Kristi Osterreicher

Ōkami: A Critical Analysis and Response

An essay, in partial fulfillment of:

NMED 3300: Theory and Aesthetics of Digital Games Department of New Media University of Lethbridge

April 2011

Foreword: This essay is a part of a collection of undergraduate essays on videogames and interactive entertainment produced for the course NMED 3300 -- Theory and Aesthetics of Digital Games offered by Dr. David Clearwater at the University of Lethbridge. These essays represent the culmination of the course and build upon previous assignments (such as an earlier essay on genre) and therefore must fulfill specific research and analytical requirements. As such, they are very much undergraduate assignments but they also represent scholarly investigations of the interactive medium of videogames, often by young people who have grown up with the medium and want to understand its significance at the beginning of the twentieth century and who may themselves want to pursue a future career in the videogame industry. These essays have been selected for hosting at the GamePlay Archive because they contribute to the emerging dialogue on videogame research and because they offer interesting analytical and/or critical perspectives.

Okami is an action-adventure game developed by Clover Studio and published by Capcom. It was released on Sony’s Playstation 2 in 2006, while a version for the Nintendo Wii was released in 2008. Okami tells the story of the sun god Amaterasu’s adventures in the land of Nippon, an alternate version of ancient Japan rooted within Japanese mythology and folklore. Amaterasu, who takes the form of a white wolf, is given the task of ridding the world of evil and restoring peace and beauty to the land.

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A century prior to the events of the game the eight-headed demon Orochi terrorised all of Nippon, demanding that every year a maiden from Kamiki Village be chosen and sacrificed in his name. Before Orochi could claim his 100th sacrifice Amaterasu, then known as Shiranui, battled alongside the swordsman Nagi and slew Orochi, cutting off each of his eight heads one by one. Using Nagi’s sword Tsukuyomi as the seal Orochi’s evil spirit was locked away, but not before he managed to wound Shiranui, who later died as a result of her injuries.1 After one hundred years of peace, a mysterious figure removes Nagi’s sword from its resting-place, breaking the seal on Orochi’s spirit and allowing the demon to return. Amaterasu is summoned to Nippon to combat Orochi’s revival through the use of her Celestial Brush, a divine tool bestowed with the powers of thirteen Brush Gods that allows Amaterasu to alter the environment around her, such as controlling the path of fire or changing night into day. However Amaterasu soon finds that her death as Shiranui and subsequent one hundred-year sleep has weakened her form considerably. Coupled with this problem is that the people of Nippon no longer believe in the gods as strongly as they did a century ago, causing the thirteen Brush Gods to become weak and sever their connection to Amaterasu, leaving her Celestial Brush powerless. Before she can defeat Orochi Amaterasu must regain full use of her Celestial Brush by journeying across Nippon and locating the hiding places of each of the thirteen Brush Gods, receiving their blessing and relearning each of the Brush Techniques she once had mastery over. Assisting Amaterasu throughout her journey is Issun, an inch high “wandering artist” whose race has the unique ability to communicate with the gods, who decides to accompany Amaterasu and act as her guide. Other characters include Susano, the self described “greatest warrior who ever lived” and descendant of Nagi, the honoured swordsman who fought by Amaterasu’s side in her previous life, and Waka, a strange gold-haired man with a mysterious past and the ability to tell the future.2 Amaterasu’s journey will take her to all corners of the land, meeting new characters, fighting monsters, regaining her lost brush techniques, and restoring the people’s faith in the gods. During her travels it soon becomes clear that what is upsetting the peace in Nippon is an even larger threat than the return of the demon Orochi.

1 The original Japanese version of Okami avoided using gender pronouns when referring to Amaterasu. The North American translation of Okami treats Amaterasu as a female, due to characters addressing her as “Origin of Good and Mother to us all”. The developers of the game have stated that Amaterasu and all the gods present in Okami do not possess a definite sex. For the purposes of clarity, this paper treats Amaterasu as female. 2 Okami (Wii Version), Clover Studio/Ready at Dawn Studios (Capcom, 2008).

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Okami and the Action-Adventure Genre Okami is classified within the action-adventure genre; a genre that is perhaps best discussed through an examination of its common iconography and themes. The reason for this is partly due to the fact that action-adventure games cannot be easily defined by a common, visible, and unique form of gameplay, unlike other video game genres such as Role-Playing Games or Shooters. A game belonging to the action-adventure categorisation will feature a combination of the thematic elements from the adventure genre with gameplay/interactivity characteristic to the action genre. This means that action- adventure games typically include a story driven experience, focusing on the personal and emotional growth of the player character. Action-Adventure games also include an emphasis on puzzle solving and lateral thinking, the opportunity for and reward of player exploration, and the use of a particular setting to provide mood and heighten player experience. Interactivity typically features a focus on movement, quick thinking, and reflexes, generally expressed via some form of combat. Many action-adventure games attempt to integrate puzzle solving and lateral thinking into its combat, primarily through requiring the player to use a specific item or technique to defeat certain enemies. Okami fits comfortably within the action-adventure genre. It features the aforementioned integration of puzzle solving into its combat and general gameplay through the use of the Celestial Brush which allows the player to solve puzzles using the various Brush Techniques to manipulate the environment. For example, in one area of the game drawing the shape of a crescent moon in the sky will lower the water level of the tide, allowing the player access to a previously unreachable sunken ship. The Celestial Brush is also used to make combat more efficient by giving the player the means to use an enemy’s specific weakness against them, such as creating a firestorm to attack a creature made of ice. Identifying the proper technique to use against an enemy will reward the player with items called ‘Demon Fangs’, which can be traded for unique and powerful tools that are unable to be purchased through the Okami’s regular currency. This, coupled with the bonuses rewarding the player for quickly defeating an enemy while taking the least amount of damage encourages players to think strategically when fighting enemies as a opposed to merely ‘strong-arming’ their way through battles. A mechanic of the Celestial Brush renders the player limited by how much ink Amaterasu can use at any given time. Similar in function to a health bar the amount of available ink (depicted on screen as a row of inkpots) depletes with each Brush Technique Amaterasu uses. This requires the player to carefully consider and plan their attacks, which further emphasises a need to think and strategize during battle. Gameplay in Okami utilises a combination of the Celestial Brush and a more ‘traditional’ form of combat that relies on the use of physical weaponry. These weapons, called Divine Instruments, come in

