MARINE SUBSISTENCE PROTECTED LIVING IN A CHANGING MAGAZINE AREAS LANDSCAPE No. 4 19 22 THE 2019 CIRCLE PUBLISHED BY THE WWF PROGRAMME

RESILIENCE IN THE ARCTIC: FACING THE FUTURE RESILIENCE IN THE ARCTIC: The Circle FACING THE FUTURE 4.2019

Contents • EDITORIAL Time to act: Creating the path to a more resilient Arctic 3 • IN BRIEF 4 • MARCUS CARSON How resilient are Arctic communities—and how do we know? 6 • ERANGA GALAPPATHTHI Climate change and community fisheries in the Arctic 8 • INTERVIEW: BENJAMIN VIDMAR Bringing a little “green” to all year-round 10 • INTERVIEW: JOHN ROFF The case for creating networks of marine protected areas 13 • DAVIN HOLEN A changing way of life: Climate crisis and subsistence economies in Alaska 16 • PHOTO ESSAY: What does resilience mean for a community under constant threat? 18 • GARY KOFINAS In search of climate resilient pathways for the Arctic 26 • THE PICTURE 28

The Circle is published Publisher: Editor-in-chief: COVER: Eben W. Hopson walks quarterly by the WWF WWF Arctic Programme Leanne Clare, [email protected] along a pile of sand bags meant to Arctic Programme. 8th floor, 275 Slater St., Ottawa, stop shoreline erosion in Utqiaġvik, Reproduction and quotation ON, Canada K1P 5H9. Managing editors: Alaska, United States. with appropriate credit are Tel: +1 613-232-8706 Sarah MacFadyen, [email protected] Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US encouraged. Articles by Fax: +1 613-232-4181 Patti Ryan, [email protected] non-affiliated sources do not necessarily reflect the Internet: www.panda.org/arctic Design and production: ABOVE: Greenhouse in Longyear- views or policies of WWF. Film & Form/Ketill Berger, [email protected] byen, , . ISSN 2073-980X = The Circle Send email address changes Photo: Francisco Mattos and subscription inquiries Printed by Banks Printing Inc. to [email protected]. Date of publication: We reserve the right to edit December 2019. Thank letters for publication, and assume no responsibility for you for your interest unsolicited material. in The Circle. You can find current and past issues of The Circle on our website at arcticwwf.org. To receive an 2 The Circle 4.2019 e-subscription to this magazine, please write to us at [email protected] or subscribe through our website. EDITORIAL Time to act: Creating the path to a more resilient Arctic

THIS FALL, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel Aside from this global agreement, there is no single on Climate Change (IPCC) released its Special Report navigator at the helm charting resilient pathways for the on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. Arctic. The report finds that instead, Arctic resilience The IPCC is the most authoritative global organisation can and must be strengthened—urgently—by fortifying for assessing climate change science. Its report paints the many ecosystems and societies (and their interac- an extremely concerning picture of the status and future tions) that make up the living Arctic. As a result, tools of our oceans and cryosphere and of the impacts of the and practices that embrace and act upon such a systems climate crisis for ecosystems and people. Impacts are approach—and that support ecosystems and biodiversity, already evident, and will worsen under all possible emis- sustain ecosystem services, strengthen cooperation and sion scenarios, with some projected to be irreversible on empower participation—are at the heart of resilience the time-scale of centuries in a high-emissions future. strategies. Considering that the ocean and cryosphere (compris- While we are beginning to understand where and how ing ice sheets, glaciers, sea ice, freshwater ice, snow and to engage to strengthen resilience, bringing forward such permanently frozen ground) together cover more than 90 an agenda is not a straightforward exer- per cent of the Earth’s surface, this assessment has huge cise. Our institutions are not equipped global significance, and reaches a sobering conclusion: to consider all available knowledge or “All people on Earth depend directly govern in the inte- or indirectly on the ocean and cryo- grated fashion and sphere.” Highlighting to people around Only if we limit the global at the speed needed the world the need for urgency in to respond to rapid, choosing the future we want, the report temperature increase to pervasive change. We concludes: “This assessment reveals 2°C or less will substantial need information about the benefits of ambitious mitigation the status, trends and MARTIN SOMMERKORN and effective adaptation for sustainable portions of the Arctic as futures of physical, is Head of Conserva- development and, conversely, the esca- we know it remain by the ecological and social tion for the WWF Arctic lating costs and risks of delayed action. systems to support Programme. The potential to chart Climate Resilient end of this century. decisions that bal- Development Pathways […] depends on ance short-term risks and long-term transformative change.” resilience—but this information is often not available. But how do we “chart Climate Resilient Development Tools and practices that broaden participation and allow Pathways” for the Arctic? informed decisions are available, but are rarely linked to One thing is clear: Arctic resilience depends heavily on policy processes. Dedicated funding and capacity, includ- urgent and ambitious reductions in greenhouse gas emis- ing at the local scale, are needed but lacking. sions. The report makes it crystal clear that only if we As the impacts of climate change mount in the Arctic, limit the global temperature increase to 2°C or less will the urgency to respond and build resilience cannot be substantial portions of the Arctic as we know it remain overstated. Governments must act urgently to prioritise, by the end of this century. (Ice, snow, and the initiate and fund an agenda focused on strengthening ecosystems and cultures shaped by them may still exist, resilience, and must coordinate and implement or incen- though at much smaller scales.) tivise it across institutions throughout the region. While some Arctic countries are beginning to act on Such a comprehensive, integrated approach would their “common but differentiated responsibilities” under bring about the opportunities linked to Climate Resilient the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Cli- Development Pathways in the Arctic while addressing mate Change, overall, current commitments to the Paris climate change risks. This issue of The Circle presents a Agreement are dangerously insufficient to ensure the collection of views on how to move the agenda forward. survival and resilience of Arctic ecosystems and peoples. The time to act is now. l

