPOSFNBJOTEJEUIFZESJOLUIFNJMLPGUIFJSDPXT ɨFSFJT no immediate response because, in today’s world, the distribution of pas- toralists does not coincide with that of milk-drinkers (Map 1), and there are even pastoralists for whom the very idea of such a drink is perfectly SFQVHOBOU*ODVMUVSFTXIJDIIBWFTVDIBjOPONJMLJOHBUUJUVEFx NJMLJT sometimes even seen as a kind of disgusting animal secretion, and there is OPRVFTUJPOPGESJOLJOHJU 4JNPPOT #FSOPU
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Map 1. – Distribution of pastoralists and "non-milk drinkers" in today’s world.
Moreover, according to the hypothesis put advance came with domestication, which made forward by Andrew Sherratt, milking is a “se- it possible to keep animals as a mobile source condary product” that makes possible a better of meat. Later a second “revolution” consisted exploitation of animals, particularly in arid of the idea of using living animals rather than BSFBT 4IFSSBUU *O UIBU BSDIBFPMPHJTUT dead ones, milking being a fundamental factor model, originally hunters could only hunt wild in this new progression. bovids for the immediate use of their carcass $POTFRVFOUMZ QSFIJTUPSJBOTBSFUSZJOHUPJEFO- NFBU IJEF UFOEPOT CPOFT FUD BOE B ëSTU tify evidence of milk usage in Saharan rock
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art. However, indisputable depictions are rare. NJML #VU[FS BO PQJOJPO 4PNF QPTTJCMF JNBHFT PG TLJOWFTTFMT IBWF that was soon corrected by Francis van Noten been interpreted as milking material, either for XIPXBTUPQPJOUPVUUIBUi#VU[FSEJEOPUIBWF preserving milk or for making butter by sha- knowledge of numerous paintings discovered king a hanging skin used as a churn, as is still CZ UIF #FMHJBO FYQFEJUJPO UIBU DMFBSMZ TIPX B done today. It has even been claimed that cer- dairy economy” (Noten et al. tain images in the Libyan desert could represent Finally, the criterion of depiction of udders was blocks of butter or cheeses laid out on trays (Es- again used very recently to distinguish two pe- QÏSBOEJFV CVUOPOFPGUIFTFDMBJNT SJPETJOUIFQBTUPSBMJTUBSUPGUIF-JCZBOEFTFSU can prove beyond doubt the consumption of an early one in which udders were not depic- milk or dairy products. ted and which corresponds to a phase of meat Another kind of argument looks at the volume consumption; then another characterized by of cows’ udders. Yolande Tschudi used this cri- the depiction of udders, which is evidence for terion in her chronology of the paintings of Tas- 4IFSSBUUTTFDPOEBSZQSPEVDUTSFWPMVUJPO #FD- TJMJO"KKFSi*OUIFFBSMJFTUQIBTFwTIFXSPUF DIBVTT(FSTU,FEJOH iDPXTBSFSBSFMZEFQJDUFE BOEUIFJSQBSUJDV- However, as these images are not photographs MBSBUUSJCVUFUIBUJT UIFVEEFSTJTESBXO and are based on graphical canons which may RVJUFTVNNBSJMZ DPOUSBSZUPXIBUPDDVSTJOUIF CFWFSZEJêFSFOUGSPNPVSPXO1, it seems de- SFDFOU QIBTFTw 5TDIVEJ y CVU TIF licate only to use this kind of criterion, even wrote these lines at a time when no indisputable though certain examples of very large udders milking scene was yet known in the Sahara. Al- BSFLOPXO )VBSE"MMBSE)VBSE though only a few have been found since then, which show the interest sometimes taken by the they nevertheless henceforth rule out this kind artists in this part of the body of the animals PGUIFPSZ"OEZFU JOUIFNJET +BOΉ+FMÓOFL they depicted. Nevertheless, it remains true was to attempt in vain to save this viewpoint, that, everywhere in the Sahara, the udders were FWFOUIPVHIUIFNBHOJëDFOUNJMLJOHTDFOFGSPN generally rarely represented. Moreover, a huge Wadi Tiksatin (Fig. 10) was already known. For number of ethnographic examples prove that the Czech prehistorian, this engraving was the many varieties of cows raised today by African FYDFQUJPOUIBUQSPWFEUIFSVMFiUIJTGBDUëUTJO pastoralists have udders that may be almost in- with the situation that in the early phases of visible, and yet this in no way prevents milk- domestication in the Epipalaeolithic period the ing (as, for example, among the Dinka and the role of the cattle as a living reserve of meat conti- Nuer). This must have beena fortiori the case nues, together with the use of bulls as beats of for the primitive bovine races raised by prehis- burden. According to our present knowledge of toric people. Saharan prehistory, the milking of cows appears later, in more advanced stages of cattle domesti- In Saharan rock images, the use of milk is only DBUJPOw +FMÓOFLΉ perceptible with certainty in a few rare scenes 8IFSFUIF-JCZBOEFTFSUJTDPODFSOFE 8#Ή,FO- that clearly illustrate milking, or that show people nedy Shaw thought that in the rock paintings drinking directly from udders. The list is not long of Jebel el-’Uweynât, “the prominence given to and, in fact, a few of the documents relied upon the udders is noticeable and suggests that the by early authors are scarcely convincing (see in- production of milk was an important feature” fra). However, one needs to add another kind of 4IBX 5FOZFBST MBUFS ,BSMΉ #VU- image to the list, those alluding to the fact that, [FS XSPUF UIF FYBDU PQQPTJUF TJODF EFQJDUJPOT 1. Need one recall that at Ti-n-Terirt (Tassili-n-Ajjer) a large of udders were not too common, the painters FOHSBWFE DPX XJUI B DPMMBS - DN IBT TXPMMFO VEEFST were clearly more interested in meat than in DVSJPVTMZCFBSJOHFMFWFOUFBUT -IPUFëH /P
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Fig. 1. – Ochre painting in the site known as ”the Children’s shelter“ at Sefar (Tassili-n-Ajjer) DPOTJEFSFECZ)FOSJ-IPUFUPEFQJDUʹBNBONJMLJOHBDPXʱ BGUFS-IPUFQM in bovines, the reflex release of milk normally re- THE SAHARAN ICONOGRAPHIC RVJSFTUIFQSFTFODFPGUIFDBMGɨSPVHITFMFDUJPO DOSSIER herders have progressively eliminated this reflex JO NPTU PG UIF QSFTFOUEBZ SBDFT PG NJML DBUUMF First of all, Leo Frobenius published the wa- as is known especially in Europe but also still in ter-colour copy, made by the draftswoman Africa, the disappearance of its calf seriously com- Agnes Schulz, of a red-ochre painting at Ido QSPNJTFTUIFNJMLJOHPGBDPX ,SPMM #B- (Tassili-n-Ajjer, Algeria) in which one can see MBTTFΉ 5XPUFDIOJRVFTBSFUIFSFGPSFVUJMJ[FE three people next to a bovine, and especially three vessels, one of which is placed beneath by milkers (of either sex) to achieve their goal. UIFBOJNBMTTUPNBDI 'SPCFOJVTQM Either they trick the cow by presenting it with a /P "MUIPVHIUIJTQBJOUJOHJTTPNFUJNFT fake calf (e.g.-JWJOHTUPOF8BMMFS $V- FWPLFEJOTUVEJFTPGNJMLJOHUFDIOJRVFTJOUIF OZOHIBNFΉ 3ÏWPJM 5BOHZF 4BIBSB 4JNPPOT UIFTVQQPTFEDPX 3PTDPF 4DIVMU[F in it does not have the slightest indication of 3PTDPF $SBXGPSE udders, and none of the humans is shown in a .FZFS FUD PSUIFZUSJHHFSUIFSFìFYCZ position that might suggest milking. BEJêFSFOUNFUIPEUIFJOUSPEVDUJPOPGQSPEVDUT Another possible scene of milking a cow was into the cow’s vagina (e.g. 3PTDPFΉ QVCMJTIFEJOCZ'BCSJ[JP.PSJXIPIBE 3PTDPF BOEEJSFDUPSJOEJSFDUJOTVðB- spotted it in the left part of a pastoral depic- UJPOJOUPUIFBOJNBMTWBHJOBɨFëSTUQSPDFEVSF tion at the site of Teshwinât in the massif of the Tadrart Akukas in southwest Libya (Mori will not be examined here, as it seems impossible ëH ɨFQVCMJTIFEEPDVNFOU to recognize a fake calf or a real calf in a rock art does indeed seem to show a human seated image. On the other hand, we shall see that the amid a herd, and perhaps holding a large vessel TFDPOEUFDIOJRVFJTQFSGFDUMZSFDPHOJ[BCMFJOSPDL between the knees. Gaetano Forni considered art, and it can thus provide us with highly valuable this fresco to be “interessantissima” and made information. UIFGPMMPXJOHDPNNFOUimentre un pastore sta
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mungendo (peccato che le mammelle non risultino Children” at Sefar, which he claimed to depict qui evidenti) in un enorme vaso, un vitello osserva, iBNBONJMLJOHBDPXw 'JH 4VCTFRVFOUMZ avido di succhiare. La presenza di un vitello du- this same document was again called on to pro- rante la mungitura costituice una tecnica raffinata WFNJMLJOHBNPOHUIF#PWJEJBOTPGUIFDFOUSBM e tuttora valida per aumentare la secrezione lattea 4BIBSB 4JNPPOT 4JNPPOTΉ della vacca attraverso un giocco di riflessi condi- )VBSE"MMBSE)VBSE BMUIPVHI zionatiw 'PSOJ )PXFWFS EFTQJUFUIF one cannot see in it either the animal’s udders presence, near the habitation, of several vessels, or the vessel for collecting the milk. Therefore it one of them placed on a one-legged stand, the is hard to retain this scene as a depiction of mil- interpretation of the scene as “individuo che king, and Frederick Simoons was already highly munge una muccaw .PSJ JT OPU DSJUJDBMPGJU XSJUJOHUIBUJUTIPXFEiBΉIVNBO very convincing. Gaetano Forni regretted that ëHVSF DSPVDIFE CFIJOE B DPX IJT IBOET BSF the udders were not clear, and that is indeed the extended toward where the cow’s udder, which least one can say. Moreover, the available tra- is not depicted, would be. Nor is a pot visible cings show that the supposed milker is actually beneath the animal, though nearby there is an standing close to a hornless animal, which looks enclosure or hut in which are pots of various more like a calf than a cow. Since these are tra- shapes, together with a reclining man and child. cings, one should also be very wary of the in- Although this may indeed be a milking scene, terpretations, but the current state of the panel BT-IPUFDMBJNT UIFIVNBOëHVSFNBZJOTUFBE is such that photographs do not enable one to be assisting at the birth of a calf (the cow looks do any checking, even by using high-powered pregnant). Or he may be blowing up the uterus, DPNQVUFSUFDIOJRVFTMJLF%4USFUDIPO*NBHF+ which then, as in present-day Africa, may have A new tracing, made recently by the team of been done to encourage a cow to give milk. If the Italo-Libyan mission, is highly revelatory in so, the scene depicts a preliminary to milking, this respect, as it bears even less resemblance to CVUOPUNJMLJOHJUTFMGw 4JNPPOT a milking scene than that of Mori (Lernia & One of the paintings at Tasigmet, in the Wadi ;BNQFUUJ ëH 4PUIJTEP- Djerat, recorded by members of Lhote’s team cument should be treated with great caution, -IPUF #BMBTTFet al. 2000), shows and cannot be considered with any certainty as two cows being milked by a human in the pre- a proof of milking, as was done by Frederick TFODF PG UIFJS DBMG 'JHT CVU UIF TUZMF 4JNPPOT 4JNPPOTΉ 4JNPPOT of these images (especially the way of depicting 22), although this is still the position of Savino hooves) denotes their relatively recent nature. di Lernia and Daniela Zampetti, who describe The whole of this scene is of the Caballine age, this painting as a “scena di mungitura” (Lernia and it is interesting to note that several wheeled ;BNQFUUJ vehicles are attached to cattle. Henri Lhote, who made famous the rock pain- A search of the literature shows that only one ting of the Tassili, wrote that they included “se- really convincing document from North Africa WFSBMQBJOUJOHTTIPXJOH
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an engraving of a cow close to two small incised close to a forked support on which are fastened TDFOFT 'JH ɨFWFUFSJOBSJBO(&TQÏSBOEJFV vessels containing the product of the milking described “seated on a stool, a milker is positio- 'JH ɨFNJMLFS 'JH DMPTFMZSFTFNCMFT ned beneath a cow’s belly, facing the unhobbled UIFPOFGSPN8BEJ5JLTBUJO 'JH TBNFXBZ CBDLMFHT
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curious posture can be understood through exa- again, a human seems to be busy beneath the mination of another image, located beneath the BOJNBMTUBJM 'JH "UIJSEEPDVNFOU QV- preceding ones. Here one can again see a cow blished by Yves and Christine Gauthier, appears with udders, the four teats of which are well somewhat unconvincing. The animal is atypi- drawn. It is facing its calf, and surrounded by cal, its tail is not visible, and three of the four people, one of whom repeats the gesture of the people surrounding it are armed; moreover, one QSFWJPVTPOF CVUXJUIBWBSJBUJPOBMUIPVHIIF PGUIFNJTXFBSJOHB[PPNPSQIJDDSFTUFENBTL too is directing his hand towards the animal’s it is hard to believe that this merely depicts a udder, he is using the other not to hold the tail way of forcing a recalcitrant cow to give its milk aside but to raise it very high, which allows him (BVUIJFS ëH to place his face just at the location of the ani- mal’s vulva (Fig. 20). In the Ennedi, a milking scene, reported by Gé- SBSE#BJMMPVEBU(BPSB)BMMBHBOB*7 XBTDPOTJ- 0OFDBOSFDPHOJ[FJOUIJTBUFDIOJRVFUIBUJTXFMM known to ethnologists, and which consists of EFSFERVJUFMBUFCZJUTEJTDPWFSFS XIPQMBDFEJU blowing into cows’ vaginas, either directly from JOIJTi,PLPTUZMFw BOEIFODFBUUIFFOEPGUIF the mouth or by means of a tube, in order to ëSTU NJMMFOOJVN #$& #BJMMPVE provoke the “milking reflex”. We shall see below Two comparable images, from the same region that it has been reported in Africa among the JODMVEJOH POF BU 4IFLJUJZF JO UIF IFBSU PG cattle-raising Tuaregs of Niger, as well as among UIF&OOFEJIBWFCFFOBUUSJCVUFEUPUIFMP- UIF8PEBBCF 'VMCF /JHFS .BMJ #BOB 5FEB DBMiFBSMZ#PWJOFwQIBTF +FTTFet al. Daza (Chad), Suma, Anuak, Dinka, Nuer, Shil- ëHΉ XIJDIEBUFTCBDLUPDB#$& -FOT- MVL #BHHBSB 4VEBO #FEPVJOT &HZQU "GBS TFO&S[ #PUI PG UIFN TIPX B IV- ,BëUTIP 0SPNP 4PNBMJ 4VSNB &UIJPQJB man handling the udder of a cow whose horn .BBTBJ ,FOZB 8BHPHP 8BSJNJ 5VSV ;JCB is being held by another human in the second 5BO[BOJB )FSFSP /BNBRVB /BNJCJB 3P- DBTF 'JHT MPOH #PUTXBOB 5TXBOB /HVOJ /BNB ,P- Where the Libyan desert is concerned, it has SBOB (POBRVB ,IPFLIPFOPGUIF$BQF 9PTB been said that the paintings of Jebel el-’Uwey- (South Africa) (cf. references in the appendix). OBUJODMVEFBNJMLJOHëHVSF /PUFOet al. These data can be compared with a rock engra- ëH CVUUIFJNBHFJORVFTUJPOTIPXTUXP ving at Wadi Imrâwen in the Messak (Libya) small anthropomorphs drinking directly from which depicts a hornless bovine held by a hu- the udders of a cow behind which a couple man who is kneeling in front of it. The line BSFTUBOEJOHQFSIBQTUXPDIJMESFOBOEUIFJS joining the latter’s hand to the animal’s neck parents (Fig. 27). Although in a poor state of MFBWFT OP EPVCU BCPVU UIJT 'JH #FIJOE preservation, another painting in the same re- UIF BOJNBM BOPUIFS IVNBO ëHVSF JT CFOEJOH forward until its face is in contact with the part gion shows a cow licking its calf, tied by the immediately under the base of the tail, which is MFHUPBCVTI XIJMFBIVNBOVOGPSUVOBUFMZ held up in the air (Fig. 22). It is most probable OPUWFSZMFHJCMFJTESJOLJOHEJSFDUMZGSPN that this is once again a depiction of the tech- the udder (Fig. 28). Several paintings in the OJRVFPGJOTVðBUJPOVTFEUPQSPWPLFMBDUBUJPO same massif can be linked with these images In another valley of the Messak, that of Ti-n- (Le Quellec et al. ëH Sharuma, a block is decorated with numerous JO QBSUJDVMBS UIBU PG 8BEJ 4VSB XIJDI FOHSBWJOHT PG CPWJOFT 'JH POF PG XIJDI represents an archer pushing a calf away with could be linked to another illustration of the one hand, while bending towards its mother’s TBNFUFDIOJRVFCFDBVTFPOFDBOTFFUIBU IFSF VEEFS 'JH
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Fig. 2. – Rock paintings in a rock shelter at Tasigmet, in the Wadi Djerat. Among the numerous scenes presented here, UIFNJMLJOHPGDPXTJTEFQJDUFE 5BTTJMJO"KKFS BGUFSUIFUSBDJOHQVCMJTIFECZ-IPUF
'JHo%FUBJMPGUIFNJMLJOHTDFOFGSPNUIFQSFWJPVTUSBDJOH BGUFSUIFUSBDJOHCZ#BMBTTFet al. 2000).