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three forms: the reflector, rosary, and glaive. Each type of physical weapon carries with it assorted weaknesses and strengths, such as the rosary being useful for long-range combat, while the glaive can be charged for a more powerful attack. Running out of ink in battle prevents Amaterasu from using both her Celestial Brush and her Divine Instruments, limiting her to fighting in a severely de-powered form until her ink automatically replenishes. Multiple forms of each type of Divine Instrument can be purchased with the game’s currency, while others are rewarded to the player upon the defeat of specific bosses. Divine Instruments may be changed during the middle of battle to better fight specific enemies, with the player being able to equip two instruments at a time, one as a main weapon and the other as a sub weapon. Each type of Divine Instrument has a different ability as a main or sub equip, allowing the player to experiment and further strategize their preferred method of attack. The player may also visit a Dojo to be ‘taught’ more advanced fighting abilities that can cater to each player’s preferred fighting style. These Divine Instruments are intended to compliment Amaterasu’s Celestial Brush, with the player alternating between physical attacks and using the various Brush Techniques to defeat enemies. While emphasis is placed on the player’s ability to creatively use and master each of the thirteen Brush Techniques it is ultimately the nature of the player that will decide whether these physical weapons or the Celestial Brush is their main method of attack. The story of Okami is primarily driven by the physical development of the main protagonist Amaterasu as she acquires new weapons, Brush Techniques, and health and ink upgrades. Though Okami possesses a rich and complex narrative, the story does not feature the personal or emotional growth of the player character Amaterasu. Instead character development is attributed to the various characters Amaterasu meets in her journey. A large aspect of Okami’s narrative focuses on Amaterasu’s influence on the lives of the people she interacts with, spurring their development and emotional growth by acting as an instigating force in their lives. Stories and legends from Japanese mythology heavily influence Okami’s narrative. The main story line of Okami, Amaterasu’s quest to rid Nippon of evil, is expanded upon in three distinct story arcs, which themselves are composed of various characters, plots, and side quests inspired by Japanese folklore. The character of Issun for instance is directly inspired by the tale of Issun-bōshi, the Japanese equivalent of Tom Thumb. The characters Susano, Orochi, and Nagi are inspired by the tale of Yamata no Orochi, the plot of which comprises the first story arc of the game.3

3 Yamata no Orochi features Susanoo, the Shinto God of the Sea and Storms defeating the eight-headed demon Orochi. In the Shinto Religion Amaterasu is Susanoo’s sister, and does not aid him in the battle with Orochi in any way. The way in which Susanoo defeats Orochi, by first getting him drunk with Sake is the same method Amaterasu uses to defeat Orochi in Okami.

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Exploration in Okami is mainly rewarded through the collection of treasures and the accumulation of praise. Praise, which Amaterasu obtains via the completion of side quests or by using her Celestial Brush to restore the environment to its natural beauty, is used by the player to upgrade Amaterasu’s health and other abilities. Okami has been designed to give the player more praise than the minimum requirement needed to fully upgrade all of Amaterasu’s abilities. This means the player is not required to complete a specific set of tasks in order to receive the minimum amount of praise needed for each upgrade, they are free to explore the world of Okami naturally and at their own leisure. While it is necessary to acquire all thirteen Brush Techniques to order to complete the game, upgrades and additional techniques for Amaterasu’s Celestial Brush can be found by exploring the game world, generally by locating hidden chambers or by completing non-mandatory side quests. Exploration is also rewarded intangibly through the player experiencing the carefully crafted environments in Okami which, like the characters themselves, are rendered in a unique art style, encouraging the player to view the landscapes as pieces of art rather than mere backdrops to action. Most importantly the setting of Okami, an alternate version of Ancient Japan contributes greatly to the narrative, atmosphere, aesthetic, and player experience. The setting of Okami, rendered with vibrant cell-shaded graphics is among the most notable aspects of Okami and not only helps defines the game within the action-adventure genre but also brings to the game an encompassing theme and presence. The use of an alternate version of Japan allows Okami to indulge in the rich history of Japanese culture and make use of the stories and folklore present in Japanese mythology, inspiring characters, monsters, and locations that all work together to form a cohesive world full of life. The setting of Okami helps draw the player into its world, allowing them to become attached to the characters and locations before giving them the task of protecting and restoring the world to its former beauty. Key to its ability to draw the player in is Okami’s art direction, which merges seamlessly with its main form of gameplay and narrative focus.

Aesthetic Influences in Okami Okami’s most visible and critically acclaimed feature is its distinctive art style, which depicts cell- shaded graphics modelled after the sumi-e or ink and wash style of painting (Image 1 and 2). Sumi-e was first developed in China during the Tang Destiny, and is spiritually rooted in Zen Buddhism.4 The earliest artists working in sumi-e were Zen Masters, monks who were trained in the art of “contraction,

4 “Ink and Wash Painting”, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink_and_wash_painting (accessed April 16th, 2011).

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clarity, and simplicity”.5 The philosophy of sumi-e painting is not to reproduce the appearance of a subject, but to capture their soul. Before painting the artist attempts to identify with their subject on a spiritual level so that “every stroke of the brush follows the heartbeat of living nature.”6 In sumi-e the artist attempts to paint a picture containing fewest lines possible, only adding what is necessary to create form and texture.7 When the Zen Buddhism movement arrived in Japan in the 12th century its popularity helped heighten the interest in both the art and philosophy of sumi-e painting.8 The art direction in Okami is heavily influenced not only by the visual aesthetic of sumi-e, but by the underlying philosophy as well. Character designs have been simplified and stylised, their forms condensed to include only their essential properties while their proportions have been exaggerated to accentuate certain personality traits. For instance the ‘Great Warrior’ Susano possesses large, Popeye- esque forearms to make him look more heroic while his balding forehead and bulbous nose keep his design homely and comedic (Image 3). These features suit Susano’s character greatly; he is a man who attempts to portray himself as a great and noble hero, but in truth is rather cowardly, incompetent, and antagonistic towards his noble heritage. In accordance with the philosophy of sumi-e painting, the character designs in Okami are not exact representations of the human figure; they are caricatures that better capture the personality and soul of each character. Unnecessary features are stripped away while the elements that help define a characters personality are emphasised to allow the spirit of the character to be better expressed to the player, bringing clarity and purpose to each character’s design. This simplification of forms and features provides opportunity for a blending of traditional and modern Japanese art forms to occur. This is primarily seen through the influence of Anime or Japanese Animation in the characters of Okami, most notably through the way characters express their thoughts and feelings. Due to their simple faces the characters in Okami are restricted in their ability to express emotion through facial expression alone. To portray specific thoughts and emotions, expressions are illustrated using the emotive signs commonly found within modern Anime. A cloud of steam erupting from a character shows they are angry, a plume of sparkles means they are overjoyed and happy, while a flurry of sweat droplets mean a character is nervous or frightened (Image 4). While the overall experience of Okami is heightened for players who posses a rudimentary knowledge of Japanese culture, these emotive signs specifically cater to players who are familiar with the Anime medium. For

5 “History of Sumi-e Painting (Japanese Ink Painting)”, Drue Kataoka, http://www.drue.net/sumi-e-history.htm (accessed April 16th, 2011). 6 “Sumi-e Introduction”, Sumi-e Painting, http://www.sumi-e-painting.com/sumi-e-einfuehrung-gesamt.htm (accessed April 16th, 2011). 7 “Ink and Wash Painting”, Wikipedia. 8 “Sumi-e Introduction”, Sumi-e Painting.