The Circle 4.2019 3 IN BRIEF

The RV Polarstern off the coast of Greenland, August 2016

INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH Icebreaker on year-long Arctic expedition

HUNDREDS OF SCIENTISTS tory for the Study of Arctic had settled next to an ice to better understand how from 17 countries will Climate (MOSAiC), the floe on the Siberian side of climate change is affecting spend parts of this winter expedition is the largest the ocean basin. The first the Arctic—and, in turn, aboard a ship stranded in Arctic research project group of scientists will the rest of the planet. Arctic sea ice—all with the ever undertaken, and was continue to drift across For more information goal of getting a close-up a decade in the planning. the pole, working for two about the project and to look at how the climate It kicked off in Septem- months at a time before track the RV Polarstern’s crisis is affecting the Arctic ber when the ship, RV passing the baton on to movement across the environment. Polarstern, left Tromsø, the next group. They hope North Pole or read blog Known as the Multidis- Norway. to collect data about the entries, start at the ciplinary drifting Observa- By late October, the ship water, ice, air and wildlife MOSAiC website. Photo: Nat Wilson, CC, flickr.com

GREENLAND Extreme snowfalls caused ecosystem collapse, report finds

MANY ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS summer 2018, even the most ally heavy winter left snow swing between extremes—the are able to bounce back from resilient ecosystems have covering the ground well into summer of 2019 in Zack- substantial annual fluctua- limits. summer. As a result, most enberg was earlier, hotter tions in temperature, snow According to a study plants and animals could not and drier than usual—bad cover and other climate published in October 2019 in reproduce. breeding years could follow variables. But as researchers PLOS Biology, an ecosystem- One bad year does not in succession and push many at the Zackenberg Research wide reproductive collapse necessarily mean the end of Arctic species beyond their Station in northeastern seems to have occurred in the plant and animal life for an limits. Greenland discovered in area in 2018 after an unusu- area. However, if conditions

4 The Circle 4.2019 Estimating the value of a

Protecting the Earth The value of the global The whale- fishing industry is estimated watching industry at over US billion. is estimated to be Whales contribute to the food worth more than by protecting whales web chain and increased fish US billion stocks. globally. INTERNATIONAL Monetary zon forests’ worth of trees, Fund (IMF) researchers or about 1.7 trillion. estimate that whales are Researchers arrived at the worth US$2 million each US$2 million figure—which to the planet because of they call conservative—by their tremendous ability to calculating the value of the sequester carbon. carbon sequestered by a Whales enhance phytoplankton productivity. Phytoplankton captures In the December issue great whale over its lifetime billion tons of CO per year. of the IMF’s magazine, (based on estimates of the Finance & Development, amount whales contribute to a group of researchers carbon sequestration and the

report that whales’ bodies market price of CO2), then can sequester 33 tons of factoring in today’s value

CO2 on average over their of whales’ other economic lifetimes—and every time contributions, such as fishery a whale dies and sinks enhancement and ecotour- to the ocean floor, that ism, over their lifetimes. carbon is removed from the The catch: for this low- atmosphere for centuries. In tech climate solution to comparison, a tree absorbs work, whales need protec- Each whale sequesters tons of CO on average about 48 pounds of CO2 per tion—and there is a cost when it dies and sinks to the ocean floor. year. The authors argue to that. The researchers that restoring the world’s argue that coordinating the whale populations to pre- economics of whale protec- industrial levels would be tion should be the top of the

Graphic: Ketill Berger, filmform.no. akin to planting four Ama- world’s climate agenda. Source: Chami, R., Cosimano, T., Fullenkamp, C., and S. Oztosun. Nature’s Solution to Climate Change. inance and eelopment. International Monetary Fund, November .

RUSSIA Melting glaciers reveal five undiscovered islands

IN OCTOBER 2019, the Russian 900 to 54,500 square metres. 2016, when a student engineer them, so it’s not clear whether navy reported finding five The expedition head, Vice noticed unknown land masses the new land masses will last. previously unknown islands in Admiral Alexander Moiseyev, in satellite imagery while However, according to a report the remote Arctic archipelago said before the melt, it was working on a research paper. on Sciencealert.com, life forms of Novaya Zemlya. They had assumed they were part of the The 2019 expedition surveyed are already colonising them, been uncovered by melting area’s main glacier, known as the topography of the new including algae, plant life and glaciers. Nansen. islands for the first time. birds. There is also evidence The newly discovered Although the discovery was Receding glaciers are known of larger land animals, such as islands range in size from announced in 2019, it dates to to destabilise the land beneath bears and seals.

The Circle 4.2019 5 Resilience indicators How resilient are Arctic communities—and how do we know? It’s been said that the future isn’t what it used to be. No one knows for sure who coined that pithy phrase—but as MARCUS CARSON explains, one thing is certain: it’s an apt description of the Arctic’s situation today. ➤

6 The Circle 4.2019 Snowmobile travel over sea ice in Uummannaq, Greenland. Photo: GRID Arendal

The Circle 4.2019 7 Ice fishing for , Baffin SEASONAL VARIATIONS in the Arctic that as a dynamic and evolving interaction Island, Nunavut, Canada were large even under once-normal between the biological and the physical climate conditions are now amplified worlds, with humans playing an integral by new highs, new lows and occasional part. Recognising this, it’s clear that to shocks. But what’s even more unpre- define resilience indicators and measure dictable is how people respond to the resilience, we need to consider com- environmental changes caused by munities and ecosystems as parts of a human activities—especially since so larger whole. many of these changes originate from activities that take place outside of the MEASURING RESILIENCE Arctic. Developing a framework of indicators Under the circumstances, it should that can describe the capacity to navi- come as no surprise that developing gate change is a challenging task, but it’s and agreeing on effective responses important if we want to know whether can be challenging—not least because efforts to strengthen resilience are under conditions of disruptive social having a positive effect. Recent Arctic and environmental transformation, the very capacity to navigate change is The ability to deal with itself often strained. But the ability to deal with change is key to community change is key to community resilience, so it’s a challenge we must embrace. resilience, so it’s a challenge