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'JHo.JMLJOHTDFOFFOHSBWFEPOBMJNFTUPOFCMPDLGSPN%KPSG5PSCBJOUIFTPVUIFSO0SBOSFHJPO "MHFSJB BGUFS#BMPVU
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Fig. 5. – Camping scene engraved in Wadi Tiksatin in the Messak, in Libya (Photo JLLQ).
'JHo5SBDJOHPGUIFQSFWJPVTTDFOF BGUFS"MCBEBQM
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Fig. 7. – Forked pole used for hanging vessels on, Fig. 8. – Other poles to which vessels are attached, in the previous scene (Photo JLLQ). from the same scene (Photo JLLQ).
'JHo)VNBOBUUBDIJOHBWFTTFMUPPOFPGUIF poles in the previous scene (Photo JLLQ).
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Fig. 10. – The milking scene from the engraved panel in the Wadi Tiksatin (Photo JLLQ).
Fig. 11. – Detail of the milker, from the same scene (Photo JLLQ).
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Fig. 12. – Panel close to the previous scene, also including an engraved milking scene (Photo JLLQ).
'JHoɨFPUIFSNJMLJOHTDFOFJO8BEJ5JLTBUJO VOGPSUVOBUFMZEBNBHFECZBDMVNTZBUUFNQUBUDBTUJOH The milker is more difficult to recognize than in the previous scene (Photo JLLQ, detail of Fig. 12).
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'JHo"OPUIFSNJMLJOHTDFOFJOUIF.FTTBL UIJTUJNFJO8BEJ&HIBIBS A careful examination reveals that a vessel is attached to a forked pole pole set up in front of the animal (Photo JLLQ).
Fig. 15. – Close-up view of the milking scene in Wadi &HIBIBSUIFQFSTPONJMLJOHUIFDPX 1IPUP+--2
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'JHo3PDLFOHSBWJOHBU*MBMFOJOUIFSFHJPOPGUIF"SBNBU TPVUIXFTU-JCZB depicting a seated human milking a bovine (Photo Yves Gauthier).
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Fig. 17. – Camping scene in a rock painting at I-n-Sebuk in the Immidir (Ahaggar, Algeria) 5SBDJOHBGUFS(BVUIJFS-MVDI ëH
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Fig. 18. – Photograph of the left part of the previous scene. Note the small schematic humans manipulating the udders of the bovines (Photo Yves Gauthier).
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'JHo"OPUIFSEFUBJMPGUIFTDFOFBU*O4FCVL4NBMMIVNBOTQBJOUFE JOBEJêFSFOUTIBEFPGSFEBSFNJMLJOHCPWJOFT 1IPUP:WFT(BVUIJFS
Fig. 20. – Another detail of the same scene, showing a human insufflating a cow (Photo Yves Gauthier).
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Fig. 21. – Engraving in Wadi Imrâwen in the Messak (Libya) depicting a bovine between two humans, one of whom seems to be insufflating (Photo JLLQ).
Fig. 22. – Detail of the previous engraving, showing the human’s position and attitude (Photo JLLQ).
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'JHo3PDLXJUIOVNFSPVTCPWJOFTFOHSBWFEPOJU BU8BEJ5JO4IBSßNBJOUIF.FTTBL 1IPUP+--2
'JHo%FUBJMPGUIFQSFWJPVTFOHSBWJOH TIPXJOHUIFIVNBOTQPTJUJPOBOEBUUJUVEF 1IPUP+--2
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Fig. 25. – Painted milking scene in the Shekitiye region in the Ennedi (Photo Tilman Lenssen-Erz; digital treatment JLLQ).
'JHo"OPUIFSQBJOUFENJMLJOHTDFOFOFBS4IFLJUJZFJOUIF&OOFEJ (Photo Tilman Lenssen-Erz; digital treatment JLLQ).
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Fig. 27. – Rock painting from Jebel el-’Uweynat (Libyan desert) described as a milking scene by Noten et al. ëH
Fig. 28. – Small human drinking directly from the udder, in a rock painting at Jebel el-’Uweynat, in the Libyan desert (Photo. JLLQ).
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'JHo3PDLQBJOUJOHBU8BEJ4VSBEFQJDUJOHBOBSDIFSQVTIJOHBXBZBDBMGXJUIPOFIBOE while bending down to its mother’s udder (Photo JLLQ).
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HISTORICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHIC process of introducing air or any substance into DOCUMENTATION the female organ of a milch animal with the ob- KFDUPGESBXJOHPêGSPNUIFBOJNBMBOZTFDSF- ɨFTFJNBHFTSBJTFTFWFSBMRVFTUJPOT*OQBSUJ- tion of milk”. It had already been denounced by cular one would like to be able to explain the Gandhi, who considered it “loathsome”, and it EJTUSJCVUJPOPGDMBJNTGPSUIFUFDIOJRVFPGJO- was described as follows by the secretary of the sufflation to provoke lactation (Map 2). "OUJ1IPPLB "TTPDJBUJPO PG $BMDVUUB i5XJDF a day, at each milking session a piece of bam- ɨJTUFDIOJRVFIBTPGUFOCFFOEFTDSJCFETJODF boo is introduced into the uterus of the cow to JUTëSTUNFOUJPOCZ)FSPEPUVTBNPOHUIF4DZ- blow air into it and to distend the walls. The UIJBOT XIP IF XSPUF iCMJOE BMM UIFJS TMBWFT resulting inflammation causes pressure on the to use them in preparing their milk. The plan glands, enabling the milker to extract milk to they follow is to thrust tubes made of bone, not the very last drop until blood starts to flow from unlike our musical pipes, up the vulva of the the udder. Even though it is illegal, this practi- mare, and then to blow into the tubes with their ce, which has been common in India for a long mouths, some milking while the others blow” UJNF TUJMMQFSTJTUTw #VSHBU (IV-2, translation by G. Rawlinson). It has been ɨF UFDIOJRVF JT OPU VOLOPXO JO &VSPQF suggested that the existence of the same techni- where it was practiced in the 9*9th century RVF VTFEGPSNJMLJOHDPXTBNPOHUIF,JSHJ[ CZUIFQFBTBOUTPG)VOHBSZBOE#PTOJB XIP .FOHIJO BOEPOUIFCBOLTPGUIF blew into the vagina of their cows by means of th river Tung, in 99 -century China, must have BTNBMMUVCF 1BSBV *UBMTPFYJTUFEJO a historical connection with the custom pre- *SFMBOE TJODFJOɨPNBT%JOFMZNFOUJP- sented by the Father of History (Huston Edgar OFEJUJOIJTKPVSOBMJOBTPNFXIBUQJDUVSFTRVF *OBEEJUJPO JUJTLOPXOJOBGFXPUIFS XBZi*O.JMLJOHPG,JOFXIFONJMLEPUIOPU parts of Asia. In the 97***th century, when Jo- DPNFGSFFMZ
88 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
.BQo%JTUSJCVUJPOPGDMBJNTGPSUIFUFDIOJRVFPGJOTVðBUJPOUPQSPWPLFMBDUBUJPO
ɨF(FSNBOOBUVSBMJTU1FUFS,PMCJMMVTUSBUFTB DFGSPNXIJDIUIFDBMGDBNFPVU#FDBVTFUIFZ comparable practice in his description of the have discovered that they could neverteheless i)PUUFOUPUTw PG UIF $BQF QVCMJTIFE JO obtain milk by this method. This is work that ,PMC 'JH BOEEFTDSJCFTJUBT can be done by either men or women, and I have GPMMPXTiɨFZDBOOPMPOHFSPCUBJONJMLGSPN seen it done by both” (IbidUSBOTMBUFE TVDIBDPX
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt Le Quellec J.-L.
'JHo&OHSBWJOHGSPNUIFCPPLCZ1FUFS,PMCJMMVTUSBUJOHBDPNQBSBCMFQSBDUJDFJOIJTEFTDSJQUJPO PGUIFʱ)PUUFOUPUTʹPGUIF$BQF BGUFS,PMC
'JHo97**th century engraving preserved in the Cape Library and providing another depiction of the same practice BGUFS4NJUI1IFJêFS
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
CZUIJTEFTDSJQUJPOiɨF)PUUFOUPUTCMPXJOUP the vagina of the cow with the mouth or a bam- CPP UPPCUBJONPSFNJMLw*O UIF%VUDI OBUVSBMJTU'SBOÎPJT7BMFOUJKOXBTBTUPOJTIFEi*U is an unusual thing, which I have noticed only among the Hottentots, that when one of them will milk a cow and is busied therewith, another Hottentot usually blows into the beast from behind, judging that thus the milk will flow to the udders much sooner and more abundantly UIBOPUIFSXJTFw 7BMFOUJKOΉ 0OUIF EBUF PG 4FQUFNCFS BOPUIFS %VUDI explorer, Robert Jacob Gordon, would likewi- TFOPUFJOIJTKPVSOBM BCPVUUIFTBNFQFPQMF “after milking for a while, they grasp the labia of the cow with both hands and blow between them strongly. Shortly afterwards the cow uri- nates and they continue milking it. They say they do this if the cow keeps the milk in” (Gor- don et al. Since then, this practice has often been descri- CFE BHBJO GPS UIF ,IPFLIPF GPS FYBNQMF CZ Leonhard Schultze at the start of the 99th cen- UVSZi*GBDPXXJUIPVUDBMGEPFTOPUXBOUUP give her milk, the Hottentot successfully blows 'JHo"OPUIFSFOHSBWJOHPGUIFTBNFTVCKFDU UBLFOGSPNUIF into its intimate parts, or he tricks it with the DIBQUFSJO"#PHBFSUTCPPLPOUIFi)PUUFOUPUTw IJEF PG UIF EFBE DBMGw 4DIVMU[F BGUFS#PHBFSUT Other authors referred to it by reporting their PXO PCTFSWBUJPOT MJLF " #PHBFSUT GPS UIF position of which is a secret, and smears it on the i)PUUFOUPUTw #PHBFSUT 'JH BOE periphery of the cow’s vulva. Then he takes a little +BNFT &EXBSE "MFYBOEFS GPS UIF /BNB iɨF of this concoction in his mouth an blows it as hard cows, whose calves had died, were blown in an as he can into the vagina, while holding the lips extraordinary manner, to make them let down BQBSUXJUIIJTëOHFSTɨFDPXSFBDUTUPUIJTUSFBU- UIFJSNJML BTEFTDSJCFECZ,PMCFJOIJTTUSBOHF ment by bending its back and urinating on the XPSLPOUIF$BQFw "MFYBOEFS "T magician’s face, though this does not seem to bo- for Hugo von François, he noted with regard ther him. Next, a little boy puts on the calf’s hide, to the Nama and Damara that “The Hottentots smeared with the same secret mixture, and stands blow air into the animal’s vulva, and the animal in front of the cow. As soon as the latter feels it, then readily accepts the milkmaid” (von Fran- she licks it and calmly lets herself be milked” (Sick ÎPJT In the 99thDFOUVSZ NFOUJPOTPGUIJTUFDIOJRVF )VHP#FSOBU[JLSFQPSUTUIFTBNFUIJOHBNPOH multiplied. Some people occasionally associated UIF/VFS 'JH i"MJUUMFUPPOFTJEFTUBOET it with others, like the Turu of Tanzania among a cow who is said to give too little milk. Now, whom “if a cow refuses to give milk, then a magi- girls and boys take turns to place their mouth cian (mbaha-ñgombé) cooks a remedy, the com- against the animal’s anus and vagina and blow
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt Le Quellec J.-L.
as hard as they can. This does not seem to please *UJTBMTPBUUFTUFEBNPOHUIF.BBTBJ UIFDPX XIJDIIBTUPCFIFMEw #FSOBU[JL .FOHIJO ɨJTBVUIPSTQFDJëFTUIBUUIFTBNFPDDVST In the Horn of Africa, where the custom is BNPOH UIF %JOLB 'JH i"TGPS UIF DPXT LOPXOBNPOHUIF%BOBLJM -BHFSDSBOU[ which have no calf but can nevertheless give JU IBT CFFO SFQPSUFE UIBU iJO UIF TPVUI milk, the Dinka, like the Nuer, blow as hard PG(BMMBDPVOUSZ
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
'JHo1IPUPQVCMJTIFECZ)VHP#FSOBU[JLJMMVTUSBUJOHUIFTBNFUFDIOJRVFBNPOHUIF/VFS BGUFS1BSBV
'JHo1IPUPPGUIFTBNF JMMVTUSBUJOHUIFUFDIOJRVFBNPOH 'JHo"OPUIFSBUUFTUBUJPOPGUIFTBNFUFDIOJRVFBNPOHUIF UIF%JOLB BGUFS#FSOBU[JL %JOLB BGUFS$BTUJHMJPOJ
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt Le Quellec J.-L.
