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Groomed for Power: a Cultural Economy of the Male Body in Nineteenth-Century America

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Groomed for Power: a Cultural Economy of the Male Body in Nineteenth-Century America The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts GROOMED FOR POWER: A CULTURAL ECONOMY OF THE MALE BODY IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY AMERICA A Dissertation in History & Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies by SEAN TRAINOR © 2015 Sean Trainor Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2015 ii The dissertation of Sean Trainor was reviewed and approved by the following committee: Amy S. Greenberg Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of History & Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies The Pennsylvania State University Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Patricia Cline Cohen Special Member Professor of History and Feminist Studies The University of California, Santa Barbara Anthony E. Kaye Associate Professor of History The Pennsylvania State University Joan B. Landes Ferree Professor of Early Modern History and Women's, Gender, and Sexuality Studies The Pennsylvania State University Hester Blum Associate Professor of English The Pennsylvania State University Jonathan Brockopp Director of Graduate Studies The Pennsylvania State University Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT Groomed for Power tells the story of how men’s bodies are made: whose labor produces them, and how meanings are inscribed upon them. It tells this story by focusing on one of the most dynamic moments in the history of men’s fashion: the nineteenth-century American ‘beard movement,’ in which tens of millions of men adopted elaborate facial hair for the first time in centuries. A cultural history from the bottom up, Groomed for Power asks readers to reconsider both fashion and body care in light of the work that makes them possible. As such, it shows how four communities of workers – including African-American barbers, British razor makers, patent hair product advertisers, and women’s fashion writers – helped shape and lend meaning to this movement. What emerges is an ‘accidental’ history of the most important development in men’s fashion between the decline of knee breeches and the rise of blue jeans: a history that none of its participants set out to make, but which proved enormously consequential nonetheless. Intimately linked to many of the ‘big stories’ of nineteenth-century American history – including the hardening of white supremacy, the rise of American economic nationalism, and the emergence of a ‘natural’ ideal of manhood – the story of the ‘beard movement’ offers a body’s-eye-view on the American past. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................... viii Introduction: An ‘Accidental’ History of Men’s Grooming in America ................................................... 1 I. Project Overview ................................................................................................................................... 8 II. Overall Contribution .......................................................................................................................... 12 III. Historiographical Engagements ........................................................................................................ 14 IV. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 22 V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 24 PART I: AN ERA OF FACIAL HAIR Chapter One: Rise and Fall of the American Barber Shop African-American Barbers and the End of Clean-Shavenness ................................................................... 28 I. The Work of the Barber, the Pleasure of the Shop .............................................................................. 37 II. The Rise of a Black Tonsorial Aristocracy and the Decline of the American Shop .......................... 48 III. A World of Pain: Home Shaving and the Rise of the Beard ............................................................. 66 Chapter Two: Requiem for the Razor Sheffield Cutlers and the Fate of Shaving ................................................................................................... 74 I. Lower Price, Higher Quality: Origins of the Daily Shave ................................................................... 79 II. A Labor History of the Razor ............................................................................................................. 85 III. (In)Dependence ................................................................................................................................. 94 IV. Razor in Crisis ................................................................................................................................ 103 PART II: THE RISE OF THE BEARD Chapter Three: Dandies All! Patent Hair Product Advertisers and the Feminization of Men’s Facial Hair ......................................... 113 I. Facial Hair, Typical and Stereotypical .............................................................................................. 119 II. An Empire of Dandies ...................................................................................................................... 127 III. An Accidental Revolution ............................................................................................................... 142 v Chapter Four: Fashioning Men’s Bodies Women’s Fashion Writers and the Pro-Beard Polemic ............................................................................ 147 I. Dandies, Zealots, and the Origins of the Pro-Beard Polemic ............................................................ 157 II. Women’s Fashion and the Making of Men’s Bodies ....................................................................... 168 III. The Beard and its Discontents ........................................................................................................ 181 Conclusion: Domesticating Men’s Grooming ........................................................................................ 184 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 197 Secondary Sources ................................................................................................................................ 197 Books ................................................................................................................................................ 197 Edited Volumes ................................................................................................................................. 204 Articles .............................................................................................................................................. 204 Dissertations ...................................................................................................................................... 207 Primary Sources.................................................................................................................................... 207 Newspapers ....................................................................................................................................... 207 Periodicals ......................................................................................................................................... 211 Books ................................................................................................................................................ 212 Published Primary Sources ............................................................................................................... 214 Archival Sources ................................................................................................................................... 214 Manuscript Collections ..................................................................................................................... 214 Unpublished Materials ...................................................................................................................... 215 Online Databases and Repositories ................................................................................................... 215 vi LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 (image): Jay Gould. ........................................................................................................................... 6 Fig. 2 (image): Nathaniel P. Willis .............................................................................................................. 6 Fig. 3 (chart): Barbers relative to white male urban populations, 1800 to 1850 ....................................... 32 Fig. 4 (chart): Percentage of services and revenue by category: barber shop of William Johnson, Natchez, Mississippi, 1832-1839 .................................................................................................................. 40 Fig. 5 (image): Anthony Imbert, wrapper illustration, Life in Philadelphia .............................................. 61 Fig. 6 (image): “The Barber” (comic valentine), H. De Marsan ...............................................................
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