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MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND PHYSICAL PLANNING

Assessment and Evaluation of on National Level

REPORT and National Catalogue (Check List) of

May, 2010 Design & Print: TRENCH - Skopje

CIP - Каталогизација во публикација Национална и универзитетска библиотека “Св. Климент Охридски”, Скопје

504.3/.7(497.7)(047)

АНАЛИЗА на валоризација на биодиверзитетот на национално ниво : извештај со национален каталог (листа) на видови во дигитален формат. - Скопје : UNDP, 2010. - 100 стр. : илустр. ; 21 см

Библиографија: стр. 79-99

ISBN 978-9989-188-66-4

а) Биодиверзитет - Македонија - Извештаи COBISS.MK-ID 83098634

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not neces- sarily represent those of the United Nations, including UNDP, or their Member States. Acknowledgements

The Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning expresses appreciation to the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and the United Nations Develop- ment Programme (UNDP) for the technical and financial support provided during the production of this publication.

We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Svetozar Petkovski for prepar- ing this Report and compiling the National Catalogue (Check Lists) of Species based on the published data on the country’s biodiversity. The Report also re- quired examination of scientific papers on biodiversity accumulated by many generations of scientists and researchers.

We would like to extend a special debt of gratitude to those who have played a key role in bringing to fruition the National Catalogue (Check Lists) of Species, thus contributing toward a better understanding of the marvelous biodiversity richness of the country: Fungi (Fungi and - Lichenoid Fungi): Prof. Dr. Mitko Karadelev (Biological Institute, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Skopje, ); Algae (Algae): Prof. Dr. Zlatko Levkov (Biological Institute, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Skopje, Macedonia); Plantae (): Acad. Prof. Dr. Vlado Matevski (Biological Institute, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Skopje, Macedonia); Amphibia (Amphibians) and Reptilia (): Dr. Vesna Sidorovska (Mac- edonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia); Syrphidae (Hover- flies):D r. Vladimir Krpach (Macedonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia); Terrestria (Terrestrial Gastropods): M.Sc. Snezhana Jovanovich (Macedonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia); Odonata (Dragonflies & Damselflies), Neuroptera (Net-winged ), Cara- bidae (Ground ) and Curculionoidea (): M.Sc. Branislava Mihajlova (Macedonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia); Araneae (): Mrs. Emilija Stojkoska (Macedonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia) and Acad. Prof. Dr. Hristo Deltshev (Biological Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, );

We would also like to thank the following persons and institutions for gener- ously sharing copies of important empirical documents: Mrs. Biljana Kuzevs- ka (Macedonian Museum of Natural History, Skopje, Macedonia), Dr. Georg Dzukic (Biological Institute Sinisha Stankovic, Belgrade, ), Prof. Dr. Stoyan Beshkov (National Natural History Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria) and Prof. Dr. Boris Krystufek (Slovenian Museum of Natural History, Ljubljana, ).

We would also like to emphasize that in regard to the taxonomic group of Plan- tae (Plants), the National Catalogue (Check Lists) of Species is incomplete and remains yet to be updated. This document should be considered as work in progress and it will be updated once new information and research data become available. 4

Contents

1. Introduction...... 7

2. Biogeography...... 11

2.1. Terrestrial (Land) Biocycle ...... 12 2.1.1. Biochore Arboreal...... 12 2.1.1.1. Boreal (Taiga)...... 12 2.1.1.2. Broadleaved Arboreal ...... 13 2.1.2. Biochore Eremial ...... 16 2.1.2.1. Steppes...... 16 2.1.2.2. Irano-Turanian Deserts...... 17 2.1.2.3. Aegean-Anatolian Semi-Deserts...... 17 2.1.3. Biochore Oreo-Tundral (Arcto-Mountain or Arcto-Alpine) ...... 18 2.1.3.1. Arctic (Tundra) ...... 21 2.1.3.2. Palaeo-Mountain ...... 21 2.2. Freshwater Biocycle...... 22 2.2.1. Biochore of Permanent Waters: & Rivers...... 22 2.2.2. Biochore of Temporary Waters: ponds, marshes, temporary pools and glacial lakes...... 25

3. Assessment of Biodiversity...... 29

3.1. Key ...... 29 3.1.1. Forest Ecosystems...... 29 3.1.2. Mountain Ecosystems...... 32 3.1.3. Dry Land/Grassland Ecosystems...... 33 3.1.4. Wetland Ecosystems ...... 34 3.2. Vegetation...... 38 3.3. Species Diversity...... 39 3.3.1. Fungi (Fungi)...... 39 3.3.2. Lichens (Lichenes)...... 40 3.3.3. Algae (Algae)...... 40 3.3.4. Flora (Plants) ...... 41 3.3.5. Fauna () ...... 43 5

4. Evaluation of Biodiversity...... 55

4.1. Evaluation of Fungi...... 59 4.2. Evaluation of Lichens ...... 59 4.3. Evaluation of Algae ...... 60 4.4. Evaluation of Flora (Plants) ...... 60 4.5. Evaluation of Fauna (Animals)...... 62 4.5.1. Evaluation of ...... 62 4.5.2. Evaluation of Fishes (Pisces)...... 64 4.5.3. Evaluation of Amphibians...... 66 4.5.4. Evaluation of Reptiles ...... 67 4.5.5. Evaluation of ...... 68 4.5.6. Evaluation of ...... 73

5. References...... 79

7 1. Introduction

A unique set of geological, climatic and anthropogenic factors have combined to make the one of the most biologically intriguing and valuable areas in the Northern Hemisphere. It is now widely appreciated that the Balkans does represent a significant “sump” for, at least, European biodiversity. Despite this, there is still little understanding of the Balkan Biodiversity above the level of simple species description. The extremely high level of endemism in the Balkans compared to other parts of is perhaps the most striking element of comparative patterns of biodiversity (Griffiths, 1998).

The Balkans with Macedonia in its central part, contain some of the most extreme environments, and boast the additional diversity of their cave and environments which is unsurpassed in other parts. Certainly, compared to other temperate regions on Europe, it is quite outstanding. Coupled with the importance of the geographic location in a transitional zone open to a variety of floral and faunal influences, it is not surprising the notion that the Balkans are indeed the centre of European biodiversity (Reed et al., 2004).

Macedonian lakes are of varied origins. The largest lake, , is outstanding being a steep-sided graben formed through rifting in a similar fashion to Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi in the East African Rift system, or . The diversity of taxa in environments has also been linked to long-term environmental stability. Levels of endemism for are unique and comparable exclusively to other ancient lakes outside Europe. Existing continuously for millions of years, such lakes are distinguished by their rich and unique faunas and undoubtedly constitute “hot spots” of biodiversity (Illies, 1978; Petkovski, 2003).

The origin of this apparent species biodiversity is controversial, and several authors have attempted to explain the origin of aspects of these unique biodiversity, albeit with varying degrees of success. Most evoke the clear Paratethyan affinities of the biodiversity of Lake Ohrid and certain elements of that of the and, at least in the case of freshwater invertebrates, Paratethyan relictualism must be considered. Many of these species clearly do have their roots in a more ancient, more diverse fauna, and have survived and diverged because of the special conditions that have prevailed there. Although there has been considerable Holocene human impact on the Biodiversity, the absence of 8 major phases of Pleistocene glaciations has allowed particular ecosystems (and particularly aquatic ecosystems) and their associated species to survive for extended periods.

Macedonia thus represents an area in which ancient groups have survived and diversified, untroubled by the waves of extinction that accompany glaciations.

In addition to this, the Macedonia is clearly important as “meeting point” for the biodiversity of three continents so that, in the case of the less sedentary groups, many aspects of Macedonian biodiversity now are believed to have been strongly affected by land bridge exchanges between the Balkans and Anatolia. These exchanges will have been governed by isostatic sea level changes associated with Pleistocene cycles of glaciations.

In the case of Macedonia, simple figures of relative species richness do not bring out the real importance of the country in terms of its conservation value. The additional significance of Macedonia as an important region of environmental stability for evolution and the maintenance of biodiversity during Quaternary glacial fluctuations has already been stressed. As in most regions, the effects of human impact on the environment further complicate conservation issues.

More recently, there has been marked acceleration in environmental degradation due in a large part to agricultural intensification, but Macedonia is again outstanding in the degree to which forest ecosystems have survived in certain regions, even if in a modified state.

Most notably, some of the largest remaining European populations of threatened mammals (Brown Bear, Wolf, Balkan Lynx, Wildcat, Otter, Marbled Polecat, Lesser Mole Rat, Souslik, Chamois and Bats), as well as the European populations of birds of prey, survive in the mountains and gorges of the protected areas, which is direct reflection of the quality of composition and area remaining intact. Macedonia thus offers great potential at the European scale for conserving the “Last Untouched” wilderness on the Continent.

On the other hand, poor planning of resource exploitation poses an immediate threat to the future existence of numerous globally threatened species and small-range endemics. What now is required, to allow significant improvements in Macedonian Biodiversity Conservation, is a concerted attempt at establishing formal, top-down conservation policies based on integrated and sustainable management. Biogeography Glacial relief, the Cirque Kazan, below the mountain peak Magaro in the National Park Galichitza

Mediterranean Vegetation on the Island Golem Grad in Lake

Palaeontological Site between the villages of Stamer and Zvegor in the vicinity of Delchevo 11 2. Biogeography

Biogeography is a study of distribution of Biodiversity over space and time. The patterns of species distribution can usually be explained through a combination of historical factors such as speciation, extinction, glaciations in combination with the area and available energy supplies. From a broadest bio-physiological point of view, the Biosphere is a Global Ecological System integrating all living beings and their relationship, including their interaction with the elements of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

The Biosphere thus represents a global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be called the zone of life on the planet Earth. The zonal variations in temperature on the planet earth have resulted in differentiation of the flora & fauna characteristic for the Tropical, Temperate and Polar Regions.

Our Biosphere is divided on three basic living areas or Biocycles (Ecozones or Realms): 1. Marine Biocycle 2. Terrestrial (Land) Biocycle a. Biochore Arboreal: Zone of forests with numerous biomes. b. Biochore Eremial: Zone of Steppes, Semi-deserts and Deserts. c. Biochore Oreo-Tundral: Zone of High Mountain Belts & Arctic Tundra. 3. Freshwater Biocycle a. Biochore of Permanent Waters: Lakes & Rivers. b. Biochore of Temporary Waters: ponds, marshes, temporary pools and glacial lakes.

Both, Terrestrial and Freshwater Biocycles with their subcategories are well represented within the territory of Macedonia. The Biochores represent climatic boundaries of certain floral and faunal regions. 12 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

2.1. Terrestrial (Land) Biocycle

2.1.1. Biochore Arboreal

The Biochore Arboreal encompasses terrestrial areas, with sufficiently wet climate that supports development of continuous forest and scrub vegetation. It is divided on Boreal (Coniferous Forests) and Broadleaved Arboreal (Broadleaved Woodlands).

2.1.1.1. Boreal (Taiga)

The biome of Boreal or Siberian Coniferous Forests of taiga type (taiga) is barren of leaving forms and species richness due to unfavourable climatic conditions, ecological uniformity and continuity of living space. That is the reason why most of the species inhabit the whole Palaearctic range of taiga. The wide continuous range of taiga forests has been formed in the post-glacial. Its origin is from the coniferous forest that has survived during the Pleistocene Glaciations in the Manchurian, Mongolian and Mediterranean Refugiums.

In the Post-Glacial Period, with rising of the temperature, the floral and faunal elements of taiga have spread (migrated) not only to the north, but also to the higher zones of the moun- tains. In that way, the mountain coniferous forests have been established, that are closely related with the boreal forests of coniferous taiga, since they are consisted of the same genera and even species, accompanied with certain faunal elements.

Notwithstanding the fact that on the territory of the Republic of Macedonia, coniferous forests of taiga type ( and fir forests) accompanied with birch and aspen trees covers relatively small areas, the Boreal (Siberian) complex of floral and faunal elements is quite well repre- sented. Typical Boreal (Siberian) elements present on the territory of the Republic of Mac- edonia are the following species: Plants: Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Pinus mugo, Juniperus communis nana, Alnus viri- dis, , tremula, Rubus alpinum. Palaeo Mediterranean Mountain Plants: Pinus peuce, Pinus heldreichii, Abies borisii-regis, Daphne oleoides, Daphne bla- gayana, Acer heldreichii.

Invertebrates: Small : marginea, aethiopella, Orenaia alpestralis, Ti- tanio schranckiana, Titanio phrygialis and Incurvaria vetulella. Noctuid Moths: Scotia fatidica, Euplexia lucipara, Euxoa fatidica, cuprea, Anarta melanopa, Dasypolia temple and illyria. : Parnassius apollo, Lycaena dispar, Lycaena virgauraea, Thecla betulae, Aricia artaxerxes, Eumedonia eumedon, Vacciniina optilete, Agrodiaetus amanda, , Melitaea diamina, Limenitis populi, ligea, Erebia aethiops, Erebia medusa, Aphan- topus hyperantus, Coenonympha glycerion and Lasiommata petropolitana. 2. Biogeography 13

Amphibians: Alpine Newt (Triturus alpestris), Common Frog (Rana temporaria), Common Toad (Bufo bufo).

Reptiles: Viviparous (Zootoca vivipara), Adder (Vipera berus).

Birds: Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), Common Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), Siskin (Carduelis spinus), Coal Tit (Parus ater), Tit (Parus montanus), Goldcrest (Regulus regulus), Hazelhen (Bonasa bonasia), Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix), Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula), Siskin (Carduelis spinus), Goldcrest (Regulus regulus), Waxwing (Bombycilla garrulous), Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris), Goshawk (Accipiter gentiles), Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), Peregrine Falkon (Falco peregrinus), Great Snipe (Gall- inago media), Jack Snipe (Lymnocryptes minimus), Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major).

Mammals: Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutus), Water Shrew (Neomys fodiens), Bank (Myo- des glareolus ), Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Marten (Martes martes), Lynx (Lynx lynx), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Wolf (Canis lupus), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos).

2.1.1.2. Broadleaved Arboreal

The recent Broadleaved Woodlands of Central and South-Eastern Europe are represented by the biome of Mediterranean-European Broadleaved Woodlands, mainly recognized by the presence of and beech woodlands.

During the Pleistocene Glaciations the broadleaved arboreal of the Western Palaearctic has been sheltered in the areas along the Mediterranean Sea, including Anatolia. In the refugiums of these areas, the flora and fauna of the recent broadleaved woodlands of Central Europe, South-Eastern Europe and Western Asia has been maintained.

On the Balkan Peninsula it is further divided on Mediterranean Evergreen Forests and maquis (recognized by the presence of Greek Juniper Pine), Sub-Mediterranean-Balkan Woodlands (by the presence of Oak Woodlands) and Balkan-Middle-European Broadleaved Woodlands (recognized by the beech woodlands).

The large Mediterranean Refugial Center (Holo-Mediterranean) has had not continuous range during the Pleistocene Glaciations. It has been split on secondary centres: Atlanto-Mediterra- nean (Western Mediterranean) and Ponto-Mediterranean (Eastern Mediterranean- mainly Bal- kans).

The Ponto-Mediterranean Complex of Arboreal Floral and Faunal Elements are dominating on national level. In certain groups of animals and in phyto-geography, this area is further di- vided in sub-complexes of local refugium origin, like: Pannonian, Moesian, Thracean, Thes- salyian, Epirusian, Illyrian, and Dalmatian. 14 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Within most of the faunal taxonomic groups, the zoogeographical affiliation is in wider range; usually the assessment goes on higher levels, like Mediterranean Faunal Element, or second- ary level, like Ponto-Mediterranean Faunal Element.

On the territory of Macedonia the Complex of Mediterranean Faunal Elements is widely dis- tributed from the lowland areas for the most sensitive species, up to 1,600 m asl for the spe- cies with wider ecological valence. Therefore, the most appropriate vertical distribution for the Mediterranean Complex of Faunal Elements should be their close relation to the Oak and/or Beech Woodlands.

Mediterranean Floral and Faunal Elements closely related to the Oak Belt (mainly up to 1,200 m asl: Plants: Quercus coccifera, Quercus trojana, Quercus pubescens, Quercus cerris, Junipe- rus excelsa, , Astragalus thracicus, Juniperus oxycedrus, Paliurus spina- christi, Pistacia terebinthus, Punica granatum, Ficus carica, Buxus sempervirens, Carpinus orientalis, Ostrya carpinifolia, Corylus colurna, Celtis australis, Crataegus orientalis, Co- tinus coggygria, Syringa vulgaris, Acer tataricum, Acer hyrcanum, Acer monspessulanum, Juglans regia, Pinus nigra.

Invertebrates: Noctuid Moths: Ochropleura melanura, Ochropleura renigera, Ochropleura signifera, Sideridis implexa, Hadena armeriae, Hadena gueneei, Cucullia formosa, Cucullia wredowi, Cucullia celsiae, Omphalophana anatolica, tephrocharis, Amphipyra strix, Polyphaenis subsericata, Sesamia cretica, Janthinea frivaldskyi, Eutela adoratrix, Nycteola asiatica, Abrostola agnorista, Exophila rectangularis and lupina. Butterflies: Pieris krueperi, Euchloe penia, Tarucus balkanicus, Hipporachia senthes, Car- charodus flocciferus, Gegenes nostradamus, Pseudophilotes schiffermuelleri, Leptidea du- poncheli, Zerynthia polyxena. Beetles: Lucanus cervus.

Amphibians: Common Newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), Balkan Stream Frog (Rana graeca), Marsh Frog (Pelophylax ridibundus). Reptiles: European Pond Terrapin (Emys orbicularis), Hermann’s Tortoise (Eurotestudo her- manni), Balkan Green Lizard ( trilineata), -eyed Skink (Ablepharus kitaibe- lii), Dalmatian Algyroides (Algyroides nigropunctatus), European Glass Lizard (Pseudopus apodus), Kotschy’s Gecko (Mediodactylus kotschyi), Worm Snake (Typhlops vermicularis), Balkan Whip Snake ( gemonensis), Aesculapian Snake (Zamenis longissimus), Leopard Snake (Zamenis situla), Dahl’s Whip Snake (Platyceps najadum), Cat Snake (Tel- escopus fallax), Montpellier Snake (Malpolon monspessulanus).