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the players unfamiliar with Anime, the expressions of each character are reinforced by their speech, posing, and gesturing, allowing the emotion being expressed be understood regardless of prior exposure. This blending of modern and traditional art forms fits well within the game’s tone and narrative. Aside from the modern humour, certain story points in Okami involve the introduction of modern influences into what is otherwise a traditional, albeit alternate depiction of ancient Japan. Amaterasu and the player will occasionally encounter futuristic technology, said to be the remnants of a lost civilisation that includes a light sabre, space ship, and a time machine. This technology, encountered in various moments throughout the game, becomes very important to Okami’s plot in the final story arc of the game. The incorporation of modern imagery early in the game helps acclimatise the player to the blending of two very different time periods before its use or importance to the plot of Okami is made apparent. Important milestones in Okami, such as the encounter of an enemy or defeat of a boss are marked with an illustration of the event. Illustrated scrolls detailing the history of Nippon can also be found, and can be viewed by the player at any time via the menu system. These illustrations are drawn in a different style than the in-game graphics and more closely resemble the ukiyo-e style of woodblock artwork (Image 5). This artwork is more detailed and realistic, and tends to use a more saturated colour palette than Okami’s cell-shaded graphics. It is suggested in game that the enemy illustrations are in fact paintings that the character Issun has created to document Amaterasu’s journey, while the history scrolls are provided by Issun’s Grandfather Ishaku, who we come to find once journeyed with Amaterasu’s previous form Shiranui 100 years in the past. Much like the sumi-e graphics these illustrations have a specific purpose in the world of Okami. Many of the myths and legends that Okami draws had their climactic scenes illustrated in the ukiyo-e style (Image 6). This use of the ukiyo-e illustrations in Okami is an attempt to evoke the same history and presence of Japan’s historical woodblock artwork, to suggest that the events of Okami can be counted within Japan’s library of myths and legends. Okami is not only referencing Japanese culture but also attempting to place itself within the same thematic context, which greatly contributes to the construction of Okami’s setting and tone. Early in its development Okami was imagined with highly realistic graphics. One of the first test renderings featured a realistic Amaterasu running through a forest, leaving a trail of flowers behind her as she ran (Image 7). According to Lead Designer and Director Hideki Kamiya, the game was originally conceived with the sole purpose to “depict a lot of nature”, and as a result lacked a central concept,

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theme, and form of gameplay.9 To solve this, the designers began searching for an art style that could better convey Amaterasu’s association with nature while providing an entertaining and aesthetically pleasing experience for the player. Influenced in part by the graphical limitations of the PS2, the console for which Okami was originally designed, Clover Studio moved away from the simulated reality of the test renderings and into the colourful cell-shaded style present in the final game. By mimicking the art of sumi-e the developers were able to reinforce their initial design purpose, locating an aesthetically pleasing art form that is able to spiritually connect both Amaterasu and the player with nature. By choosing an art form that emphasises the spirit and organic qualities of a subject, the developers were able to reach their goal of ‘depicting a lot of nature’ without sacrificing playability or theme. The decision to emulate the sumi-e style soon led to the creation of Okami’s unique form of gameplay, the Celestial Brush. Atsushi Inaba, the then CEO of Clover Studio explained that “once we fixed ourselves on a graphical style got down to the brushwork, we thought 'Wouldn't it be great if we could somehow get the player involved and participate in this artwork instead of just watching it?' That's how the idea of the Celestial Brush was born."10 The Celestial brush, which gives the player the ability to draw on the screen using a paintbrush, ties thematically into the Zen Buddhist philosophy behind sumi- e. When the player activates the Celestial Brush all action on screen is paused, and scene changes to display a small wooden desk, with the current game screen depicted as a flat piece of paper upon the table (Image 8). A bottle of ink is visible in the corner, while the tip of a white brush, identical in appearance to Amaterasu’s tail, acts as the player’s cursor, prompting them to draw. The bottle of ink visibly drains the longer the player ‘paints’, restricting the amount of ink available and reinforcing the philosophy of sumi-e by making players use the smallest amount of ink necessary to bring Amaterasu’s powers and abilities to life. This depiction also helps draw the player into the narrative of the game by evoking their actual physical placement, whether seated or standing in front of the television, and incorporating it into the game’s interface. Through the combination of the angle of the screen and the player’s control over the Celestial Brush, the player is effectively seated at the small wooden table. This helps the player become more emotional invested in the action on screen, and better integrated into the gameplay. The console on which Okami is played on also contributes to the immersion of the player. Okami was designed for and released on the Sony PS2 before being ported to the Nintendo Wii. In the PS2

9 Kevin Gifford, “Platinum Games' Kamiya Reflects on Bayonetta, Okami”, 1up.com, 2008, http://www.1up.com/news/platinum-games-kamiya-reflects-bayonetta (accessed 16th April 2011). 10 Sterling McGarvey, “Running with the Wolves: Atsushi Inaba talks Okami”, Gamespy, 2006, http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3393/designers_notebook_its_time_to_.php (accessed 16th April 2011).

