Destructive Distillation

A MA N U AL E TTE

OF TH E

P ARAFFIN,COAL TAR ROSIN OIL PETROLEUM , 7

This b o o k pa per i s highly a cidic due to the metho ds a nd ing redients used i n its ma nu fa c t r A s a res tith o m r e . a s b ec e b tte t u ul i l wi h a g e . Plea se ha ndle with ca re so tha tinfo rma tio n no tb e o stto t r r r will l fu u e ea de s .

A lo ng - ra nge g o a l o f the L ib ra ry i s to pu r cha se a h a cid - free reprinto r mic ro fo rm c o py to repla ce this vo lu me ,o r to repro duce itin

h o se o n c d - ree r u a i f pa pe .

Tha nk yo u fo r helping to preserve th e U niver ’ s it s resea rc c o ecto s y h ll i n .

GU R N E Y JA CKSON , i ,PAT E R N OSTE R R OW ’ M N ( R . V A v o oB s r s s uo o E s s o nsﬂ

A ll R i lz ts R e g s er ved .

\DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION

A MA N U AL E TTE

OF TH E

PARAFFIN,COAL TAR,ROSIN OIL PETROLEUM,

AN D

KINDRED INDUSTRIES.

D L F R E D MI D L . S M J O N D . . S . . U N . gs . O { ﬁ

F O U R T H E D I T I O N

\ I \ H I L O N D O N.

GU R N E Y JA C KS ON 1 ,Pa TE RN o sTE R R OW ’ M V AN vo a s r s s uc c m s o n s ( R . o iﬂ

M D CCCX CII .

l i d A l B g la i s R es er ve . L OND ON

H ARRIS ON A N D SONS,PRIN TE RS IN ORD INA RY T O H E R MAJES TY , ’

S MA T I S L A E . T. R N N 51 61 5 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

D ESTRU CTIVE di stillation is a very ancient industry,whose intricate and numero us problems have been from time to b time investigated by the a lest chemists . Its study has thus had a prominent inﬂuence in developing the science of Chemistry . This little book is the ﬁrst to present as a whole the

t o Its e r industry of destructive dis illati n . cont nts a e the ’ substance o f a course o f lectures delivered in Anders o n s Co llege ,Glasgo w,in 1 8 7 5—7 6,and illustrated by a ctual

o o f m o f to inspecti n any the processes which it refers . Students will proﬁt mo s t from its perusal who have such illustration at command ; and manufacture rs w ill,it is ho ped, be interested in the mod ern p rinciples o f th e science that underlies their pro cesses, and reap some advantage fr o m learning h o w others treat the very same problems that are presented to themselves . The author b egs to express his sincere thanks to the managers of wo rks and o ther friends who with much kindness, and sometim e s with much tr o uble,have con

to o n b tributed his information this important su j ect .

GLASGOW, r A o vember ls t,1 88 7 . PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

SINCE the last edition of this work was issued,increased attention has been bestowed upon the th e ory and practice o f r o dest uctive distillati n . It may now b e regarded as dem o nstrated that cellul o se and itskindred,o r its immediate de rivatives,tend to break

i n o f C up terms a 3 unit . The o utput of Russian and American petr o leum continu e s to increase v e ry larg e ly, and has adversely a tfe o te d the econo mical c o nditi o ns o f the h o me pro duc

w o f tion . New ells have been found in many parts the wo rld, and are attracting the att e ntion of capitali sts . Among these P eru,Canada,and Galicia contain probably

o the m st imp o rtant . Tar and sulphate are n o w among th e regularly collect e d pro ducts o f blast furnaces,coke - ovens,a n d gas producers . I have again to express my inde btedness to several techn ical friends fo r informatio n very freely plac e d at

S o a l I o my dI p s . have als much pleasure in acknowledging valuable literary aid re ferred to in the terminal Biblio — graphy more esp e cially the classical pap e rs o f Messrs .

e T o pl y and Redwood .

J . E . . M

GLASGOW,

Oc to er l t 1 b s , 89 2 . D DESTRUCT IVE IST ILLAT ION.

E E RAL IDE RATI G N CONS ONS .