Birds: Olivaceous Warbler (Hippolais pallida), Blue-headed Wagtail (Motacilla flava), Sombre Tit (Parus lugubris), Syrian Woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus), Woodlark (Lul- lula arborea), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Collared Dove (Streptopelia decaocto), Orphean Warbler (Sylvia hortensis), Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus), Black-eared Wheatear (Oenanthe hispanica), Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos), Golden Oriole (Oriolus ori- olus), Woodchat Shrike (Lanius senator), Firecrest (Regulus ignicapillus), Serin (Serinus 2. Biogeography 15 serinus), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus), Spanish Sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis), Blackbird (Turdus merula), Mediteranean Gull (Larus melanocephalus), Eurasian Jay (Gar- rulus glandarius).

Mammals: Eastern Hedgehog (Erinaceus roumanicus), Lesser White-toothed Shrew (Croci- dura suaveolens), Blasius’ Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus blasii), Mediterranean Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus euryale), Greater Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), Lesser Mouse- eared Bat (Myotis oxignathus), Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capaccinii), Geoffroy’s Bat (Myo- tis emarginatus), Greater Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis myotis), Whiskered Bat (Myotis mystaci- nus), Kuhl’s Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus kuhlii), Common Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), Schreibers’ Bat (Miniopterus schreibersii), Sibling Vole ( levis), Rock Mouse (Apo- demus epimelas), Yellow-necked Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis), Forest Dormouse (Dryomis nitedula), Golden jackal (Canis aureus), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Wildcat (Felis silvestris).

Mediterranean Floral and Faunal elements closely related to the Beech Belt (up to 1,700 m asl: Plants: Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus excelsior, Carpinus betulus, Corylus avellana, Quercus robur, Qercus petraea, Berberis vulgaris, Ribes multiflorum, Sorbus aucuparia, Evonymus europaeus, Acer campestre, Acer pseudoplatanus, Sorbus torminalis.

Invertebrates: Noctuid Moths: Euxoa segnilis, Scotia obesa scytha, Xylina merckii, Callo- pistria latreillei, , Autophila anaphanes, Pseudoxestia apfelbecki, , Prodotis stolida and Raparna conicephala. Butterflies: Spialia orbifer, Spialia phlomidis, Pyrgus armoricanus, Pyrgus cinarae, Car- charodus orientalis, lavatherae, Pieris balcanica, Pieris ergane, damone, Anthocharis gruneri, Syntarucus pirithous, Everes decoloratus, Plebicula dorylas, Lysandra coridon, Meleagrea daphnis, Limenitis reducta, Brintesia circe, Hipparchia fagi, Melanargia galathea, Kirinia roxelana. Beetles: Rosalia alpina. Amphibians: Macedonian Crested Newt (Triturus macedonicus), Fire Salamander (Salaman- dra salamandra), Common Tree Frog (Hyla arborea), Agile Frog (Rana dalmatina), Green Toad (Pseudepidalea viridis), Common Toad (Bufo bufo).

Reptiles: Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis), Slow Warm (Anguis fragilis), Grass Snake (Natrix natrix), Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis), Green Lizard (Lacerta viridis), Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca).

Birds: Wood Warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix), Song Thrush (Turdus philomelos), Blue Tit (Parus caeruleus), Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia curruca), Blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla), Com- mon Redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), Robin (Erithacus rubecula), White-backed Wood- pecker (Dendrocopos leucotos), Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos medius), Haw- finch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes), Tawny Owl (Strix aluco), Marsh Tit (Parus palustris), Booted Eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus).

Mammals: Mediterranean or Miller’s Water Shrew (Neomys anomalus), Lesser Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros), Leisler’s Bat (Nyctalus leisleri), Serotine (Eptesicus seroti- 16 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level nus), Brown Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus), Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus), (Myodes glareolus), Common Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius), Dormouse (Glis glis), Weasel (Mustela nivalis), Western Polecat (Mustela putorius), Beech Marten (Martes foina), Badger (Meles meles).

2.1.2. Biochore Eremial

The Eremial encompasses a zone of dry areas including steppes, semi-deserts and deserts. It is characterized by conspicuous daily temperature oscillations, cold winters, and low level of precipitations and presence of frequent strong wind blows. Within these areas, without human impact, trees are not growing because of the climatic limiting factors.

During the warm and dry phase of the postglacial period (Sub-Boreal = 5000-2500 BP) the Kazakhstan-South-Russian Steppes, originating from the Aralo-Caspian Refugium have been spread far westward in Europe. In the next phase (Sub-Atlantic = 2500 to present), when the climate become more cool and wet, during the process of retreat to the East, certain floral and faunal elements have been lagged (fall behind) in certain isolated enclaves of the Mediterra- nean Region, like it is the case with certain areas in Macedonia.

2.1.2.1. Steppes

The Complex of Eremial Floral and Faunal Elements is mainly consisted of the Sub-Complex of Species whose origin is from the Ponto Caspian Steppes. The vertical range of the steppic faunal and floral elements goes from the lowland grassland areas up to the high-mountain grassland ecosystems. Typical representatives of the Complex of Steppic Faunal and Floral Elements on the territory of Macedonia are the following: Plants: Adonis vernalis, Prunus mahaleb, Evonymus verrucosus, Amygdalus nana, Onobry- chis alba, bulbosa. Invertebrates: Noctuid Moths: Euxoa glabella, Amathes cohaesa, Hadena luteocincta, Episema korsakovi, Antitype jonis, Cirrhia cypreago, Autophilia asiatica, Pyrrhia victorina, Aedophron rhodites, Clythie syriaca, Ochropleura flavina, Discestra mendax, Episema le- deri, Lithophane ledereri, Agrochola lactiflora, Simyra dentinosa, Maraschia grisescens and Pyrrhia treitschkei. Butterflies: Syrichtus tesselum, Syrichtus cribrellum, Parnassius mnemosine, Pontia chlorid- ice, Everes alcetas, Scolitantides orion, Maculinea alcon, Plebejus agyrognomnon, Agrodia- etus damon, Polyiommatus eroides, Nymphalis xanthomelas, Euphydryas maturna, Neptis sappho, Neptis rivularis, Minois dryas and Melanargia russiae. Amphibians: Yellow-belied Toad (Bombina scabra). 2. Biogeography 17

Reptiles: Balkan Wall Lizard (Podarcis taurica), Four-lined Snake (Elaphe quatuorlineata), Large Whip Snake (Dolichophis caspius), Dice Snake (Natrix tessellata), Orsini’s Viper (Vi- pera ursinii).

Birds: Lesser Kestrel (Falco naumanni), Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus), Pallid Har- rier (Circus macrourus), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Levant Sparrowhawk (Accipiter brevipes), Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus himantopus), Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Com- mon Buzzard (Buteo buteo), Great Bustard (Otis tarda), Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax), Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), Common Shelduck (Tador- na tadorna), Collared Pratincole (Glareola pratincola), European Roller (Coracias garrulus), Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Lesser Grey Shrike (Lanius minor), Common Quail (Cotur- nix coturnix), Common Whitethroat (Sylvia communis), Corn Bunting (Miliaria calandra), Common Starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Pygmy Cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus), White Pelican (Pelecanus onocrotalus), (Pelecanus crispus), Great White Egret (Casmerodius albus), Black-winged Pratincole (Glareola nordmanni).

Mammals: Lesser Mole Rat (Spalax leucodon), Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna), Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus).

2.1.2.2. Irano-Turanian Deserts

The Sub-Complex of Species whose origin is from the Irano-Turanian Deserts is less numerous: Plants: Ephedra fragilis camphylopoda, Chenopodium botrys, Chenopodium hybridum, Ari- stolochia clematitis. Birds: Tawny Pipit (Anthus campestris), Crested Lark (Galerida cristata), Short-toed Lark (Calandrella brachydactyla), Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus), Short-toed Eagle (Circa- etus gallicus).

2.1.2.3. Aegean-Anatolian Semi-Deserts

The Sub-Complex of Species whose origin is from the Aegean-Anatolian Semi-Deserts:

Plants: Eryngium campestre, Eryngium palmatum.

Amphibians: Balkan Spadefoot Toad (Pelobates syriacus balcanicus).

Reptiles: Erhard’s Wall Lizard (Podarcis erhardii), Sand Boa (Eryx jaculus turcicus), Nose- horned Viper (Vipera ammodytes).

Birds: Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), European Bee-eater (Merops apiaster).

Mammals: Balkan Short-tailed Mouse (Mus macedonicus), Guenther’s Vole (Microtus guen- theri). 18 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

2.1.3. Biochore Oreo-Tundral (Arcto-Mountain or Arcto-Alpine)

The Biochore Oreo-tundral encompasses cold areas without presence of trees in the arctic and sub-arctic zone and the high-mountain belt (over the forest belt) of the higher mountains, through- out Central and partly Southern Europe. The absence of trees is caused by natural limiting factors.

By the end of the geological period Tertiary, during the geological epochs Miocene (from 23 up to 5 million years ago) and Pliocene (from 5 up to 1 million years ago), large portion of the current European territory had tropic-subtropical climate. The old cold-willing steno-oligo-thermic tundral faunal and floral elements have been restricted on the Scandinavian Mountains and Eastern .

On the other hand the Palaeo-Oreal (Palaeo-Mountain) elements have been restricted on the Alps, Balkan Mountains, Caucasus, North-Iranian Mountains and the Pamirs.

By the end of the geological epoch Pliocene (from 5 up to 1 million years ago) and the begin- ning of the geological epoch Pleistocene or Ice Age (from 1 million up to 12,000 years ago) the become outstanding.

The cold air masses from the north has penetrated to the south and covered the whole territory of Northern and Central Europe as well as the higher zones of the South-European Mountains. The higher mountains in Macedonia have also been covered by ice even during the summer seasons, for which exist numerous evidences like: cirques and glacial lakes.

With the beginning of the Ice Age (about one million years ago), a wave of steno-oligo- thermal arctic and sub-arctic tundral biocoenoses start to migrate southwardly to South Eu- rope. Simultaneously, in Southern Europe, including the Balkan Mountains, the Oreo (Palaeo Mountain) biocoenoses from the high mountains have migrated in the lowlands and mixed with the species of Tundral (Arctic) origin. This process has been repeated several times, dur- ing the glacial (Gunz, Mindel, Riss and Wurm) and interglacial (Gunz-Mindel, Mindel-Riss and Riss-Wurm) phases until 12,000 years BP.

At the beginning of the post-glacial period, about 12,000 years ago, the average temperature increased rapidly and reached a first peak of about 10,000 years ago, that has caused a mass migration of the steno-oligo-thermal biocoenoses to the northern parts of Europe and the high-mountain belts in Southern Europe. In that way, numerous arctic species have disjunc- tive range, in the arctic belt and the high-mountain belt of the higher mountains on the Bal- kans, including Macedonia.

Within the borders of Macedonia the Oreo-Tundral Complex of Faunal and Floral Elements is represented by small number of species, especially among the vertebrates. They are mainly restricted to the higher altitudes of the high mountains. Belchishko Blato Marsh

Rock-pools on the locality Ploche in the Strict Nature Reserve Ploche-Starcin

Wetland Ecosystem in the Protected Area Ezerani Matka Canyon on the River Treska, near Skopje (Protected Area)

Treska River

The Karstic Spring Vrelo in the Matka Canyon 2. Biogeography 21

2.1.3.1. Arctic (Tundra)

The Sub-Complex of Arctic (Tundral) Faunal and Floral Elements is represented by the fol- lowing species:

Plants: Dryas octopetala, Geum reptans, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Arc- tostaphylos uva-ursi, Empetrum nigrum, Salix herbacea, Salix reticulata, Salix retusa, Poly- gonum viviparum, Nardus stricta, Ranunculus crenatus, Oxytropis lapponica.

Invertebrates: Small Moths: Scoparia cembrae, Scoparia manifestella, Scoparia phaeoleu- ca, Udea austriacalis, Udea uliginosalis, Pyrausta nigralis, Pyrausta manualis, Pyrausta rhododendronalis, alticolana, Cochylidia phaleratana, tripunctella, Depressaria beckmanni, Depressaria absinthiella, Anchinia laureolella, Kessleria saxifra- gae, subalbidella and Stigmella cotoneastrella. Noctuid Moths: Standfussiana lucernae, Rhyacia grisescens, Mythimna andereggii, Caloplu- sia devergens. Butterflies: Pyrgus andromedae, Erebia albegranus, , , Erebia gorge, Erebia pronoe, Erebia oeme, Boloria pales. Birds: Rock/Water Pipit (Anthus spinoletta), Shore Lark (Eremophila alpestris), Goosander (Mergus merganser), Ring Ouzel (Turdus torquatus), Common Dipper (Cinclus cinclus).

Wintering Arctic Birds: Black-throated Diver (Gavia arctica), Red-throated Diver (Gavia stellata), Ferruginous Duck (Aythya nyroca), Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria), Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), Little Stint (Calidris minuta), Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus), Greenshank (Tringa nebular- ia), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola), Redwing (Turdus iliacus), and Brambling (Fringilla montifringilla).

2.1.3.2. Palaeo-Mountain

The Sub-Complex of Relict Palaeo-Mountain (Oreal) Faunal Elements is mainly represented by the following species:

Plants: Acantholimon androsaceum, Arabis bryoides, Saxifraga spp., Saxifraga spp., Ramon- da nathaliae, Minuartia spp., Sibbaldia parviflora, Astragalus spp. Invertebrates: Spiders: Zora prespaensis, Xysticus tenebrosus ohridensis. Fairy Shrimps: Chirocephalus diaphanous carinatus, Branchipus intermedius. Calanoid : Arctodiaptomus niethammeri, Arctodiaptomus osmanus. Ostracods: Heterocypris erikae. Gastropods: Helix secernenda. Butterflies: Pyrgus sidae, Colias balcanica, Lycaena candens, Boloria graeca, Erebia aethi- opella, Erebia ottomana, Erebia meles and Coenonympha rhodopensis. 22 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Birds: Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus), Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhoco- rax), Alpine Dunnock (Prunella collaris), Wallcreeper (Tichodroma muraria), Snowfinch (Montifringilla nivalis), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), Crag Martin (Ptyono- progne rupestris), Alpine Swift (Tachymarptis melba), Bonelli’s Eagle (Hieraaetus fascia- tus), Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), Rock Partridge (Alectoris graeca); Rock Bunting (Emberiza cia), Common Stonechat (Saxicola torquata), Rufous-tailed Rock Thrush (Monticola saxatilis), Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros),

Mammals: Savi’s Pipistrelle (Hypsugo savii), European Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida teniotis), Snow Vole ( nivalis), Macedonian souslik (Spermophilus citellus karamani), Bal- kan Snow Vole (Dinaromys bogdanovi), Balkan Mole (Talpa stankovici), Balkan Pine Vole (Microtus felteni), Common Pine Vole (Microtus subterraneus), Balkan Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica).

2.2. Freshwater Biocycle

2.2.1. Biochore of Permanent Waters: Lakes & Rivers

The rivers of Macedonia are divided into three watersheds: the , the Aegean Sea and, to a very small extent, the Black Sea. The Vardar River is the largest river, containing 80% of the water flow leaving the Republic of Macedonia. Of the remaining 20%, 13% flows through the Crni Drim River, with only 7% through the Strumitsa River.

The total length of the Vardar River is 388 km, of which 300 km are present in Macedonia and the remainder in neighbouring . Its headwaters are the springs near the village of Vrutok, and it flows into the Aegean Sea near the Thessalonica Gulf. At the point where it exits Macedonia near Gevgeliya, its flow is 174 m3/sec. Its major western tributaries are the Crna River (207 km in length with a 37 m3/sec. flow at its mouth) and the Treska River (138 km and 30 m3/sec. average flow at its mouth). The longest eastern tributary of the Vardar River is the Bregalnitsa River (225 km and 28 m3/sec. average flow at its mouth). The second largest eastern tributary is the Pchinya River (135 km and 16 m3/s average flows).

The Crni Drim River flows only 48 km within the territory of Macedonia and, together with its tributary, the Radika River, one of Macedonia’s most attractive rivers, encompasses 1,772 km2 of watershed area. The flow rate at its entry point into Ohrid Lake is 21m3/sec. The Stru- mitsa River’s watershed is 1,465 km2.

Of the natural lakes in the Republic of Macedonia, the most attractive are the tectonic lakes: Ohrid, Prespa and Doyran. Ohrid Lake is the largest, occupying an area of 348.8 km2, of which 229.9 are in the Republic of Macedonia and the remainder in . It is 30.5 km 2. Biogeography 23 long, 15 km wide and 287 m deep at its deepest point. The lake is situated at 699 m msl. In addition to flow from the Crni Drim River, the lake receives water from 80 surface and under- ground springs and from Prespa Lake, which is located at a higher altitude.

Prespa Lake, with an area of 274 km2, is the second largest in the Republic, 176.8 km2 of which belong to Macedonia, 47.8 km2 to Greece and 49.4 km2 to Albania. Its length is 28.6 km and its width is 16.9 km. Its greatest depth is 54 m. Prespa Lake is situated at 853 m msl. Because the lake has no major tributaries and because a portion of the water migrates down- ward through the soil into Ohrid Lake near the locality of Vragodupka, the level of the water fluctuates considerably.

Doyran Lake, unlike the other two lakes which are located in , is situated in the south of the country, occupying an area of 42.74 km2; 27.1 km2 of the area belong to the Republic of Macedonia and the rest to neighbouring Greece. Prior to the recent hydrologic perturbations caused by both climatic and human factors, the lake’s maximum depth was 10 m and the average, 6.7 m.

From aspect of aquatic zoogeography the Balkan Peninsula is divided into seven zoogeo- graphical regions, which correspond to river catchments, including the lakes of Ohrid and Prespa (Banarescu, 2004). Four of them include catchments on the territory of Macedonia (Danube River Basin Region, Thrace Region, Macedonia-Thessaly Region and South Adriat- ic-Ionian Region).