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version of Okami the Celestial Brush was controlled via the use of one of the controller’s analog joysticks. In the Wii version of the game the Wii mote and motion controls are used to guide the Celestial Brush. The use of the Wii-mote as the Celestial Brush helps draw the player deeper into the philosophy of sumi-e painting. The player must use their arms to participate in the creation of the various Brush Techniques, emphasising the motion of the controller and emulating the feel of a paintbrush in ones hand. Utilising the Wii-mote makes using the Celestial Brush more gestural and physical, and helps improve the pace of combat. The short, physical gestures replicate the quick brushstrokes of Sumi-e painting, which again emphasises using only what is necessary to complete an action, while attempting to breathe life or exert some force into the symbol. The use of a joystick to control the Celestial Paintbrush is less physical and more carefully controlled, removing the gestural quality of the celestial brush and lessening its connection to the player. Much like the display of the Celestial Brush, using the Wii-mote to reference the player’s physical movements better immerses the player in the game, making them feel more connected to what is happening on the screen. The manipulation of the Wii-mote is also used to control Amaterasu’s physical attacks. Shaking and flicking the Wii-mote will cause Amaterasu to fling the Divine Instrument she wears on her back. Much like the Celestial Brush, the movement of the Wii-mote is meant to mimic the physical gesture needed to control the weapon in game. However the result is less effective than the Celestial Brush. With the Celestial Brush the size of the symbol the player draws impacts the amount of ink used in addition to the strength of the attack. In the same vein the speed at which the player draws the symbol affects the speed at which the player can launch successive attacks, the quicker they are in drawing one symbol the quicker they can move onto drawing the next Brush Techniques. When the player uses the Divine Instrument the strength with which they flick does not affect the damaged induced when Amaterasu attacks. In addition when the player uses the Wii-mote to strike an enemy they can physically feel that no actual strike takes place, despite what may be depicted on the screen. The use of the Wii-mote for Okami’s physical combat does not allow the player to feel as though they are truly affecting the environment in the game. Rather it lessens the player’s immersion by reminding them of the limitations of the gameplay, making them physically aware that their movements are merely triggers for action rather than the origin, as with they are with the Celestial Brush.

The Purpose and Structure of Narrative in Okami The over-arching story line of Okami details Amaterasu’s quest to rid Nippon of all evil. At first the build up of the history and rivalry between Amaterasu and Orochi suggests to the player that Orochi

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will be the main antagonist throughout the events of the game. Players may assume that the primary goal of Okami is to defeat Orochi, and that Okami will be ‘won’ when Amaterasu defeats him in battle. These players will be surprised to find that Amaterasu faces and defeats Orochi early in the game before she has been able to locate all 13 of her lost Brush techniques. Orochi’s death simply marks the end of the first story arc; a dark cloud rises from his corpse and flies off towards the south of Nippon. The second story arc of the game begins when Amaterasu pursues the dark cloud, eventually finding herself in Ryoshima Coast, a new unexplored location of Nippon and home to the capital Sei-An City. As previously mentioned, Okami’s narrative is divided into three majors arcs. The first arc details Amaterasu’s revival and defeat of Orochi. The second story arc involves Amaterasu’s adventures in Ryoshima Coast, where she finds Sei-an City covered by a sickening mist and a rampaging dragon lurking in the sea. The final and shortest arc follows Amaterasu as she journeys to the northernmost part of Nippon, Kamui, which is said to be the birthplace of all evil. Here Amaterasu faces her final battle in the Ark of Yamato, a ship that once belonged to the technologically advanced civilisation of Nippon, and the location from which all evil is said to emerge. Lurking within the ship is Yami, the Ruler of Darkness, from whom all the enemies that Amaterasu faced in her journey, including her nemesis Orochi, were born. The story arcs in Okami are separated via the designation of a major opposing force whose presence drives the actions and events of each arc. While other enemies and bosses are fought, multiple locations explored, and various side tasks and objectives completed, all events in this arc act as build up to the battle between Amaterasu and this major antagonist. The tasks the player completes in each arc are ultimately necessary to complete should the player wish to defeat the arc boss as they provide the player with the various skills and techniques needed to do so. The approach to the arc boss is designated to the player through the use of a temporary ‘point of no return,’ in which through certain story events the player becomes effectively locked in an area that can only be exited upon the defeat of the arc boss. This is done to differentiate these bosses’ from those previously encountered throughout the arc, it is a means to signify to the player that an arc will some come to an end, while providing some dramatic tension and effectively ‘raising the stakes’ of these final battles. After defeat of the arc boss an evil cloud arises from their body and flies off into the distance. This serves to introduce Amaterasu (and the player) to their next location, as well as providing a sense of continuity to the separate story arcs. The events of each story arc are for the most part completely separate from one another. Unless specifically directed to return by the advancing story, the player will find little reason to revisit the characters and locations of the previous arcs aside from the continued exploration of the area to complete side-quests and obtain treasure items. The characters you meet in each arc are generally

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confined to the locations you first encounter them in. Only two characters in Okami (aside from Amaterasu) have any continued presence or importance throughout all three of Okami’s arcs: Issun and Waka. Aside from narrative purposes the reason for this is due to the function both characters perform for the player. Both Issun and Waka act as guides that provide hints on a current or future objective of the game. The nature of these hints is affected by the role of each character in the story of the game. In Waka’s case, the player comes to find that Waka is a member of the Moon tribe, a now extinct race that once lived on the moon from whom the futuristic technology in Nippon comes from. The player also finds that Waka inadvertently caused the events of Okami to take place, as he caused the Ark of Yamato to crash into Nippon, allowing monsters to enter the world. Waka has been searching for the Ark in an attempt to right the wrongs he has caused, and has been using his gift of prophecy to guide Amaterasu to the Ark in hopes that she can defeat Yami and bring peace to Nippon. Waka’s character in Okami is an enigmatic figure, appearing suddenly and using his foresight to provide hints to the player before quickly departing. Because he wishes to guide Amaterasu without explicitly mentioning his goals, Waka disguises his hints with vague and misleading imagery, providing a hint that directs the player without concisely explaining the next goal. Waka’s method of assisting the player is in direct contact with Issun, Amaterasu’s companion for her journey. Late in Okami the player finds that Issun was training to be the Celestial Envoy, a person whose job is to maintain the faith in the gods by spreading words of their deeds. However Issun rejected the role of Celestial Envoy and ran away from home, eventually coming across Amaterasu and joining her in her adventure. While Issun initially claims that he is only accompanying Amaterasu so that he may learn each of the 13 Brush Techniques, it soon becomes clear that Issun begins to regard Amaterasu as a friend, and follows her out of personal choice. Unlike Waka, Issun possesses no ulterior motive for guiding Amaterasu; as a result his hints are more direct and obvious. Issun’s hints are directed towards the current goals of the player, while Waka’s hints are used to describe future events. Issun also acts as the mouthpiece for Amaterasu, who is a silent protagonist. While Issun does not directly speak for Amaterasu, he provides clarification for goals and objectives, and helps progress conversations and provides exposition. While there are characters in each arc who also provide Amaterasu with hints, they are restricted to only being helpful within their respective arc, they cease to be of use once their arc is completed. Amaterasu’s second story arc, her exploits in Sei-an City, is particularly noteworthy for the evolution of the characters and narrative encountered by the player. The arc begins after the defeat of Orochi, when Amaterasu reaches Ryoshima Coast. Here Amaterasu finds that a sickening mist that is