WHAT IS RESILIENCE? we must embrace. Resilience speaks to the capacity to navigate change. It is often defined in Council reports* on the key ingredients terms of a system’s ability to absorb dis- of social-ecological resilience have turbances while maintaining its original emphasised social factors as the basis structure and function. But when we for developing indicators because soci- add people to the picture, defining resil- etal choices will powerfully influence the ience gets more complex. fate of the Arctic—and the people who From that call it home. These factors include: starting point, ■ Capacity for self-organisation. MARCUS our definition This should be understood in terms of CARSON is of resilience a community’s ability to steer itself in a a Senior emphasises chosen direction, both in its social con- Research three social text and in relation to the ecosystems Fellow at the elements: a it depends on. It includes the ability to Environment community’s identify the nature and cause(s) of chal- Institute and led its Arctic ability to act; lenges, and to agree on and implement Resilience Assessment. its capacity to suitable responses. Outside factors can acquire and influence this capacity. For example, integrate different kinds of knowledge; legal rights or norms may dictate how on the capacity to adapt and respond and the indivisibility of social systems efforts can be organised, or may define to climate and other change recognises from ecological ones. In short, resilience ownership or authority over resources that knowledge is both a determinant describes a community’s capacity to or activities. and an indicator. navigate social and ecosystem change ■ Knowledge integration and ■ Diversity. Diversity broadens the effectively. This capacity has always capacity to learn. Integrating and range of possible paths for responding been needed in the Arctic, but never adding to existing knowledge is the to change. It can be seen as a form more urgently than now. best way to steer community choices of insurance: when disturbance or Traditionally, human activities in to foster greater resilience. Research changing conditions cause one type of the Arctic have been intertwined with response to fail, other mechanisms are * These reports include the Arctic Resilience Report (Arctic ecosystems. In fact, the Indigenous cul- Council 2016); resilience chapters in Adaptation Actions for there to carry out essential functions. In a Changing Arctic (AMAP 2017); and the Arctic Resilience tures of the Arctic conceptualise nature Action Framework (SDWG 2018). the social context, diversity of knowl-

8 The Circle 4.2019 Photo: Staffan Widstrand Photo: Staffan edge or skills can provide the founda- in cases where it may not be optimal, can contribute to learning and greater tions for creative problem-solving by desirable or even viable to maintain cur- capacity for analysis. maintaining a stock of elements that can rent conditions. When communities are interested in be combined in novel ways to respond When it comes to developing measuring resilience, we recommend to change. resilience indicators, it’s important to that they begin by developing qualita- ■ Assuming change. This means involve members of a community in the tive indicators, because these tend to accepting uncertainty and surprise as decision-making processes. Such partic- be more accessible to the layperson reality—in other words, acknowledging ipatory processes involve communities than quantitative indicators, and more that change is the norm. Communities working together to describe how ele- likely to invite further discussion. And can approach change, including abrupt ments like the four indicators above are in a world where the future isn’t what it and disruptive change, as an oppor- manifesting themselves locally. In fact, used to be, discussion aimed at fostering tunity to pursue developmental goals the very work of defining the indicators resilience is an essential first step. l

The Circle 4.2019 9 Turbot fishery

Arctic char fishery

ADAPTING TO SURVIVE Following the fish But some Inuit communities are refus- ing to give up. Instead, they are using their accumulated knowledge and long habit of continuous learning to help Climate change and build resilience to the effects of climate change. This emphasis on climate resil- ience among Inuit fishing communities may broaden and deepen their ability to community fisheries adapt to climate change. While completing my PhD, I was fortunate to do some field work in Pangnirtung, a beautiful coastal in the Arctic Inuit community on Baffin Island in the Canadian territory of Nunavut. This Against the backdrop of the mounting climate crisis, small, isolated community with a popu- coastal fishery systems in the Arctic are undergoing rapid lation of just over 1,400 is accessible change. During four years of PhD field work,ERANGA only by aircraft for much of the year, and by boat during the summers. Travel GALAPPATHTHI had the opportunity to interview Inuit fishers in and out is extremely expensive. Resi- and accompany them on fishing trips. As he found out, dents must cope with other challenges some communities in the Canadian Arctic are finding ways as well, including housing shortages, high rates of food insecurity, and low to adapt to their shifting environments. rates of high school graduation. Many small Nunavut settlements face similar challenges, but in remote Pangnirtung, WORLDWIDE, coastal Indigenous Peoples an urgent spotlight on coastal aquatic they are magnified. consume about 15 times as much sea- systems, which will be threatened even food as non-Indigenous people. This if we succeed in limiting the global tem- A HOTSPOT FOR CLIMATE includes the Arctic Inuit, who are coping perature increase to 1.5°C. The impacts CHANGE IMPACTS with the environmental impacts of the of the climate crisis are already causing The community is also facing a deluge climate crisis by increasingly turning to drastic changes in coastal resources— of climate change impacts, including the ocean for food. The series of reports and directly affecting the people who changes in sea-ice conditions, severe issued recently by the Intergovernmen- rely on them. weather conditions, permafrost thaw, tal Panel on Climate Change turned emerging landscape hazards, and

10 The Circle 4.2019 The migration of caribou toward western Canada has left Pangnirtung Inuit country food residents relying more on the sea for food.