The Danube River Basin Region is considered as the main, or possibly the only, refugium in which the preglacial aquatic fauna (especially fish) survived Pleistocene Glaciations, fol- lowing which it repopulated central, western, and parts of northern Europe. Most species of the Danube River Basin have wide ranges in Europe, Euro-Siberia and beyond. The Danube Basin also supports species with an exclusive Aralo-Caspian-Pontic distribution, as well as species shared with only a few neighbouring rivers (e.g. the Vardar River). In spite of the existence of some local endemics, the fish fauna of the Danube Basin is essentially uniform, at least in zoogeographic terms.

The Thrace Region encompasses the drainage areas on the eastern watershed of the Aegean Sea (Maritza, Mesta and Strumica/Struma). Most fish species inhabiting these rivers have wide ranges in Europe, and are characteristic of slowly running waters. The typical rheophilic Danubian species, some of which occur in the neighbouring Vardar River, are absent. It is also noticeable that the Strumica/Struma River contains more Anatolian Elements than the other more easterly rivers. The endemic species Strumica Barbel ( strumicae) is present in all three rivers, while the Struma Spined Loach ( strumicae) occurs only in the Stru- mica/Struma River Basin. Another endemic species that is found only in the Strumica/Struma River Basin is the Struma Stone Loach (Oxynoemacheilus bureschi). Other fish species occur only in this region and the Macedonia-Thessaly Region such as the Vardar Nase (Chondros- toma vardarense), Aegean Gudgeon (Gobio bulgaricus) and Dark Vimba (Vimba melanops).

The Macedonia-Thessaly Region encompasses the drainage network of the Vardar River and three more southerly rivers in Thessaly. The Macedonian-Thessaly fish fauna has marked 24 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Danubian ties, but is not Central European in character. The endemic species Stone Gudgeon (Romanogobio elimeius), Vretenar (Zingel balcanicus), Vardar Spined Loach (Cobitis vard- arensis), Thessaly Bleak ( thessalicus), Vardar Chub (Squalius vardarensis) have close relatives in the Danube fish fauna. In the Vardar Basin and Thessaly the Danubian and Central European Languedog Stone Loach (Barbatula barbatula), the Spirlin ( bi- punctatus), also occurs, and the endemic species Macedonian Barbel (Barbus macedonicus) from the Vardar River is more closely related to the Danubian (and Central European) Barbel (Barbus barbus), than to the Thracian Maritza Barbel (). The endemic spe- cies Mergur (Pachychilon macedonicum) has a single congener Moranec (Pachychilon pic- tum) in the drainage area of South Adriatic-Ionian Region (Lake Ohrid), linking this species to the Western Balkan Faunas. The South Adriatic-Ionian Region encompasses the western watershed of Balkan Penin- sula, from to the Peloponnesus, including the lakes Ohrid and Prespa. Lake Ohrid is the oldest and deepest lake in Europe, and has a high degree of endemism. The hydrobioid gastropods have the highest number of endemics among the aquatic animals in- cluding Micropyrgula stankovici (of Micropyrgulidae), the subfamilies Chilopyrgulinae (five genera, six species), Ohridopyrguinae (three monospecific genera), four of the six genera of Pseudohoratiine (11 species), six genera of Ofrientalininae (16 species). Other endemic prosobranchiates include four species of the Holarctic Valvata , and several pulmonate snails (seven Gyraulus, Planorbis macedonicus, three Ancylus and two Acroloxus. Ohrid and Prespa are the only European Areas whose fauna have endemic species of pulmonates (Illies, 1978; Radoman, 1985). Endemic fish species restricted exclusively to the Lake Ohrid include: Ohrid Gudgeon (Gobio ohridanus), Ohrid Spirlin (Alburnoides ohridanus), Summer /Letnica (), Trout/Kresnica (), Peshtani Trout (Salmo letnica), Lumi Trout (Sal- mo lumi) and Belvica (). Endemic fish species restricted exclusively to the Lake Ohrid and the River Drim Basin in- clude: Drim Brook Lamprey (Eudontomyzon stankokaramani), Western Balkan Barbel (Bar- bus rebeli), Scoranza (Alburnus scoranza), Ohrid Minnow (Pelasgus minutus), Albanian Roach (Rutilus karamani), Ohrid Roach (), Skadar Rudd (Scardinius kn- ezevici), Ohrid Spined Loach (), and Ohrid Stone Loach (Barbatula sturanyi). Numerous other groups of animals have endemic species and genera in the lake and its tribu- taries including (7), (12) (7), Ostracoda (32) etc. The endem- ic sponges Spongilla stankovici and the remarkable monospecific genus Ochridaspongia with uncertain status believed by Arndt (1937) to be related to a genus from Lake Tiberias, and to another from Lake Baikal.

Lake Prespa located like Lake Ohrid in the South Adriatic-Ionian Region has fewer endem- ics. Most are aquatic gastropods, including the genera Prespolitorea, Prespiana, Malaprespia, Prespopyrgula and Parabythinella. The endemic fish species are numerous, including: Prespa Barbel (Barbus prespensis), Prespa Spirlin (Alburnoides prespensis), Prespa Bleak (Albur- nus belvica), Prespa Nase ( prespense), Prespa Minnow (Pelasgus prespensis), 2. Biogeography 25

Prespa Roach (Rutilus prespensis), Prespa Chub (Squalius prespensis), Prespa Spined Loach (Cobitis meridionalis) and Prespa Trout (Salmo peristericus).

2.2.2. Biochore of Temporary Waters: ponds, marshes, temporary pools and glacial lakes

From zoogeographic aspect, the origin of the fauna of the Biochore Temporary waters is identical with the terrestrial fauna. In the aquatic biotopes on lower altitudes dominating is the Complex of Mediterranian Faunal Elements, while in the numerous temporary/semi tem- porary pools and ponds, including the glacial lakes on the higher altitudes, the fauna is from various zoogeographic origin, including: Siberian, Steppic, Caucasian and Palaeo Mountain origin.

Assessment of Biodiversity Autochthonous Pine Forest on the Mountain Nidze (Kajmakchalan)

Temporary Rain Pool Crvena Lokva in the high-mountain belt of the National Park Galichitza

View of the highest peak (Magaro) on the Galichitza Mountain 29 3. Assessment of Biodiversity

Within the current project a complete database was developed, which includes species lists for the fungi, lichens, algae, plants and animals present within the territory of the Republic of Macedonia.

The classification of species follows the most contemporary publications on the of various taxonomic groups, i.e. Flora Europaea and Fauna Europaea. For certain taxonomic groups, additional data have been used in accordance with: Kottelat & Freyhof (2007), Gasc et al. (1997), Arnold & Ovenden (2002), BirdLife International 2004b, Krystufek & Petko- vski (2003, 2006) and Wilson & Reeder (2005).

The lists of species have been prepared on the basis of historical published records, unpub- lished data, as well as current field investigations conducted by the national consultant on biodiversity for the purposes of this project.

3.1. Key Ecosystems

3.1.1. Forest Ecosystems

Assessment of Forest Ecosystems

These ecosystems cover a large portion of the land area of the Republic of Macedonia at elevations of 150-2,200 m. Broadleaf forests dominate: Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), Chest- nut (Castanea sativa), Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Hop-hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and Oak (Quercus sp.), while evergreen forests: Fir (Abies sp.), Spruce (Picea sp.) and Pine (Pinus sp.) as well as mixed forests (Beech-Fir) are distributed in small areas.

Forest ecosystems are present in the following qualitative regions: 30 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

The “Oak Region” is distributed within lowlands and highlands to 1,200 m msl, and cov- ers 73% of the total forested area. The average annual temperature in this region ranges from 9-14.2°C, and the average precipitation is 500- 850 mm. The prevailing soil type is cinnamon- coloured forest soils, but other soil types are also locally present (e.g., red podzolic soils (terra rossa), chernozem, pseudogley-gley, luvic, brown podzolic etc.). Climate- zonal Oak forests dominate in these regions, mixed with orographically-edaphically and hydrologically con- ditioned Chestnut (Castanea sativa), Common Ash (Fraxinus excelsior ), Maple (Acer sp.), Poplar (Populus sp. ), Willow (Salix sp.) etc.

Regarding vertebrate fauna, typical inhabitants of this region are: Fire Salamander (Sala- mandra salamandra), Spur-thighed Tortoise (Testudo graeca), Hermann’s Tortoise (Testu- do hermanni), Snake-eyed Skink (Ablepharus kitaibelii), Dalmatian Algyroides (Algyroides nigropunctatus), Balkan Green Lizard (Lacerta trilineata), Erhard’s Wall Lizard (Podarcis erhardii), Large Whip Snake (Dolichophis caspius), Balkan Whip Snake (Hierophis gemon- ensis), Dahl’s Whip Snake (Platyceps najadum), Four-lined Snake (Elaphe quatuorlineata), Montpellier Snake (Malpolon monspessulanus), Cat Snake (Telescopus fallax), Worm Snake (Typhlops vermicularis), Nose-horned Viper (Vipera ammodytes), Middle Spotted Woodpeck- er (Dendrocopos medius), Green Woodpecker (Picus viridis), Eastern Hedgehog (Erinaceus roumanicus), Lesser Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis oxignathus), Long-fingered Bat (Myotis capac- cinii), Savi’s Pipistrelle (Hypsugo savii), Blasius’ Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus blasii), Medi- terranean Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus euryale), Greater Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus fer- rumequinum), Balkan Short-tailed Mouse (Mus macedonicus), Lesser White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura suaveolens), Weasel (Mustela nivalis), Western Polecat (Mustela putorius), Fal- low Deer (Dama dama) and Wildcat (Felis silvestris).

The “Beech Region” covers the mountainous areas between 1,200-1,700 m msl. The fact that it encompasses only 22% of Macedonia’s total forested area notwithstanding, this region pos- sesses the largest timber mass in the country. The average annual temperature in this region ranges from 6.4-8°C; the average precipitation is 900-1100 mm. Light brown podzolic soils (in the lower belt) and brown podzolic soils (in the higher belt) are the prevailing soil types. The sub-mountain Beech region is present between 1,200-1,400 m (mainly consisting of the climate-zonal community, assn. Festuco heterophyllae-Fagetum). Refugial types of Beech Forests, as well as Pine Forest Communities: Black pine (Pinus nigra), may be found here. The mountain belt spreads between 1,400 and 1,700 m (the range of the climatogenic assn. Calaminthograndiflorae-Fagetum) and is formed by various types of Beech and Beech-Fir forests. In the successional habitats, forests of Aspen (Populus sp.), Birch (Betula sp.) and White Pine (Pinus sylvestris) are also present.

The “Pre-Mountain (Sub-Alpine) Region” is the highest forest belt, located between 1,700 m and Approximately 2,100 m msl. The annual mean temperature is 3.5°C and the average precipitation is about 1,000 mm. The prevailing soil type is brown podzolic; other types are very infrequent. In this belt, forests are comprised of Norway spruce (Picea abies), Dwarf Mountain Pine (Pinus mugo) and Macedonian Pine (Pinus peuce), as well as a heath of Bruck- enthalia spiculifolia and Vaccinium myrtillus. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 31

Typical faunal inhabitants for both Beech and Sub-Alpine Regions are: Common Wall Lizard (Podarcis muralis), Slow Warm (Anguis fragilis), Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca), Aes- culapian Snake (Zamenis longissima), Waxwing (Bombycilla garrulous), Europaean Night- jar (Caprimulgus europaeus), Blind Mole (Talpa caeca), Common Shrew (Sorex araneus), Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutes), Natterer’s Bat (Myotis nattereri), Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), Bank Vole (Myodes glareolus), Balkan Pine Vole (Microtus felteni), Common Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius), Fat Dormouse (Glis glis), Forest Dormouse (Dryo- mis nitedula), Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Balkan Lynx (Lynx lynx martinoi), Beech Marten (Martes foina), Pine Marten (Martes martes), Badger (Meles meles), Wolf (Canis lupus), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and Brown Bear (Ursus arctos).

Threats to Forest Ecosystems

Threats to forest ecosystems are quite varied and include desiccation, die-back processes, forest fires and various diseases. Very rare and consequently threatened forest communities include: assn. Aceri heldreichii-Fagetum (Yakupitsa and Shar Planina Mountains), assn. Al- netum viridis (Belasitsa), assn. Carici elongatae-Alnetum glutinosae (Polog and Debarca), assn. Daphno-Cytisanthetum radiati calcicolum (Galichitsa and Yablanitsa Mountains), assn. Ephedro-Prunetum tenellae (Kavadartsi-Lyubash), assn. Juglando-Aesculetum hippocasta- ni (Suv Dol near Izvor and Yablanitsa), assn. Periploco-Alnetum glutinosae (Monospitovo Marsh), assn. Periploco-Fraxinetum angustifoliae-pallisae (Negortsi Spa), and assn. Tilio cordatae-Fagetum (Drevenicka Mountain-Demir Hisar).

Direct reasons for the reduction of forest communities include:

Forest Desiccation: Assn. Abieti-Piceetum scardicum (Tetovska River); assn. Fago-Abietetum me- ridionale (Bistra-Senechka Mountain) and assn. Castanetum sativae macedonicum (Pelister-Bra- jchinska River).

Forest Fires: Assn. Pinetum mugo macedonicum (Yakupitsa), assn. Phillyreo-Juniperetum excel- sae ­ (Demir Kapiya Gorge); assn. Pulsatillo macedonicae-Pinetum nigrae (Karadzitsa).

Forest Destruction: Assn. Salicetum cinereae-pentandrae (Mavrovo), due to construction activi- ties such as buildings, expansion of tourist settlements, roads, railroads and artificial lakes, with the construction of the artificial Lake Mavrovo.

Sand Excavation: Assn. Carici elongatae-Alnetum glutinosae (Polog and Debarca).

Inappropriate Reforestation: Assn. Ephedro-Prunetum tenellae (Kavadartsi -Lyubash).

Land Drainage: Assn. Periploco-Fraxinetum angustifoliae-pallisae (Negortsi Spa).

Water Capture/Extraction: Assn. Tilio cordatae-Fagetum (Drevenicka Mountain-Demir Hisar). 32 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Many of these factors also affect the status of faunal groups. The reduction of the popula- tions of individual species can be best seen in the Oak region. With respect to vertebrates, the following species are considered extinct in Macedonia: Golden Jackal (Canis aureus), Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) and Fallow Deer (Dama dama) (although the last two have been reintroduced). The species, Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus), Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), Pine Marten (Martes martes) and Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna) exhibit the most reduced populations.

3.1.2. Mountain Ecosystems

Assessment of Mountain Ecosystems

Mountain ecosystems are present within a large portion of the Republic of Macedonia; how- ever, optimal conditions for their development are only present on mountains with elevations above 2,000 m. The average annual temperature in this belt is -4°C; the average precipitation is 800 mm. Within the areas having a limestone substratum, limestone-dolomite black soils (mould-zonal soil type) are most often present, whereas the ranker soil type is typical in areas without lime- stone. Mountain vegetation which develops above the upper forest boundary (over 1,800 m) is very rich and diverse. The communities in the mountain pastures which are located on silicate ( Caricetea curvulae) and carbonate soils (class Elyno-Seslerietea) are represented by approxi- mately 15 associations. The communities that develop on limestone and silicate rocks (class As- plenietea rupestris), limestone screes (class Drypetea spinosae), under snow banks (class Sali- cetea herbaceae), near mountain streams (tall grassy plants of the class Betulo-Adenostyletea), in high-mountain marshes (classes Montio-Cardaminetea and Scheuchzerio-Caricetea fuscae) etc. are also located here. Typical faunal representatives of the Mountain Ecosystems are: Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis), Viviparous Lizard (Zootoca vivipara), Adder (Vipera berus), Orsini’s Viper (Vipera ursinii), Raven (Corvus corax), Shore Lark (Eremophila alpestris), Rufous-tailed Rock Thrush (Mon- ticola saxatilis), Blue Rock Thrush (Monticola solitarius), Common Redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus), Alpine Dunnock (Prunella collaris), Alpine Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus), Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax), Balkan Mole (Talpa stankovici), Snow Vole (Chionomys nivalis), (Dinaromys bogdanovi), Macedonian souslik (Sper- mophilus citellus karamani) and Balkan Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica).

Threats to Mountain Ecosystems Mountain and High Mountain ecosystems are less threatened since anthropogenic influences are reduced (due to their limited accessibility and unfavourable climatic conditions). Typical activities which could negatively affect the viability of the ecosystemsinclude overgrazing 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 33 and the uncontrolled collection of certain species (Althaea officinalis, Anacamptis py- ramidalis, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Centaurium erythraea, Dactylorhiza maculata, D. sam- bucina, Gentiana lutea symphyandra, G. punctata, Hypericum perforatum, Juniperus com- munis, Origanum vulgare, veris, Pulmonaria officinalis, Sideritis raeseri, S. scardi- ca, Thymus tosevii var. degenii). The construction of ski-lifts, television transmitters and other aerial systems usually installed on mountain peaks often causes degradation of some of those plant communities which have restricted distributions on the summits of the mountains. Such is the case with the communities of the alliance Edriantho-Seslerion (Bistra, Shar Planina and Yakupitsa Mountains) and alliance Seslerion comosae (Nidze and Pelister Mountains), which develop on the peaks of these mountain massifs. With regard to the faunal component of the mountain ecosystems, indirect anthropogenic impacts do not threaten the stability of these populations. The only direct impact concerns the Balkan Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) which never reaches its optimal popula- tions number due to uncontrolled hunting.

3.1.3. Dry Land/Grassland Ecosystems

Assessment of Dry Land/Grassland Ecosystems

Dry Land/Grassland Ecosystems occupy a large part of the Republic of Macedonia. They occur in the lowland and highland belt (in the highland pastures), and often in secondary habitats primarily because of permanent degradation of forest phytocenoses (mainly Oak), but also due to recolonisation of abandoned farmland by grassland species. The soils on which they develop are geologically diverse over the entire territory (silicate, limestone, dolomite, serpentine, arsenic, Palaeogenic and Neogenic marls and saline soils) and the ecosystems themselves are present at altitudes of from 60 m to approximately 1,200 m msl.