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slowly draining the life out of the citizens blankets Sei-an City. Amaterasu meets with Rao, the local priestess, who explains that the ruler of Sei-an City, Queen Himiko, has locked herself away in her palace and is praying to the gods feverishly in an attempt to discern the location of Oni Island. Oni Island is said to be the ‘stronghold of evil’ and the home of the Dark Lord who is the root of the evil plaguing all of Ryoshima Coast. After locating and defeating the source of the sickening mist, Amaterasu frees Kaguya, a woman with gold hair who was being held prisoner in the Emperor’s palace. In return for her help Kaguya gives Amaterasu a tablet that allows her to see Queen Himiko. Himiko explains to Amaterasu that before she can defeat the Dark Lord she must gain control over the Water Dragon, who is the only being who can break the barrier surrounding Oni Island, and who is currently rampaging the seas. After defeating and gaining the power of the Water Dragon, Amaterasu is given a vision of Rao being pursued by the Dark Lord. Running to her rescue leads Amaterasu to Himiko’s chambers, where Queen Himiko lies dead on the ground. Rao reveals herself to be the Dark Lord Ninetails, who killed the real Rao and took her form so she could get close to Himiko. After Ninetails escapes, Himiko’s spirit appears to Amaterasu, explaining that it was her plan to be killed by the Dark Lord as it would give her the power to find the location of Oni Island, which she shows to Amaterasu before departing. After racing to the location of Oni Island Amaterasu journeys through the Dark Lord’s palace, before facing off with the Dark Lord himself, who is attempting to usurp the power of the gods. The defeat of Ninetails marks the end of the second story arc, with the spirit of Ninetails rising from his body and flying off towards the north of Nippon. Unlike the first arc, which primarily focused on a retelling of the legend of Yamata no Orochi, the second arc of Okami features a distinct re-purposing of several different tales to create a unique scenario. In this way the first arc, containing a well-known myth from Japanese mythology, serves to introduce the player to the world of Okami. The player is meant to use the first arc as a means with which to understand how the story and characters in Nippon operate. It gives the player the ability to understand the setting Okami is placed in, the tone, humour, characters, and narrative style. After the first arc has been completed it is assumed that the player now fully understands the inspiration behind the story of Okami and has formed a set of expectations on the direction of the rest of the game. However, after this point Okami begins distancing its narrative from being purely derivative of various Japanese myths. This not only allows Okami to draw focus towards its original story line in preparation for the climax, but also allows the game to surprise players. Assuming they are familiar with the story of Yamata no Orochi, the player will be able to predict certain plot points and events before they occur, such as Susano’s role in defeating Orochi and the use of sake to distract the demon. By the second story

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arc much of the narrative is derived not from one specific story, but rather from an amalgamation of different characters from Japanese folklore. This allows Okami to work against the expectations constructed by the player, allowing for plot twists and unexpected events to occur. It also allows for Okami to foreshadow the events of plot points in the game itself, allowing the narrative to become centralised and more reliant on the game itself rather than the outside knowledge of the player. For instance the plot point of what happens to Rao, the priestess, finds its origins in the tale of Tamamo-no-Mae. In the story a woman befriends the Emperor only to be revealed as an evil shape- shifting Kitsune, a nine-tailed fox common in Japanese mythology.11 However Rao’s character is also connected to the story of Happyaku Bikuni, where a beautiful woman who accidentally eats the meat of a mermaid is cursed with perpetual youth, and becomes a nun who wanders the earth for over 800 years.12 Due to the presence of an undersea kingdom off the coast of Sei-An City, first time players may assume that Rao is based solely off the myth of Happyaki Bikuni, and thus may not expect the twist revealing Rao to be a kitsune, a fox-like creature in disguise. At the same time, attentive players may notice the presence of benign foxes surrounding Rao’s temple and the appearance of fox enemies shortly before Rao reveals herself to Amaterasu. Okami attempts to subtlety foreshadow Rao’s reveal would be less effective if the second arc was entirely derivative of a specific folktale. The second story arc marks the beginning of the focus onto Okami’s original story line, Amaterasu’s quest to locate each of her 13 lost Brush Techniques and rid Nippon of evil. The third arc takes this even further, and is the section of Okami that features the least noticeable use of mythology to drive its story. The third arc relies almost entirely on deepening the narrative point’s specific to Okami, namely the underlying motivations of Waka, the discovery of the Ark of Yamato, and the defeat of Yami. Despite the attempt to disguise the use of mythology in the second arc, certain aspects of the story follow closely with their original myths. Kaguya, the woman Amaterasu helps, is found to be a member of the Moon tribe from which Waka also belongs. Kaguya is a reference to the story of Kaguya- Hime, which tells the tale of a Princess from the moon who was sent to earth for protection, and seeks a way to return to the moon. In Okami Amaterasu helps Kaguya return to the rocket ship she was sent to Nippon in, and as a reward for her help Kaguya gives Amaterasu a required item that she needs before she can see Queen Himiko. The players who do not possess knowledge of the Japanese myth Kaguya is based on will not be able to predict what will happen during Kaguya’s subplot. The players who do possess such knowledge will recognise the significance of a bamboo grove visited in the first arc of the

11 “Tamamo-no-Mae-“, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamamo-no-Mae, (accessed 16th April, 2011). 12 Capcom, Okami: Official Complete Works. (Ontario: Udon Entertainment Corp, 2008)., Pg. 137.