stresses to wildlife population dynam- over CAD$1 million (US$756,000). This plant processes Arctic char in both sum- ics. Caribou, seals and Arctic char have fishery runs in the winter and spring. mer and winter, and the turbot catch traditionally been the most important Strong, thick sea ice is needed before has been increasing over the years. food sources. In fact, Pangnirtung, also winter turbot fishing can start, since Today, these co-existing fisheries sup- known as Pangniqtuuq, means “place fishers must travel to the Cumberland port many of Pangnirtung’s residents, of the bull caribou”—the area was once Sound sea ice and spend long hours or allowing them to earn money to buy known to have plenty. However, the even days on the ice. other foods as well as hunting and fish- migration of caribou toward western ing equipment. Fishers in the area have Canada has left residents relying more COMBATTING DANGEROUS adopted relatively advanced technolo- on the sea for food in recent years. CONDITIONS WITH KNOWLEDGE gies, such as GPS systems, VHF radios Fortunately, Arctic char and turbot fish- Turbot fishers will use anywhere from and advanced rifles for fishing and eries in Pangnirtung are helping people one to three different ice holes on the hunting activities. adjust. frozen ocean. This is high-risk work due The rapid environmental changes Arctic char is the staple food in the to conditions that include continuous unfolding in the Arctic have the poten- community, and is a popular subsis- darkness and extreme temperatures tial to increase tence fish, as in many parts of the North. that can reach –40°C with wind chill— the risk of ERANGA But Pangnirtung also runs an Arctic not to mention the fact that turbot food insecurity GALAPPATHTHI char commercial fishery during the longlines can snag Greenland sharks as for the Inuit has been study- summer. Only a few commercial char bycatch. While not aggressive, they are significantly. ing changing licences are issued yearly (there were among the largest sharks on the planet, Building resil- human- 15 in 2017), awarded through a lottery have sharp teeth, and may be dead or ience in Inuit environment systems for system managed by the community’s alive when found on longlines. communities more than 10 years. He Hunters and Trappers Association. In To manage these risks, the Inuit and adapting to is currently finishing his the summer, when the Pangnirtung combine their local and traditional climate change PhD at McGill University, fjord is clear of ice, fishers start boating knowledge of the environment, fish spe- are the keys to Canada. into Cumberland Sound where they cies and weather with scientific knowl- coping success- use gill nets to catch the char. In winter edge obtained through a fisheries co- fully. In that and spring, once the thick sea ice has management process. The Pangnirtung context, sustainable fisheries are a nec- formed, fishers travel by snowmobile Inuit learned turbot fishing techniques essary pathway to building resilience. to surrounding lakes to fish using short from the Greenland Inuit in the mid- By following in the footsteps of the sticks and baited lines—known as jig- 1980s, and now possess an accumulated Pangnirtung Inuit—experimenting with ging. body of knowledge that is transferable and continuously learning about new The commercial turbot fishery also to neighbouring communities, such as fishing opportunities and techniques— brings a relatively large amount of Pond Inlet and Qikiqtarjuaq. other communities have the potential to money into the community each year— The Inuit-owned community fish build their resilience as well. l

The Circle 4.2019 11 going togrowmyownfood.” So Isaid, “You knowwhat,I’m happy.money andIjustwasn’t We werespendingalotof Photo: LP Lorentz 12 TheCircle 4.2019 Norway house inLongyearbyen, Svalbard, Benjamin Vidmar insidehis green- Growing fresh food Bringing a little “green” to Longyearbyen all year-round Longyearbyen, Svalbard is the world’s northernmost town. Although it’s part of Norway, all 46 nations that have signed the have rights there (see sidebar, page 18). But Longyearbyen is unique for other reasons. For three months of the year, it has sunshine 24 hours a day—followed by another three months of total darkness in winter, when it is a desolate landscape of fjords, snow and ice. Even when the snow melts, it’s just , without a tree in sight—an Arctic desert and, as BENJAMIN VIDMAR knows, a difficult place to grow food. ➤

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The Circle 4.2019 13 VIDMAR IS ONE of 2,300 people who call this Arctic town home. The chef has lived there for the past 12 years with his wife and four children. The lack of fresh produce inspired him to create the Polar Permaculture initiative. As he tells The Circle, he’s on a mission to make fresh produce accessible to the community year-round.

What do the landscape and lack of sun mean for growing things in Longyearbyen? Well, it’s quite easy to grow things in the summer when you have a lot of sun, but it’s quite challenging in the winter, unless you’re using LED lights or some- thing like that. You really have to create a protected environment. There are a lot of people here who grow vegetables in their houses, just as a hobby. They grow different greens and some cucumbers and tomatoes. But there’s no one really doing anything at a commercial level, selling to the hotels and restaurants or to the supermarket. So, that’s where we’ve been trying to find our place. We want to do this for the town, not just for ourselves. ➤

14 The Circle 4.2019 resulting organicwasteinsteadofdumpingitintothesea. that weusehereintownlocallyandtocompostmuchofthe My visionistoproduce50percentofthegreenvegetables TheCircle 4.201915 ➤ Photo: LP Lorentz We can’t just keep doing the same thing and expect different results. Photo: Daniel Byström

16 The Circle 4.2019 ➤

The Circle 4.2019 17 What are you able to grow? So far, we’ve grown lettuce greens and Vidmar has been growing lettuce greens, different leafy greens as well as herbs Photo: Daniel Byström various leafy greens, herbs and microgreens. and micro greens. The main thing we grow is microgreens, because along with leafy greens and herbs, they have to be flown in and they don’t transport very well. The hotels and restaurants really like microgreens and use them as garnishes. Right now, we deliver about 15 trays of microgreens per week. What they don’t use during the week, we col- lect. We have composting worms, so we feed this returned organic waste to them. The worms produce castings, and we use the castings in the dome in the summer to grow things like kale, for example.