D ESTRU CTIV E distillation is the decomposition o f a sub stance i n a close vessel,in su ch a manner as to obtain liqui d products . By a p r o ductis meant a body not origi nally present i n th di A e substance stilled . body merely extracted with o u t e uc t change by distillation is termed an d . Manufactured ozokerite c o nsists in parts of educts from the native mineral,but this is an almost Singular case in the industry o f u l destr ctive disti lation . If a n extended list o f substances volatile without de composition be examined,itwill be found that the nume “ ri c a l val u es or numerics of their chemical symbols,o r formulae, are, on the whole, comparatively lo w ; while b o di es that do not volatilise without decomposition have, on the whole,comparatively high numerics . These laws — are b o th comprised in the m o re general o n e that chemical

v acti ity increases,o n the wh o le,with symbolic value . The apparatus employ ed in destructive di stillation c o n sists essentially of a r eto r t,followed by a co n den s er and a r cei er o n e v . The substance to be operated is placed inside the retort,to which heat is applied : the volatile products pass over and are condensed in long straight o r helical

a r tubes,which e kept more o r less cooled . The average contraction from heated vapour to liquid may b e taken a t

1 1 r about 000: . The retort or still has various fo ms,and

ri may be, set either in a ho zontal or vertical position ; in 6 MAN UAL E TTE F C V D O DESTRU TI E ISTILLATION.

the latter case the bottom may consist of water. Its

ri o r ri i mate al may be glass,iron,clay, b ck . Heat is appl ed di rectly either to the sides or bottom,o r both ; o r super

in heated steam alone may b e driven at one end . Steam of vari ed initial temperatur e,and di rec t heat,are some times u sed together . The nature o f the products depends (a ) on the composi tion of the substance heated ; (b) o n the degree of heat applied ; ( 0) o n the state of di vision o f the m ate ri al ; (d) but not to any seri ous extent (on the large scale) on th e

o f A n material the retort . rough surface,however,will o t unfrequ ently facilitate chemical change ; and,according to Ra msay a n d Y o ung,a mmo n ia i s fa r more comple tely deco mposed (at i n c onta ct with iron than with copper . (or) If an org an ic s ubstance c ontain much infusible mineral matter (as,fo r instan ce,in the c as e of ordinary bituminous s hale,which contains a great deal of a luminic s ilicate),the latter will hold down the former,a n d compel

r - recou se to a higher temperature . Thus gum benzoin, when di stilled alone,yields ben zoate ; w hen mi xe d with

u o ﬁn sand,it f rnishes benz l. In cases of this kind,the e state of di vis ion or p o rosity o f the earthy constitue nt con tributes,with the hi g her temperature,to a cha nge i n th e

o nature f the prevailin g reaction . Thus,the later products

in the preparation of coal - tar consist in part o f d ehydro

en a ted n o g fatty hydrides . Again,can el c ke may resist a low red heat without lo ss o f nitroge n,W hi le Shale coke l readi y parts with it . The pres ence of chlo ri n e,s ulphur,oxygen,nitrogen, and hydrogen,in carbon co mp o unds,gives ri se to chlorides, l i . i sulphides,ox des,etc ,in the distillate . Ox des general y precede hydri des in the co ndenser,as is strikingly seen i n

l o s the destructive di s til atio n of w od . Excepting plant L D 7 GENERA CONSI ERATION S . known as Cr uczfer ce a n d the like,ani mal compoun ds give

hi s ul di the most ghly phurised stillate . When Shale is m ixed with slaked lime,a n d distilled as usual for o il at the most suitable temperature,there is little gain in ammonia,but the crude oil is more easily reﬁned . According to B eilby, nitrogen is mo re ea sily steamed out o f coal o r shale at a high temperature wh en the amount of ﬁxed carbon in the coke is greater . b ( . ) The natu re of the decomposition which takes plac e o n heatin g is indicated by the term cum u la ti ve r es o lu ti o n

Instances o f thi s a re very common in in organi c chemi s try . Thus, thr ee units o f mangani c dioxide decompose in partnershi p,yieldi ng a unit of trim a n g a ni c tetroxide a n d a unit o foxy gen ;

Mn II 3 0 IW 0 0 ° 2 3 4 3

When glycerin is h eated,po ly gly c erin s are formed by th o ni i 72 — 1 un e union f 77. u ts o f glycerin,wh ch lose ( ) its of water ;

"O ﬂ o n 1 H 0 2 0 H 0 ° s s s ( ) 2 3 n 6n + 2 2n + 1

This last expres si on,when divided by 92,becomes

0 H 0 3 6 + 2 2 + A so that the ultimate stage o f this accumulation,when n becomes indeﬁn itely great,must be a polymer of glycide ,

0 . c & we C H c . 3 6 2 Pursuing the same ourse with g lycide, , have the following table o f results

cer n Alc o h o lo rds E xtrem e c cu m u a to n . Gly i . A l i C ﬂ o C H o s s s s e z o ,H,o , O,H,o (0 H 0 3 4 ’’ 8 MAN UAL ETTE F DE S IRU CTIVE LL O DISTI ATION .