'JHo1IPUPTUBLFOCZ&EXBSE&WBO&WBOT1SJUDIBSEEVSJOHIJTTPKPVSOBNPOHUIF/VFSBOETIPXJOHUIFQSBDUJDFPGJOTVðBUJPO BGUFSIUUQTPVUIFSOTVEBOQSNPYBDVLEFUBJMTBMMSJHIUTSFTFSWFE
In East Africa, among the Wagogo, “if the In southern Africa, the custom of insufflation calf dies, milk production ceases immedia- has been mentioned among the Nama (Alexan- tely. So the cow is tricked in the following EFS 5TXBOB 8JMNBO ,PSB- XBZUIFIJEFPGUIFDBMGTIFBEBOEOFDLJT OB (POBRB )FSFSP /HVOJ 9PTBBOE3PMPOH stretched over a gourd. This naturalised head -BHFSDSBOU[ is brought close to the cow from behind, *OUIF$POHP UIF#BOZBNVMFOHFTUBUFUIBU UP she licks it, thinks she recognizes her calf, NJML B DPX UIFZ ëSTU USZ UP NBTTBHF JU XIJMF and lets herself be milked. Another method speaking to it, singing it songs, giving it salt, and consists of blowing air into the animal’s vulva” if none of those things works, they insert into $MBVΉ its vagina certain herbs which are supposed to
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
'JHo"OPUIFSQIPUPGSPNUIFTBNFTPVSDF TIPXJOHUIFBTTPDJBUJPOPGUIJTUFDIOJRVFXJUIUIBUPGUIFGBLFDBMG BGUFSIUUQ TPVUIFSOTVEBOQSNPYBDVLEFUBJMT BMMSJHIUTSFTFSWFE make milk flow (information obtainedin situ by NBMUPCFDPNFCBSSFOw3PTDPFΉ Nicole Poissonnier, in litt. 17-iv-2010). A simi- BOE BMTP BNPOH UIF #BHBOEB iɨF IFSETNFO MBSUFDIOJRVF BMPOHXJUIPUIFST JTGPVOE BTXF knew a medicine, which they could insert into have seen, among the Turu of Tanzania (Sick the uterus of a cow that had lost its calf, with the CVU BMTP JO 6HBOEB BNPOH UIF FêFDUPGNBLJOHIFSHJWFNPSFNJMLGPSBUJNF #BIJNB iɨF NFO LOPX OVNFSPVT IFSCT GPS but if the operation was repeated, it caused steri- doctoring their cattle, and administer some herb MJUZw3PTDPF by injection into the uterus to make a cow yield In these latter cases there is no insufflation, but the milk when its calf has died; this has to be done act of placing herbs into the vagina should, if need with care, and not too often, or it causes the ani- be, be recognizable in some detailed rock images.
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5)&0-%&45,/08/$-"*.4 lowered in parallel, was busy putting it exactly under the udder of his animal, before beginning For reasons presented elsewhere (Le IJTXPSLw 7BOEJFS DPODFSOJOH 2VFMMFDΉ UIF FOHSBWJOHT PG UIF .FTTBL IJTëH /P ɨJTEFTDSJQUJPOJTQFSIBQT DBO CF QMBDFE JO UIF ëGUIGPVSUI NJMMFOOJB not as faithful to the work as it might seem #$&ɨFQBJOUJOHTPG*NNJEJS BMUIPVHIOPU GSPNUIFëSTUSFBEJOH'PSFYBNQMF JGUIFDBMGJT precisely dated, are undoubtedly more recent in front of the cow, this is obviously to facilitate although, for climatic reasons, they cannot be lactation, as is common everywhere, especially MBUFSUIBO#$& -F2VFMMFD JOBODJFOU&HZQU 'JHT *OUIFUPNC ɨFUFDIOJRVFPGJOTVðBUJPOJO"ODJFOU&HZQU of Oukhhotep, the person located under the has been mentioned by Philippe Gouin, who mother is small, and thus is probably a child or unfortunately does not indicate his source an adolescent learning to suckle directly from (PVJO O )PXFWFS BEFUBJM the udder, as is always common in Africa. It is of fresco recorded in a Vth dynasty tomb (ca. therefore normal that no vessel is visible, and #$& BUUSBDUT POFT BUUFOUJPO 'JH pointless to imagine that it has disappeared. This image is one of those which show that As for the adult located behind the cow, why the ancient Egyptians took advantage of the would he be seeking to immobilize the animal presence of the calf to obtain the milk, and by girdling its legs, which would be fairly risky, here the little animal has a competitor in the and even dangerous, when it would be so simple form of a young boy who is suckling the udder to hobble it, something the Egyptians knew EJSFDUMZ #VU XIBU JT UIF BEVMU EPJOH XIP JT WFSZXFMMIPXUPEP 'PSFYBNQMF POFDBOTFF KVTU CFIJOE UIF DPX )F TFFNT UP CF QMBDJOH this clearly in the decoration of the tombs at his right hand under the animal’s tail, as if 4BRRBSB 'JHT .PSFMJLFMZ KVEHJOHCZ to stimulate it manually just as the Dinka do the animal’s markedly raised tail, it is far more when they practise insufflation. Although it is probable that this human is preparing to blow not absolutely convincing, this image therefore into its vagina, having already knelt down to do seems to contribute to our dossier, for want this, adopting a posture that is often used by the of a more precise illustration. However, such %JOLBBOEUIF/VFSUPEBZ 'JHT an illustration may exist in the form of the In our inventory, the easternmost location is decoration of the tomb of Oukhhotep at Meir that of the so-called “dairy” panel discovered to 9**thEZOBTUZ JOXIJDIPOFTFFT 'JHMFGU the left of the entrance staircase at the temple of B TDFOF XIJDI +BDRVFT 7BOEJFS EFTDSJCFE JO Nin-hursag. This monument was built at Tell UIFTFUFSNTiɨFDPXXBJUTQMBDJEMZ XJUIPVU el-’Obeyd (southern Mesopotamia, in present- taking care of its calf, which must have recently EBZ*SBR CZLJOH"B/FQBEB JOUIF4VNFSJBO CFFOXFBOFEBOEXIJDITUBOETRVJFUMZJOGSPOU MBOHVBHF 'JH BOESFDPOTUSVDUJPO'JH PGJUTNPUIFS"NBO TRVBUUJOHPOCFOUMFHT In this decoration, the position adopted by the wraps his arms around the cow’s back legs, NJMLFS GSPN CFIJOE JT DVTUPNBSZ GPS obviously to immobilize it. His companion, milking ewes and goats, but is surprising in the TRVBUUJOHJOUIFTBNFXBZDMPTFUPUIFBOJNBM case of a cow because, says Philippe Gouin, it is bending forward with his head raised. If “obliges the man to work with arms outstretched one goes by the drawing, the herdsman is not and his face confronting the animal’s rear end, yet actually milking, he is just placing in the which prevents him seeing what he is doing. correct position the vessel into which the milk Moreover, the cow’s powerful tail is a nuisance, must flow. This vessel is no longer visible, but and its droppings are at risk of falling in the it certainly existed, and the man, with his arms milk. Nevertheless, this method of milking is
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
GPVOE PO B DZMJOEFSTFBM JO UIF -PVWSF
'JHo'SFTDPUSBDFEJOBO&HZQUJBOUPNCPGUIF7th EZOBTUZ BGUFS)ÏSZ&OFM ëH
'JHo'SFTDPJOUIFUPNCPG0VLIIPUFQBU.FJS 9**thEZOBTUZ BGUFS7BOEJFSëH /P
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'JHo"OPUIFSNJMLJOHTDFOFBU4BRRBSB BGUFS1BSBV ëH
'JHo.JMLJOHTDFOFBU4BRRBSB BGUFS#PFTTOFDL ëH
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
'JHo.JMLJOHTDFOFGSPNUIFNBTUBCBPG,BHFNOJ 0ME,JOHEPN BGUFS%VOBOE-JDIUFOCFSH ëH
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt Le Quellec J.-L. EBZ*SBR BGUFS1BSBV ëH ëH /JOIVSTBHBU5FMMFM0CFZE TPVUIFSO.FTPQPUBNJB JOQSFTFOU FDPOTUSVDUJPOPGUIFQSFWJPVTQBOFM "GUFS4JNPPOT 'JHo3 BOFMLOPXOBTiUIFEBJSZwEFDPSBUJOHUIFUFNQMFPG 'JHo1
100 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
'JHo'SBHNFOUPGUIFCBTSFMJFGPG6STIPXJOHBNBOVTJOHUIFTBNFUFDIOJRVFBTUIFNJMLFSTPG5FMMFM0CFZE oDSPVDIJOH MJLFUIFN XJUIPVUBDIBJS CFIJOEUIFBOJNBM BGUFS8PPMMFZ QMG
'JHo'JOBM#SPO[F"HFTFBMEJTDPWFSFEBU,OPTTPTCZ4JS"SUIVS&WBOTBOETIPXJOHNJMLJOHGSPNCFIJOE BGUFS%BWJT ëH
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ORIGIN possibility is not currently favoured by most BSDIBFPMPHJTUT 8FOHSPX BOEUIFJEFB "UëSTUTJHIU UIFNBKPSJUZPGLOPXODMBJNT of an introduction from the east is generally seem to be located outside the region infes- preferred, on the one hand because the ar- ted by tsetse flies (“fly that kills cattle” in the DIBFP[PPMPHJDBMEBUBEPOPUDPOëSNUIFIZ- 5TXBOBMBOHVBHF CVUTFWFSBMDBTFT 46 ,' pothesis of an African domestication centre, MA, TR, WG) seem to contradict the hypo- and on the other because of the very early thesis of an explanation of avoidance of the EBUFT #$& PCUBJOFE OPU POMZ BSFB PG JOGFTUBUJPO .BQ 4JODF OP SFMB- from the Cypriot preceramic site of Shillou- tionship can apparently be established with rokambos (Guilaine et al. GPSCJHCP- any ecozone, it is the idea of a cultural mo- vines transported by boat, but also in Syria tivation that springs all the more readily to for a diminution of the sexual dimorphism of NJOE TJODF UIF UFDIOJRVF PG JOTVðBUJPO JT UIFBVSPDITGSPNUIFëOBMMFWFMTPGUIFFBSMZ not systematically linked to pastoralism (the 11/# XIJDIJOEJDBUFTJUTQSPCBCMFEPNFT- majority of pastoralist societies do not seem tication around the same period (Arbuckle to know it) and because the repeated inven- 2005). Whatever precision can be brought to tion of such a specialized and not very ob- this subject by future research, the situation vious process appears to be far less probable SFNBJOTDMFBSJOUIFDFOUSBM4BIBSBCPWJOFT UIBUJUTUSBOTNJTTJPO'SBOÎPJT9BWJFS'BVWFM- were introduced here from the east, before le-Aymar sees in it a cultural trait comparable TQSFBEJOHXFTUXBSET .BQ )PXFWFS UIF UPUIFSBJTJOHPGXBSDBUUMF BOPUIFSUFDIOJRVF DMBTTJD EJêVTJPOJTU NPEFM PG EPNFTUJD CPWJ- that is also not universal among pastoralists, nes arriving in the subcontinent, as presen- and both form part of a “complete pastoralist ted especially by Ronan Loftus and his col- package including certain highly specialized laborators (Map 5), does not really take into IFSEJOH UFDIOJRVFTw 'BVWFMMF"ZNBS account their presence in the central Sahara, 2007 & 2008). The distribution area of war and is essentially based on two sites which cattle has not been well studied for the mo- should be treated with caution; because the ment, but this subject is worthy of further EBUF PG #1 JF DB #$& study, especially as the prehistorian Oswald HJWFOGPSEPNFTUJDCPWJOFTBUUIFëSTUPGUIFTF .FOHIJOBMSFBEZUIPVHIUUIBUUIFUFDIOJRVF sites, Haua Fteah in Cyrenaica (Clark et al. of insufflation was a typical trait of what he JOSFBMJUZDPNFTGSPNQSPCMFNB- called the “warrior-pastoralist culture” (Sie ist tic bones – scholars cannot decide whether they are from a small aurochs or domestic ein typischer Zug der Hirtenkriegerkulturw .FOHIJO CPWJOFT ,MFJOBOE4DPUU "TGPS the documentation extracted from the Ca- The most economical hypothesis is that which QFMMFUUJ$BWF 3PVCFU UIFTFDPOETJUF supposes that this trait spread at the same time that is often invoked, it only proves a possible as domestic bovines; it appears that their ar- QSFTFODFPGEPNFTUJDDBUUMFBGUFS#$& rival is best documented in the northern half .V[[PMJOJ of the continent, even if many uncertainties Without getting trapped by the shortcomings of remain, especially where their ultimate origin BTZTUFNBUJDJEFOUJëDBUJPOPGMBOHVBHFBOESBDF is concerned. This may result from an intro- one can legitimately wonder if the distribution of duction from the east, or from a native do- UIFGBDUTJORVFTUJPO BTUIFZNBZIBWFBQQFBSFE mestication of the African aurochs (Loftus et until the 9*9thDFOUVSZIFODFCFGPSFUIFQSP- al. #SBEMFZet al. )BOPUUFet al. DFTTPGSFJëDBUJPOPGFUIOJDHSPVQTEFOPVODFE (BVUJFS ɨF TFDPOE by various ethnologists and historians (Chrétien
102 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
.BQo%JTUSJCVUJPOPGDMBJNTGPSUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF DPNQBSFEUPUIF[POFJOGFTUFECZUTFUTFìJFTɨFBSSPXTIPXTUIF "penetration corridor" probably followed by the pastoralists.