Where were residents of Longyear- in the winter. We’ve also been trying to What’s your vision for the future of byen getting their fresh produce find a way to compost the waste that’s this project? before you came along? produced from that food. Because not My vision is to produce 50 per cent of Everything was imported. Not only that, only can’t we produce much food, but all the green vegetables that we use here but we need to ship all the waste back our organic waste, sewage and wastewa- in town locally and to compost much of to the mainland. All materials, whatever ter get dumped into the sea. There’s no the resulting organic waste instead of is not used, are shipped to Norway. We treatment, no filtering...Whatever comes dumping it into the sea. I also want to have a very long supply line and a very out of the sewer pipe goes into the sea. create a green space where people can

high CO2 carbon footprint. So, it’s quite We deliver the produce we’ve grown come and eat dinner—where they can challenging to be here. to hotels and restaurants. We then col- come and visit and see how we’re grow- lect what they don’t use, compost that, ing food here. I want to make a space As a chef, what are the main chal- and use it in our dome during the sum- that changes the way we do business lenges created by the lack of fresh mer. We’re trying to create some type here. We want to show that there’s a food? of zero-waste circular system—trying different way to do it. We can’t just keep It makes it very expensive to do busi- not to dump as much into the sea and to doing the same thing and expect differ- ness here. It also makes it very difficult reuse things as many times as possible. ent results. l to have good-quality food, because a lot of food doesn’t survive the journey over. We have to throw away a lot of produce as soon as it arrives. Celebrating 100 years of unique history in Svalbard For me, the whole idea behind Polar The Svalbard archipelago off the north- nel or equipment there. The treaty also Permaculture was to have the freshest ern cape of Norway boasts a unique makes Norway responsible for preserv- food possible. I was really getting frus- history and an even more unique status ing the natural environment of Svalbard. trated. I was the head chef at a restau- under international law. Although the nine For almost 100 years, the treaty has rant here in Longyearbyen, and I wasn’t islands are technically under Norwegian ensured relative peace and stability in satisfied with the quality of the food. sovereignty, 46 nations have rights in the the region, but Svalbard now faces sev- We were spending a lot of money and I area—thanks to the Svalbard Treaty. eral challenges. The thawing Arctic offers just wasn’t happy. So I said, “You know The Svalbard Treaty (formerly the immense potential for oil and natural gas what, I’m going to grow my own food.” Treaty) was signed in 1920 production, and competition for these as part of the Versailles negotiations natural resources could fuel conflict in What have you been growing since at the end of World War I. Although all the region. As the treaty prepares to you started the Polar Permacul- signatory nations have equal access mark its centennial next year, many fear ture initiative in 2013? to Svalbard, and their citizens have the that if challenged, the area and its sur- We’ve been trying to grow as much local- right to live and work there, no nation rounding waters could look very different ly produced food as possible, using soil can permanently station military person- in the future. in the summer and hydroponics indoors

18 The Circle 4.2019 Conserving Arctic waters The case for creating networks of marine protected areas There is no question that human activity is having a major impact on our oceans. Pol- lution, shipping, overfishing and increased boat traffic due to tourism, combined with ocean warming and acidification, are all contributing to the deterioration of marine ecosystems. But networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) offer a means of protecting species, habitats and ecosystems throughout the Arctic. JOHN ROFF has been looking at the idea of establishing MPAs for more than 25 years. Cur- rently the lead scientist with the Marine Ecological Conservation for the Canadian East- ern Arctic Project (MECCEA)—a WWF-Canada initiative to identify a network of priority areas for marine conservation in Canada’s eastern Arctic—he is also a retired professor of marine conservation and former editor of the Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. Roff says creating a network of MPAs in the Arctic needs to happen now—before it is too late.

Why are marine protected areas so important? It’s been shown over and over They’re the only effective means we have of protecting the marine environ- again that closing selected ment. Fisheries quotas were the original areas of the oceans is a very method, but they’ve proved ineffective. Basically, there are two ways in which effective means of protecting you can try to protect the oceans. One is by restricting fishing activity, or by not only biodiversity as a fisheries’ quotas. The other is by clos- ing off areas. It’s been shown over and whole, but fish stocks too. over again that closing selected areas of the oceans is a very effective means of protecting not only biodiversity as a whole, but fish stocks too. It protects What about the Arctic context? the fisheries as well as the areas where How successful have marine pro- fishery recruitment (young fish entering tected areas been in the Arctic? a population) is important, resulting I don’t think we’ve really evaluated in what we call spill-over effects. If you that yet. There’s a great deal of dif- John Roff, lead scientist with MECCEA protect a particular area where fish ference between just establishing a are abundant and localised, that will protected area and monitoring it to find infancy. Although there are protected enhance the populations in those areas out whether the protection has been areas in the North—Tuvaijuittuq off the and they will actually act as seed areas successful. Monitoring of protected northwest coast of Ellesmere Island in for surrounding regions. areas in the Arctic is pretty much in its the Arctic Ocean is a significant one—I ➤

The Circle 4.2019 19 In most areas of the world, we’re trying to protect marine environments that are already degraded in hopes that that they will re-establish themselves and become seed populations and biodiversity sources for other regions. But in the Arctic, we have the chance to protect something before it has become massively degraded.

would say that the most important bio- sources for other regions. But in the logical area in the eastern Arctic right Arctic, we have the chance to protect now is Lancaster Sound. That area is something before it has become mas- hugely important for marine mammals sively degraded. Instead of trying to play and bird populations. catch-up, we have the chance to protect The idea of establishing protected something that is in nearly pristine areas in the Arctic is quite recent. In condition, which is unusual. There are Canada, we have three areas that have estimates that only something like 12 been closed to fisheries, but that was per cent of the world’s oceans are in an done so recently that they haven’t untouched or pristine condition—and been evaluated yet. Yet evaluation is most are in the Arctic. precisely what is needed now—and that There have been some recent initia- means having effective monitoring pro- tives in the Arctic to protect areas. In grammes in place. fact, the Canadian government has really done quite well. But while some ing marine refuges, but unlike MPAs, Why are marine protected areas MPAs, such as Tuvaijuittuq, have refuges don’t restrict activities like oil particularly important in the been protected from development and gas extraction. In addition, there’s Arctic? through legislation under the Oceans no pattern of connectivity among the In most areas of the world, we’re trying Act, Canada Wildlife Act or National areas, so while some are now protected to protect marine environments that Marine Conservation Act, others have (or closed), it wasn’t done in accordance are already degraded in hopes that they been “protected” very quickly by simply with any overall strategy. will re-establish themselves and become closing fisheries (under the Fisheries seed populations and biodiversity Act). Closures protect species by creat- Why is it important to have networks that connect protected areas? An individual protected area is not sus- tainable by itself. People have talked in A new approach the past about “ecological integrity.” But ■ WWF’s Arctic Programme is partnering with researchers and experts to create there is really no such thing as ecologi- a pan-Arctic network of marine protection to reduce the loss of biodiversity and cal integrity when we’re talking about cultural identity in this vulnerable and rapidly changing part of the world. an isolated, protected area, because the This work prioritizes the needs of marine life, cultural values and the important func- organisms that enter it come from other tions of all the region’s unique ecosystems. By identifying critical areas for marine life places. Likewise, the organisms that live that need protection and connection, we can help ensure their long-term survival and within it can move from the protected build resilience to climate change. area to other areas, whether by actively Pan-Arctic priority areas for conservation have now been identified and the results migrating or by means of ocean cur- will be shared publicly in 2020. For more information or to become involved, go to rents. So a protected area is not just an https://arcticwwf.org/work/ocean/protection/. isolated lake. There’s no such thing as an isolated lake in the oceans. These