The above mode o f resolution is common to all poly w alcohols . In the important case of oody ﬁbre (whose

In im m u m C H formula is 6 1 0 5 we have the two series

’‘

e u o se Alco h o lo rd E xtr a to n . C ll l s . em e Acc u mu l i Cl C H 0 eg 6 8 4 C H O C H o s s 4 e e s 0 H 0 C H 0 6 6 3 6 4 2 0 11 0 C H o 6 4 2 e z O,H,O c,

In thi s o r essentially s imilar ways,we eventually arri ve at carbon as the result of retort operations upon wood ; the

o f n r gentler process ature fu nishes coal . The theory of cumulative resolution was ﬁrs t proposed by the author of thi s work . Most authorities are a greed that coal has been deri ved

r o o r e mC H O from more or less impu e wo dy ﬁbre cellulos , G m 5,

e fh r ff under the inﬂuenc o ea t,p essure,and time . The e ect o f ﬁ heat is at rst to dehydrate cellulose . By interpolation

' among Violette s well - known results on the heating of wo o d

A nn it h I1 . C . P s . i n C 0 ( y xxxi , it appears that 6 8 4 co rresponds to a temperature of about and n C H O G G U to about in the absence o f pressure ; in presence of

r n C H 0 . pressure,the latter temperatu e corresponds to G 4 2 Ata point somewhat below and W ithout pressure,the

mC H 0. mC residue has the composition 6 2 The ﬁnal stage 6 is probably n o tattained under ordinary experimental con diti o n s .

According to these results,the composition and reao tions o f coal should turn upon the value o f n ,the losses of E 0 hi 2 ,and the collateral kinetic changes w ch,occurring in the course o f these deﬁnite transactions,lead to th e

o f rmation of isomeric (or even of polymeric) coals . The organic matter in coal or shale,ifwe agree to represent its L C 9 GENERA ONSIDERATIONS . co mposition by a formula,should correspond to an initial

o n C symb l 6 or In constructing equations to represent the transforma tions o f co al and other compl e x bodies, coll o cati o ns of symb o ls will be hereafter employed to indi cate mean com positio n ; itwill be understood that these collo cations are

ds not intended to suggest separate chemical compoun . The preceding the o ry is practically modiﬁed by the law

r i o f of decomposition al eady g ven . The numerical values the cu mulative formul ae increase nearly by powers o f n hence the bodies represented are p r o ta n to more prone to decompose,and to vary in their kind of decomposition .

Accordi n gly it is observed,that the n umber o fby - products and subsidiary reactions increases,but more Slowly towards

o f P S the last,with the degree heat applied . recisely imilar co nsideratio ns h o ld go o d for hydrides,chlorides,and all other bodies susceptible of cumulative resolution . Hence

o i n the presence of hom logous series tars . The process o f decom position by means of heat is most ’ completely realised in the sun s atm o sphere,which consists o f the resolved weights of o u r common elementary,and perhaps some more simple, bodies . At the n ext lower temperature,that of the voltaic discharge,hydrogen unites with carbon to form acetylene,and with oxygen to form F i water . rom these two products most organic bod es can be obtained by synthesis ; benzol,fo r instance,by kee ping acetylene for a long time just below a red heat ; naphthalin , by passing a stream o f benzol o r one o f its homologues throu gh a re d - h o ttube ethylene,by hydrog e n a tin g a c ety lene ; alcohol,by hydrating ethylene . Hence naphthalin, hydrogen,and acetylene,with less benzol,are found in coal - tar products when a very hi gh temperatu re is used ; at a red heat they are absent,more b enzol and chrysene

i r be ng found . At a very hi gh temperatu e the products 1 MAN L E C V 0 UA E TTE o r D STRU TI E DISTILLATION. from coal and shale are carbon and carbonised g ases o f low illum inating p o wer,with but little liquid distillate, much ammonia,and few bases ; at a low temperatur e there is much liquid product (rich in bases,but poor in ammonia), a n d o f i o w e a m gas high lluminating p er. The gr atest ount o fliquid pro duct o f low boili n g- point i s fo un d in Ameri can, Russian, and P ersian petroleums, which have probably been produced by the long - continued a pplic ati on o f a very