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game, and understand why Kaguya is later found in this location. This area coincides with the location where Kaguya was found in the original story, hidden within a glowing stalk of bamboo. As previously mentioned the use of mythology helps provide a clear goal for the player. The savvy player will be able to recall the events of the myths and folklore being referenced and be able to tailor their actions accordingly. This would allow players to achieve a higher level of problem solving by requiring the use of referring to outside sources to guide ones actions within the game. However Okami often fails make use of this higher level of thinking and problem solving by explicitly detailing the next goal of the player. For instance despite the clear association with Kaguya and the bamboo grove, Kaguya explicitly asks Amaterasu to meet her at the grove and goes so far as to mark the place on Amaterasu’s map. It is unknown if this is a feature specific to the releases of Okami outside of Japan, or if it is present in all versions despite any cultural familiarity with the source material. It may be that while Okami chooses to reference material outside of the game world, it seeks to centralises its puzzles and story points to be neatly contained within the game so as to not ostracise the unfamiliar player. Despite the inability of Okami to make better use of its referencing of mythology in its puzzles and problem solving, the use of folklore fulfils a secondary goal. Much like the ukiyo-e illustrations the use of mythology attempts to ground the story of Okami within the same context as other Japanese myths. By continually referring to myths and legends from Japanese folklore, Okami strengthens the authenticity of its setting, an alternative version of ancient Japan. Doing so contributes to the tone and atmosphere of Okami, which creates a more rounded and deeper experience for the player.

Meanings and Themes in Okami Aside from providing inspiration for the various characters and plot elements, the use of mythology introduces a message of respect and reverence of one’s heritage. Okami is meant to be a celebration of several aspects of Japanese culture such as its art and folklore, and provides those who are familiar with the culture a new way of experiencing and appreciating it, while introducing the unaccustomed to Japan’s treasured myths and legends. Throughout the story of Okami the theme of respect for one’s heritage is closely intertwined with the acknowledgement of one’s own destiny, most notably with the characters of Issun and Susano. Susano, descendant of the hero Nagi, is shown to be very disillusioned and embittered towards his noble heritage, and feels constantly pressured to live up to his ancestor’s legacy. Seeking a way to remove his ancestor’s influence over his life, Susano attempts to steal the sword sealing away Orochi’s spirit, believing the tale of what happened 100 years ago to be only a myth and wishing to have some way of proving it. In this way Susano is disrespecting the heroic

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deeds of his ancestor, actively seeking to denounce and tarnish the memory of Nagi. Upon releasing Orochi Susano soon realises not only that Nagi’s acts were true, but that others will now expect him to face and defeat Orochi as his ancestor did before him. Susano has essentially set in motion a self- fulfilling prophecy, by attempting to escape his destiny of following in Nagi’s footsteps he has unwittingly engineered the sequence of events that require him to accept his destiny. A subplot of the first arc details Susano’s denial of responsibility, and the repercussions of his disrespect towards his ancestor. At first Susano flees, attempting to avoid fulfilling his responsibilities, but when it is revealed that Orochi has resumed his need for a yearly sacrifice and selects his chosen maiden from Kamiki Village, a woman Susano harbours secret feelings for, Susano takes arm against Orochi. When Orochi tries to tempt Susano into making a pact that would free his true power, Susano declares that “the only pact for me is the one that comes with my bloodline!” and that if he is destined to die fighting evil then he is prepared to accept his fate.13 In this moment Susano shows that he has finally come to acknowledge the achievements of his ancestor and his destiny to fight Orochi. This acceptance of his responsibility grants Susano, who previously was unable to slice a straw scarecrow without Amaterasu’s help, the ability to defeat Orochi. After vanquishing Orochi Susano can later be found admiring a statue of Nagi, appearing at peace with both his ancestors and his own accomplishments. Acknowledging and respecting his heritage and destiny allowed Susano to defeat Orochi, giving him the confidence and determination needed to slay the demon. Issun on the other hand spends much more of the game in denial of his responsibilities. In Okami the power of the gods is dependent on the faith and belief of the people. When belief is strong the gods are powerful, but when belief is not present they are weak and powerless. In the Okami universe this relationship between belief and power necessitates the position of the Celestial Envoy, someone who can spread word of the gods deeds and keep people’s faith strong. The role of Celestial Envoy can only be given to one of the Poncle people, the inch-high race whom Issun is a member of. In the third story arc of Okami we find that Issun ran away from home because he rejected being tasked with becoming a Celestial Envoy, a position he inherited from his Grandfather Ishaku, who once journeyed with Amaterasu’s previous form Shiranui. When the player meets Ishaku later in the game, he reveals that he pressured Issun to become the Celestial Envoy, and that it was the harsh training he provided that caused Issun to run away. Issun’s refusal to become the Celestial Envoy becomes a story point late in the game, when he is prevented from joining Amaterasu on the Ark of Yamato specifically

13 Okami (Wii Version), Clover Studio/Ready at Dawn Studios (Capcom, 2008).

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because of his denial of destiny. Much like Susano, Issun is prompted into accepting his fate while at the same time resolving his animosity towards his grandfather. After being refused to join Amaterasu in her final battle, Issun aids her in the only way he can, by taking up the mantle of Celestial Envoy and spreading word of Amaterasu’s deeds to all of Nippon. This instils the people’s faith in the gods during a critical moment of Amaterasu’s battle with Yami, unlocking the full extent of her divine powers and allowing her to vanquish Yami. Accepting his duty and making peace with his Grandfather allows Issun to help Amaterasu, fulfilling his destiny and helping to bring peace to Nippon. Interestingly, while Okami promotes a message of faith in the gods it also acknowledges and emphasises the need for one’s own agency. At first this message may not be entirely evident to the player; Amaterasu receives praise for completing simple tasks like fetching a souvenir pin wheel or mending a broken water wheel, feat’s that are by no means outside the grasp of the mortal people Amaterasu is helping. In this way it seems as though the game is rewarding the characters for their blind faith in the gods, with little outside the occasional comment from Issun questioning the ethics of these situations, which is usually taken as a humorous quip rather than a genuine criticism. However these situations are for the most part delegated for small and unimportant side quests which are not necessary to complete in order to finish the game. Events that are directly correlated to the main story arc generally feature a notable balance between maintaining one’s faith and one’s own agency. In the second story arc, when her city is threatened Queen Himiko takes it upon herself to find the location of Oni Island. When the player first arrives in Sei-an City it appears that all Queen Himiko has been doing to combat the threat to her city is to pray to the gods for their assistance. However upon her death Himiko appears to Amaterasu in a vision, revealing that she had known about Ninetails’ impersonation of Rao, and knew that her death at his hands would give her enough power to discern the location of Oni Island. While she did physically act, Himiko demonstrated an acknowledgement of her own agency and refused to rely solely on the power of the gods to help her. The development of Susano’s character also demonstrates the need to balance agency and faith. When a woman named Kushi is chosen as the sacrificial maiden Amaterasu immediately spurs into action while Susano is left behind to mull over the situation. Amaterasu takes it upon herself to defeat Orochi single-handedly, and as the player navigates through Orochi’s lair the game makes a point of not mentioning Susano during the rescue attempt. After the player confronts Orochi in battle it appears that he has been defeated, however a cutscene reveals that Orochi preparing to launch a final assault. Amaterasu is shown readying herself to attack when Susano arrives, and proclaims that he will be the