20 The Circle 4.2019 A pod of narwhals Dr. Kristin Laidre, Polar Science Center, UW NOAA/OAR/OER [Public domain] Kristin Laidre, Polar Science Center, Dr. areas have organisms coming in and out resources. Tourism in the Arctic has changes are already affecting local com- and moving through them. also grown massively in the last few munities, so I think there’s an urgent Connectivity is important because it years, and will certainly increase. These need to do something very quickly. l protects the natural processes of recruit- ment. What we are trying to do in our modelling studies, as part of the MEC- CEA project, is to identify those natural How do marine protected area networks processes of recruitment—whether it is larger organisms migrating into the help build resilience? areas, such as marine mammals or birds, or smaller organisms like larvae or Evidence suggests a number of reasons why connected MPAs likely contribute propagules that come from the benthic to resilience: animals moving around various areas. 1) Establishing MPA networks is critical to maintaining climate change resil- ience and rebuilding ecological and social resilience. How critical is timing, since we’re 2) Networks of MPAs, while not impervious to all climate change impacts, seeing the Arctic Ocean open up provide areas of reduced man-made pressures, improving the ability of more and more to shipping as sea marine organisms to adapt to climate change. ice disappears? Changes are happening in the Arctic 3) Well-designed MPA networks can increase species survival by allowing much more quickly than anybody ever them to move around and escape ecosystem changes and pressures. expected. There will be increased pres- 4) Effective networks protect examples of ecosystems or habitat types in a sure for shipping. And although a lot of region, as well as special or unique areas. fisheries are on hold in the high Arctic, 5) MPA networks can greatly enhance individual MPAs’ effectiveness through as areas open up, there will be more and shared or complementary biological or oceanographic features. more pressure to move in and exploit

The Circle 4.2019 21 Subsistence living A changing way of life: Climate crisis and subsistence economies in Alaska Hunting and gathering have been central to the way of life of Native people in Alaska for thousands and thousands of years. But what does climate change mean for this traditional way of life? Anthropologist DAVIN HOLEN has interviewed hunters and fishers across Alaska who live a traditional subsistence lifestyle—and he’s discovered that climate-induced changes are disrupting their ability to pass these traditions on to their children.

IN THE EARLY 2000S, I conducted inter- This rite bonded the hunter with the which grows slowly in the Arctic. A herd views in the traditional central Yup’ik spirit of the caribou in a relationship near Newhalen that once numbered community of Newhalen in Alaska’s of mutual respect—a bond that would more than 100,000 has dwindled to just Bristol Bay region, on the easternmost strengthen over a lifetime. The young 12,000 after most members migrated arm of the Bering Sea. Perched on the hunter told me how important this first hundreds of kilometres north to the Newhalen River near Iliamna Lake, hunt was to him and how he looked Kuskokwim River, driven by climate- the community is close to the calving forward to passing the ritual on to his induced changes to the region. Flying grounds of the children. He described how the people over the area today, you can see tundra DAVIN HOLEN Mulchatna cari- of Newhalen had relied on caribou for as punctuated by rivers with willow and is currently the bou herd, which long as the Yup’ik had occupied the area. other deciduous trees and shrubs grow- Coastal Com- was one of the ing along their banks—ideal food for munity Resil- largest herds A WAY OF LIFE COMES the moose that inhabit these boreal ience Specialist in Alaska at the TO AN END forests, but less so for the caribou. As for Alaska Sea Grant at the time. All of that was almost 20 years ago. If I the climate changes and the permafrost College of Fisheries and I asked a interviewed the hunter’s children today, thaws, these deciduous forests are Ocean Sciences, Univer- young hunter they would no doubt have a different slowly expanding across the landscape, sity of Alaska Fairbanks. and new father story to tell me. That is because the pushing the caribou further north. He has been conducting about his first caribou have all but disappeared. Because of this creeping change, the social science research on caribou hunt. Caribou herd sizes are highly variable traditional caribou hunts have ended. subsistence economies Among the and influenced by their environments. A They are now just stories that adults and in Alaska for the past 20 Yup’ik, as with herd can multiply quickly as the animals elders tell their children. Changes like years. many Indig- expand their territory, then crash as these are happening swiftly across the enous commu- they overgraze the available lichen, Arctic. In fact, in less than a generation, nities in Alaska, the caribou have almost disappeared a boy would go through a coming-of-age from southwest Alaska. rite that proved his ability to provide for a If I interviewed the hunter’s family and his community. This included HUNTERS FACE harvesting his first large animal. The children today, they would DANGEROUS CONDITIONS bounty was then distributed to the entire Meanwhile, nearly 1,000 kilometres community while the young hunter took no doubt have a different north of Bristol Bay, in Alaska’s Bering none. This act of sharing demonstrated Strait, hunters rely on walrus to feed and symbolised the reciprocity the hunter story to tell me. That is their families—another traditional shared with his community—and with the because the caribou have cultural activity. Unlike caribou hunt- caribou that had given itself so that he ing, walrus hunting requires group par- might feed his family and community. all but disappeared. ticipation for success. It also depends