Among the best studied are the communities of the highland pastures which develop on sili- cate soils (the alliances Armerio-Potentillion and Trifolion cherleri), Steppe-like Vegetation (the alliances Artemision maritimae and Saturejo-Thymion) and Halophytes (the alliances Cypero-Spergularion, Puccinellion convolutae and Thero-Salicornion). Slightly less studied are those communities developing on limestone (alliance Saturejo-Thymion), serpentine, an- timony and arsenic soils.

Representative fauna include: Balkan Wall Lizard (Podarcis taurica), Sand Boa (Eryx jacu- lus), Stone Curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix), Great Bus- tard (Otis tarda), Common Partridge (Perdix perdix), Black Grouse (Tetrax tetrax), Geof- froy’s Bat (Myotis emarginatus), Whiskered Bat (Myotis mystacinus), Guenther’s Vole (Mi- crotus guentheri), Sibling Vole (Microtus levis), Striped Field Mouse (Apodemus agrarius), Yellow-necked Mouse (Apodemus flavicollis), Lesser Mole Rat (Spalax leucodon), European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus citellus), Common Mole (Talpa europaea), Brown Hare (Le- pus europeus) and Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna). 34 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Threats to Dry Land/Grassland Ecosystems

The dryland/grassland ecosystems are vegetation types which are permanently expanding. Restricted distribution is characteristic for the halophytic communities (on salty soils) which develop on a small area in Ovche Pole Plain and in the steppe-like area between Negotino, Shtip and Veles. They are under intense anthropogenic influences due to cultivation. Among the halophytic communities, the most threatened is assn. Camphorosmetum monspeliacae (which develops on solonchak soils), but there is a great probability that other associations (e.g., assn. Crypsidetum aculeatae balcanicum and assn. Pholiureto-Plantaginetum balcani- cum), which develop in small, shallow depressions, will also disappear.

The plant communities developing on soils containing arsenic and antimony (including Viola allschariensis and V. arsenica) at Alshar near Kavadartsi are also restricted to very small ar- eas. They are in potential danger of destruction because they are present on only a small area, where mining and other activities were performed in the past and are likely to be continued in the future.

The communities developing on limestone and dolomite are not completely studied. At many locations in Macedonia where these communities develop, marble is extracted (Cer, Pletvar- Kozyak and Sivets), which has a negative effect on their biological viability, both survival and maintenance.

Within the dryland/grassland ecosystems, reductions in the populations of the following fau- nal species have been recorded: Stone-curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), Common Quail (Co- turnix coturnix), Sand Boa (Eryx jaculus), Geoffrey’s Bat (Myotis emarginatus), Whiskered Bat (Myotis mystacinus), Lesser Mole Rat (Spalax leucodon), Great Bustard (Otis tarda), Common Partridge (Perdix perdix), European Souslik (Spermophilus citellus), Common Mole (Talpa europaea), Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax) and Marbled Polecat (Vormela peregusna).

3.1.4. Wetland Ecosystems

Assessment of Wetland Ecosystems

Wetland ecosystems in the Republic of Macedonia are present in various forms (relic lakes, glacial lakes, reservoirs, rivers, streams, springs and temporary waters). The group of key aquatic systems includes the three natural lakes and the developed river network, especially the watershed of the Vardar River.

Ohrid Lake, with its relict and endemic organisms, represents the most significant lake eco- system in Europe (under the protection of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]). It is the largest lake in the Republic of Macedonia and is situated in a tectonic valley in the far southwest of the country. It is a typical oligotrophic lake with outstanding transparency, low nutrient content and low production. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 35

The diversity of and zooplankton in Ohrid Lake is relatively poor. The phyto- is dominated by Bacillariophyta, Chlorophyta and Cyanophyta while the zooplank- ton by Rotifers (Rotatoria), Copepods (Copepoda) and Water fleas (). The benthos at shallow depths is represented by abundant macrophytic vegetation (representatives of Cha- rophyta), and at deeper depths by the dominant Silicate algae. Zoobenthos consists primarily of sponges (Porifera), segmented worms (Annelida), (Plathelmintes), snails (Gas- tropoda) and Ostracods (Ostracoda). Among the nektonic organisms, the most important are the relict and endemic species of salmonid fishes.

Prespa Lake is the second largest natural lake, located at the juncture of the three countries, Macedonia, Greece and Albania. Rich encrusted layers of Green, Blue-green and Silicate algae can be found on the rocky submerged substrate in the southern portion of the lake. Zooplankton is represented primarily by species of Rotifers (Rotatoria), Copepods (Copepo- da) and Water fleas (Cladocera); the zoobenthos is dominated by representatives of sponges (Porifera), segmented worms (Annelida), flat worms (Plathelmintes), snails (Gastropoda) and Ostracods (Ostracoda). Among the nektonic organisms, the relict species of fishes which are distinguished by a level of high endemism are also dominant in this lake.

Doyran Lake is the smallest tectonic lake in the Republic of Macedonia. It is located in the south-eastern area of the country and is a typical eutrophic lake of the Aegean lake group. It is characterised by high floristic and faunal diversity and low endemism. Silicate algae are dominant among the phytoplankton and periphyton. Among the zooplankton, Protozo- ans (Protozoa), Rotifers (Rotatoria), Water fleas (Cladocera) and Copepods (Copepoda) are dominant while, within the zoobenthos, sponges (Porifera), segmented worms (Annelida), flat worms (Platyhelminthes), Molluscs () and Ostracods (Ostracoda) are dominant. Cyprinid species of fishes are dominant among nektonic organisms.

The three natural lakes provide favourable conditions for the development of aquatic mac- rophytic (floating and submersed) vegetation, as well as the development of shoreline marsh species. In the past, plant communities of these vegetation types used to develop in the nu- merous swamps and marshes present in most of the valleys of Macedonia (Katlanovo Marsh, Prespa Marsh, Ohrid Marsh, Struga Marsh, Marsh, the marsh near Negortsi Spa, the marsh near the village of Bansko, Monospitovo Marsh, the marsh in Upper Polog [near Gostivar] etc.), of which today only fragments remain.

The Republic of Macedonia has a very rich network of rivers divided among three watersheds: the Vardar, Crni Drim and Strumitsa. The watershed of the Vardar River is the largest. In its upper reaches, thick accumulations of the water mosses Fontinalis antypiretica and Rhynos- tegium riparoides are present, as well as the Algae, Cladophora glomerata and Vaucheria sp. In winter and early spring months, microfloral rock encrusting communities occur, formed mainly by Blue-green algae and diatoms. The substrate is covered with a large quantity of organic sediment, which also covers these encrusting species and simultaneously facilitates the development of rich communities, represented by the genus Nitzschia, on the mud bottom. Within the riverine ecosystems, zooplankton is poorly represented, and the benthos which does occur has very reduced populations. Nekton is characterised by rich relict and endemic fauna, especially fishes. 36 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Threats to Wetland Ecosystems

The status of Lake Ohrid is slightly better than that of the other two natural lakes, Prespa and Doyran. Nevertheless, the proper functioning of the existing integrated collection/treatment system for communal and industrial wastewater along the shoreline of the entire lake is neces- sary. Today, macrophytic floating vegetation can be found only in a fragmentary state. From a faunal aspect, most of the 216 endemic species are threatened, especially the representatives of the superclass Pisces (fishes).

The continuous reduction of the water level of over the years has adversely af- fected the state of the floating vegetation and faunal communities in the littoral zone of the lake. The presence of large quantities of organic silt on the lake bottom accelerates the process of , which manifests itself with the appearance of phytoplankton blooms during the summer period. Of the floating macrophytic vegetation, the most significant is the assn. Lemno-Spirodelletum polyrhizae subassn. aldrovandetosum, which develops only within the inshore areas of Prespa Lake (SNR Ezerani) and is directly endangered by the lowering of the water level. Among the Lake Prespa endemic species of fishes, the Prespa Bleak (Alburnus belvica) is the most caught, nevertheless its population is remaining stable. Due to uncon- trolled fishing, the Carp (Cyprinus carpio) is the most threatened species in Lake Prespa. The establishment of the Protected Area Ezerani and the Prespa Park as a trans-boundary park will surely contribute to the improvement of the state of this lake ecosystem.

The status of Lake Doyran is the most alarming. Since 1988, the level of the water has drasti- cally fallen, contributing to a decrease in water depth and receding of the shoreline, accom- panied by a complete loss of the littoral zone and its related biological communities. The accelerated eutrophication has led to intensive sedimentation and a dramatic reduction in the epibenthic communities, as well as serious changes in the structure of the Algal microflora. These changes have particularly affected the reed zone and other aquatic macrophytic vegeta- tion (assn. Myriophyllo-Nupharetum was completely extinct).

The zooplankton community, under the influence of these changes, has lost its limnetic char- acter. Until 1988, 94 zooplankton taxa were present in the open waters of the littoral and pelagic zones, whereas the recent status of this community shows a reduction to only 28 taxa. Comparative population density analyses show that the abundance of the zooplankton com- munity within the pelagic complex is one-seventh of its former level, and that of the littoral complex one-tenth of its previous numbers. The current status of the benthic community, al- though severely disturbed, likely still has enough genetic potential to completely restore itself. The status of the benthos can be inferred from the amount of the annual fish catch, which in optimal conditions used to be as much as 500 tonnes. In the past decade it has been reduced to 70 tonnes, dropping to only 25 tonnes in the recent years.

The accelerated succession of this lake ecosystem is evidenced by the appearance of the Cala- noid (Eudiaptomus gracilis), a typical representative of marsh ecosystems, which was recorded in Lake Doyran for the first time in 1995. In to restore the disturbed environmen- tal balance, efforts have been made to bring additional quantities of water to the lake, which is continuously improveing the state of the biological communities within the lake ecosystem. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 37

The status of riverine ecosystems in the Republic of Macedonia is also alarming. Almost all of the rivers are under great direct and/or indirect anthropogenic pressures. The situation with the River Vardar, which is the major recipient of all types of wastewater (communal, indus- trial and agricultural), is the worst.

The situation with the other river ecosystems (Bregalnitsa, Crna, Lepenets, Pchinya, Zletovit- sa) is similar. Reservoirs have been built on some rivers, and these represent a sink for persist- ent substances (e.g., Kalimanci and Tikvesh Lakes). The reservoirs which provide drinking or industrial water (Mavrovitsa, Strezhevo, Turiya), although experiencing slight effects from natural eutrophication, have experienced deterioration in quality in past years due to inap- propriate fish stocking and exploitation. Benthic communities in the riverine ecosystems are showing reduced abundance, which ultimately leads to a decline in fish populations.

Wetland vegetation, which used to develop over large areas of swamps and marshes within all the valleys of Macedonia, experienced great changes under past drainage regimes which converted most of these ecosystems into arable land. The relict wetland communities, which today appear mainly in a fragmentary state, are the most endangered. They develop on or- ganic soils which are very suitable for growing early vegetable plants (Bansko) after drain- age. Some which were present near natural lakes have been destroyed simply because they represent unwelcome marsh vegetation. The most important wetland communities still extant are: assn. Caricetum elatae subassn. lysimachietosum (today only small fragments remain at Ohrid Lake near Studenchishte) assn. Cypero-Caricetum acutiformis (Gostivar), assn. Glyc- erietum maximae (Pelagonia - village Chepigovo), assn. Mariscetum (Negortsi Spa), assn. Osmundo-Thelipteretum (Bansko), assn. Scirpo-Alopecuretum cretici (Monospitovo Marsh) etc. Some of the wetlands which are still preserved are important in serving to explain the genesis of wetland vegetation in the Republic of Macedonia.

Impacts to most of the swamps and marshes have caused a reduction in the populations of all Amphibians, as well as individual species of other and vertebrate groups. The most affected are: Eurasian Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis), Otter (Lutra lutra), Balkan Terrapin (Mauremys rivulata), Coypu (Myocastor coypus), Dice Snake (Natrix tessellata), Miller’s Water Shrew (Neomys anomalus), Water shrew (Neomys fodiens), Balkan Spadefoot Toad (Pelobates syriacus balcanicus), Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), Balkan Stream Frog (Rana graeca), Marsh Frog (Peloph- ylax ridibundus), Alpine newt (Mesotriton alpestris), Macedonian Crested Newt (Triturus macedonicus), Balkan Crested Newt (Triturus karelinii) and Common Newt (Lissotriton vul- garis). Only Belchishta Marsh still exists in its original state, where the population of Otters (Lutra lutra), a threatened species, is the largest.

Water capture/extraction from mountain springs and streams often causes the desiccation of mountain marshes and bogs, and thus the degradation of wetland communities of the classes Montio-Cardaminetea and Scheuchzerio-Caricetea fuscae. Communities with assn. Carice- tum macedonicae, assn. Carici-Narthecietum scardici, Saxifraga aizoides, Saxifraga stellaris alpigena, representatives of the families Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, as well as the bog spe- cies Drosera rotundifolia, Sphagnum sp. etc, are particularly threatened. 38 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

3.2. Vegetation

The vegetation of the Republic of Macedonia represents a mosaic of diverse plant communi- ties represented by 30 vegetation classes, 60 orders, 90 alliances and 270 associations. The 132 different plant communities illustrate the ecological diversity within Macedonia, including: 21 aquatic and swamp communities; 8 halophytic communities; 2 steppe commu- nities; 50 forest communities and 51 alpine communities:

Aquatic Communities: Aquatic vegetation consists of floating (i.e., present on the water sur- face) and submersed (underwater) forms. It develops in the natural lakes of the Republic, is well studied and is represented by six associations, two alliances, two orders and two classes (Potametea and Lemnetea). In the past, aquatic plant communities also used to develop within marshes but, as a result of drainage activities, they were completely destroyed.

Wetland Communities: Lowland marsh vegetation is well studied and represented by 13 as- sociations, five alliances, three orders and two classes (Phragmitetea and Isoeto-Nanojun- cetea). In the past, these communities were widely distributed within numerous marshes and swamps, but drainage activities in the major valleys (Pelagonia, Strumitsa, Skopye, Ohrid- Struga, and Polog) and the Ovche Pole Plain destroyed large portions of these communities, and the areas they occupied were converted into arable land.

Meadow Communities: Lowland meadows extend from 80 to 1,000 m in almost all valleys. They belong to the class Molinio-Arrhenatheretea (alliance Trifolion resupinati). The areas on which they develop are now considerably reduced, especially on moist soils. The meadows of the mountain belt (1,000-1,400 m) belong to the alliance Rumicion thyrsiflori.

Halophytic and Steppe-like Communities: These develop in the central portion of Macedo- nia, in the region between Negotino, Shtip and Veles. Halophytic communities are present on small areas within the Ovche Pole Plain and in the steppe-like zone (between Negotino and Veles). Taxonomically, they belong to the vegetative class Thero-Salicornietea, in which the halophytes Camphorosma annua, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Salicornia herbacea, Suaeda maritima dominate. Steppe-like vegetation develops on Palaeogenic and Neogenic marls and has a high concentration of steppic species, such as: Astragalus parnassi, Hedysarum mac- edonicum, Morina persica, Onobrychis hypargyrea.

Hilly-pasture Communities: These communities develop at elevations of from 80 to approxi- mately 1,100 m, on soils of heterogeneous geological origin – andesites, arsenics, dolomites, limestones, serpentines, silicates etc. These communities are often of secondary origin and are formed primarily by the destruction of lowland forests. They are represented by over 10 associations belonging to the vegetative class Festuco-Brometea.

Forest Communities: Such communities cover a large portion of the land area of the Repub- lic of Macedonia at elevations of 150-2,200 m. Broadleaf forests dominate (Oak, Hornbeam, 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 39

Hop-hornbeam, Chestnut and Beech), while evergreen forests (Pine, Fir and Spruce) as well as mixed forests (Fir-Beech) are distributed in small areas. Due to over-harvesting, they have been degraded in the lowland areas and completely destroyed in some places. They are repre- sented by over 80 pure forest stands and include species from seven classes.

Sub-alpine and Alpine communities: These are distributed at the upper boundary of the for- ested areas, at 1,600-2,700 m, where climatic conditions are the most unfavourable (long winters, short summers and short growing seasons). Here, the various communities develop on heterogeneous substrates (acid soils, carbonate substrates, eroded cliffs, mountain peats, mountain streams, rocks).

3.3. Species Diversity

Notwithstanding the fact that the entire territory of the Republic of Macedonia encompasses an area of 25.713 km2, which is only 0.26 % of the European Continent (9.957.000 km2), a huge portion of European biodiversity is concentrated within this small area that ranges from 33.64% of vascular plants, 14% of the freshwater fish species, 20.3% amphibians, 25.2% reptiles, 64% birds and 29% of species.

On regional scale the biodiversity of Macedonia, in diverse taxonomic groups, covers 70-90% of the entire Balkan biodiversity (Kottelat & Freyhof, 2007; Gasc et al., 1997; Harrison, 1982; Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999).

Simple comparative analysis shows that the concentration of Biodiversity Richness in Mace- donia ranges from 54 times (in fishes) up to 246 times (in birds) higher than the mean Euro- pean Species Diversity Richness.

3.3.1. Fungi (Fungi)

Assessment of Fungi Fungi represent a very heterogeneous group of organisms; however, studies to date have dealt mainly with the phyla and . The other phyla of Fungi are poorly studied. 40 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

There are approximately 1,053 recorded species of Fungi. Most belong to the orders Ascomy- cota (83), Basidiomycota (946), Zygomycota (1), Neocallimastigomycota (13), Myxomycota (7) and Oomycota (3).

Endemism among Fungi There are no known endemic species of Fungi in the Republic of Macedonia.

3.3.2. Lichens (Lichenes)

Assessment of Lichens Lichens (Lichenoid Fungi) (Lichenes) number approximately 354 species.

Endemism among Lichens There are no known endemic species of Lichens in the Republic of Macedonia.