a g entle n tural heat . Whe n coa l is slowly heated (as must b e to a great e xte nt the case when it is broken fi n e or whe n a large retort is used),its oxygen is chi efly converted into water ; w hen rapidly heated the oxygen is e xpelled as c arboni c o xides . (cl) In th e «case o fbitu mi nou s o r c aking coals,c ompara tively large lum ps are us ually distilled,so that heat may fr s eir c i n e eely traver e th interspaces . If the oal were v ry fine powder,with all the particl e s in cl o se c ontact,there w ould be very impe rfect con duction and a lo w temperature T pr oduc t . hus,i n an expe rim ent upon 30 g rammes o f c oal by the pres ent writer ,particles mi llim etres wide gave o ff with great freedom cubic feet per to n ; par ti cle s ° 3 7 5 mi lli me tre wide ga ve OH only c ubic feet, a n d wi s that th much slowne s . The retort was doubtless o riginally derived from the cla y bottle ,whi ch i n its turn was modelle d o n an animal s - xt s e kin or vegetable seed case . In the si e enth and ev n te en th centuri es destructive distillatio n c am e to be the

r o p incipal work in chemic al laboratories. M st animal s ubstances— sometimes the entire body (as,fo r instance,of — the viper) as well as plants,were s o e xamined,o r,as it “ ” was termed, an alys ed It was, however,seldo m that

m o f any detailed investigation was ade the products . Thes e were classiﬁ e d,a ccordi ng to L emery into L C 1 1 GENERA ONSIDERATIONS .

“ fi ve groups ; thr ee a c ti ve spirit o r mercury (most ” ” ” vo latile), o il o r sulphur (less vo latile),and salt (le ast volatile,or even fixed),soluble in water ; two pa s s i ve “water ” or phlegm ” (passing over before the spirits when they are fixed, after them when vo latile),and ” ” ea rth, terra da m n a ta or caput mortuum, a dry un in ” fl a m m a ble s a n residue . Fro m thi epoch the terms oil d

S i pirit st ll survive in their ancient s ense . The phlogistic, oxygenic, and ato mic periods in Chemical hi story have not been specially characterised by

o attenti n to destructive distillation . Much light,however, has been incidentally thrown upon it by the great modern revival in organic ch e mistry . By a study of the reactions o f a numb er of individual deﬁnite substances,a skeleton theory of the process has at least been rendered possible . It is in the systematic researches o f Reichenbach,Runge, Stenhouse,and Anderson ,in con nection with destructive di stillation,that the basis of all our exact knowledge is to b e found ; whi le the investigations of Gerhardt and Wii rtz into the behaviour o f p o ly a cids and polyalcohols have

ni F o r fur shed the lucid superstructure . much suggestive work on synthesis and inverse reactions we are indebted to Berthelot .

Coal - gas came into use in about the y ear 1 820 as an

P f v o n illuminating agent . ara ﬁn was discovered by

- - R eichenbach in 1 830,in beech tar . The low temperature industry was commenced,as such,by James Young,in 1 8 1 5 .

In the process o f reﬁning crude distillates,advantage is taken o f the fact that the different constituents of such mixtures boil and pass over at different temperatures . Thi s process of separating is termed “fractional distilla ” tion, for the theory o f which we are chieﬂy indebted to “ Wa nkl n 1 u y . In 8 63,that author showed that the q antity 1 2 MAN U AL E TTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . o f each in gr edient which distils will be found by multiply ing its tension at the b o iling- p o int o f the mi xture by its ” o - o vap ur density . Thus,methylic alcoh l boils at methylic iodide at but fro m a mixture o fthe two the i latter dist ls even in greater quantity . The liquid with the highe st vapour - tension will thus not necessarily distil the quickest ; for what the acco mpanying liquids want in tension they may make up by the greater density of the

u o ff d vapo rs they give . If trepresent tension,and density, then fo r various liquids x

x = t = h t = k td c h d x d x & . 1 l l ,; 2 2 2 2 ; 3 3 3 3 ; ; h being a constant o f condition,calculated from the exp eri