22 The Circle 4.2019 In Alaska’s Bering Strait, hunters rely on walrus to feed their families. Photo: Christopher Michel, CC, flickr.com

on access to small boats, the ability to fish stocks move further north. But the navigate the ice pack effectively, and Walrus rely on the icepack, major impacts are uncertainty about deep knowledge of the territory and its the future, and the mounting dangers hazards. Walrus hunting in the Arctic is but the icepack moves further and difficulties associated with trying to a dangerous activity. Over many years, north each winter, leaving continue age-old cultural practices. elders teach youth how to “read” the ice, The climate has affected traditional and pass along other tips for hunting behind open water that is practices before. Alaska’s Native people walrus safely and effectively. are resilient and have overcome these But here too, climate change is mak- tricky for hunters to access challenges. But the recent effects of ing a traditional lifestyle difficult to climate change are more dramatic, and pursue. Walrus rely on the icepack, but during winter storms. may prove more difficult to cope with. the icepack moves further north each That said, when it comes to passing on winter, leaving behind open water that knowledge and practices to future gen- is tricky for hunters to access during conditions in the region: they must erations, the most important element is winter storms. be ready as soon as the conditions are the connection to place and landscape— Hunters have told me how they used right. and that hasn’t changed. Hunting and to be able to plan their walrus hunts fishing practices may evolve in response each year. Now they must watch the FACING AN UNCERTAIN FUTURE to new realities—in fact, new techniques weather and wait for the pack ice to The climate crisis is disrupting the tra- and traditions are already establishing form. In many cases, they can no longer ditional subsistence lifestyles practiced themselves in Alaska’s coastal commu- plan a hunt even one week in advance by many people across the Arctic. These nities—but the continuity of culture will because of the uncertainty of climate changes may bring opportunities as new prevail. l

The Circle 4.2019 23 A town on the edge What does resilience mean for a community under constant threat?

24 The Circle 4.2019 Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US ➤

Signs near the Utqiagvik˙ airport remind visitors how far the town is from major world landmarks.

The Circle 4.2019 25 HE ALASKAN TOWN of Utqia˙gvik is perched precariously on the wild coastline between the Beau- fort and Chukchi seas. It’s also Ton the frontlines of the climate crisis, continuously fending off the existential threat of coastal erosion. Sea ice could once be relied upon to absorb the impact of fierce waves and storms, protecting the nearby settlement and its coastline. But the summer sea ice is disappearing, allowing storms to rav- age the town and risking damage to its roads, drinking water and a decommis- sioned military landfill near the beach. The community is no stranger to weather extremes. Generations of

Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US residents have responded successfully to Utqiagvik˙ is located at the edge of an eroding coastline, and sandbags are strug- sudden shifts in the past. However, the gling to contain the damage from storms. accelerating pace of change is starting

Utqiagvik’s˙ temporary wall of sandbags is proving to be an inadequate defense against unrelenting coastal erosion caused by the loss of sea ice. Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US

26 The Circle 4.2019 to outstrip the community’s ability to cope, causing many to wonder just how resilient they can be. Building a seawall out of sandbags seemed like a good place to start, but it hasn’t been enough to halt the shoreline erosion. A more permanent, effective structure would cost in the vicinity of US$380 million. On top of that, Utqia˙gvik is threat- ened by permafrost thaw. Much of its infrastructure is built on a foundation that is turning to mud, affecting homes, businesses and schools. Some towns in similar predicaments have adapted by moving inland. But the cost to relocate all 4,400 or so Utqia˙gvik Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US residents would be in the hundreds Thawed permafrost collects at the base of a snow ridge in Utqiagvik.˙ Permafrost is of millions of dollars—and it might made of dirt, gravel and sand bound by ice, and turns to unstable mud as it thaws. create as many problems as it solves. ➤ Research indicates that it is thawing some 70 years earlier than expected.

Thawing permafrost along the Chukchi Sea coast is exposing the roots of the “active layer” of soil on top of the permafrost layer. Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US

The Circle 4.2019 27 ➤

The coastal town of Utqiaġvik in Alaska is on the frontlines of the climate crisis.

28 The Circle 4.2019 The Circle 4.2019 29 Utqiagvik˙ is a modern town in many ways, but the majority of its residents still rely on traditional activities, such as hunting and fishing, to feed their families. Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US

A skin hangs to dry in the yard of a local hunter in Utqiagvik.˙ Many residents still count on activities like hunting and fishing to feed their families, but the melting sea ice is making these practices more challenging every year. Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US

30 The Circle 4.2019 More than 60 per cent of the town’s depend to a large extent on the presence In the past, Utqia˙gvik’s coastline was residents are Iñupiat Eskimo—and of sea ice. As well, the town is situated edged with ice almost year-round. But while Utqia˙gvik is a modern town, many in a region that produces natural gas the ice-free periods are getting longer people still rely on traditional activi- and oil—industries that rely on infra- and longer, forcing some residents to ties like hunting, fishing and whaling structure that would be impossible to alter not only how they hunt, but even for their livelihoods. These activities move. how they conceptualise their relation-

The Circle 4.2019 31 ➤

From atop a pile of sandbags, Eben Hopson gazes out across the Chukchi Sea. Hopson says climate change is affecting life in Utqia˙gvik on a daily basis.