3.3.3. Algae (Algae)

Assessment of Algae With regard to the lower plant groups, Algae represent an especially diverse group of organ- isms. The Green, Silicate and Blue-green algae are dominant. To date, 2,169 species of Algae have been identified, of which Silicate and Green Algae form a majority.

Endemism among Algae Among the lower plant groups, Algae are represented by the greatest endemism, with 196 endemic species and subspecies. Most have been recorded in Ohrid and Prespa Lakes, with lesser numbers in Doyran Lake, on Pelister Mountain and the Babuna River. The Silicate Algae (Bacillariophyta) have the highest diversity, represented by 1,206 spe- cies (166 endemics); Charophytes (Charophyta) 393 species (12 endemics), Blue-Green algae (Cyanophyta), by 283 species and (15 endemics) and Green Algae (Chlorophyta) by 209 spe- cies (2 endemics). The other phyla are less represented: Euglenozoa 27 species (1 endemic), Heterokontophyta 25 species, Dinophyta 16 species, Rhodophyta 8 species, Cryptophyta 1 species and Glaucophyta 1 species. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 41

3.3.4. Flora (Plants)

The flora of the Republic of Macedonia is quite rich, with a mosaic of diverse floral elements (Tertiary relicts, Mediterranean, Greek-Anatolian, Ilyric, Caucasian, Middle-European, Eura- sian, Arctic-Alpine and Cosmopolitan) and large number of endemic species (Macedonian, South Balkan, Balkan). It is represented by 210 families, 920 genera and approximately 3,700 species. The most numerous group is flowering (Angiosperm) plants, with about 3,200 spe- cies, followed by Mosses (350) and Ferns (42).

Assessment of Plants

Mosses (Bryoposida). Mosses are represented by 67 families, 167 genera and 398 species. The class Hepaticae includes 25 families, 36 genera and 66 species; the class Anthocerotae includes one family, one genus and one species, while the class Musci includes 41 families, 130 genera and 331 species.

Peat mosses (Lycopsida). This group is represented by six species which mainly inhabit moist areas and bogs in mountain and high mountain areas. They are only rarely found in low- lands (most often on silicate soils). The species Diphasium alpinum, Huperzia sellago, Isoetes phrygia and Lycopodium clavatum have very restricted distribution.

Horsetails (Sphenopsida). Horsetails are represented by seven species which may be found in very moist places, from lowlands to high mountain areas (by rivers, mountain streams, val- leys, gorges, marshes and moist meadows). The most frequent species are Equisetum arvense and E. palustre, with the rarest being the species E. fluviatile and E. sylvaticum.

Ferns (Filicinae). In the Republic of Macedonia, 45 species of ferns in 15 families can be observed. The most polymorphic genera are Asplenium (11 species) and Dryopteris (8). The following species are characterised by a restricted distribution: Adiantum capillus-veneris, Blechnum spicant, Crytogramma crispa, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Osmunda regalis, Phyllitis scolopendrium, Thelipteris palustris, as well as the endemic species Asplenium macedonicum (in the vicinity of Prilep). This group also includes the two species of aquatic ferns (Marsilea quadrifolia and Salvinia natans).

Gymnosperms (Gymnospermae). These are represented by four families, six genera and 18 indigenous species (the most polymorphic are the genera Juniperus and Pinus, each with five species). Some species have been introduced (exotic), mainly from the genera Abies, Junipe- rus, Picea, Pinus, Sequoia, Taxodium etc.

Angiosperms (Angiospermae). Angiosperms are represented by 120 families, 720 genera and approximately 3,200 species (5,000 taxa). The most polymorphic families of the class Di- cotyledonae are the families Caryophyllaceae (345 species), Compositae (c. 470), Cruciferae (264), Labiatae (c. 260), and Leguminosae (457), whereas of the class Monocotyledonae, the families Gramineae (c. 280) and Liliaceae (c.130) are most polymorphic. 42 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Endemism among Plants Of the 115 known endemic higher plant species, 114 belong to the Angiosperms. The class Dicotyledonae is represented by 109 endemic species and the class Monocotyledonae by five. The families with the most endemic species are: Compositae (18), Caryophyllaceae (17), La- biatae (12), Violaceae (10), Scrophulariaceae (9), and Rosaceae (9).

Key Threats to Plants

Drainage of Marshes. Species endangered by these activities are: Alopecurus creticus (Mon- ospitovo Marsh); elata, Ranunculus lingua, hydrolapathus and Senecio palu- dosus (Ohrid and Struga Marshes); Carex pseudocyperus, Scirpus sylvaticus expansus and Thelipteris palustris (Marsh near Gostivar); Cladium mariscus, Juncus maritimus, Molinia coerulea, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Shoenus nigricans etc. (Negortsi Spa); Glyceria maxima (Pelagonia Marsh); Isoetes phrygia and Osmunda regalis (Bansko Marsh) and Merendera sobolifera (Petrovets Marsh). The following species are considered to be extinct: Acorus ca- lamus (Crni Drim River) and Sagittaria sagittifolia (Pelagonia Marsh - Novatsi).

Construction of hydropower reservoirs in river gorges. By inundating large areas of river gorges, the existing phytocenoses present in the lower vertical profiles of the rivers suffer degradation and partial destruction, and the cover of relict, endemic and rare plant species is reduced. In the Treska River gorge, where the Kozyak hydropower reservoir has been con- structed, type localities of 13 plant species have been present. Among them, the relict endemic species Thymus oehmianus and Viola kosaninii are particularly threatened. With the planned construction of the Chebren hydropower reservoir in the gorge of the Crna River near Mari- ovo, natural habitats of the endemic species Silene paeoniensis will be covered with water. The construction of the Mavrovo Lake caused two species, Gentiana pneumonanthe and Lysi- machia thyrsiflora, which originated on the Mavrovsko Pole Plain, to become extinct.

Destruction of areas with halophytic vegetation. The cultivation of the salty soils of the Ovche Pole Plain has endangered some halophytic species and communities. This especially refers to the species Camphorosma monspeliaca, but also to other halophytes such as: Cryp- sis aculeatus, Puccinelia convoluta, Suaeda maritima etc. The species Allium obtusiflorum is now considered to be extinct.

Collection of medicinal herbs. This activity endangers the following species: Aconitum diver- gens, Adonis vernalis, Althaea officinalis, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Centaurium erythraea, Colchicum bivonae, C. macedonicum, C. pieperianum, Convallaria majalis, Dactylorhiza maculata, Daphne blagayana, Digitalis feruginea, D. grandiflora, Gentiana lutea symphiandra, G. punctata, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Helychrysum zivojinii, He- patica nobilis, Hypericum perforatum, , Juniperus communis, Leucojum aestivum, Lycopodium clavatum, Menyanthes trifoliata, Orchis laxiflora, Orchis militaris, Origanum vulgare, mascula, P. peregrina, Paris quadrifolia, Primula veris, Pul- monaria officinalis, Ruta graveolens, Salvia officinalis, Sambucus nigra, Sideritis raeseri, Sideritis scardica, Thymus oehmianus, Tulipa mariannae, T. scardica. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 43

Uncontrolled collection of rare plants by profession al collectors. The result of this activity is the endangerment of many local endemic plants with restricted distributions: Astragalus cernjavskii, Astragalus physocalyx, Crocus cvijici, Sambucus deborensis, Thymus oehmianus, Tulipa mariannae, Tulipa scardica.

Mining and geological works. Alshar: Knautia caroli-rechingeri, Onobrychis degeni, Thy- mus alsarensis, Viola allchariensis and V. arsenica and Sivets: marmorea.

Construction of ski-lifts, transmission lines, television transmitters. These endanger rare species occurring in mountainous areas, especially on mountain peaks. Bistra: Colchicum pieperianum; Shar Planina-Popova Shapka: Gentianella ciliata and Picea abies; Yakupitsa - Solunska Glava: Rhododendron myrtifolium; Krushevo: Viola slavikii.

3.3.5. Fauna (Animals)

Assessment of Fauna A general characteristic of the fauna of Macedonia is its high degree of taxonomic diver- sity, represented by 10,354 species. In addition, the complex zoogeographical structure, with faunal elements of various origins and zoogeographical affiliations is manifested by a high degree of relict and endemic forms.

Phylum Protozoa (Protozoans). The diversity of this group of organisms is mainly concen- trated in the waters of the three natural lakes (Ohrid, Prespa and Doyran). A total of 113 species has been recorded, of which 79 belong to the group of free-living Protozoans. Of the parasitic Protozoans, there are five subphyla; however, only the subphylum Ciliophora has been studied (34 species).

Phylum Porifera (Sponges). To date, 10 species have been recorded, all inhabiting the three natural lakes.

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms). Of this group, 85 species have been recorded. From the Subphylum of Turbellaria (Turbellarian Worms), 65 species have been recorded, with the dominant representatives from the Suborder Tricladida, with a total of 40 species. The other two orders include 25 species (Rhabdocoela - 24; Acoela - one).

From the Subphylum Neodermata (Neodermates), the classes Trematoda (Flukes) and Ces- toda (Tapeworms), are represented by 10 species each. The largest centre of biodiversity of this group of organisms is Ohrid Lake, with 48 recorded species.

Phylum Cnidaria (Cnidarians). These are represented by the Class of Hydroid Zoophytes (Hydrozoa) in freshwater ecosystems, of which two species have been recorded. 44 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Phylum (Nemertine Worms). Found in the sublittoral zone of Ohrid Lake, Sti- chostemma graecense is the only recorded species.

Phylum Rotifera (Rotifers). The data on Rotifera originate from the analyses of the plank- ton communities of the three lakes, recognising 269 species. As planktonic organisms, they are characterised by a wide area of distribution and have no endemic species.

Phylum Nematoda (Nematodes). Research to date has identified a total of 553 species of Nematodes in Macedonia, which is likely to be much less than the actual number of species. In the first study of roundworms in Ohrid Lake, 23 aquatic, Free-living Nematodes were found. Later, greater stress was given to the study of terrestrial Nematodes, mainly in forest ecosystems (450 species), as well as Nematodes which parasitise early vegetables, animals and humans (80 species).

Phylum Mollusca (Molluscs). Molluscs are well studied, with a total of 366 known species. The Class of Snails (Gastropoda) is represented by 343 species. From the Class of Bivalves (Bivalvia), 23 species have been recorded. The most important centre of diversity of this group is Ohrid Lake.

Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms). This is a relatively well studied group, with a total of 186 recorded species. With regard to the Class Oligochaeta (Oligochaetes), 157 species have been recorded, while the Class Hirudinea (Leeches) is represented by 29 species. Centres of their diversity are natural lakes and other aquatic biotopes. Phylum Arthropoda (). This group has numerous representatives in the animal world and is also well represented within the Republic of Macedonia with a large number of species (8,234). The Subphylum (Chelicerates) is reperesented by the Class Arachnida (Arach- nids) with total number of 993 species. Among the six orders in this class, the order Aranea (Spiders) is dominant with 702 species. The order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudo-scorpions) is represented by 51 species and the Order Opiliones (Harvestmen or Daddy Longlegs) by 40 species. The Order Scorpiones (Scorpions) is represented by three species, and the Order Solpugida (Sun Spiders) by one species only. The Order Acarina (Ticks and Mites) is repre- sented by 196 species, most of which belong to the group of terrestrial mites (123 species), with the remainder being aquatic mites (73 species). The western portion of Macedonia is an important centre of biodiversity for this group, which is present in various types of habitats.

The Subphylum Crustacea (), represents one of the most thoroughly studied groups of organisms, with a total of 476 species.

Of the Class Maxilopoda, the subclass Copepoda (Copepods) is represented by 145 species, separated into three orders. The Order Cyclopoida is represented by 58 species, the Order Harpacticoida by 54 species and the Order by 30 species. From the Subclass Branchiura (Branchiurans), only three species have been recorded to date.

The Class Ostracoda (Ostracods) is represented by 168 species. Summer Cep ( reticulatus)

Scarlet Elf Cup (Sarcoscypha coccinea)

Sponge Morel (Morchella spongiola) Sweet Vernal (Adonis vernalis)

Alshar’s Violet (Viola allchariensis)

Insectivorous Plant - Drosera (Drosera rotundifolia) 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 47

The Class is represented by 94 species, of which the Order by six species, the Order by two species and the Order Diplostraca by 86 species.

The Class of Malacostracans () is represented by 69 species, separated into four orders. The Order Isopoda is represented by 15 species, the Order Amphipoda by 47 species, the Order Bathynellacea by 2 species, and the Order by five species. Since the Crustaceans in Macedonia are linked with freshwater ecosystems, the largest centres of biodi- versity occur in the three natural lakes, especially Ohrid Lake.

The Subphylum Myriapoda (Myriapods) includes 98 species, separated into two classes: the Class Diplopoda (Millipedes) with 62 species and the Class Chilopoda (Centipedes) with 36 species.

The Subphylum Hexapoda (Hexapods) is represented by a total of 6,667 species. The Class Entognatha (Ametabolous Arthropods) has a small number of recorded species (14) belong- ing to three orders: Collembola (6), Protura (2) and Diplura (6). The Class Insecta (Insects) has a total of 6,653 species, devided in numerous orders. The orders have the following number of recorded species: Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) - 112 species, Odonata (Dragonflies) - 62 species, Plecoptera (Stoneflies) - 93 species, Orthoptera (Grasshoppers) - 184 species, Isoptera (Termites) - 2 species, Psocoptera (Book-Lice) - 48 species, Thysanoptera (Thrips) - 4 species, Heteroptera (True Bugs) - 778 species, Homoptera (Homopterans) - 332 species, Trichoptera (Caddisflies) - 285 species, Diptera (Flies and Mosquitoes) - 759 species, Hy- menoptera (Ants and Bees) - 178 species, and Coleoptera (Beetles) - 1527 species and Lepi- doptera (Moths and Butterflies) with a total of 2,289 recorded species. The most important diversity centres of insects are the mountain massifs of Shar Planina, Galichitsa, Yakupitsa, and the refugial centres in the gorges of the Treska, Babuna, Topolka, Crna and Vardar Rivers.

Phylum Chordata (). The fauna of Macedonia is represented by the Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebrates) with total number of 535 species, separated into four classes and one superclass. The Superclass Pisces (Fishes) is represented by 78 species (73 of which are indigenous spe- cies), with centres of diversity in the three natural lakes, as well as in the Vardar River and its watershed.

The Class Amphibia (Amphibians) is represented by 15 species, while the Class Reptilia (Rep- tiles) by 32 species. The most important centres of diversity for Amphibians are the marsh ecosystems and the temporary aquatic biotopes. With regard to Reptiles, the most important diversity centres for the Mediterranean and Aralo-Caspian Faunal Elements are the lowland areas of the lower course of the Vardar River and Doyran Region. For the Central-European, Boreal and Oreo-Tundral herpetofauna - the mountain massifs of Galichitsa, Pelister, Shar Planina and Yakupitsa are important centres.

The Class Aves (Birds) is represnted by 328 species. Of the total number, 213 species breed locally, while the others appear during the winter or in periods of migration. The most impor- tant centres of diversity for the ornithofauna are the three natural lakes (for waterbirds) and the gorges of the Babuna, Topolka, Treska, Crna and Vardar Rivers (for birds of prey). The 48 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level mountain massifs in western Macedonia are the most important centres of diversity for the boreal and arcto-alpine complex of ornithofaunal elements.

The Class Mammalia (Mammals) is represented by 82 species, belonging to six orders, 18 families and 51 genera. Eight species have been introduced by humans, either deliberately or accidentally. Three species are extinct in Macedonia, of which two have been reintroduced into the wild. The largest centres of diversity for the Mediterranean elements of this class are the lowland areas in south-eastern Macedonia and, for the central-European faunal and boreal elements, the mountain massifs of western Macedonia.

Endemism among Fauna

Macedonian endemic faunal elements are represented by 668 species, which is 6.45% of the total current number of recorded species. Representatives of the Phylum Arthropoda, the larg- est taxonomic group in the animal world, also occur in large number of species 8,234). The degree of endemism at the phylum level, in descending order, is as follows: Protozoa (Pro- tozoans) – 28.3%, Porifera (Sponges) - 60%, Platyhelmintes (Flatworms) - 41.2%, Mollusca (Molluscs) - 35.8%, Annelida - 25.8%, Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods) - 4.65 and Chordata (Chordates) - 5.6%.

Certain lower taxonomic groups (Subphyla, Classes, Orders and Families) show higher de- grees of endemism. The level of endemism within the Subphylum Ciliophora of the Phylum Protozoa (Protozoans) is 88.2%. The highest degree of endemism among the Phylum Mol- lusca (Molluscs) is seen within the Aquatic Gastropods - 73%.

The highest degree of endemism in the Subphylum Chelicerata (Chelicerates) of the Phy- lum Arthropoda (Arthropods) is seen in the orders Pseudoscorpiones (56.9%) and Opiliones (47.5%). Within the Subphylum Crustacea of the Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods), the high- est degree of endemism is seen in the Order Isopoda (Water Lice) - 93.3% and the Order Amphipoda (Freshwater Shrimps) - 87.2%. Among the Vertebrates (Vertebrata), the highest degree of endemism appears within the Superclass Pisces (Fishes) 37%, a real curiosity at least on European Level.

Phylum Protozoa (Protozoans).Two endemic species of free living Protozoans are found in Ohrid Lake. Of the parasitic Protozoans (Subphylum Ciliophora), there are 30 endemic spe- cies which, together with their hosts (Oligochaeta), represent relict species. The degree of endemism in Ciliophora is as high as 88%. Comparative analyses between parasitic Ciliates from Ohrid Lake and from Baikal Lake point to great similarity.

Phylum Porifera (Sponges). Out of 10 species of sponges (Porifera), six species are endemic. The degree of endemism is 60%. The species Ochridospongia rotunda is the best known of the four endemic sponges found in Ohrid Lake, and it represents a relict genus and species, with its spherical shape closely resembling the endemic sponges of the Sea of Galilee and Baikal Lake. 3. Assessment of Biodiversity 49

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms). With regard to the Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat- worms), 35 endemic species are recorded, of which the highest degree of endemism is found in the Subphylum Turbelaria (Suborder Tricladida - 25 and Order Rhabdocoela - 10).