Osterreicher on Okami -- 16 -- http://gameplay-archive.org/ one to defeat Orochi. It is at this point that we see that the balance between ones faith and agency is reflected not only in the narrative but in the game play as well. Prior to Orochi’s battle, as Amaterasu journeyed across the land she would occasionally run into Susano, and sometimes aid him with a task. Whenever Susano cut down a large boulder or defeated an enemy it was the work of Amaterasu and the player using the Celestial Brush. This same situation is used in the battle with Orochi, but this time with a twist. Susano launches an attack, and with Amaterasu (and the player) aiding him manages to cut off seven of Orochi’s heads. However when Susano attacks the eighth and final head the player is given no prompt to aid Susano, and he not only cleaves through the remaining head, but Orochi’s entire body as well. Rather than relying on the power of the gods, Susano reacts with his own agency. However the player is also privy to the knowledge that while Susano struck the final blow, without Amaterasu he would not have been able to defeat Orochi. The player thus sees a demonstration of the ability to rely on outside forces for help and guidance, but to never underestimate the ability of one’s own agency. It is also at this point that Amaterasu is shown to have a balance between her own faith and agency. While she and the player are prepared and willing to fight on their own, they are still able to rely on others to aid them in their time of need. Later boss fights, such as the battle with Yami, also reflect this. While Amaterasu was required to confront Yami by herself, she was still able to rely on Issun to provide assistance when she needed it the most. Thus Okami not only promotes belief in an otherwise intangible entity, the gods; it also promotes faith in its human characters as well. Finally, Okami’s main theme can be said to be the reverence and restoration of nature, which is not only present in the narrative and aesthetic of the game but is also reinforced via the gameplay. As previously mentioned the developer’s main desire from the beginnings of Okami was to include a lot of nature, and to find a way to connect the player to Amaterasu through her reverence for nature. The art direction of Okami, following the philosophy of sumi-e, ties the viewer to a world of life and nature while giving them the power to directly affect the world and become connected to it spiritually. An ongoing plot point in Okami is to bring into bloom the Divine Saplings that are scattered around Nippon. Doing so rewards the player with a cut scene showing lush beauty returning to their current location, rippling from the sacred tree like a wave of water. The purpose of restoring the Divine Saplings is to remove the presence of evil from a current location, and must be completed in order to progress gameplay. However the reverence for nature is also present in the elements of Okami whose completion is not required for the player to finish the game.

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During Okami the player is given the option of feeding the various forms of wildlife they come across in Nippon. Feeding an animal rewards the player with praise, which Amaterasu can use to enhance her abilities. Whenever Amaterasu feeds an animal, a small cutscene is activated, where Amaterasu and the animal are shown in a quiet, flower-filled meadow with soft pleasant music playing (Image 9). Amaterasu is seated directly in front of the eating animal and the camera slowly rotates around the scene, giving the player a 360-degree view before the cutscene ends. Nothing of importance happens in this scene, and the player is not required to watch the entire scene to receive praise. This scene is illustrating Amaterasu’s own reference for nature, and attempting to provoke the same feelings from the player, though still allowing them the ability the skip the scene so as not to slow the pace of gameplay. It is meant to be a calming and soothing experience for the player, providing an intangible reward for honouring nature while the praise provides a tangible, in-game reward for the act of feeding the animals.

History of Clover Studio and Closing Thoughts Upon its release Okami was critically acclaimed, the majority of praise being directed towards the game’s visual design and story. Reviewers from IGN described Okami as being “beautiful, charismatic, engaging, and one of the most original games you’ll play anytime soon.”14 IGN went on to name the PS2 version of Okami as the 18th best PlayStation 2 game of all time, as well as name Okami the 2006 Game of the Year. The Wii version, though similarly praised, has been criticised for the use of the Wii-mote motion controls during combat with some reviewers, most notably critics from the Nintendo Power magazine, recommending the PS2 Version of the game over the Wii version. Despite favourable reviews and praise from critics, Okami failed to find a market. The PS2 version of Okami sold approximately 270,000 copies in North America by March of 2007, while only 66,000 copies were sold in Japan in 2006. Upon the release of the Wii version, total sales for the Okami remained fewer than 600, 000 units as of March 2009. As a result, Okami was named the “least commercially successful winner of a game of the year award” in the 2010 version of the Guinness World Records Gamer’s Edition.15 Shortly after the release of Okami for the PS2 Clover Studio, an independent studio funded by Capcom, announced its closure. Initially the closure was attributed to the poor sales of Okami. However Capcom has stated that the true reason for the studio’s closure was due to the departure of three key developers from Capcom. Hideki Kamiya, the director of Okami and Atsushi Inaba, the producer of

14 Chris Roper, “Okami Review”, IGN, http://ps2.ign.com/articles/733/733122p1.html (accessed 16th April 2011). 15 “Okami”, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ckami (accessed 16th April 2011).

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Okami and then CEO of Clover Studio were among those who left Capcom. After their departure Capcom cited a need to increase efficiency by centralising the resources of the company, and in October 2006 the Capcom Board of Directors voted to shut down the studio. The dissolution of the studio was finalised in March 2007, with all original intellectual properties developed by Clover Studio (including Okami) remaining with Capcom. The three former developers of Clover Studio would go onto form Seeds, Inc., which would later merge with ODD Incorporated to form PlatinumGames. PlatinumGames’ title Bayonetta, contains numerous references to Okami.16 As a result of Clover Studio’s closure Capcom assigned the development of the Wii port of Okami to Ready at Dawn Studios. Christian Svensson, Capcom's Vice-President of Strategic Planning and Business Development, described the problems encountered as a result of Clover’s Studios closure: “The first drop of assets we got from Japan were incomplete … Even after the second asset drop, [Ready at Dawn] still had to create stuff from scratch.”17 As a result of the lack of a source code, Capcom chose to remove the end credits from the Wii version of Okami. These credits, referred by the designers as an omoi or “a combination of thoughts, emotions, and messages” from the game contained various scenes of the characters encountered in the game and their life after the events of Okami (Image 10). The reason for this removal was the presence of Clover Studio’s logo in the credit roll, as Capcom believed they had “no legal right to use the Clover logo in a game they were not involved with directly.” Removing only the logo wasn’t possible due to the missing source code. Lead Designer and Director Hideki Kamiya commented on the removal of the omoi from the game as thus: “The Omoi of everyone who worked on the project, put together in amount of bliss held out just for those who completed the journey. It was a special staff roll for a special moment. And now it is gone. All of it…Its incredibly disappointing and sad.”18 The artwork found in the credits are still available in the Wii version of Okami as an unlockable bonus that the player receives after beating the game. Despite the poor sales and closure of Clover Studio, a sequel for Okami, entitled Okamiden, was released in March of 2011. Okamiden stars Chibiterasu, a “younger form of existence” of Amaterasu, generally regarded as her offspring by fans and the in-game characters. Chibiterasu or ‘Chibi’ is sent to Nippon much like Amaterasu was, to combat a new evil, and like his mother he must first locate the 13 Brush gods hidden around Nippon before he is able to bring peace to the land. Okamiden is notable for its re-use of characters and locations from Okami, expanding on the roles of Okami’s characters while