1SVOJFS "NTFMMF .h#PLPMP T .V[[PMJOJ &ISFU .V[[PMJOJ TIPVMEOPUCFDPOTJEFSFEGSPNUIFWJFXQPJOU ɨFDPOKVODUJPOPGUIFBDRVJSFELOPX- of the relationship between archaeological data ledge of historical linguistics and archaeological BOEUIFEJêVTJPOPGTQFBLFSTPGUIFHSFBUGBNJ- EBUBiJTNPTUMJLFMZUPTVDDFFE
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.BQo0MEFTUEPNFTUJDCPWJOFTJO"GSJDB"OPSJHJOJOUIF/&PGUIFDPOUJOFOUJTUIFCFTUëUUPUIFEBUB apply this method, it is indeed the Sahara, where Where the cases found in the prehistoric Sahara JUIBTCFFOXFMMQSPWFEUIBUTVDIiEFNJDEJêV- are concerned, it seems probable that the tech- sions” were provoked by the climatic hazards (Le OJRVF PG JOTVðBUJPO JOUSPEVDFE BU UIF TBNF 2VFMMFD time as domestic bovines, came with the spea- It appears that the oldest evidence of the tech- kers of a language belonging to this phylum OJRVF CFJOH DPOTJEFSFE IFSF JT UP CF GPVOE &ISFUΉ B &ISFU C ɨF CFTU EPDV- in the heart of the area of Afrasian languages. mented expansion within this family is that
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
.BQo-PGUVThNPEFMGPSUIFTQSFBEPGEPNFTUJDCPWJOFTJO"GSJDB ɨJTIZQPUIFTJTEPFTOPUëUUPUIFEBUBSFDFOUMZHBUIFSFEJOUIFDFOUSBM4BIBSB
PG #FSCFS XIFSF UIF MJOHVJTUJD DPNQBSJTPO PG that is perfectly compatible with the data from the cultural vocabulary of stockrearing (espe- rock art. cially the words for “goat”, “billygoat”, “sheep”, Where Mesopotamia is concerned, it should be “ewe”, “flock”, “cow”, “calf” and “milk”) proves OPUFEUIBU,JOH"B/FQBEBEJFEBSPVOE that its speakers, who were herders, dispersed in #$& BOE UIBU B DFOUVSZ BOE B IBMG MBUFS JO BXFTUXBSEEJSFDUJPOBGUFS#$& #MFODI #$& UIFDPORVFTUTCZ4BSHPOPG"LLBE -PVBMJ1IJMJQQTPO BSFTVMU marked the end of the archaic Dynastic period.
"/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 105 Le Quellec J.-L.
.BQo%JTUSJCVUJPOTPGDMBJNTGPSUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF DPNQBSFEUPMJOHVJTUJDBSFBTJO"GSJDB
It was then the Akkadian language, which is #$& ,JUDIFOet al. $POTFRVFOU- the oldest Afrasian language to have been MZ UIFFYJTUFODFPGUIFUFDIOJRVFPGJOTVðBUJPO OPUFE XIJDIQSFWBJMFEɨFëSTUBSDIBFPMPHJ- at Tell el-’Obeyd could very well result from cal evidence of Akkadian is the proper names Akkadian influence. Hence, in the present state OPUFEJO4VNFSJBOUFYUTEBUFEUP#$& of documentation, all the points that mark out CVU XIFSFBT UIF ëSTU UFYUT FOUJSFMZ XSJUUFO JO UIFQSBDUJDFPGUIJTUFDIOJRVFEVSJOHQSFIJTUPSZ "LLBEJBOPOMZNVMUJQMZBGUFS#$& UIF should really be linked to the dispersal of her- language itself seems to have appeared around ders belonging to the Afrasian linguistic group.
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DIFFUSION
8IBUBCPVUIJTUPSJDBMDMBJNT ɨF EJêVTJPO PG "GSBTJBO BOE /JMP4BIBSBO languages and the dispersal of their speakers contributed to the pre- and protohistory of the Sahara and Sahel. The geographic and chronological proximity of the original sources of the two great families of Afrasian and Nilo- Saharan languages, and then the contiguous nature of several of them after their extension and until today shows that borrowings took place SFHVMBSMZ #FDDIBVTT(FSTU,FEJOHΉ CVUVOGPSUVOBUFMZJUJTJNQPTTJCMFUPTUVEZ them for the case that interests us here since, apart from among the Tuareg of the Ayer who call it askuf /JDPMBJTFO UIFQSBDUJDF of insufflation does not have names whose evolution it might be possible to follow. "DDPSEJOHUPBIZQPUIFTJTCZ3PHFS#MFODI UIF group of Chadic languages (from the Afrasian phylum) is the result of a westward movement PG ,VTIJUFT EVSJOH UIF 7th NJMMFOOJVN #$& .BQ BGUFS#MFODI "OJEFOUJ- ëDBUJPOPGUIJTNJHSBUJPODBOCFTPVHIUJOUIF 'JHo$FSBNJDPCKFDUEJTDPWFSFEJO8BEJ)BXBS OPSUIFSO gradual occupation of Wâdi Howar (North-Su- 4VEBO JOUIFMFWFMXJUINJEEMFBOEëOBM/FPMJUIJDDFSBNJDT dan) by the bearers of a particular type of Mid- and with so-called “Leiterband” decoration dle and Final Neolithic pottery with a decora- BGUFS,FEJOH BOEQM tion known as “Leiterband” (Jesse et al. 2007, #FDDIBVTT(FSTU,FEJOH *UJTJOUIJT level that a curious ceramic object was disco- WFSFE 'JH XIJDI #JSHJU ,FEJOH USJFE UP DPNQBSFXJUIUIFiUVZÒSFTwVTFEJOUSBEJUJPOBM "GSJDBO NFUBMMVSHZ CVU XJUIPVU TVDDFTT ,F- EJOH BOEQM "GUFSIBWJOH ruled out the possibility of such a function, she DPODMVEFEUIBUUIJTPCKFDUIBTOPLOPXOFRVJ- valent. However, its resemblance to the mouth of a tool made of shell and used (in 9*9th-cen- tury Hungary) for blowing into cows’ vaginas 'JH NBZOPUCFGPSUVJUPVT #FSHFS "MUIPVHITVDIBVTBHFJTWFSZEJïDVMUUP 'JHo4IFMMVTFEJO9*9th century Hungary for blowing into DPOëSNBSDIBFPMPHJDBMMZ JUJTOPUUIFPSFUJDBMMZ DPXWBHJOBT BGUFS"NPSPTP+FXFMM QM9*7C impossible, and it will be recalled that the bone tubes discovered in the tombs of the kurgans of
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southern Russia have been interpreted in this BNPOHUIF/JMP4BIBSBOQPQVMBUJPOTPG,FOZB way, with a high degree of probability (ʧ̡̛̣̦̌ BOE5BO[BOJB QSPWFT UIBU UIJT NVUBUJPO JT Galkin GPVOE BUMPXFSGSFRVFODJFT JOTPVUIXFTU"GSJDB ɨF EJêVTJPO PG PVS UFDIOJRVF UPXBSET UIF BOEBNPOHUIF#BOUVQIPOFQPQVMBUJPOTPGUIF south of the continent is clearly attributable Namib Desert (Ovimbundu, Ganguela, Nya- to speakers of languages of the Nilo-Saharan OFLB/LIVNCJ ,VWBMF ɨF BVUIPST EFEVDF and Niger-Congo phyla, the pastoralists having from this the existence of a link between these used a “corridor” that remained free within the zones and East Africa, probably after migrations [POFPGJOGFTUBUJPOCZUTFUTFìJFT .BQ ɨF UIBUQSFDFEFEUIF#BOUVFYQBOTJPO $PFMIPet higher density of historical cases in these lin- al. 5XP QPTTJCJMJUJFT DBO CF FOWJTBHFE guistic areas allows one to suggest that the very concerning the transmission of the mutation in PêDFOUSF DBTFT UIBU IBWF CFFO OPUFE PVUTJEF RVFTUJPOGSPN&BTU"GSJDBUPUIF/BNJCSFHJPO them in southern Africa could indicate an an- either direct, through migration, or indirect cient connection between Nilo-Saharan (more XJUIBëSTUDPOUBDUCFUXFFO/JMP4BIBSBOQBT- TQFDJëDBMMZ &BTU"GSJDBO PS /JMPUJD BOE UIF UPSBMJTUTBOE,IPFLIPF UIFOBUSBOTGFSUPUIF ,IPFLIPFQPQVMBUJPOTJORVFTUJPO #BOUVQPQVMBUJPOTPGUIF/BNJCGPMMPXJOHJO- This hypothesis may enjoy two items of sup- UFSBDUJPOTPGUIF,IPFLIPFXJUIUIFMBUUFS port. On the one hand, a “syndrome of Nilotic Hence the totality of the available data tends to customs” has been noted among the Nguni of MJOLUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVFXJUIUIFEJêV- west Zimbabwe and the northern part of South sion of cattle rearing by populations with Afra- "GSJDB XIP BQQBSFOUMZ BDRVJSFE JU JO UIF 9th sian languages in the northern half of Africa, or 9*thDFOUVSJFT 8JMTPOɨPNQTPO and with Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan lan- UISPVHIBQSPDFTTPGi/JMPUJDJOëMUSBUJPOw guages in the southern half. DPOëSNFE CZ 3PMBOE 0MJWFS GPS ;BNCJB BOE ;JNCBCXF 0MJWFS ɨJT PCTFSWBUJPO EJE OPU FTDBQF UIF BUUFOUJPO PG 'SBOÎPJT9B- vier Fauvelle-Aymar, who mentions it in sup- RECONCILIATION OF THE DATA OF port of a possible connection between Nilots DIFFERENT TYPES BOE,IPFLIPF 'BVWFMMF"ZNBS CVUUIF dates mentioned are very late. Moreover, the North Sudan and the Libyan desert form part SFDFOUBSFBTUVEZPGIBQMPHSPVQ&CGBNPOH of the original zone of two of the big African thirteen populations in East and South Africa is MJOHVJTUJD HSPVQT "GSBTJBO /JMP4BIBSBO compatible with the hypothesis of a demic dif- XIJDI BQQFBSFE BSPVOE UP fusion of pastoralism out of East Africa towards years ago. This was a contact zone (located so- a zone of southern Africa located at the present mewhere between present-days Sudan, Egypt boundary of Angola and Namibia, indepen- and Ethiopia), and the exchanges that occur- EFOUMZPGUIF#BOUVNJHSBUJPOTBCPVUZFBST red in this period would help explain the vague ago. The authors of this work conclude that the “family likeness” that has been observed several population which introduced pastoralism into times between the iconography of the central southern Africa had a Nilotic linguistic affilia- Sahara and the Nile area (Leclant et al. tion (Henn et al. )PXFWFS TPNF -F2VFMMFD research work that was independent of the one In the Nilo-Saharan phylum, words for KVTU DJUFE DPODFSOJOH UIF $ NVUBUJPO “milk” and “to milk” have been reconstruc- associated with the persistence of lactase (and ted by Christopher Ehret (Ehret 2001) to the hence the digestive tolerance of cow’s milk) north Proto-Sudanic stage, which he places UIFGSFRVFODZPGXIJDIJTQBSUJDVMBSMZIJHI IZQPUIFUJDBMMZ BSPVOE #$& 4JNJMBSMZ
108 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
1FUFS #FISFOT IBT GPVOE XPSET GPS iNJMLw TPOΉ SFTFBSDIFST IBWF TFWFSBM UJNFT in Proto-Afrasian, around the same period DBMMFEPOHFOFUJDTUVEJFT #SBEMFZet al. #FISFOTΉ &MTFXIFSF TPNF QSFDJTF DPS- Troy et al. 2001, Hanotte et al. 2002) which are SFTQPOEFODFTCFUXFFOUIF,VTIJUJDBOE$IBEJD supposed to reinforce the idea that an African for “milk” could be explained by an early histo- centre of domestication could have been loca- ric contact in the region of the Eastern desert. ted somewhere in the Eastern desert (Wendorf So the data from historical linguistics point to a 4DIJME +PVTTF ɨFTVQQPSUFST very early appearance of milking, around 8000 of an autochthonous and very early domesti- #$& XIJDIQPTFTBTFSJPVTDISPOPMPHJDBMQSP- cation of the African aurochs have sought help CMFN CFDBVTF UIJT EBUF DPSSFTQPOET grosso in the models constructed by geneticists, and modo to that which certain archaeozoologists IBWFTFFOJOUIFNBDPOëSNBUJPOPGUIFJSPXO and prehistorians have proposed for an inde- theory, without noticing that their procedure pendent origin of the domestication of bovines consisted of wishing to prove a supposition by in Africa. According to this supposition, this a hypothesis. independent process occurred in the extreme 5PFYQMBJOUIFEJêFSFODFCFUXFFOUIFBSDIBFP- TPVUIPG&HZQUBSPVOE#$&PSFWFOCF- logical and linguistic data, it has also some- GPSF JOUIFSFHJPOPG/BCUB1MBZB#JS,JTFJCB times been proposed that, for obvious reasons (BVUJFS 8FOEPSG4DIJME (BV- of taphonomy, there is always a certain lapse of tier 2002). In reality, the osteological evidence time between the appearance of a phenomenon and the ecological arguments presented in sup- and the moment when it becomes sufficiently port of this suggestion only make it possible to widespread to have a chance of being detec- make very fragile suppositions, and even if a table millennia later, by means of archaeology few authors apparently accept it without hesi- .V[[PMJOJ 4PPOFDBOOPUSFKFDUBQSJP- UBUJPO MJLF #FDDIBVTT(FSTU ,FEJOH ri the data of historical linguistics for the sole 21), this hypothesis has been criticized very SFBTPOUIBUUIFZIBWFOPU ZFU CFFOBUUFTUFE WJHPSPVTMZ .V[[PMJOJ 4NJUI through the results of prospections and exca- #SBVOTUFJO4ZMWFTUSF BOE JUT vations. Prehistorians are nonetheless highly principal promoter himself, in the most recent sceptical of the linguists’ speculations when review of the subject, has been very careful to they contradict their own. Is it not possible speak only of “putative domestic cattle” or of that the linguists risk taking as evidence for an “early hypothetical presence of livestock espe- early and common origin what could actually DJBMMZDBUUMFw (BVUJFSΉ be no more than the results of later contacts Even if, during more recent periods, cattle #FDDIBVTT(FSTU,FEJOH /FWFS- plaid a preeminent role in several sudanese sites theless one must admit that this objection, al- MJLF,BESVLB 3FJOPME PS,FSNB beit certainly academically acceptable, has pri- (Chaix 2007), one still wait for new and truly marily been formulated as a matter of form and solid arguments to suppose that there was an in- has very little chance of being well-founded, dependent domestication of bovines in this re- when one considers the work of such expe- HJPOJOUIF*9th or VIIIthNJMMFOOJB#$& 8FO- rienced linguists as Christopher Ehret, Roger HSPX .BUUIJFV )POFHHFS IBT SFDFOUMZ #MFODIPS1FUFS#FISFOT BOOPVODFEBEBUFiBSPVOE#$wGPSEP- Contrary to the linguists’ deductions in this mestic cattle at Wadi el-Arab (Honegger 2007), domain, there is a far more powerful argument, and the eagerly-anticipated publication of these namely that the presence of a word for “milk” new data might create a wholly new situation. in a language in no way proves the practice In order to make up for the weaknesses of this of milking. The African example of the “non- archaeological and osteological dossier (Grig- milking area” (Map 1) should suffice to prove