Phylum Nematoda (Nematodes).There are only three endemic nematodes species, all of which are restricted to Ohrid Lake.

Phylum Mollusca (Molluscs). The Phylum Mollusca (Molluscs) shows great endemism with 131 endemic species on national level. Within the Class Gastropoda (Gastropods), greatest degree of endemism appears among the aquatic gastropods, with a total of 78 endemic species (degree of endemism, 73%). In contrast, terrestrial gastropods, which are still insufficiently studied, have a limited number of 47 endemic species (degree of endemism, 20%). Of the 23 recorded species from the Class Bivalvia (BVivalves) six are endemic, four of the genus Pis- idium and two of the genus Dreissena. In addition, 49 molluscs species are Balkan endemics.

Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms). The Phylum Annelida, includes 48 recorded endemic species. Dominant among them being the Class Oligochaeta (Oligochaetes) with 37 endem- ics, followed by the Class Hirudinea (Leeches), with 11 endemics.

Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods). The most numerous animal Phylum Arthropoda (Arthro- pods) has 383 endemic species.

The Subphylum Chelicerata (Chelicerates) has 65 endemic species. The highest degree of en- demism among the Chelicerates is seen in the orders Pseudoscorpiones (56.9%) and Opiliones (47.5%). All of the 65 endemic species among the chelicerates belong to the Class Arachnida (), of which 17 to the order Aranea (Spiders), 29 to the order Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudo-scorpions) and 19 to the Order Opiliones (Harvestmen or Daddy Longlegs).

Within the Subphylum Crustacea (Crustaceans) a total number of 131 endemic species has been recorded, with extremely high degree of endemism 27.5% on level of high taxonomic category. The highest degree of endemism among the crustaceans is present within the Class Malacostraca (Higher Crustaceans) with 78.3%, followed by the Class Ostracoda (Ostracods) with 27.4% and the Class Maxilopoda (Maxilopods) with 20%, while the lowest degree of endemism is present within the Class Branchiopoda (Gill-footed Crustaceans) with 2.1%. The Subphylum Myriapoda (Myriapods) includes 16 endemic species, of which 12 endemic species of the Class Diplopoda (Millipedes) and four endemic species of the Class Chilopoda (Centipedes).

The Subphylum Hexapoda (Hexapods) is represented by a total of 171 endemic species. The Class Entognatha (Ametabolous Arthropods) has only one endemic species.

The Class Insecta (Insects) has a total of 170 endemic species, of which the Order Ephemerop- tera (Mayflies) with six endemics, the Order Odonata (Dragonflies) with none endemic spe- cies, the Order Plecoptera (Stoneflies) with 10 endemic species, the Order Orthoptera (Grass- hoppers) with 12 endemic species, the Order Thysanoptera (Thrips) with none endemic spe- cies, the Order Heteroptera (True Bugs) with none endemic species, the Order Homoptera 50 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

(Homopterans) with none endemic species, the Order Trichoptera (Caddisflies) with five endemic species, the Order Diptera (Flies and Mosquitoes) with eight endemic species, the Order Hymenoptera (Ants and Bees) with none endemic species, the Order Coleoptera (Bee- tles) with 67 endemic species and the Order (Moths and Butterflies) with 62 endemic species.

Phylum Chordata (Chordates). In regard to the Subphylum Vertebrata (Vertebrates), 30 en- demic species are present, of which the Superclass Pisces (Fishes) has the highest degree of endemism on national level with 27 endemic species. Among the other classes, only three endemic mammals are known. Of the major centres of faunal endemism, the three relict lakes are especially noteworthy. The largest, Ohrid Lake, with 216 endemic species, has been described as the most important centre for endemism in Europe. No less important are Prespa and Doyran lakes which, due to their shallower depths, have fewer numbers of endemic and relict species. Of particular interest is the presence of six endemic taxa (four species and two subspecies) common to both Ohrid and Prespa lakes, which confirms the common origin of these lakes from the former Pliocene Desaret Lake. The groundwater springs and caves of Macedonia are second in importance as centres of en- demism. They are characterised by the presence of thalassophreatic (i.e., from saline waters), limnophreatic (i.e., from fresh waters) and terrestrial relict fauna which date from the Upper Tertiary. Evaluation of Biodiversity Dalmatian Algyroides (Algyroides nigropunctatus)

Orsini’s Viper (Vipera ursinii macrops)

Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis) Macedonian Stone Crayfish (Austropotamobius torrentium macedonicus)

Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus)

Balkan Snow Vole (Dinaromys bogdanovi) Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus)

Large Copper (Lycaena dispar)

Badger (Meles meles) 55 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity

Species Richness

Notwithstanding the fact that numerous taxonomic groups are not yet completely investigate the current knowledge on the biodiversity of the Republic of Macedonia shows an extremely high level of species richness.

The total number of species recorded on the territory of the Republic of Macedonia raises up to 17,604 species, of which 1,053 species of Fungi, 354 species of Lichens, 2,169 species of Algae, 3,674 species of vascular plants and 10,354 faunal species.

Species Richness and Endemism on National level Taxonomic Number Taxonomic Group Endemism Category of Species Kingdom Fungi (Fungi) 1,053 - Kingdom Lichenoid Fungi: Lichenes (Lichens) 354 - Kingdom Algae (Algae) 2,169 196 Kingdom: Plantae (Plants) Phylum Bryopsida (Mosses) 398 - Phylum Lycopsida (Peat mosses) 6 - Phylum Sphenopsida (Horsetails) 7 Phylum: Pteropsida Division Filicinae (Ferns) 45 1 Division Coniferophyta (Gymnospermae); ( Gymnosperms) 18 - Division Magnoliophyta (Angiospermae); (Angiosperms) 3,200 114 Kingdom: Animalia (Animals) Phylum Protozoa (Protozoan) 113 32 Phylum Porifera (Sponges) 10 6 Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) 85 35 Phylum Cnidaria (Cnidarians) 2 - Phylum Nemertea (Nemertine Worms) 1 - 56 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Phylum Rotifera (Rotifers) 269 - Phylum Nematoda (Nematodes) 553 - Phylum Mollusca (Mollusks) 366 131 Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) 186 48 Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods) 8,234 383 Phylum Chordata (Chordates) 535 30 Total Number of Species 17,604 976

Species Heterogeneity

Besides the species richness, another most striking feature of the Biodiversity is its heteroge- neity. The origin and the genesis of the Species Complexes are closely relate with the regional geological history and the climatic changes during the Pleistocene Glaciations, Interglacial Phases and Postglacial Period, that have resulted in massive, repeated migrations and mixture of species from various biogeographic regions.

Consequently, the composition of the recent Biodiversity is highly heterogeneous, consisted of various complexes of faunal and floral elements concentrated into a relatively small area that causes Mediterranean Species to go hand-in-hand with the Alpine, Siberian (Boreal) or Steppic Species. The heterogeneity is analysed in more details within the Chapter on Bioge- ography.

Legal Protection & Conservation Status Legal Protection During the last decades, a set of international conventions and treaties has come into effect for the protection of threatened species in Europe. The implementation of these instruments and particularly the establishment of Natura 2000 under the Birds Directive and the Habitats Directive are of vital importance in the development of the Pan European Ecological Network (PEEN), since these instruments provide conservation of many valuable sites across Europe. The physical realization of PEEN should be base on existing initiatives and European direc- tives.

Since in Macedonia the by-law documents on Legal Protection of Wild Animal and Plant Species, under the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive are already into Ad- ministrative Procedure for adoption, the evaluation of faunal and plant species under Legal Protection has been made in accordance with these two Directives. 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 57

Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC). The Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC), adopted in 1992, is a Community legislative instrument in the field of nature conservation that establishes a common framework for the conservation of wild animal and plant species and natural habitats of Community importance.

Annex I. Natural and semi-natural habitat types of community interest whose conservation re- quires the designation of special areas of conservation.

Annex II. Animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation.

Annex IV. Animal and plant species of community interest in need of strict protection.

Annex V. Animal and plant species of community interest whose taking in the wild and exploi- tation may be subject to management measures.

Only Annexes II and IV are used in the present report as a selection criterion for “evaluation”.

Birds Directive (Directive 79/409/EEC). The Directive for the conservation of wild birds (79/409/EEC) was adopt in 1979 by nine Member States, and was the first EU Directive on nature conservation. Since its adoption, it has been a vital legal instrument for the conserva- tion of all birds that occur naturally across the EU, acting in the broadest public interest to conserve Europe’s natural heritage for present and future generations. The Birds Directive applies to all EU countries since May 2004.

The Birds and Habitats Directives both require the EU Member States to take a number of measures in order to protect all listed species and habitats, as well as their sites. Measures required by the Birds Directives include:

Annex I. Classify as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) the most suitable territories for species in need of special habitat protection as listed on Annex I.

Annex II. Regulate the hunting of species listed in Annex II.

Annex III. Regulate the trade of species listed in Annex III.

Since Annexes II and III are not applicable for protected areas, only Annex I was used in the present report as a selection criterion for “evaluation”.

Conservation Status

The IUCN Red List of Globally Threatened Species (2009). The IUCN Red Lists are widely recognized as the most comprehensive, apolitical global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plant and animal species. The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria 58 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level are intended to provide an explicit, objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk (IUCN 2001). The Red List distinguishes nine hierarchically related Red List Categories The present IUCN criteria are based on esti- mates of rates of decline and extinction risk as well as rarity, and produce a different, but more useful, assessment compared to the former criteria, which had a more subjective basis.

All taxa listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered EN) and Vulnerable (VU), qualify as Threatened. The threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme. It will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories. The category Data Deficient (DD) is not a threat- ened category, although it indicates a need to obtain more information on a taxon to obtain the appropriate listing. The old IUCN category Lower Risk (LR) in (IUCN 1994) is replaced by Near Threatened (NT), close to qualifying for Vulnerable but not threatened.

Geographical Distribution/Endemism. For the evaluation of the geographic distribution of species, the degree to which species are characteristic on Local and National level is consider as the most important criterion. Species for which the geographical distribution is restricted to a certain area are included in the category of “Endemic Species”. Therefore, the definition of endemism is scale dependent. Within the scope of the present report, endemism is defined at the Local (Protected Area), National (Macedonia) and Regional Scale (Balkan Peninsula).

Most of the endemic species on National or Local Scale are vulnerable to extinction due to their very restricted range size. Unfortunately, Macedonia has not yet prepared its National Red List of Threatened Species and Red Data Book. Therefore, the present data should be regard as a preliminary list of threatened species, since for most of the endemic species there is not enough information for an evaluation of their threat status DD (‘Data Deficient’).

In the case of Macedonia, the absence of major phases of Pleistocene glaciations has allowed particular ecosystems (and especially the cave and aquatic ecosystems) and their associated faunal elements to survive for extended periods. Macedonia, thus represents an area in which ancient groups (relict faunal species) have survived and diversified, less troubled by the waves of extinction that accompany glaciations.

The long-term environmental stability, has allowed the process of further diversification of species through the process of speciation, which has resulted in numerous Local Endemic Species. 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 59

4.1. Evaluation of Fungi

Species Richness: 1,053 Species

Endemism: None Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): None Habitats Directive (Annex IV): None

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: None On National Level, there are 67 potentially threatened species of Fungi (Basidiomycota), especially the following species: Antrodia juniperina, Battarea phalloides, Boletus regius, helveticus, Inonotus tamaricis, Myriostoma coliforme, Peniophora tamarici- cola, Pleurocybella porigens, Poronia punctata, Pyrofomes demidoffii and sibiricus.

4.2. Evaluation of Lichens

Species Richness: 354 Species.

Endemism: None Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): None Habitats Directive (Annex IV): None

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: None On National Level the following Lichens have status of threatened species: divari- cata, exasperatula, Parmelina omphaloides, Parmelina pastillifera, Parmelina sorediata, , Pertusaria coccodes, Ramalia carpatica, Ramalia polymorpha, Staurothele clopimoides, Usnia carpatica and Usnia causasica. 60 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

4.3. Evaluation of Algae

Species Richness: 2,169 Species

Endemism: 196 Species Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): None Habitats Directive (Annex IV): None

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: None Data concerning the degree of threat to Algal taxa exist only for the Silicate algae. Accord- ing to the research to date, many threatened species are found in Ohrid and Prespa Lakes: Achnanthes inflata, Achnanthes minuscula, Diploneis domblitensis, Eucocconeis quadrata- rea and Hippodonta rostrata; Doyran Lake: Navicula oblonga, Nitzschia elegantula and Nitzschia reversa; Glacial Lakes on Shar Planina and Pelister Mountains: Decussata hex- agona, Navicula amphibola, Navicula concentrica, Navicula tridentula, Pinnularia alpina, Pinnularia infirma, Planothidium peragallii, Stauroneis obtusa.

4.4. Evaluation of Flora (Plants)

Species Richness: 3,674 Species

Endemism: 115 Species Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 7 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 10 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: None 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 61

Plants under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Phylum Pteridophyta (Ferns); (Paprati) Family Marsileaceae (Aquatic Ferns); (Vodni Paprati) 1. Marsilea quadrifolia Four Clover II/IV - Infraphylum Angiospermae (Flowering Plants); (Skrienosemeni Rastenija) Family Boraginaceae (Borage or Forget-me-not); (Grapavolisni Rastenija) 2. Echium russicum Viper’s Bugloss II/IV - Family Droseraceae (Sundew family); (Drozeri) 3. Aldrovanda vesiculosa Waterwheel plant II/IV - Family Gesneriaceae (Gerneriad Family); (Gesnerii) 4. Ramonda serbica Serbian phoenix IV - Family Iridaceae (Iris Family); (Peruniki) 5. Gladiolus palustris Marsh gladiolus II/IV - Family Liliaceae (Lily family); (Liljani, Krinovi) 6. Fritillaria gussichiae Fritillaria IV - Family Scrophulariaceae (Figwort family); (Skrofularii) 7. Lindernia procumbens Yellow-seed false pimpernel IV - 8. Tozzia carpathica Tozzia II/IV - Family Umbelliferae (Umbellifer family); (Shtitocvetni Rastenija) 9. Angelica palustris Marsh Angelica II/IV - Lower Plants (Nizhi Rastenija) Order Bryophyta (Mosses); (Movovi) 10. Buxbaumia viridis Green Shield-Moss II/IV -

On National level, the most threatened groups of higher plants are the Angiosperms (with approximately 280-300 species), ferns (15), mosses (20) and Gymnosperms (7). Especially endangered are the aquatic and wetland plants, such as: Aldrovanda vesiculosa, Alopecu- rus creticus, Beckmannia eruciformis, Carex elata, Cladium mariscus, Drosera rotundifolia, Glyceria maxima, Isoetes phrygia, Merendera sobolifera, Nymphaea alba, Osmunda regalis, Ranunculus lingua, Rumex hydrolapathum, Salvinia natans, Senecio paludosus etc. The following group includes relict species, as well as some of the Macedonian endemics which have a restricted distribution and whose habitats have been impacted by certain an- thropogenic activities such as the construction of roads, hydropower reservoirs, agricultural conversion etc. These are: Anthoceros punctatus, Astragalus cernjavskii, Astragalus physo- calyx, Buxbaumia indusiata, Camphorosma monspeliaca, Crypsis aculeatus, Knautia caroli- rechingeri, Onobrychis degeni, Puccinelia convoluta, Rhodobryum roseum, Salvia jurisicii, Sambucus debarensis, Sideritis scardica, Silene paeoniensis, Suaeda maritima, Thymus alsa- rensis, T. oehmianus, Tulipa mariannae, Viola allchariensis, Viola arsenica, Viola kosaninii etc. 62 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

4.5. Evaluation of Fauna (Animals)

The most endangered group of organisms in the Republic of Macedonia are fishes. Among the birds, the most threatened species are the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and the Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Mammals have also a high number of threatened spe- cies; however, the formerly locally extinct species Cervus elaphus (Red Deer) and Dama dama (Fallow Deer) have been successfully reintroduced and now have steadily increasing populations.

Amphibians and Reptiles, according to the 2009 IUCN Red List of Globally Threatened Spe- cies, are regarded as the least endangered. However, on a national level, a considerable reduc- tion in the populations of most of the species has been recorded, with the most noteworthy cases being the Balkan Spadefoot Toad (Pelobates syriacus balcanicus), due to draining of marsh ecosystems and the Yellow-bellied Toad (Bombina scabra), due to water capture/ex- traction from natural springs.

Major portions of the endemic invertebrate fauna in Macedonia are intrinsically linked to the aquatic ecosystems. The high threat level to this fauna results from the decline in the water levels of certain lakes, eutrophication of these lakes and the pollution of riverine ecosystems. The reason for the disappearance of species and/or the reduction of their populations is pri- marily due to human activity, but there are also global causes which have not been completely identified. If global factors endangering biodiversity, including changes in climate, are ex- cluded, then all remaining essential factors having direct or indirect impacts on faunal diver- sity, the observed changes within ecosystems (especially aquatic and forest types), changes in the ozone layer, some fungal pandemics etc., are of anthropogenic origin.