16 “PlatinumGames”, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_Games, (accessed 16th April 2011). 17 Matt Casamassina, “Okami’s Second Chance”, IGN, 2008, http://wii.ign.com/articles/861/861215p1.html (accessed 16th April 2011).

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intertwining the narrative of Okamiden with its predecessor. Reviews for Okamiden have been generally positive, though reviewers have noted that “there was little surprise as there was with Okami as the DS version covers many of the same elements of story and gameplay”, and that gameplay was not expanded upon from the original game.19 As of April 2011 Okamiden has sold approximately 124,600 copies in Japan, with another 63,000 copies sold in the Americas.20 The experience of playing Okami is heightened via a familiarity of the culture of Japan. By drawing on the various myths and legends that inspired the events of the game Okami is able to construct a very specific setting that enables the viewer to become engrossed in a world that while familiar is new and intriguing. The use of folklore also reinforces the tone and atmosphere of Okami, creating a dimensional world with its own history and mythology that the player can explore and become attached to. At the same time Okami is also structured to introduce the unfamiliar player to a segment of Japanese culture, namely its art styles and folklore. Okami connects the player to the events of the in-game world and seeks to form a relationship with the player through the art direction, gameplay, and story line. Okami does this by in part by ensuring that the different aspects of the game work together to strengthen its various themes and concepts. They work with one another and succeed in creating a cohesive package in which the theme of one part of the game reinforces the theme of another. For instance the philosophy of sumi-e not only influenced the art direction and gameplay, but its focus on capturing ‘heartbeat of living nature’ also contributes to Okami’s reverence of nature. Overall Okami is a game that thrives on referentiality, whether it is referencing outside sources or its own themes and concepts. This enables it to create a unique setting, visual style, gameplay, and narrative that work together to produce a new experience for the player to enjoy. While Okami failed to sell, this cohesiveness will ensure that it is remembered and treasured by the players who did experience it.

-- fin --

18 Chris Remo, “Platinum's Kamiya Voices Concern Over Missing Okami Credits”, Gamasutra, http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=18469 (accessed 16th April 2011). 19 “Okamiden”, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ckamiden (accessed 17th April 2011). 20 “Okamiden Sales DS”, GamrReview, http://gamrreview.vgchartz.com/sales/38423/okamiden/ (accessed 16th April 2011).

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Image 1 – Okami’s sumi-e inspired Graphics.

Image 2 – An example of sumi-e art.

Image 3 – Susano’s in-game character model. Image 4 – Issun displaying Anger.

Image 5 – An illustration of the boss “Crimson Helm” done In the ukiyo-e style.

Image 6 – A ukiyo-e print depicting the god Susanoo defeating Orochi.

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Image 7 – The realistic prototype of Okami. Image 8 – The Celestial Brush interface.

Image 9 – Amaterasu’s reverence for nature. Image 10 - An image from the Omoi, showing one of the Characters of Okami with her new-born child.

Image Sources

“Otohime”. Okami Wikia. http://okami.wikia.com/wiki/Otohime (accessed 17th April 2011).

“Okami Wii”. Gamespot. http://www.gamespot.com/wii/action/okami/index.html (accessed 17th April 2011).

“Yamata no Orochi”. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamata_no_Orochi (accessed 17th April 2011).

“Sumi-e”. Japanese Canadian Cultural Centre. http://www.jccc.on.ca/cultural_arts/sumi-e.htm (accessed 17th April 2011).

“Susano”. Neoseeker. http://img.neoseeker.com/v_concept_art.php?caid=2897(accessed 17th April 2011).

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Bibliography

Casamassina, Matt. “Okami’s Second Chance”. IGN. 2008. http://wii.ign.com/articles/861/861215p1.html (accessed 16th April, 2011).

Capcom. Okami: Official Complete Works. Ontario: Udon Entertainment Corp., 2008.

Gifford, Kevin. “Platinum Games' Kamiya Reflects on Bayonetta, Okami”. 1up.com. 2008. http://www.1up.com/news/platinum-games-kamiya-reflects-bayonetta (accessed 16th April 2011).

“History of Sumi-e Painting (Japanese Ink Painting)”. Drue Kataoka. http://www.drue.net/sumi-e-history.htm (accessed April 16th, 2011).

“Ink and Wash Painting”. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink_and_wash_painting (accessed April 16th, 2011).

McGarvey, Sterling. “Running with the Wolves: Atsushi Inaba talks Okami”. Gamespy. 2006. http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/3393/designers_notebook_its_time_to_.php (accessed 16th April 2011).

“Okami”. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ckami (accessed 16th April 2011).

“Okamiden Sales DS”. GamrReview. http://gamrreview.vgchartz.com/sales/38423/okamiden/ (accessed 16th April 2011).

Okamiden”, Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Ckamiden (accessed 17th April 2011).

“PlatinumGames”. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_Games, (accessed 16th April, 2011).

Remo, Chris. “Platinum's Kamiya Voices Concern Over Missing Okami Credits”. Gamasutra. 2008. http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=18469 (accessed 16th April 2011).

Roper, Chris. “Okami Review”. IGN. http://ps2.ign.com/articles/733/733122p1.html (accessed 16th April 2011).

“Sumi-e Introduction”. Sumi-e Painting. http://www.sumi-e-painting.com/sumi-e-einfuehrung-gesamt.htm (accessed April 16th, 2011).

“Tamamo-no-Mae-“. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamamo-no-Mae, (accessed 16th April, 2011).

Gameography

Okami (Wii Version), Clover Studio/Ready at Dawn Studios (Capcom, 2008).

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