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this, if that were necessary, since many pastoralists Boschmans, and Hill Damaras. Vol. I. E.L. Carey obviously know about milk’s existence, but & A. Hart, Philadelphia. refuse to milk their cows. As it seems impossible Amoroso E. C. & Jewell P.A. ΒɨF&YQMPJ- to bring the comparison to bear on terms like tation of the Milk Ejection by Primitive Peo- askuf (“insufflation in cows’ vaginas to force ples, in Mourant A.E. & Zeuner F.E. (eds), them to give milk”), because for the moment Man and cattle. Royal Anthropological Institute this is a hapax, and as the earliest words for PG(SFBU#SJUBJO*SFMBOE -POEPO “to milk” are the result of a recalibration from Amselle J.-L. &.#ÿûÿüÿ&ΒAu cœur de terms known before domestication and which l’ethnie. Ethnies, Tribalisme et État en Afrique. La PSJHJOBMMZ NFBOU iUP QSFTTw &ISFU Découverte, Paris. JUJTIBSEUPTFFIPXIJTUPSJDBMMJOHVJTUJDT Applegate A., Gautier A. & Duncan S. Β could demonstrate the early existence of milking The North tumuli of the Nabta Late Neolithic through that of words designating either it or ceremonial complex, in Wendorf F., Schild R. NJML /FX TUBUJTUJDBM UFDIOJRVFT PG BOBMZTJT PG &/õüăÿþ,(eds), Holocene settlement of the bone remains are enabling researchers to re- Egyptian Sahara,MVXFS"DBEFNJD 1MFOVN FYBNJOF UIF RVFTUJPO BGSFTI JO [POFT XIFSF 1VCMJTIFST /FX:PSL recent and sufficiently meticulous excavations "Ăòąóûüõ #4 Β &YQFSJNFOUBM BOJNBM EP- NBLFUIJTQPTTJCMF #BMBTTFet al. 2000), but this mestication and its application to the study is not yet the case in the Sahara. of animal exploitation in prehistory, in Vi- All things considered, it is therefore rock gne J.-D., Helmer D. & Peters J. (eds), New art which, for this zone, provides the best Methods for the First Steps of Domestication. Ox- documentation. Although its dating is still CPX 0YGPSE JNQSFDJTF CVU OPU SBEJDBMMZ XSPOH JU #ñùüüÿąô(ΒArt rupestre en Ennedi. Sépia, QSFTFOUTEPDVNFOUTXIJDIQSPWFUIBUUIFëSTU Saint-Maur. EJêVTJPO PG UBVSJOFT JO UIF DPOUJOFOU XBT BDDPNQBOJFE CZ UIF UFDIOJRVF PG NJMLJOH #ñüñăăõ . Β ,FFQJOH UIF ZPVOH BMJWF UP TUJNVMBUFNJMLQSPEVDUJPO %JêFSFODFCFUXFFO Moreover, it attests, for the Saharan Neolithic, cattle and small stock. Anthropozoologica UIF FYJTUFODF PG UIF UFDIOJRVF PG JOTVðBUJPO which excavations would have great difficulty in detecting, to say the least. So in this zone, #ñüñăăõ . 5ĂõăăõĄ " #ÿóøõĂõþă ) .ñ- there is no need to resort to the hypothesis of riotti A. & Vigne J.-D. Β6OBCBUUBHF ʲΉ QPTUMBDUBUJPOΉ ʺ TVS EFT CPWJOT EPNFTUJRVFT the secondary products “revolution”, and the OÏPMJUIJRVFT²UVEFJTPUPQJRVFEFTSFTUFTPTTFVY dossier presented here strengthens for Africa EVTJUFEF#FSDZ 1BSJT 'SBODF Anthropozoolo- the arguments already put forward in Europe gica against this hypothesis (Vigne & Helmer 2007). #ñüÿąĄ - Β L’Algérie préhistorique. Arts et .ÏUJFST(SBQIJRVFT 1BSJT #ñĂùóø#&ΒArchaeology and Environment #*#-*0(3"1)*& in the Libyan Sahara. The Excavations in the Ta- drart Acacus, 1978-1983#SJUJTI"SDIBFPMPHJDBM Albada A. & Albada ".Β0SHBOJTBUJPO 3FQPSUT *OUFSOBUJPOBM 4FSJFT $BNCSJEHF de l’espace orné dans le Messak libyen. Anthro- .POPHSBQIT JO "GSJDBO "SDIBFPMPHZ "S- pologie chaeopress, Cambridge. Alexander+&ΒAn Expedition of Discovery #ñĂùóø#&ΒPeople, Water and Grain: The into the Interior of Africa: through the hitherto Beginnings of Domestication in the Sahara and the undescribed countries of the Great Namaquas, Nile Valley.-i&SNBwEJ#SFUTDIOFJEFS 3PNB
110 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
#ñĂùóø#&Β$VMUVSBMSFTQPOTFUPDMJNBUF #ùõòõĂ'+ΒKaffa, ein altkuschitisches Volks- DIBOHFTJO/PSUI"GSJDBCFHJOOJOHBOETQSFBE tum in Inner-Afrika: Nachrichten über Land und of pastoralism in the Sahara, in Hassan F.A. Volk, Brauch und Sitte der Kaffitscho oder Gonga (ed.), Droughts, Food and Culture. Ecological und das Kaiserreich Kaffa#EEinleitung: das Change and Food Security in Africa’s Later Pre- Eigenleben der Kaffitscho oder Gonga. Ethnolo- history,MVXFS"DBEFNJD 1MFOVN/FX:PSL HJTDIF"OUISPQPT#JCMJPUIFL .àOTUFS #üñóûýñþ".Β-JCBUJPOTUPUIF%FBEJO #ñĂùóø#&ΒAntica Africa. Alle origine della Modern Nubia and Ancient Egypt. The Journal Società-i&SNBwEJ#SFUTDIOFJEFS 3PNB of Egyptian Archaeology #ñĂÿùþ$Β5FDIOJRVFTEBEPQUJPOFONJ- #üõþóø 3. Β 5ZQFTPG MBOHVBHF TQSFBE lieu animal (Daza du Niger), in Pujols R. & BOEUIFJSBSDIBFPMPHJDBMDPSSFMBUFTUIFFYBNQMF Laurans R. (eds), L’homme et l’animal. Premier PG#FSCFSOrigini colloque d'ethnozoologie. Institut international #üõþóø3.ΒLinks between Cushitic, Omo- EhFUIOPTDJFODFT 1BSJT tic, Chadic and the position of Kujarge. 5th Inter- #ñĄøùüĉ.4 ,øñĄĄñĂ.0 7õĂþõĄ3 $üąĊõü national Conference of Cushitic and Omotic Lan- C., & Ott J.M.ΒLes sites néolithiques de guages. S.e.[Draft circulated for comments]. Khatt Lemaïteg (Amatlich) en Mauritanie occi- #ÿõăăþõóû+ΒDie Tierwelt des Alten Ägyp- dentale. CMA, Meudon. ten. Untersucht anhand kulturgeschichtlicher und #õóóøñąăă(õĂăĄ.đ,õôùþ÷#Β.FBU zoologischer Quellen$)#FDL .àODIFO PS.JML "SDIBFPMPHJDBMBOE-JOHVJTUJD&WJEFODF #ÿ÷ñõĂĄă"ΒHistorische Reizen door Asia. for the Peridynastic Use of Cattle in the Eastern +BO%BOJFM#FNBO 3PUUFSEBN Sahara. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika #ÿąóøąô+Β²UVEFEFGBVOFTIPMPDÒOFTQSP- WFOBOUEFMB[POFBSJEFEV4BIBSBBUMBOUJRVF JO #õøĂõþă1Β8BOEFSVOHTCFXFHVOHFOVOE Roubet C., Hugot H.J. & Souville G. (eds), Sprache der frühen saharanischen Viehzüchter. Préhistoire africaine. Mélanges offerts au Doyen Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika Lionel Balout, réunis par C. Roubet, H.-J. Hugot, #õüüąÿýùþù(& Manfra-Β3BEJPDBSCPO G. Souville"%1'Ή1BSJT dates from the Tadrart Acacus Massif, in #ÿąăýñþ$#ΒɨF$ISPOPMPHJDBM&WJEFO- #ñĂùóø# FE Archaeology and Environment ce for the Introduction of Domestic Stock into in the Libyan Sahara. The Excavations in the Southern Africa. African Archaeological Review Tadrart Acacus #BS *OUFSOBUJPOBM 4FSJFT "SDIBFPQSFTT $BNCSJEHF #Ăñôüõĉ%( .ñó)ą÷ø%& $ąþþùþ÷øñý1 #õĂ÷õĂ ' Β 1BJOUJOHT PG DPXT VEEFST JO & Loftus 35Β.JUPDIPOESJBMEJWFS- UXJTUFEQFSTQFDUJWFBSFHJPOBMQIFOPNFOPOJO sity and the origins of African and European the rock art of the eastern Sahara, reviewed in a Cattle. PNAS wider context. Pictogram #ĂñąþăĄõùþ4ĉüĆõăĄĂõ'Β3FTTPVSDFTBMJ- #õĂþñĄĊùû )" Β ;XJTDIFO 8FJTTFN /JM mentaires et alimentation dans la vallée du Nil VOE#FMHJTDI,POHP4FJEFM4PIO 8JFO BVY ÏQPRVFT QSÏIJTUPSJRVFT Anthropozoologica #õĂþñĄĊùû)"ΒGari-gari. L.W. Seidel & /VNÏSPTQÏDJBM Sohn, Wien. #Ăõąþù÷1 /õąýñþþ, đĆñþ/õõĂ8Β #õĂþÿĄ-Β#VWFVSTFUOPOCVWFVSTEFMBJU New research on the Holocene settlement and L’Homme FOWJSPONFOUPGUIF$IBE#BTJOJO/JHFSJBAfri- can Archaeological Review #õĂþąă&Β7PDBCVMBJSFSFMBUJGBVYUFDIOJRVFT d’adoption par les animaux en milieu touareg #ucher(Β‘Von Beschreibung der Sitten und (Niger). Journal des Africanistes Gebräuche der Völker’. Die instruktionen Gerhard
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Friedrich Müllers und ihre Bedeutubg für die Ges- Chrétien J.-P. & Prunier (ΒLes Ethnies chichte der Etnologie und der Geschichtswissens- ont une histoire"$$5 ,BSUIBMBΉ1BSJT chaft. Franz Steiner Verlag, Frankfurt. $üñĂû J.D. et al.ΒAdrar Bous: archaeology of #ąĂ÷ñĄ'Β/POWJPMFODFUPXBSETBOJNBMT a central Saharan granitic ring complex in Niger. JOUIFUIJOLJOHPG(BOEIJUIFQSPCMFNPGBOJ- Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren. mal husbandry. Journal of Agriculture and Envi- Clauss)Β%JF8BHPHP&UIOPHSBQIJTDIF ronmental Ethics 4LJ[[F FJOFT 0TUBGSJLBOJTDIFO #BOUVTUBNNFT #ąĄĊõĂ,8ΒEnvironment and archeology; Baessler-Archiv für Völkerkunde an introduction to Pleistocene geography. Aldine Close " Β $VSSFOU SFTFBSDI BOE SFDFOU Pub. Co., Chicago. radiocarbon dates from Northern Africa. Journal Camps ( Β %KPSG 5PSCB JO Encyclopédie of African Archaeology Berbère97*&EJTVEΉ"JYFO1SPWFODF $üąĄĄÿþ#Ăÿóû + Β $BUUMF JO BODJFOU North-Africa.”, in $üąĄĄÿþ#Ăÿóû J. (ed.), Carter P.L. & Flight $Β"SFQPSUPOUIF The Walking Larder. Patterns of Domestication, GBVOBGSPNUIFTJUFTPG/UFSFTPBOE,JOUBNQP Pastoralism and Predation. One World Archaeo- SPDL TIFMUFS JO (IBOB XJUI FWJEFODF GPS UIF MPHZ-POEPO practice of animal husbandry during the second $ÿõüøÿ . 4õāąõùĂñ ' -ąùăõüüù % #õüõĊñ 4 millenium. Man & Rocha +Β0OUIFFEHFPG#BOUVFY- Castiglioni A. & Angelo ΒAddio, ultimo QBOTJPOT NU%/" : DISPNPTPNF BOE MBDUBTF uomo. Nel cuore dell’Africa alla ricerca delle tribù persistence genetic variation in southwestern An- primitive. Rusconi, Milano. gola. BMC Evolutionary Biology0OMJOF IUUQ XXXCJPNFEDFOUSBMDPN $õĂĆįĠõû1ΒFelsbilder des Nord-Etbai, Obe- ragyptens und Unternubiens [Ergebnise D. VIII. Crawford &. Β By the Equator’s snowy Diafe Nach Agypten 1926>'4UFJOFS 8JFTCB- peaks. A record of medical missionary work and den. travel in British East Africa. Church Missionary Society, London. $õĂĆįĠõû 1 Β 'FMTCJMEFS VOE 1ZSBNJEFO- texte, in +ÿóûõþøňĆõü A. (ed.), Festschrift für $ąþĉþ÷øñýõ " "5 Β My command in Hermann Müller-Karpe zum 70. Geburtstag. South Africa, 1874-1878 : comprising experiences ,PNNJTTJPO CFJ %S 3VEPMG )BCFMU (NCI of travel in the colonies of South Africa and the #POO independent states. Macmillan & Co., London. $õĂĆįĠõû1& Váhala'Β,BUBMPHEFS'FMT- Davies N. de G. ΒThe Mastaba of Ptahhetep CJMEFSBVTEFS5TDIFDIPTMPXBLJTDIFO,PO[FTTJPO and Akhethetep at Saqqareh. Part II. The masta- in Nubien. Nubica et Æthiopica ba. The sculptures of Akhethetep. EEF, London. Chaïd-Saoudi:ΒLes mammifères holocènes Davis 4+. Β The archaeology of animals. des gisements préhistoriques des Gueldaman-Ak- Yale University Press, New Haven. bou (Bédjaia), Columnata (Tiaret) et Ti-n-Ha- Denbow J. & Wilmsen & Β "EWFOU BOE nakaten (Djanet) en Algérie. Université Claude- DPVSTF PG QBTUPSBMJTN JO UIF ,BMBIBSJ Science #FSOBSE-ZPO 7JMMFVSCBOF Chaix-Β$POUSJCVUJPOUPUIFLOPXMFEHF Dunand F. & Lichtenberg R. 2005Des ani- PGUIFEPNFTUJDDBUUMFJO"GSJDBUIFPTUFPNFUSZ maux et des hommes. Une symbiose égyptienne. of the fossil cattle (Bos taurus L. Linné) from Éditions du Rocher, Monaco. ,FSNB 4VEBO #$ JOGrupe G. & Peters J. (eds), Skeletal series and their socio- Dupire.ΒPeuls nomades: étude descriptive economic context. Documenta Archaeobiologiae 5. des Wodaabe du Sahel nigérien. Institut d’Ethno- 7FSMBH.-FJEPSG 3BIEFO8FTUG logie, Paris.