4.5.1. Evaluation of Invertebrates

Species Richness: 9,819 Species

Endemism: 635 Species Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 16 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 18 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: 10 Species 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 63

Invertebrates under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Phylum Arthropoda (Arthropods); (Chlenkonogi) Subphylum Crustacea (Crustaceans); (Rakoobrazni) Class Branchiopoda (Gill-footed Crustaceans) ; (Zhabronozhni Rakoobrazni) Order Anostraca (Fairy Shrimps); (Samovilski Rakchinja) Chirocephalus Pelagonian Fairy Shrimp - VU pelagonicus Class Malacostraca (Higher Crustaceans); (Vishi Rakovi) Order Decapoda (Decapods); (Dekapodni rakovi) Austropotamobius Stream or Stone Crayfish II VU torrentium Astacus astacus River Crayfish - VU Class Insecta (Insects); (Insekti) Order Coleoptera (Beetles); (Tvrdokrilni Insekti) Bolbelasmus unicornis Dung- II/IV - Goldstreifiger II/IV VU Cerambyx cerdo Great Capricorn Beetle II/IV VU Lucanus cervus Stag Beetle II - Morimus funereus Long-horned Beetle II VU Osmoderma eremite Hermit Beetle II/IV VU Rosalia alpina Alpine Longhorn Beetle II/IV VU Order Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies); (Peperutki) Euphydryas aurinia Marsh Fritillary II - Licaena dispar Large Copper II/IV NT Polyommatus eroides False Eros Blue II/IV - Maculinea arion Large Blue IV NT Papilio alexanor Southern Swallowtail IV - Parnassius apollo Mountain Apollo IV VU Parnassius mnemosyne Clouded Apollo IV - Zerynthia polyxena Southern Festoon IV - Order Odonata (Dragonflies & Damselflies); (Samovilski Konjchinja) Coenagrion ornatum Ornate Blue II - Large golden-ringed Cordulegaster heros II/IV - dragonfly Leucorrhinia pectoralis Large White-faced Darter II/IV - Lindenia tetraphylla Bladetail II/IV - Order Orthoptera (Grasshoppers & Crickets); (Pravokrilci; Skakulci i Shturci) Paracaloptenus Short-horned Grasshopper II/IV - caloptenoides Saga pedo Predatory bush cricket IV VU 64 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Phylum Molllusca (Molluscs); (Mekoteli) Class Bivalvia (Bivalves); (Shkolki) Order Unionoida (Freshwater Mussels); (Slatkovodni Shkolki) Thick Shelled River Unio crassus II/IV NT Mussel

4.5.2. Evaluation of Fishes (Pisces)

Species Richness: 78 Species

Endemism: 27 Species

Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 9 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 1 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: 18 Species

Fishes under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Family Petromyzontidae (Lampreys); (Zmiorki) 1. Eudontomyzon mariae Brook Lamprey II - 2. Eudontomyzon stankokaramani Drim Brook Lamprey II - Family Acipenseridae (Sturgeons); (Esetri) 3. Acipenser sturio Atlantic Sturgeon II/IV CR Family Anguillidae (Eels); (Jaguli) 4. Anguilla anguilla European Eel - CR Family Clupeidae (Herrings; Shads); (Harringi) 5. Alosa fallax Twaite Shad II - Family (Carps, Minnows); (Krapovidni Ribi) 6. Rhodeus amarus Bitterling II - 9. Gobio ohridanus Ohrid Gudgeon - VU 13. Barbus macedonicus Macedonian Barbel - DD 14. Barbus prespensis Prespa Barbel - VU 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 65

19. Cyprinus carpio Carp - VU 21. Alburnoides ohridanus Ohrid Spirlin - VU 22. Alburnoides prespensis Prespa Spirlin - VU 23. Alburnus belvica Prespa Bleak - VU 24. Alburnus macedonicus Doiran Bleak - CR 27. Chondrostoma prespense Prespa Nase - VU 28. Chondrostoma vardarense Vardar Nase - NT 30. Pachychilon macedonicum Mavrotsironi - DD 32. Pelasgus minutus Ohrid Minnow II DD 33. Pelasgus prespensis Prespa Minnow - EN 38. Rutilus prespensis Prespa Roach - VU 41. Scardinius knezevici Skadar (Ohrid) Rudd - VU 43. Squalius prespensis Prespa Chub - VU 46. Vimba melanops Dark Vimba - DD Family (Spined Loaches); (Shtipalki) 48. Cobitis meridionalis Prespa Spined Loach - VU 52. Sabanejewia balcanica Balkan Golden Loach II LC Family Salmonidae (Salmons); (Pastrmki i Lososi) 60. Salmo aphelios Summer Trout, Letnica - DD 61. Salmo balcanicus Struga Trout, Kresnica - DD 62. Salmo dentex Zubatac - DD 63. Salmo farioides Balkan Brook Trout - NT 64. Salmo letnica Peshtani Trout - DD 65. Lumi Trout - DD 66. Salmo macedonicus Macedonian Trout - DD 67. Salmo ohridanus Belvica - VU 68. Salmo pelagonicus Pelagos Trout - VU 69. Salmo peristericus Prespa Trout - EN Family Cottidae (Sculpins, Bullheads); (Peshovi) 72. Cottus gobio Sculpin II - Family Percidae (Perches); (Perkii) 77. Zingel balcanicus Vretenar II DD 66 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

4.5.3. Evaluation of Amphibians

Species Richness: 15 Species

Endemism: None

Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 3 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 8 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: None

Amphibians under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Order Caudata (Tailed Amphibians: Salamanders and Newts); (Opashesti Vodozemci: Dozhdovnici i Mrmorci) Family Salamandridae (Typical Salamanders and Newts); (Vistinski Dozhdovnici i Mrmorci) 2. Triturus macedonicus Macedonian Crested Newt II/IV - 3. Triturus karelinii Balkan Crested Newt II/IV - Order Anura (Tailless Amphibians: Frogs and Toads); (Bezopashesti Vodozemci: Zhabi) Family Bombinatoridae (Fire-bellied Toads); (Ogneni Zhabi) 6. Bombina variegata Yellow-belied Toad II/IV - Family Pelobatidae (Spadefoots); (Lukovi Zhabi) 7. Pelobates syriacus balcanicus Balkan Spadefoot Toad IV - Family Bufonidae (Typical Toads); (Krastavi Zhabi) 9. Pseudepidalea viridis Green Toad IV - Family Hylidae (Tree Frogs); (Lisni Zhabi, Drvjarki) 10. Hyla arborea Common Tree Frog IV - Family Ranidae (Typical Frogs); (Vodni Zhabi) 11. Rana dalmatina Agile Frog IV - 12. Rana graeca Balkan Stream Frog IV - 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 67

4.5.4. Evaluation of Reptiles

Species Richness: 32 Species

Endemism: None

Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 7 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 25 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: 2 Species

Reptiles under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Order Testudines (Tortoises and Terrapins); (Zhelki) Family Testudinidae (Tortoises); (Suvozemni Zhelki) 1. Testudo hermanni Hermann’s Tortoise II/IV NT 2. Testudo graeca Spur-thighed Tortoise II/IV VU Family Emydidae (Terrapins); (Blatni Zhelki) 3. Emys orbicularis European Pond Terrapin II/IV NT Family Geoemydidae (Water Terrapins); (Slatkovodni Zhelki) 4. Mauremys rivulata Balkan Terrapin II/IV - Order (Scaled Reptiles); (Lushpesti Vlechugi) Suborder Sauria (); (Gushterici) Family Gekkonidae (Geckos); (Gekoni) 5. Mediodactylus kotschyi Kotschy’s Gecko IV - Family Scincidae (Skinks); (Skinkovi) 6. Ablepharus kitaibelii Snake-eyed Skink IV - Family Anguidae (Slow Worms and Glass Lizards); (Slepoci i Zmijogushteri) 8. Pseudopus apodus European Glass Lizard IV - Family (Lacertid Lizards); (Vistinski Gushteri) 9. Algyroides nigropunctatus Dalmatian Algyroides IV - 10. Lacerta viridis Green Lizard IV - 11. Lacerta trilineata Balkan Green Lizard IV - 12. Lacerta agilis Sand Lizard IV - 14. Podarcis muralis Common Wall Lizard IV - 15. Podarcis taurica Balkan Wall Lizard IV - 16. Podarcis erhardii Erhard’s Wall Lizard IV - 68 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Suborder Serpentes (); (Zmii) Family Boidae (Boas); (Boi) 18. Eryx jaculus Sand Boa IV - Family (Typical Snakes); (Smokovi) 20. Dolichophis caspius Large Whip Snake IV - 22. Platyceps najadum Dahl’s Whip Snake IV - 23. Zamenis longissimus Aesculapian Snake IV - 24. Elaphe quatuorlineata Four-lined Snake II/IV NT 25. Zamenis situla Leopard Snake II/IV - 27. Natrix tessellata Dice Snake IV - 28. Coronella austriaca Smooth Snake IV - 29. Telescopus fallax Cat Snake IV - Family Viperidae (Vipers); (Zmii Otrovnici) 30. Vipera ammodytes Nose-horned Viper IV 32. Vipera ursinii Orsini’s Viper II/IV VU

4.5.5. Evaluation of Birds

Species Richness: 328 Species

Endemism: None

Strict Legal Protection Birds Directive (Annex I): 117 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: 13 Species

Birds under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 79/409/EEC IUCN Order Gaviiformes Family Gaviidae (Divers); (Morski Nurkachi) Gavia stellata Red-throated Diver I - Gavia arctica Black-throated Diver I - Order Podicipediformes Family Podicipedidae (Grebes); ( Nurkachi) Podiceps auritus Slavonian Grebe I - 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 69

Order Pelecaniformes Family Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorants); (Kormorani) P h a l a c r o c o r a x Pygmy Cormorant I - pygmaeus Family Pelecanidae (Pelicans); (Pelikani) Pelecanus onocrotalus White Pelican I - Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian Pelican I VU Order Ciconiiformes Family Ardeidae (Herons, Egrets, Bitterns); ( Chapji) Botaurus stellaris Eurasian Bittern I - Ixobrychus minutus Little Bittern I - Nycticorax nycticorax Black-crowned Heron I - Ardeola ralloides Squacco Heron I - Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret I - Egretta garzetta Little Egret I - Casmerodius albus Great White Egret I - Ardea purpurea Purple Heron I - Family Ciconiidae (Storks); (Shtrkovi) Ciconia ciconia White Stork I - Ciconia nigra Black Stork I - Family Threskiornithidae (Ibises, Spoonbills); (Ibisi, Chapji Lazhicharki) Plegadis falcinellus Glossy Ibis I - Platalea leucorodia Eurasian Spoonbill I - Order Phoenicopteriformes Family Phoenicopteridae (Flamingos); (Flaminga) Phoenicopterus ruber Greater Flamingo I - Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae (Swans, Geese, Ducks); (Lebedi, Guski, Shatki) Cygnus bewickii Tundra Swan I - Cygnus cygnus Whooper Swan I - Anser erythropus Lesser White-fronted Goose I VU Branta ruficollis Red-breasted Goose I EN Tadorna ferruginea Ruddy Shelduck I - Marmaronetta Marbled Teal I VU angustirostris Aythya nyroca Ferruginous Duck I NT Mergellus albellus Smew I - Oxyura leucocephala White-headed Duck I EN Order Accipitriformes Family Accipitridae (Hawks, Eagles, Vultures); (Orli, Eji, Lunji, Jastrebi) Pernis apivorus Honey Buzzard I - 70 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Milvus migrans Black Kite I - Milvus milvus Red Kite I - Haliaeetus albicilla White-tailed Sea Eagle I - Gypaetus barbatus Lammergeier I - Neophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture I EN Gyps fulvus Griffon Vulture I - Aegypius monachus Black Vulture I NT Circaetus gallicus Short-toed Eagle I - Circus aeruginosus Marsh Harrier I - Circus cyaneus Hen Harrier I - Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier I NT Circus pygargus Montagu’s Harrier I - Accipiter brevipes Levant Sparrowhawk I - Buteo rufinus Long-legged Buzzard I - Aquila pomarina Lesser Spotted Eagle I - Aquila clanga Spotted Eagle I VU Aquila heliaca Imperial Eagle I VU Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle I - Hieraaetus pennatus Booted Eagle I - Hieraaetus fasciatus Bonelli’s Eagle I - Family Pandionidae (Osprey); (Orli Ribari) Pandion haliaetus Osprey I - Order Falconiformes Family Falconidae (Falcons); (Sokoli) Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel I VU Falco vespertinus Red-footed Falcon I NT Falco columbarius Merlin I - Falco eleonorae Eleonora’s Falkon I - Falco biarmicus Lanner Falkon I - Falco cherrug Saker Falkon I EN Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falkon I - Order Galliformes Family Tetraonidae (Grouse); (Tetrebi) Bonasa bonasia Hazelhen I - Tetrao urogallus Capercaillie I - Family Phasianidae (Partridges, Quails, Pheasants); (Erebici, Potpoloshki, Fazani)) Alectoris graeca Rock Partridge I - Order Gruiformes Family Rallidae (Rails); (Blatni Kokoshki) Porzana porzana Spotted Crake I - 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 71

Porzana parva Little Crake I - Porzana pusilla Baillon’s Crake I - Crex crex Corncrake I NT Family Gruidae (Cranes); (Zheravi) Grus grus Common Crane I - Family Otididae (Bustards); (Droplji) Tetrax tetrax Black Grouse I NT Otis tarda Great Bustard I VU Order Charadriiformes Family Recurvirostridae (Avocets and Stilts); (Sabjarki) Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt I - Recurvirostra avosetta Avocet I - Family Burhinidae (Stone Curlews); (Churulinci) Burhinus oedicnemus Stone Curlew I - Family Glareolidae (Pratincoles and Coursers); (Blatni Lastovici) Glareola pratincola Collared Pratincole I - Glareola nordmanni Black-winged Pratincole - NT Family Charadriidae (Plovers); (Dozhdosvirci) Charadrius Kentish Plover I - alexandrinus** Eudromias morinellus Dotterel I - Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover I - Family Scolopacidae (Typical Waders), (Vistinski Mochvarki) Philomachus pugnax Ruff I - Gallinago media Great Snipe I NT Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit - NT Numenius tenuirostris** Slender-billed Curlew I CR Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew - NT Tringa glareola Wood Sandpiper I - Family Laridae (Gulls); (Galebi) Larus melanocephalus Mediteranean Gull I - Larus minutus Little Gull I - Larus genei Slender-billed Gull I - Family Sternidae (Terns); (Vrtimushki) Gelochelidon nilotica Gull-biled Tern I - Sterna caspia Caspian Tern I - Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich Tern I - Sterna hirundo Common Tern I - Sterna albifrons Little Tern I - Chlidonias hybridus Whiskered Tern I - 72 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Chlidonias niger Black Tern I - Order Strigiformes Family Strigidae (Typical Owls); (Utki Vistinski) Bubo bubo Eagle Owl I - Strix uralensis Ural Owl I - Asio flammeus Short-eared Owl I - Aegolius funereus Tengmalm’s Owl I - Order Caprimulgiformes Family Caprimulgidae (Nightjars); (Nokjni Lastovici) Caprimulgus europaeus Europaean Nightjar I - Order Coraciiformes Family Alcedinidae (Kingfishers); (Ribarchinja) Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher I - Family Coraciidae (Rollers); (Smrdivrani) Coracias garrulus European Roller I NT Order Piciformes Family Picidae (Wrynecks, Woodpeckers); (Vrtivratki, Klukajdrvci) Picus canus Grey-headed Woodpecker I - Dryocopus martius Black Woodpecker I - Dendrocopos syriacus Syrian Woodpecker I - Dendrocopos medius Middle Spotted Woodpecker I - Dendrocopos leucotos White-backed Woodpecker I - Order Passeriformes Family Alaudidae (Larks); (Chuchuligi) Melanocorypha Calandra Lark I - calandra Calandrella Hume’s Short-toed Lark I - brachydactyla Lullula arborea Woodlark I - Family Motacillidae (Pipits, Wagtails); (Tresiopashki, Trepetlivki) Anthus campestris Tawny Pipit I - Family Turdidae (Thrushes, chats, Wheatears and Robins); (Drozdovi) Oenanthe pleshanka** Pied Wheatear I - Family Sylvidae (Warblers); (Grmusharki) Moustached Warbler I - melanopogon Acrocephalus Aquatic Warbler I VU paludicola Hippolais olivetorum Olive-tree Warbler I - Sylvia nisoria Barred Warbler I - Family Muscicapidae (Flycatchers); (Muvarchinja) 4. Evaluation of Biodiversity 73

Ficedula parva Red-breasted Flycatcher I - Ficedula semitorquata Semi-collared Flycatcher I NT Ficedula albicollis Collared Flycatcher I - Family Laniidae (Shrikes); (Svrachinja) Lanius collurio Red-backed Shrike I - Lanius minor Lesser Grey Shrike I - Lanius nubicus Masked Shrike I - Family Corvidae (Jays, Magpies, Crows); (Cavki, Vrani, Strachki, Gavrani, Galki) Pyrrhocorax Red-billed Chough I - pyrrhocorax Family Emberizidae (Buntings); (Ovesarki) Emberiza hortulana Ortolan Bunting I - ** Published records on Species, unlikely to be confirmed for Macedonia or in need of further verification

4.5.6. Evaluation of Mammals

Species Richness: 82 Species

Endemism: 3 Species

Strict Legal Protection Habitats Directive (Annex II): 18 Species Habitats Directive (Annex IV): 32 Species