32 The Circle 4.2019 Generations of residents have

responded successfully to sudden Photo: © Chris Linder/WWF-US shifts in the past. However, the accelerating pace of change is starting to outstrip the community’s ability to cope, causing many to wonder just how resilient they can be.

ships with the environment and animals. now call home and our villages. By the “[T]he Inuit people are connected by ocean, we have paddled to get the biggest the animals we respect, the animals we bowhead whale to the smallest sea bird.” hunt, the animals we subsist off,” says Hopson says one of the most signifi- Eben Hopson, an Utqia˙gvik resident cant issues preying on his mind these and Alaska Geographic Arctic Youth days is climate change. To him, the term Ambassador. means “loss of culture, loss of the land “By the land, our ancestors walked and loss of the people that have called thousands of years before these west- the Arctic home for the past thousands ernised settlements were made that we of years.” l

The Circle 4.2019 33 Puffins in Svalbard, Norway

Finding a way forward In search of climate resilient pathways for the Arctic

For the two years leading up to the fall release of the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, GARY KOFINAS served as one of 104 lead authors, reviewing the state of knowledge on human responses to climate change in polar regions. As he explains, the report paints some frightening possible futures—but also offers room for hope if the world acts quickly enough.

THE KEY MESSAGE of the IPCC report is mative change. our global community will respond, sobering: a 2°C increase in the global My experience as a lead author has there are steps we can take now to create mean temperature is likely to cause left me extremely frightened about the climate resilient pathways. significant melting of the Antarctic future of the Arctic and the Earth. How- and Greenland ice sheets as well as the ever, the report offers signs of hope and Institutional change: Internationally, world’s glaciers. As a result, rising sea recommendations for a way forward. A the Arctic Council and several key inter- levels may negatively impact almost 700 key take-home message is: While there national agreements are among the most million people, or 10% of the world’s is no way to know if—or to what extent— important tools for facilitating coopera- population, requiring many to relocate. tion. At the national to local levels, some Ocean acidification is affecting marine regions have established cross-scale shell species; ocean warming will harm institutions, such as co-management many fish species; thawing permafrost Without action to mitigate arrangements, where local communities will have an impact on , have a voice and all stakeholders can wildlife and human infrastructure; and the causes of climate plan ahead. But other regions have seri- Arctic residents, particularly Indigenous ous institutional deficiencies that require Peoples, will experience major disrup- change, the consequences transformational change in governance. tions to their livelihoods and health. for ecosystems and society Regulations to address the risks of the increase in Arctic shipping are lacking. CAUSE FOR DESPAIR—AND will be dire. But if we act The rising costs of adaptation—for exam- CAUTIOUS OPTIMISM ple, to relocate communities or maintain The report notes that without action to immediately, we may be public infrastructure—will require major mitigate the causes of climate change, budget allocations. Finally—well before the consequences for ecosystems and able to limit these impacts we find ourselves in crisis situations—we society will be dire. But if we act imme- through adaptive and need to ensure that Arctic governance for diately, we may be able to limit these all sectors is more responsive to climate impacts through adaptive and transfor- transformative change. changes and better supports adaptation.

34 The Circle 4.2019 Finding a way forward In search of climate resilient pathways for the Arctic

Knowledge co-production: Climate Reflecting on my own looking process of monitoring and change requires us to look to multiple regularly evaluating past decisions—is sources of evidence and diverse dis- experience with this IPCC now used for fisheries in some regions. ciplinary and cultural perspectives to As well, regulatory agencies increasingly better understand ecological systems, report, I am simultaneously recognise the importance of accounting human systems and their interactions. for people’s livelihoods when creating Without a holistic approach, govern- hopeful that opportunities resource policy. ment policies are likely to result in unin- for resilience-building These strategies are only a few of the tended consequences. But the Arctic’s many pathways rich cultural diversity and its people’s exist and petrified by the we can follow to GARY KOFINAS close relationships with land and ani- build resilience is Professor mals position it well to draw on multiple consequences of our not in an uncertain Emeritus of knowledge systems to observe, under- responding decisively. future. While Resource stand and respond to climate change. they all show Policy and Community-based monitoring systems promise, they Management at University that include Indigenous knowledge are also need fur- of Alaska Fairbanks. His being developed in several areas, with ther develop- research has focused on promising results so far. Some research- practices like scenario analysis with ment. the resilience and adapta- ers are building databases to track and high stakeholder participation, self- Reflecting on tion of northern communi- understand abrupt and fundamental assessments of community resilience, my own experi- ties to climate and land changes in social-ecological systems. climate adaptation planning, and struc- ence with this use change. Others are identifying and monitoring tured decision-making (using computer IPCC report, I indicators that reflect human well-being simulation models and visualisation am simultane- and the adaptive capacity of communi- tools). ously hopeful that opportunities for ties. resilience-building exist and petrified by Resilience-based ecosystem stew- the consequences of our not responding Linking knowledge with policy- ardship: Rapid climate change will decisively. As a global society, we can making: Connecting best available require us to rethink the goal of sustain- only achieve climate resilient pathways knowledge with policy is problematic ing ecosystems in states of equilibrium. by acting immediately. This will require in all regions. This means that address- To that end, several resilience-oriented each of us to step off the sidelines as ing climate change requires a shift stewardship initiatives have been bystanders and actively work to explore, in research culture toward resolving implemented in the Arctic, such as formulate, test and implement solu- real-world problems. Areas of the North networks of marine protected areas. tions. Your engagement and participa- are making progress using innovative Adaptive management—a forward- tion are required. l

The Circle 4.2019 35 Photo: Christopher Michel, CC, flickr.com Svalbard. work there. The treatyalsomakesNorwayresponsibleforpreservingthenaturalenvironmentof All signatorynationshaveequalaccesstoSvalbard,andtheircitizens havetherighttoliveand in 1920. The treatywassignedaspartoftheVersailles negotiationsattheendofWorld War I. Norwegian diplomatandnegotiatorFritzWedel JarlsbergsigningtheSvalbard Treaty inParis Signing oftheSvalbard Treaty THE PICTURE www.panda.org/arctic to build humans afuture in which live in harmony nature. with To stop degradation the of planet’s the natural environment and here Why are we

Photos: From the archive of the