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%ĉăÿþ)ąôăÿþ3&%ĉăÿþ)ąôăÿþ/Β 'ñąĆõüüõ"ĉýñĂ'9Β"HBJOTUUIFA,IPJTBO Subsistence herding in Uganda. Scientific Ame- QBSBEJHNJOUIFJOUFSQSFUBUJPOPG,IPFLIPFPSJHJOT rican BOEIJTUPSZBSFFWBMVBUJPOPG,IPFLIPFQBTUPSBM traditions. Southern African Humanities Ehret$Β/JMP4BIBSBOTBOEUIF4BIBSP Sudanese Neolilthic, in Thurstan S. (ed.), The 'ñĉõ#Β-FTJUFBSDIÏPMPHJRVFEF$IJO5B- Archaeology of Africa: foods, metals, and towns. ëEFUBV/JHFSBulletin mensuel de la Société lin- 3PVUMFEHF -POEPO /FX:PSL néenne de Lyon Ehret$BΒ8FSXBSFOEJF'FMTCJMELàOTUMFS Forni(Β(FOFTJFTWJMVQQPEFMMFDPOPNJB EFS4BIBSB Almogaren pastorale nel Sahara preistorico. Economia e Storia. Rivista italiana di storia economica e so- Ehret $CΒ8IP8FSFUIF3PDL"SUJTUT cialeΉ Linguistic Evidence for the Holocene Popu- lations of the Sahara, in .ąĊĊÿüùþù " đ -õ Frobenius - Β Ekade ektab. Die felsbilder Quellec J.-L.(eds), Proceedings of the Inter- Fezzans. Ergebnisse der DIAFE X (X. Deutsch- national Rock Art and Cognitive Archaeology innerafrikanischen forschungsexpedition) nach Congress News. Centro Studie Museo d’Arte Tripolitanien und Ost-Algier mit ergänzungen Prehistorica, Torino. [Proceedings are published der DIAFE XII aus Zentral-Algier. Otto Harras- BTB$%3PN> sowitz, Leipzig. Ehret$ΒA Historical-Comparative Recons- ʧ̡̛̣̦̌ ʸ͘ʸ͘ ϭϵϳϱ Β ʽ̨̦̔ ̛̚ ̵̛̬̖̦̖̜̹̔̏ truction of Nilo-Saharan,ÚQQF ,ÚMO ̸̵̡̡̛̛̪̬̯̖̭̌ ̨̨̛̛̪̬̭̪̭̣̖̦̜̍ ̡̨̨̨̨̭̯̏̔̏͘ ˁ̵̨̡̨̨̛̖̯̭̬̖̣̏̌́̌̐́ϯ͗ϭϴϲͲϭϵϮ͘ [(ñüûùþ L.L. Ehret$Β-BOHVFFUIJTUPJSF JO)õùþõ# Β0OFPGUIFFBSMJFTUQSBDUJDBMBEBQUBUJPOT & Nurse D. (éds), Les langues africaines,BS- of cattle-breeders. Soviet archaeology] thala ; Agende universitaire de la Francophonie, 1BSJT Gauthier Y. & Gauthier CΒ1BTUFVSTEV Messak (Fezzân, Libye). Art rupestre saharien, Espérandieu(Β%PNFTUJDBUJPOFUÏMFWBHF BVUFVSTBODJFOTFUQBTUFVSTOJMPUJRVFTPréhistoi- EBOTMFOPSEEFM"GSJRVFBV/ÏPMJUIJRVFFUEBOT re et Anthropologie méditeranéennes MB1SPUPIJTUPJSFEBQSÒTMFTëHVSBUJPOTSVQFTUSFT in Actes du Congrès Panafricain de Préhistoire, IIe Gauthier Y. & Gauthier C Β -FT NÉUT Session, Alger, 1952"SUTFU.ÏUJFST(SBQIJRVFT dans l’art rupestre du Messak (Fezzân, Libye). "MHFSΉ 1BSJTΉ Les Cahiers de l’AARS Espérandieu ( Β 3FNBSRVFT BV TVKFU EF Gauthier Y., Gauthier C. & Lluch1Β ëHVSBUJPOT EBOJNBVY EPNFTUJRVFT QSPWFOBOU Nouvelles peintures rupestres de l’Immidir (Al- EF%KPSU5PSCBFUDPOTFSWÏTBV.VTÏFEV#BSEP gérie). SaharaΉ (Alger). LibycaΉ Gautier"Β$POUSJCVUJPOUPUIFBSDIBFP- zoology of Egypt, in Wendorf F. & Schild R. 'ñąĆõüüõ"ĉýñĂ'9Β#FUXFFOUIFëSTUIFS- (eds.), Prehistory of the Eastern Sahara. Acade- EFSTBOEUIFMBTUIFSEFSTBSFUIF,IPFLIPFEFT- DFOEBOUTPGUIF/FPMJUIJDiIVOUFSTXJUITIFFQʹ NJD1SFTT /FX:PSL Before Farming 0OMJOF BSUJDMF Gautier"Β-BGBVOFEFMPDDVQBUJPOOÏP- IUUQXXXXBTQSFTTDPVLKPVSOBMTCFGPSFGBS- MJUIJRVF E&M ,BEBEB 4FDUFVST BV NJOHKPVSOBM@BCTUSBDUTJOEFYQIQ Soudan Central. Archéologie du Nil Moyen Ή 'ñąĆõüüõ"ĉýñĂ '9 Β 2VFMRVFT IZQP- UIÒTFTTVSMIJTUPJSFEFT,IPFLIPF "GSJRVFEV Gautier"BΒ1SFIJTUPSJDNFOBOEDBUUMFJO Sud), in %õăüñąĂùõĂ$đ+ąøĤ#õñąüñĄÿþΉD. /PSUI"GSJDBBEFBSUIPGEBUBBOEBTVSGFJUPGNP- (eds), Afrique, terre d’histoire. Au cœur de la re- dels, in Close A.E. (ed.), Prehistory of Arid North cherche avec Jean-Pierre Chrétien,BSUIBMBΉ1B- Africa: Essays in Honor of Fred Wendorf. Southern SJTΉ .FUIPEJTU6OJWFSTJUZ1SFTT %BMMBT
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Gautier " C Β ɨF BSDIBFP[PPMPHJDBM (ąùüñùþõ+ #Ăùÿùă' $ÿąüñĂÿą+ 7ù÷þõ+% TFRVFODF PG UIF "DBDVT JO #ñĂùóø # FE & Carrère I. Β4IJMMPVSPLBNCPTFUMFT Archaeology and Environment in the Libyan EÏCVUTEV/ÏPMJUIJRVFË$IZQSFEspacio, Tiem- Sahara. The Excavations in the Tadrart Acacus. po y Forma, Serie I, Prehistoria y ArqueologiaΉ #BS *OUFSOBUJPOBM 4FSJFT "SDIBFPQSFTT $BNCSJEHF (ćĉþ(+Β%JPEPSVT4JDVMVTJGThe Gautier"ΒɨFFWJEFODFGPSUIFFBSMJFTU Classical Review MJFWFTUPDLJO/PSUI"GSJDBPSBEWFOUVSFTXJUI )ñþÿĄĄõ0 #Ăñôüõĉ%( 0óøùõþ÷+8 7õĂ- large bovids, ovicaprids, dogs and pigs, in Has- jee Y., Hill E.W., & Rege +&0Β"GSJ- san F. A. (ed.), Droughts, Food and Culture. Eco- DBOQBTUPSBMJTNHFOFUJDJNQSJOUTPGPSJHJOTBOE logical Change and Food Security in Africa’s Later migrations. Science Prehistory ,MVXFS "DBEFNJD 1MFOVN /FX :PSL Hassan' FE ΒDroughts, food and culture. Ecological Change and Food Security in Africa’s Gautier A. & van Neer8 Β 1SFIJTUPSJD Later Prehistory ,MVXFS "DBEFNJD 1MFOVN Fauna from Ti-n-Torha (Tadrart Acacus, Li- New York. bya). Origini )õüüăĄĂňý1đ-ñþ÷òñüüõ)ΒThe Scan- Gautier A. & van Neer8Β"OJNBMSF- dinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia. The NBJOTGSPN%FCCBUFM&IFJNBBOE%FCCBU#BO- Rock Drawings4DBOEJOBWJBO6OJWFSTJUZ#PPLT HEJU #$"% 4PVUIFSO Copenhagen. Sudan). Archaeozoologia )õþþ #. (ù÷þÿąĈ $ -ùþ"" 0õöþõĂ 1+ (õøüõþ# ,ùþôõĂýñþþ, -ùþăĄęôĄõĂ +& Rie- 4øõþ1 4óÿĊĊñĂù3 et al.Β:DISPNP- mer H. ΒɨF)PMPDFOF0DDVQBUJPOPG somal evidence of a pastoralist migration throu- UIF &BTUFSO 4BIBSB 3FHJPOBM $ISPOPMPHJFT BOE gh Tanzania to southern Africa. PNAS Supra-regional Developments in four Areas of the Absolute Desert. Africa Preahistorica )ĤĂĉ'9đ&þõü5ΒAnimaux du Nil, Ani- Gordon R.J., Raper P.E. &#ÿąóøõĂ.Β maux de Dieu. Édisud, Aix-en-Provence. Robert Jacob Gordon: Cape travels, 1777 to 1786. #SFOUIVSTU TFDPOE TFSJFT #SFOUIVSTU 1SFTT Hildebrandt+.Β(FTBNNFMUF/PUJ[FO Houghton. über Landwirtschaft und Viehzucht Abyssinien und den ostlich angrenzenden Ländern. Zeits- Gouin 1 Β #PWJOT FU MBJUBHFT FO .ÏTPQP- chrift für Ethnologie UBNJF NÏSJEJPOBMF BV e NJMMÏOBJSF 2VFMRVFT commentaires sur la « frise à la laiterie » de el- Holl"Β4VCTJTUBODFQBUUFSOTPGUIF%IBS ’Obeid. Iraq Tichitt Neolithic, Mauritania. African Archaeo- logical Review (ĂñĊùăÿù1Β/FXEJTDPWFSJFTPGSPDLQBJOUJOHT in Ethiopia. AntiquityFUQM9**9*7 Honegger.Β"VYPSJHJOFTEF,FSNB in #ÿþþõĄ$ )ÿþõ÷÷õĂ.et al., Les Fouilles Grigson$ΒBos africanus #SFIN /PUFT archéologiques de Kerma (Soudan). Genava, on the archaeozoology of the native cattle of OTΉ Africa, in #üõþóø 3 & MacDonald ,$ (eds), The Origins and Development of African Hornung&ΒDer ägyptische Mythos von der Livestock. Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Himmelskuh. Eine Ätiologie des Unvollkomme- Ethnography. QQ 6$-1SFTT-POEPO nen. Universitatsverlag Freiburg/Vandenhoeck 3VQSFDIU'SFJCVSH (ÚUUJOHFO Guérin C. & Faure MΒ$IBTTFBVDIBDBMFU EPNFTUJDBUJPOEVCVGEBOTMFTJUFOÏPMJUIJRVF Huard P. & Allard-Huard L. ΒLes peintures E"TB,PNB 3ÏQVCMJRVFEF%KJCPVUJ Journal rupestres du Sahara et du Nil. Éditions et publi- de la Société des Africanistes DBUJPOTEFT1ÒSFTKÏTVJUFTFO²HZQUF -F$BJSF
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-õþăăõþ&ĂĊ5Β&OOFEJ)JHIMBOET $IBE Louali N. & Philippson ( Β #FSCFS FY- BSUJTUTBOEIFSEFSTJOBMJGFXPSMEPOUIFNBS- QBOTJPO JOUP BOE XJUIJO OPSUIXFTU "GSJDB gins, in #ąòõþĊõĂ0 #ÿüĄõþ"đ%ñĂùąă' a linguistic contribution. Afrika und Übersee (eds), Atlas of cultural and environmental change in arid Africa. Africa praehistorica 21. Heinrich- .ñó%ÿþñüô,$ΒɨF8JOEÏ,PSPKJDPN- #BSUI*OTUJUVU ,ÚMO QMFY FWJEFODF GPS UIF QFPQMJOH PG UIF FBTUFSO Lernia S. di Β#VJMEJOHNPOVNFOUT DSFB- *OMBOE/JHFS%FMUB #$ Préhistoire UJOHJEFOUJUZ$BUUMFDVMUBTBTPDJBMSFTQPOTFUP et Anthropologie Méditerranéennes rapid environmental changes in the Holocene MacMichael)"Β"4USBOHFNJMLJOHDVT- Sahara. Quaternary International tom. Man Lernia S. di & Cremaschi M. Β"OBMZTJT Mason 3+ Β #BDLHSPVOE UP UIF5SBOTWBBM of the Pleistocene-Holocene transition in the *SPO"HFOFXEJTDPWFSJFTBU0MJGBOUTQPPSUBOE $FOUSBM 4BIBSB $VMUVSF BOE &OWJSPONFOU JO #SPFEFSTUSPPNJournal of the South African Insti- the Uan Afuda Cave (Tadrart Acacus, Libya), tute of Mining and Metallurgy in Pwiti G. & Soper R. (eds), Aspects of African Archaeology Papers from the 10th Congress. Pan- Menghin0ΒWeltgeschichte der Steinzeit. African Association for Prehistory and Related Anton Schroll, Wien. 4UVEJFT )BSBSF Mercer4"#ΒThe Pyramid Texts, in Trans- Lernia S. di ;BNQFUUJ%ΒLa memoria lation and Commentary. Longmans, Green & dell’arte. Le pitture rupestri dell’Acacus tra passato Co, New York; London; Toronto. e futuro. All’Insegna del Giglio, Firenze. .õĉõĂ)ΒDie Barundi: Eine völkerkundli- Lhote)Β(SBWVSFTSVQFTUSFTEF5JO5F- che Studie aus Deutsch-Ostafrika. Otto Spamer, rirt, Iharir, Ahararar Mellen, Amsedenet et I-n- Leipzig. Tebourbouga. Libyca Mori'ΒTadrart Acacus: Arte rupestre e cultu- Lhote)ΒÀ la découverte des fresques du re del Sahara preistorico. G. Einaudi, Torino. Tassili. Arthaud, Paris. Müller('Β*OTUSVLUJPO('.