Conservation Status IUCN Globally Threatened Species: 4 Species

Mammals under Strict Legal Protection and Globally Threatened Species Taxonomic Group / Species English Common Name 92/43/EEC IUCN Order Chiroptera (Bats); (Liljaci) Family Rhinolophidae (Horseshoe Bats); (Potkovichestonosni Liljaci) Rhinolophus blasii Blasius’ Horseshoe Bat II/IV - Rhinolophus euryale Mediterranean Horseshoe Bat II/IV NT Rhinolophus ferrumequinum Greater Horseshoe Bat II/IV - Rhinolophus hipposideros Lesser Horseshoe Bat II/IV - Rhinolophus mehelyi Mehely’s Horseshoe Bat II/IV VU 74 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Family Vespertilionidae (Vespertilionid Bats); (Glatkonosni Liljaci) Barbastella barbastellus Barbastelle II/IV - Plecotus austriacus Grey Long-eared Bat IV - Eptesicus serotinus Serotine IV - Vespertilio murinus Parti-coloured Bat IV - Nyctalus leisleri Leisler’s Bat IV - Nyctalus noctula Noctule IV - Pipistrellus kuhlii Kuhl’s Pipistrelle IV - Pipistrellus pipistrellus Common Pipistrelle IV - Pipistrellus nathusii Nathusius’ Pipistrelle IV - Hypsugo savii Savi’s Pipistrelle IV - Myotis oxignathus (blythii) Lesser Mouse-eared Bat II/IV - Myotis capaccinii Long-fingered Bat II/IV VU Myotis emarginatus Geoffroy’s Bat II/IV - Myotis mystacinus Whiskered Bat IV - Myotis nattereri Natterer’s Bat IV - Myotis myotis Greater Mouse-eared Bat II/IV - Myotis daubentonii Daubenton’s Bat IV - Miniopterus schreibersii Schreibers’ Bat II/IV NT Family Mollossidae (Mastiff Bats); Opashesti Liljaci Tadarida teniotis European Free-tailed Bat IV - Carnivora (Carnivores or Flash-eaters); (Zverovi) Family Canidae (Dogs); Kuchinja Canis lupus Wolf II/IV - Family Felidae (Cats); Machki Felis silvestris Wildcat IV - Lynx lynx martinoi Balkan Lynx II/IV - Family Mustelidae (Otters,Martens, Weasels, Polecats, Badgers,); (Vidri, Kuni, Nevestulki, Tvorovi, Jazovci) Lutra lutra Otter II/IV NT Vormela peregusna Marbled Polecat II/IV - Family Ursidae (Bears); (Mechki) Ursus arctos Brown Bear II/IV - Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed Hoofed Mammals); Parnokopitni Bovidae (Hollow-horned Ruminants); (Praznorogi) Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica Balkan Chamois II/IV - Order Rodentia (); (Glodari) Family Sciuridae (Squirrels); (Ververici) Spermophilus citellus karamani Macedonian souslik II/IV VU Family (); (Poljanki) Dinaromys bogdanovi Balkan Snow Vole - VU Order Lagomorpha (Hares and Rabbits); (Zajakoobrazni Cicachi) Family Leporidae (Hares and Rabbits); (Zajaci) Oryctolagus cuniculus Rabbit - NT Wolf (Canis lupus)

Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)

Balkan Lynx (Lynx lynx martinoi) Eurasian Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia)

Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus)

Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) Prespa Trout (Salmo peristericus)

Spur-thighed Tortoise (Testudo graeca)

Worm Snake (Typhlops vermicularis) Greek Marsh Frog (Pelophylax kurtmuelleri)

Green Toad (Pseudepidalea viridis)

Lesser Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros) 5. References 79 5. References

General References

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Molluscs (Mollusca)

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Wiktor, A., 1996, The Slug of the Former Yugosla- Komarek, Z. 1953. Herkunft der Süsswasser - En- via (Gastropoda terrestria nuda – Arionidae, Mi- demiten der dinarischen Gebirge, Revision der lacidae, Limacidae, Agriolimacidae). Ann. Zool. Arten, Artentstehung bei Hyhlentieren. – Arch. Warszawa 46:(1-2):1-110. Hidrobiol., Stuttgart, 48: 269-349. Hadžišče, S. 1953. Prilog poznavanju Gastropoda Kuščer, L. 1937. Zur Kenntnis der Molluskenfauna Prespanskog i Ohridskog jezera. –Per.biol., von Südserbien und Montenegro - I Beitrag. – Ser.A II/8, Zagreb, 7: 174-177. Glasn. Skop. Nauč. Društ., Skopje, 17: 101 - 104. Hadžišče, S. 1955. II. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Petrbok. J. 1943. Zweiter Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Gastropodenfauna des Ohridsees. Gocea ohri- Quartär - Mollusken von serbisch Makedonien. dana n.g.,n.sp.,eine neue Hydrobiidae aus dem – Arch. Moll., Frankfurt a. Main, 75, 5/6: 276- Ohridsees. – Arch. Hydr., Frankfurt a. Main, 51: 283. 496-499. Polinski, W. 1929. Limnološka ispitivanja Balkan- Hadžišče, S. 1956. III. Beschreibungen der bis jetzt skog Poluostrva, 1. Reliktna fauna Gastropoda unbekanten Schnecken und Beispiele der Spe- Ohridskog Jezera. – Glasnik Srp. Kr. Akad. Be- ciation bei den Gastropoden des Ohridsees. – ograd, 173(65): 131-178. Receuil des Travaux, Ohrid, 4 (1): 57-107. Polinski, W. 1932. Die Reliktäre Gastropodenfauna Hadžišče, S. 1958. II. Prilog poznavanju faune des Ochrida - Sees. – Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst., 62: Gastropode Prespanskog Jezera. - Receuil des 611-666. Travaux, Ohrid, 6 : 1-6. Radoman, P. 1953. Deux réprésentants nouveaux du Hadžišče, S. 1958. III. Prilog poznavanju faune gastéropodes Horatia Bourgignat dans le lac d’ Gastropode Prespanskog Jezera.- Reseul des Ohrid. – Zbornik na rabotite, Ohrid, 1 (2): 63-71. Travaux, Ohrid, 6 (17): 1-4. Radoman, P. 1953 a. Jedan prilig izučavanju ohrid- Hesse, P. 1928. Mazedonische Gastropoden gesam- skih gastropoda. – Arh. hidrobiol. nauka. Be- melt von Hern. Prof. Dr. F. Doflein. – Zool. Jb. ograd, V (1-2) :55-59. Phösiolog., Jena, 45: 1-30. Radoman, P. 1955. Prilog poznavanju gastropoda Hubendick, B. 1960. Faunistic review of the Ancyl- Ohridskog basena. – Zbornik na rabotite, Ohrid, idae of Lake Ohrid. – Arch. Sc. Biol., Beograd, 3 (2): 23-39. 89-97. Radoman, P. 1955. Morfološko sistematska istra- Hubendick, B. 1960. The Ancylidae of Lake Ohrid živanja Ohridskih Hidrobida, – Srp. Biol. druš., and their bearing on intralacustrine speciation. – Beograd, 1: 1-106. Proc. Zool., Soc London., 133: 497-529. Radoman, P. 1955. Prilog izučavanju malakološke Hubendick, B. 1970. Zoologica 5. Studies on An- faune pribrežnih voda Ohridskog Jezera. – Arh. cylidae. The Palearctic and Oriental Species biol. nauk., Beograd, 7: 105-113. and Formgroups. – Acta Reg. Soc. Sci. et Lit. Radoman, P. 1955 b. Prilog izučavanju Gastropoda Gothoburgensi, Göteborg, 1-51. Ohridskog bazena. – Zbor. na rab., Ohrid, III, 2 Hubendick. B & Radoman, P. 1959. Studies on the (12): 23-38. Gyraulus species of Lake Ohrid. Morphology. – Radoman, P. 1956. Nove Ohridske Hydrobidae. – Arkiv. für Zool., 12: 223-243. Arh. biol. nauka, Beograd, 8: 87-92. Jaeckel, S. sen. 1954. Zur Systematik und Faunistik Radoman, P 1958. On speciation in the Ohrid relict der mollusken der nörlichen Balkanhalbinsel – species Pyrgula sturanyi (Gastropoda). – Proc. Mitt. Zool. Mus., Berlin, 30 (1): 54 - 95. Mall. Soc., London, 33: 148-158. Jaeckel, S. & Meise, W. 1956. Über Land und Süss- Radoman, P. 1960. Two sibiling species of Pseu- wasserschnecken Jugoslawiens und Albaniens. damnicola in Ohrid Lake. – Basteria, 24, (1-2): – Mitt. Hamb. Zool. Mus. 54: 21 -32. 1-9. Jaeckel, S., Klemm, W. & Meise, W. 1957. Die Land Radoman, P, 1963. Some new Hydrobidae of Lake und Süsswasser - Mollusken der nördlichen Bal- Ohrid, Part. 2. – Serb. biol. sec., Beograd, 85- kanhalbinsel. – Abh. Ber. Statl. Mus., Dresden, 112. 23: 141 - 205. 86 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Radoman, P. 1964. Nove ohridske Hidrobide (III). Schütt, H. 1974. Zwei neue reliktäre Süsswasser- – Arhiv biol. nauka, Beograd, 15 (3-4): 101-109. mollusken der Dinariden. - Sonded. –Aus. Ann. Radoman, P. 1965. Novi predstavnici roda Pseu- Naturhist. Mus., Wien, 78: 473-480. damnicola iz južnog dela Balkanskog poluos- Snegarova, Lj. 1954. La faune des gasteropodes du trva. – Arhiv biol. nauka, Beograd, 17: 159-164. Lac d’Ohrid. – Acta Mus. Nat., Skopje, 23: 563- Radoman, P. 1966. Die Gattungen Pseudamnicola 690. und Horatia . – Ach. Moll., Frankfurt a. Main. Stanković, S. 1953. Die Fauna des Ohridasees und 95 (5,6): 243-253. ihre Herkunft. – Arch. Hydrobiol., 23: 563-610. Radoman, P. 1967. Revision der Systematik einger Stanković, S. 1960. The Balkan Lake Ohrid and its Hydrobiiden - Arten aus dem Ohrid -See. – Arch. Living World. – Monoraphie. biol.,Den Haag.W. Moll., Frankfurt a. Main., 96 (3/6): 149-154. Junk, 9 :1-358. Radoman, P. 1969. On the taxonomy and biogeog- Stanković, S. & Radoman, P. 1953. Contribution la raphy of Hidrobiidae. – Malacologia, Ann Arbor connaisance des Gastropodes Ancylides du Lac (Vienna), 9 (I): 173-177. d’Ohrid. – Zbornik na rabotite, Ohrid, 1:115- Radoman, P. 1972. Nochmals über die Gattung 122. Pseudamnicola und schliesslich die Gattung Stanković, S. & Radoman, P. 1955. Le peupelment Orientalia n. gen. – Arch. Moll., Frankfurt a. des eaux littorales adjacentes du Bassin d’ Ohrid. Main., 102: 195-200. – Arhiv biol. nauka, VII/1-2:1-19. Radoman, P. 1973. New classification of fresh and Stanković, V. S. 1984. A contribution to the knowl- brackish water Prosobranchia from the Balkans edge of Gastropods fauna of Lake and the and Asia Minor. – Bull. Mus. nat., Belgrad, 32: surroundings waters. – Fragm Balc., Skopje, 12: 1-30. 141-152. Radoman, P. 1976. Speciation within the family By- Wagner, H. 1927. Studien zur Molluskenfauna der thinellidae on the Balkans and Asia Minor. – Z. Balkanhalbinsel mit besonderer Berücksichti- zool. Syst. Evolut.-forsch. Hamburg, 14: 130- gung Bulgariens und Thraziens, nebst mono- 152. graphicher Bearbeitung einzelner Gruppen. – Radoman, P. 1977. Hydrobiidae auf der Balkanhal- Ann. zool. pol. hist. Nat., Warszawa. 6: 263-399. binsel und in Klein Asien. – Arch. Moll., Frank- Westerlund, C. A. 1902. Malacologische Bemerkun- furt a. Main, 107: 203-223. gen und beschreibungen. – Nachrichts Bl. D. Radoman, P. 1978 a. Neue Vertreter der Gruppe Mal. Ges., Frankfurt. 34: 35-47. Hydrobioidea von der Balkanhalbinsel. – Arch. Willmann, R. & Pieper, H. 1978. Gastropoda. in: Il- Moll., Frankfurt a. Main, 109: 27-44. lies, I, ed., Limnofauna Europaea, Stuttgart, G. Radoman, P.1978 b. Beispiele der microgeogra- Fischer, 118-134. phishen Speciation in Ohrid See und die neue Angelov, A. 1971. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Pisidi- Gattung Adrioinsulana. – Arch. Moll., Frankfurt enfauna ( Mollusca – Sphaeridae) Mazedoniens. a. Main, 109, (1-3): 45-50. – Fragm. Balc., Skopje, VIII, 7: 53-55. Radoman, P. 1983. Hydrobioidea a superfamily of Benthem van Jutting, S. W. 1957. Zoological Re- Prosobranchia (Gastropoda), (I). Monographs. sults of Coolecting Journey to Yugoslavia 1954, – Serb. Acad. Sci. Arts, DXLVII, Sci., Beograd, 3. Süsswasser Mollusken mir aus Sphaeridae. – 57. Beoufortia, Ser. of Miscell. Zoological Museum, Radoman, P. 1985. Hydrobioidea, a superfamily of 5/60: 171-177. Prosobranchia (Gastropoda). II. Origin, Zoog- Jaeckel, S. G., Klemm, W. & Meise, W. 1957. Die eography, Evolution in the Balkans and Asia Mi- Land- und Süsswasser- Mollusken der Nördli- nor. - Monographs, – Inst. zool. Prir. Mat. Fak., chen Balkanhalbinsel. – Abh. Ber. Staat. Mus. Beograd, 1/1: 1-173. Tierk., Dresden, 23: 141-205. Radoman, P. & Stanković, Sn. 1978. Jedan novi Jaeckel, S. 1967. Lamellibranchia in Limnofauna predstavnik roda Graecoanatolica iz Dojranskog Europea . Ed . J. Illies. Stuttgart. jezera. – Glasnik Prirod. Muz., Beograd, 33: 5-6. 5. References 87

Kuiper, J. G. J. 1960. Die Pisidien des Ohridsees Sphaeridae) from some ancient lakes and the Mazedonien, nebst. Bemerkungen über die Ver- widely distributed taxa. Journal of zoological sys- breitung der Pisidien aus der Balkanhalbinsel tematics and evolutionary research. 38, 81-86. und den Donauländer. – Beaufortia, 88: 7. Kuiper, J. G. J. 1987. Pisidium masseni sp. n. new Kuiper, J. G. J. 1963. Haüptzuge der Verbreitung species from Lake Prespa, Jugoslavia( Bivalvia, des genus Pisidium in Europa. – Arch. Moll. , 92. Spheridae). – Basteria, 51: 163-165. Korniushin, A.V. 2001. Taxonomic revision of the Lvova. A.A. & Starobogatov, Y.I. 1982. New spe- genus Sphaerium sensu lato (Bivalvia Sphaeri- cies of Draissena (Bivalvia: Dreissenidae) from dae) in the paleartic region, with some notes on Lake ohrid. Zoologicheskij Zhurnal, 61, 1749- the North American species. Archiv fur Mol- 1752. luskenkunde 129, 77-122. Sturany, R. 1894. Zur Molluskenfauna der eu- Korniushin, A. V. 2004. The bivalve mollusc fauna of ropäischen Türkei. -Ann. Naturh. Hofmus, ancient lakes in the context of the historical bioge- 9:369-390. ography of the Balcan Region. Balcan Biodiver- Tadić, A. 1966. Unionidae i Anadontinae iz Ohrid- sity. Edited by Huw I. Griffiths, Boris Kristufek skog Jezera i Crnog Drima. – Glas. Prirod. mus., and Jane M. Reed. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Beograd, 21:207-216. Dordrecht/ Boston/London. p.219-241. Tadić, A. 1977. Dreissensia polymorpha Pall. i Pi- Korniushin, A. V. ,Krstanovski, Z. & Kostoski, G. sidium amnicum Müller. – Glas. Prirod. mus., 2000. Anatomical evidence of close affinity be- Beograd, 32: 93-104. tween endemic species of Pisidium (Bivalvia,

Segmented Worms (Annelida)

Angelovski, P., J. Shapkarev, B. Karaman & S. Shapkarev, J., 1968. Kvalitativen sostav na oligo- Smiljkov, 1994. Kvalitativen sostav i kvantita- hetite od Prespanskoto Ezero. Annuaire, Fac. De tivni odnosi na makrozoobentosot od Prespan- Scien. Narur. De l’Univer. Sv. Kiril et Metodij, skoto Ezero. Annuaire, Fac. De Scien. Narur. De Inst. De biologie, 14:31-74, Skopje. l’Univer. Sv. Kiril et Metodij, Inst. De biologie, Shapkarev, J., P. Angelovski & R. Papovic, 1990. 47: 1-20, Skopje. Zhivotinska naselba na makrofitskata vegetacija Brinkhurst, R. 1978. Oligochaeta. In: Limnofauna od Dojranskoto Ezero. Annuaire, Fac. De Scien. Europaea. Illies edt. Gustav Fischer Verlag. Narur. De l’Univer. Sv. Kiril et Metodij, Inst. De Stuttgart, New York, 139-144. biologie, 41/42: 63-89, Skopje. Mann, K. 1978. Hirudinea. In: Limnofauna Euro- Shapkarev, J., 1978. Dozhdovni glisti-Lumbricidae paea. Illies edt. Gustav Fischer Verlag. Stuttgart, (Oligochaeta-Annelida). Fauna na Makedonija New York, 148-150. IV. Mac. Mus. Sci. Nat., Skopje. Remy, P. 1934. Sur quelques Hirudinees des Bal- Sket, B. & J. Shapkarev. 1986. Dina lepinja sp. n. kans. Ans. Soc. Limn. Lyon, 77. (Hirudinea, Rhynchobdellidae) a new endemic Shapkarev, J., 1956. Pridones za poznavanjeto na leech from the ancient Lake Ohrid. Biol. Vest., faunata na oligohetite od trite pogolemi ezera vo Ljubljana, 34. Jugoslavija. Arhiv Biol. Nauka, Beograd, 8:135- Shapkarev, J. 1968. Pijavicite od Skopska Kotli- 144. na. Fragm. Balc. Mac. Mus. Sci. Nat., Skopje. Shapkarev, J., 1962. Faunata na oligohetite od pri- 6(21): 189-193. brezhnite void na Prespanskata Kotlina. Fragm. Shapkarev, J. 1970. The fauna of Hirudinea of Balc. Mac. Mus. Sci. Nat., Skoje. 16: 123-128. Macedonia. The taxonomy and distribution of Shapkarev, J., 1963. Kvantitativen sostav na oligo- leeches of Aegean lakes. Inter. Revue Ges. Hy- hetite od Prespanskoto Ezero. God. Zbor. PMF, drobiol., 55. Skopje, 14: 31-77. 88 Assessment and Evaluation of Biodiversity on National Level

Spiders (Aranea)

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