àMMFSTGàS Lhote)ΒLes chars rupestres sahariens : des den Akademiker-Adjuncten J.E. Fischer. Un- Syrtes au Niger, par le pays des Garamantes et des UFSSJDIU XBTCFZ#FTDISFJCVOHEFS7ÚMLFS BC- Atlantes. Éditions des Hespérides, Toulouse. sonderlich der Sibirischen in archt zu nehmen. Sbornik Muzeia po antropologii i etnografii -ùõăõ÷ñþ÷ ( 4õùĄĊ 4 & Winter +$ Β %BT RVBUPSJBMF 0TUBGSJLB JO #ñąýñþþ H. (ed.), Die Volker Afrikas und ihre traditionellen .ąĊĊÿüùþù " Β L’art rupestre préhistorique Kulturen5FJM4UFJOFS 8JFTCBEFO du Sahara central : classification et chronologie. Le Bœuf dans la préhistoire africaine. ɨÒTF EF Lihoreau M. & Lhote H.ΒDjorf Torba : né- USPJTJÒNFDZDMF6OJWFSTJUÏEF1SPWFODF "JYFO cropole saharienne antéislamique,BSUIBMB 1BSJT Provence ; Marseille. Livingstone D. & Waller ) Β The last .ąĊĊÿüùþù"Β%BUJOHUIF&BSMJFTU$FOUSBM journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, 4BIBSBO3PDL"SU"SDIBFPMPHJDBMBOE-JOHVJT- from 1865 to his death. Continued by a narrative tic Data, in 'Ăùõôýñþ3đ"ôñýă#(eds), The of his last moments and sufferings, obtained from Followers of Horus. Studies dedicated to Michael his faithful servants Chuma and Susi, by Horace A. Hoffman. Oxbow Monograph 20. Oxbow Waller, F.R.G.S.)BSQFS#SPUIFST /FX:PSL #PPLT 0YGPSE Loftus R.T., MacHugh D.E. & #ĂñôüõĉΉ %( .ąĊĊÿüùþù"Β-FT/JMP4BIBSJFOTFUMBS- Β&WJEFODFGPSUXPJOEFQFOEFOUEPNFT- chéologie, in #ñĂĂõĄõñą%đĆÿþ(Ăñööõþ- tications of cattle. Proceedings of the National ried C. (eds), Datation et chronologie dans le Academy of Sciences Bassin du Lac Tchad0STUPN 1BSJTΉ
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Nicolaisen + Β Ecology and culture of the 1üùăóøûõ)Β%BT,VICMBTFO&JOFWÚMLF- pastoral Tuareg, with particular reference to the rkundliche Miszelle zu Herodot. Zeitschrift fur Tuareg of Ahaggar and Ayr. National Museum, Ethnologie Copenhagen. Plug*Β'BVOBMSFNBJOTGSPN.[JOZBTIBOB Niebuhr '$ Β Description de l’Arabie, B-BUFS4UPOF"HFTJUFJO,XB;VMV/BUBM 4PVUI d’après les observations et recherches faites dans le Africa. Southern African Humanities pays même. Tome premier.#SVOFU 1BSJT Reinold+ΒArchéologie au Soudan. Les civi- Noodle #" Β 'MFTI PO UIF CPOFT 4PNF lisations de Nubie. Errance, Paris. notes on animal husbandry in the past. Archaeo- Reinold+Β,BESVLB JO8õüăòĉ%"& zoologia 3 Anderson J.R. (eds), Sudan Ancient Treasures. /ÿĄõþ'-Ćñþ 3øÿĄõĂĄ)đ.ùăÿþþõ9 #SJTUJTI.VTFVN1SFTT -POEPO ΒRock art of the Jebel Uweinat: [Libyan Sahara]. Révoil(ΒLa vallée du Darror. Voyage aux Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, Graz. pays çomalis (Afrique orientale). Types, scènes, Oliver3ΒɨF/JMPUJD$POUSJCVUJPOUP#BOUV paysages, panoramas hors texte, d’après les photo- Africa. Journal of African History graphies et les croquis de l’auteur. Challamel ainé, Paris. 0ĄĄÿ ,) đ #ąăóøõþôÿĂö0ĄĄÿ ( Β Felsbilder aus dem sudanischen Nubien. Akade- Rhese)ΒKiziba, Land und Leute. Strecker NJF7FSMBH #FSMJO 4DISÚEFS 4UVUUHBSU Pachur H.-J. & Peters + Β ɨF QPTJUJPO Rhotert ) Β Libysche Felsbilder; Erge- PGUIF.VS[VR4BOE4FBJOUIFQBMBFPESBJOBHF bnisse der XI. und XII. Deutschen Inner-afri- system of the Eastern Sahara. Palaeoecology of kanischen Forschungs-Expedition (DIAFE) Africa 1933/1934/1935. L.C. Wittich, Darmstadt. Pallas 14 Β Sammlungen historischer Na- Ricci-ΒPittura Etiopica Traditionale. Isti- chrichten über die Mongolischen Völkerschaften tuto Italo-Africano, Roma. (FESVDLUCFZEFS,BZTFSMJDIFO"LBEFNJF Roscoe + Β ɨF #BIJNB " $PX5SJCFPG der Wissenschaften, St-Petersburg. Enkole in the Uganda Protectorarte. The Jour- Parau % Β Studien zur Kulturgeschichte nal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great des Milchentzugs. Volkswirtschaftlicher Verlag Britain and Ireland (NC) ,FNQUFO Roscoe+ΒThe Baganda. An Account of their Paris'Β-FTJOIVNBUJPOTEFBos au Sahara mé- Native Customs and Beliefs. Macmillan & Co., SJEJPOBMBV/ÏPMJUIJRVFArchaeozoologia London. 122. Roubet$ΒÉconomie pastorale préagricole Pasa A. & Pasa-Durante .7Β"OBMJTJQB- en Algérie Orientale : le Néolithique de Tradition leoclimatiche nel deposito di Uan Muhuggiag, Capsienne. CNRS, Paris. nel massiccio dell’Acacus (Fezzan meridionale). Rühe"ΒKulturgeschichtliche Untersuchun- Memorie, Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Ve- gen zur afrikanischen Milchwirtschaft. Univ. rona %JTT1IJM'BL(ÚUUJOHFSO6OJW (ÚUUJOHFO 1ñąüùĄăóøûõ1ΒEthnographie Nordost-Afri- 4óøąüĄĊõ-ΒAus Namaland und Kalahari. kas. Die Materielle Kultur der Dänakil, Galla Bericht an die Kgl. preuss. Akademie der Wissens- und Somäl )PMEFS7PITFO #FSMJO chaften zu Berlin über eine Forschungsreise im Phillipson%8ΒThe prehistory of eastern Zam- westlichen und zentralen Südafrika, ausgeführt in bia#SJUJTI*OTUJUVUFJO&BTUFSO"GSJDB /BJSPCJ den Jahren 1903-1905. Gustav Fischer, Jena. Pinch(ΒHandbook of Egyptian mythology. Shaw8#,Β3PDL%SBXJOHTJOUIF4PVUI "#$$-*0 4BOUB#BSCBSB Libyan Desert. Kush
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Sherratt "( Β 1MPVHI BOE QBTUPSBMJTN 5Ăÿĉ $4 .ñó)ą÷ø % & #ñùüõĉ +' .ñ- aspects of the secondary products revolution, gee D.A., Loftus R.T., Cunningham P. et al. in Hodder I., Isaac G. & Hammond N. (eds), Β(FOFUJDFWJEFODFGPS/FBS&BTUFSOPSJ- Patterns of the Past. Cambridge University Press, gin of European cattle. Nature $BNCSJEHF Tschudi+ΒLes peintures rupestres du Tas- 4ùóû & WPO Β %JF 8BOJBUVSV 8BMJNV sili-n-Ajjer [trad. G. Piroué]®-B#BDPOOJÒSF &UIOPHSBQIJTDIF 4LJ[[F FJOFT #BOUV4UBNNFT Neuchâtel. Baessler-Archiv für Völkerkunde Valentijn'ΒBeschryvinge van de Kaap der Simoons '+ Β ɨF /PO.JMLJOH "SFB PG Goede Hoope met de zaaken daar toe behoorende. Africa. Anthropos Valentijn, François [Description of the Cape of Good Hope with the matters concerning it, Ams- Simoons'+ΒɨF"OUJRVJUZPG%BJSZJOHJO"TJB terdam 1726/François Valentyn]. Van Riebeck and Africa. Geographical Review Society Publications, Cape Town. Simoons '+ Β -BDUPTF NBMBCTPSQUJPO JO van Neer W.Β%PNFTUJDBOJNBMTGSPNBS- Africa. African Economic History chaeological sites in Central and West-Central Smith"#Β1SFMJNJOBSZSFQPSUPGFYDBWB- "GSJDB JO#lench R.M. & Mac Donald,$ UJPOTBU,BSLBSJDIJOLBU/PSEBOE,BSLBSJDIJO- (eds), The origins and development of african li- kat Sud, Tilemsi Valley. West African Journal of vestock6$-1SFTT -POEPO Archaeology Vandier+ΒManuel d’archéologie égyptienne. Smith"#Β3FWJFXBSUJDMF$BUUMFEPNFT- 5PNF7Bas-reliefs et peintures, scènes de la vie tication in North Africa. African Archaeological quotidienne. Picard, Paris. Review Vigne J.-D. & Helmer D. Β8BTNJMLBiTF- 4ýùĄø"#đ1øõùööõĂ3ΒThe Khoikhoi condary product” in the Old World Neolithisation at the Cape of Good Hope: seventeenth-century QSPDFTT *UT SPMF JO UIF EPNFTUJDBUJPO PG DBUUMF drawings in the South African Library. South sheep and goats. Anthropozoologica African Library, Cape Town. von François ) Β Nama und Damara, 4ýùĄø"# 4ñôĂ, (Ăùòòüõ+& Yates 3 Deutsch-Süd-West-Afrika. Druck & Verlag von Β &YDBWBUJPOT JO UIF 4PVUI8FTUFSO $BQF '#BFOTDIKVOJPS .BHEFCVSH South Africa, and the archaeological identity Wendorf F. & Schild RΒ/BCUB1MBZBBOE of prehistoric hunter-gatherers within the last Its Role in Northeastern African Prehistory. Jour- 2000 years. South African Archaeological Bulle- nal of Anthropological Archaeology tin 46 Wendorf F. & Schild 3ΒPrehistory of the Stahl"#Β3FJOWFTUJHBUJPOPG,JOUBNQP eastern Sahara (Studies in archaeology). Acade- 3PDL4IFMUFS (IBOB*NQMJDBUJPOTGPSUIF/B- mic Press, New York. ture of Culture Change. The African Archaeolo- gical Review Wengrow%Β0OEFTFSUPSJHJOTGPSUIFBO- cient Egyptians. Antiquity 5ñþ÷ĉõ)-Β*OOFX4PVUI"GSJDBUSBWFMT in the Transvaal and Rhodesia. Publ. H. Cox, Wilman.Β"4USBOHF.JMLJOH$VTUPN London. Man Teissier # Β Ancient Near Eastern cylinder Wilson M. & Thompson L. .ΒThe Oxford seals from the Marcopolic collection. University of history of South Africa. Clarendon P., Oxford. $BMJGPSOJB1SFTT 4VNNB1VCMJDBUJPOT #FSLFMFZ 8ùþûüõĂ)"đ.ÿþô3ΒRock-drawings Thesiger8ΒLe désert des déserts : avec les of southern upper Egypt. II. Season 1937-1938. bédouins, derniers nomades de l’Arabie du Sud. The Egypt exploration society; H. Milford; Ox- Plon, Paris. ford University Press, London.
118 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
8ÿÿüüõĉ-ΒUr Excavations. Vol. VI . The Zeuner'&ΒA history of domesticated ani- buildings of the third dynasty. Publications of the mals. Hutchinson, London. +PJOU&YQFEJUJPOPGUIF#SJUJTI.VTFVNBOEPG the University Museum; University of Pennsyl- Submitted on October 24, 2010; vania, London; Philadelphia. accepted on January 12, 2011
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APPENDICES
1 - INSUFFLATION TECHNIQUE Nom Abbreviation Synonyms Country Linguistic group Period Source
Afar AF Danakil Ethiopia Afrasian XXth century EC Lagercrantz 1950: 48 Al-’Ubayd UB Iraq Afrasian ca. 2500 BCE Gouin 1993 Ancient AE Egypt Afrasian ca. 2500 BCE See text Egyptians Anuak AK Sudan Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Arabs of BS Iraq Afrasian XVIIIth century CE Niebuhr 1779: 231 Basora Baggara BA Sudan Afrasian XXth century CE MacMichael 1924 Bana BN Chad Afrasian XXth century CE Rühe 1938: 216; Plischke 1954: 4; Lagercrantz 1950: 49 Bedouins of BD Egypt Afrasian XXth century CE Gouin 1993: 140, Egypt n. 29: “en Egypte ancienne et moderne” Daza/Teda DZ Chad Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Baroin 1975: 495 Dinka DK Sudan Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Bernatzik 1929: 93; Parau 1975: 30; Castiglioni 1977: 159 lbe FU Mali Niger-Congo XXth century CE Fauvelle-Aymar 2007: 84 Gonaqua GQ “Gonna South Africa Khoisan XXth century CE? Lagercrantz 1950: Hottentots” 49-50 Immidir IM Algeria Afrasian IVth mill. BCE? See text .D¿WãR KF Kaffa, Kefa Ethiopia Afrasian XXth century CE Bieber 1920: 345 Khoekhoen of KH South Africa Khoisan XVIIIth-XXth Kolb 1719: 468; von the Cape centuries CE François 1896: 258; Schultze 1907: 257. Korana KR !Kora, !Ora South Africa Khoisan ? Lagercrantz 1950: Griqua 49-50 Maasai MA Kenya Nilo-Saharan XXXth century CE Menghin 1931: 529 Messak MK Libya Afrasian Vth mill. BCE? See text Nguni NG South Africa Niger-Congo XXth century CE Lagercrantz 1950: 50
Nuer NU Sudan Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Bernatzik 1930: 112
120 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
Oromo OR Galla Ethiopia Afroasian XXth century CE Paulitschke 1893: 266; Lagercrantz 1950: 48 Nama NA Namaqua, Namibia, Khoisan XIXth century CE Alexander 1838: 146 Damara, South Africa Damaqua, Bergdamara Qora (Arabs QR Sultanate of Afroasian XXth century CE Thesiger 1978: 55 of Dhofar) Oman Rolong RL Botswana Niger-Congo XXth century CE Lagercrantz 1950: 50 Šilluk SH Shilluk Sudan Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Bernatzik 1929 Somali SO Ethiopia Afroasian XXth century CE Keller 1901: 135 Surma SU Sudan Nilo-Saharan XXth century CE Fauvelle-Aymar 2007: 83 Tuareg of the TG Niger Afroasian XXth century CE Bernus 1980: 110, Ayer Nicolaisen 1963: 51 Tswana TS Zimbabwe, Niger-Congo XXth century CE Lagercrantz 1950: 50 Namibia, South Africa Turu TR Limi, Tanzania Niger-Congo XXth century CE Sick 1916 Niaturu, Nyaturu, Rimi, Waniaturu, Walimi, Warimi Wagogo WG Gogo Tanzania Niger-Congo XXth century CE Clauß 1911 Wodaabe WO Peuls Niger Niger-Congo XXth century CE Dupire 1962: 86 Bororo !Xosa XS South Africa Niger-Congo XXth century CE Lagercrantz 1950: 50 Ziba ZB Wasiba, Tanzania Niger-Congo XXth century CE Rhese 1910: 49 Kiziba
i.e. "GSPBTJBO/JHFS$POHP/JMP4BIBSBO,IPJTBO5PUBM
/# 4JODF UIFTF MJOFT XFSF XSJUUFO "OOJF BOE (ÏSBSE (BSDJO JOGPSNFE NF UIBU 0EFUUF EF 1VJHBVEFBVOPUJDFEUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVFEVSJOHIFSUSJQUP.BVSJUBOJBJO TFF 1VJHBVEFBV0 Pieds nus à travers la Mauritanie 1IÏCVT 1BSJT
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APPENDICES
2 – SITES YIELDING EARLY CATTLE REMAINS IN AFRICA %ñĄõă#$& Site Country age CalBC age 14C BP Laboratory Reference
Bir Kiseiba Egypt 8500-7800 9000±100 SMU-481 Gautier 2002 Wadi el-Arab Sudan ca. 7000 Forthcoming Forthcoming Honegger 2007 Enneri Bardagué Chad 6700-5900 7455±180 Hv-2775 Hassan 2002 Haua Fteah Libya 6060-5700 7000±110 GrN-3541 Clark et al. 2008 Nabta Playa Egypt 5900-4800 6480±270 / Applegate et al. 2001 Adrar Bous (site I) Niger 5570-4580 6200±250 Pa-753 Paris 1997 Shaheinab Sudan 5485-5385 6500 / Gautier 1987-a Merimde Egypt 5350-4750 6130±110 / Ibid. Gabrong (level b) Chad 5300-4800 6130±90 Hv-3709 Ibid. Messak (Ti-n- Libya 5300-4800 6080±80 GX-28543 Lernia 2006 Einesnis) Wa-n- Libya 5200-4700 6035±100 UD-225 Belluomini & Mandra 1987: Muhjâj (Uan 128, 328 Muhuggiag) Ti-n-Torha North II Libya 4960-4710 5870±50 R-1031 Gautier & van Neer 1982 Wa-n-Muhjâj Libya 5250-4500 5952±120 UD-225 Clutton-Brock 1989 (level VIII) Fayum (E29G3) Egypt 4830-4720 5900 / Gautier 1987-a Relidjem (Erg Algeria 4500-3950 5420±130 Ly-408 Ibid. Admer) Méniet Algeria 4550-3800 5400±150 Sa-59 Ibid. Arlit Niger 4500-3900 5380±130 Gif-3057 Ibid. Adrar Tiwyin Algeria 4550-3800 5320±130 Gif-1380 Ibid. (Tiouyine) Tamaya Mellet Niger 4230-3960 5245±55 Pa-1042 Ibid. Murzuq 2 Libya 4230-3960 5248±51 KIA 11195 Pachur & Peters 2001 el-Khattara Egypt 4230-3820 5215±55 SMU-493 Gautier 1987-a Messak (site 556) Libya 4230-3700 5150±110 GX-28446 Lernia 2006 Messak (I-n- Libya 4000-3660 5071±91 GX-20348 Ibid. Habeter IIIa) Kehf el-Barûd Morocco 4600-2900 5035±343 / Jousse 2004 (chamber)
122 "/5)3010;00-0(*$"tt 1SPWPLJOHMBDUBUJPOCZUIFJOTVðBUJPOUFDIOJRVF
Wâdi el-Bakht Egypt 3900-3400 5180±60 KN-3079 Gehlen et al. 2002 (Gilf Kebîr) 3970-3750 5070±60 KN-3149 Kadada Egypt 3780-3370 4840±70 Gif-6809 Gautier 1986 Geldaman-Akbu Algeria 3700-2900 4630±130 Ly-3657 Chaïd-Saoudi 1987 Zakiab Sudan 3500-3320 T-2818 Close 1980 Ti-n-Hanakaten S3 Algeria 2880-2490 4100±70 Mc-676 Chaïd-Saoudi 1987 Tichitt (site 46) Mauritania 2650-1900 3830±120 Gif-2884 Holl 1985 I-n-Tuduf (TDF3) Niger 2900-1600 3740±200 Pa-1048 Paris 1997 Windé Koroji I Mali 2300-1700 3635±90 GX-19990 MacDonald 1996 (level 17) Karkarichinkat Mali 2150-1750 3620±80 N-1398 Smith 1974 (KN2) Chami A2 Mauritania 2150-1500 3500±120 Gif-2492 Bouchud 1981 Asa Koma Djibouti 1960-1520 3440±90 Gif-7404 Guérin & Faure 1996 &KLQ7D¿GHW Niger 2300-900 3325±260 Pa-0292 Faye 1988 Khatt Lemaïteg Mauritania 2200-1000 3310-±200 Ly-2502 Bathily et al. 1998 Gajiganna B Nigeria 1610-1210 3150±70 UtC-2330 Breunig et al. 1996 Nkang Cameroon 890-420 2580±70 LV-1940 van Neer 2002
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APPENDICES
2 – SITES YIELDING EARLY CATTLE REMAINS IN AFRICA Dates AD Site Country age CalBC age 14C BP Laboratory Reference
Wadh Lang’o Kenya 120-250 1819±28 OxA-14505 Lane et al. 2007 Toteng Botswana 280-320 1765 / Denbow & Wilmsen 1986 Mzinyashana South Africa 270-330 1750 / Plug 2002 Lotshitshi Botswana 205-593 1660±100 / Denbow & Wilmsen 1986 Kasteelberg A South Africa 310-560 1630±60 OxA-3864 Bousman 1998 Usenge 3 Kenya 410-580 1560±40 Beta-190746 Lane et al. 2007 Debbat Bandgit Sudan 400-1000 / / Gautier & van Neer 1997 Broederstroom South Africa ca. 460 UCLA-1791B Mason 1974 24/73 Mabveni Zimbabwe 1-540 1770±120 SR-43 Bousman 1998 430-880 1380±110 SR-79 Kamabanga I Angola 780-1020 1120±60 Gif-6182 van Neer 2002 Nqoma Botswana 760-1050 1000±60 / Denbow & Wilmsen 1986 Drie Susters South Africa 870-1150 1050±60 Pta-5478 Smith et al. 1991 (DSM) Kreeftebaai South Africa 980-1190 970±50 Pta-5517 Ibid. Makwe Zambia 946-1214 980±70 SR-206 Phillipson 1976 Kitala II Angola 1200-1330 720±60 Gif-6011 van Neer 2002 Linbangbo RCA 1270-1450 559±77 Bdy-582 Ibid. Matupi Congo 1360-1390 730±45 GrN-7244 Ibid. Mondongué RCA >1400 130±240 BM-2425 Ibid.
/#ɨFEBUFBU)BVB'UFBIDPNFTGSPNQSPCMFNBUJDCP- fragments of ostrich eggshells collected from the surface, OFTBOEOFFETDPOëSNBUJPO ,MFJOBOE4DPUU ɨF and one can doubt their connection with the 25 bones of EBUF PG #1 * DJUFE CZ )ÏMÒOF +PVTTF domestic cattle, goats and sheep which were also collected +PVTTF GPS ,JOUBNQP 3 (IBOB XIFSF from the surface. Since no bone of a domestic animal has bovine bones were found, in reality was obtained from FWFSCFFODPMMFDUFEGSPNUIFTJUFTPG(JMG# XIPTFDISP- TIFMUFS , XIJDI JT ëGUFFO LJMPNFUFST BXBZ $BSUFS nological position corresponds to this date), and since the 'MJHIU BOETPDBOOPUCFVTFEIFSF.PSFPWFS remains of this period are also very rare on the surface, the UIF JEFOUJëDBUJPO PG #PT IBT CFFO DBMMFE JOUP RVFTUJPO most probable scenario is that these bones actually belong BOE JU DPVME CF B TNBMM CVêBMP 4UBIM ɨF to the local phase known as Gilf C, situated around the EBUFPG#1 4.6 HJWFOCZ"DIJMMFT(BV- middle of the VthNJMMFOOJVN#$& (FIMFOFUBM UJFS GPS8ÉEJ#BLIUJO&HZQUXBTPCUBJOFEGSPN ɨFEBUFPG#1QVCMJTIFEJOUIFT
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for a Bos found at Ti-n-Torha in the Akukas mountains EBUFPG#1PCUBJOFEJOCZDIBSDPBMTGSPN (Libya) and said to be at stage of “incipient domestication” hearths at the basic level of the Wa-n-Muhjâj rock-shelter (BVUJFSWBO/FFS 5BCMF MFE#BSCBSB#B- JO UIF "LVLBT NPVOUBJOT 1BTB 1BTB%VSBOUFΉ SJDIUPëSTUTVQQPTFUIBUEPNFTUJDBUJPODPVMEIBWFCFFO ɨJT EBUF IBT OPU CFFO QVCMJTIFE JO 3BEJPDBSCPO #BS- UIFSFTVMUPGBMPDBMEFWFMPQNFOU #BSJDI CBSB#BSJDIDPVMEOPUDPOëSNJU #BSJDI BOE #VU"DIJMMFT(BVUJFS C IBTDPSSFDUFEIJTJEFO- UIFPMEFTUBTDFSUBJOFEEBUFGPSUIJTTJUFJT#1 UJëDBUJPO BOEOPPUIFSSFTFBSDIDPVMEFWFSDPOëSNUIF presence of such ancient domestic bovids at Ti-n-Torha /" #BSJDI ɨFQSFTFODFPGGVMMZEPNFT- -FSOJB$SFNBTDIJΉ #BSJDI ɨJT ticated cattle is only proven here for the middle levels at NFBOTUIBUUIJTEBUFPG#1 HJWFOCZUIF1JTB 1* #1 #FMMVPNJOJ .BOGSB BOE PMEFS laboratory at a time where the results were not reliable yet, dates for domestic cattle in the Akukas obviously must be must be erroneous. The same remark can be made for the BCBOEPOFE #BSJDI
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