- n ments . If the vapour d e nsities and tensions are i versely

o o fh h td prop rtional,and the values equal,the products n n n will all b e equal,and th e mixture will remain unchanged

o di i di in compositi n while still ng . Homologous bo es,that is,those members o f the same series whose comm o n dif OH f ference is 2,are thus di ﬁcult to separate ; because, th o ugh the tension sinks with each increment o f OH,,the

- di vapour density rises . Many oils stil over more rapidly in a cur rent of steam (one o f the lightest vapours) b ecause their vapours are usually heavy ; hence o n e reason for the introduction o f steam into pa ra ﬂi n retorts . Under diminished pressure,the di fferences between the vapour tensi o ns o fliqui ds are incre as e d,and th eir s e paration is s o far facilitated ; to this principle the use o f exhausters in * - o o gas w rks is for the m st part due .

Ma xvn 1 7 3 o Phi l . 5 In a recent mem ir ( . g [ ] , ) it has

been Shown that the b o iling - points o f all known normal

F o r a further de velo pm en t o f th e th eo r y o f fra ctio n a l di s tilla tio n ,s ee b 2 3 Wa nk]yn ,P hi lo s op hi c a lJI a g a z i u e xlv,1 29 Gla s ha n ,i i d . , 7 Bro wn , ' i ii 1 0 3 u 1 9 4 a n d Ko n o va la fi i b d . 1 88 1 9 . h m S o c J o r n . 8 5 C e . . , 7 ,i, 7 ; , , , , R 1 3 GENE AL CONSIDERATIONS . pa ra fli n s havin g an even coefficient a: o f C are comprised in the equation

39 - 31 5a 3 - 9 4)

y ° - 1 7 r 9 4 0 07 53(. 3 )

Similarly,when the c o e ﬁi c i en to fC is uneven,the equation is

389 9 201: 3 - 9 2)

y ° - 7 r 1 0 0564(. 5 9 9 )

When a ' is made exceedingly lar ge in these equations,31

(the b o ili ng- poi nt) becomes and r e s p e c ti v el e y . Th se values very nearly agree ; and we may

e tak their mean, as a wo rking number . The normal pa ra tﬁ n s have the high e st boiling - points o f any substances whi ch it is the object o f the shale - distilling industry to i o r attain . Th s number represents the highest limit ing temperature required in the interior o f a shale retort

th o f a ra fﬁn s di ni ng e evolution p . The course o f destructive distillation adm its o f quan

o tita ti ve a dmeasurement in vari us ways . The usual method is to determine gravitie s ; but no chemical meth o d

o has ever been systematically f llowed at works . The d e structive distillation o f rosin furnishes an excel lent illustrati o n o f the ineffectiveness o f the physical, as

n W compared with the chemical, exami ation . hile the extre me ran ge o f gravities in the distillate is only from ‘ 9 09 68 to 1 03038, the range o f bromine abs o rptio ns is

to 1 42 48 A o f G from . distinguished ﬁrm la sgow ’ di stillers very kindly placed at the author s di Sp o s a l a series o f samples repres e nting a complete distillati o n fr o m

n e o f o their smaller stills . The samples were carefully sealed,and all o wed to rest in a warm place fo r ab o ut eight months,at the end o f which time the separation o f

a t T w the water was regarded as practically an end . o 1 4 MAN U AL E TTE o r N DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATIO . bromine abs o rptio ns (by the titration m e tho d) were then made for each sample, and the gravities determined ° at 9 C.

o r The rosin used f di stillation was American . It

- was blackish brown in colour . Speciﬁc gravity at ° 1 5 C 1 065 ; bromine absorption (determi ned colori

1 1 6 P n metrically) 0 6 per cent . [ ure rosi absorbs nearly 1 1 29 6 per cent] The foll o wing table contains the whole of the results

o ur s S . Gr . Re m a r s . H . p k

r n Spi itb e gi s .

il e n s . Spir ite n d s . O b gi a r o r e N o t qu ite c l e . M u vis c o s .

a r er c o o u r e D k l d . r r Still da ke .

L e s s d a rk . r a er a ts ur a ce D a k l y f .

vrs c o u s . t ll D a rke s o f a . i D a rk a n d tur b d .

3r v e1 § d a r k . 1 N ea r ly a s da rk a s 9 .

From these experim e nts so me interesting inferences

r i t may be drawn . In the ﬁ st place, is evident that neith e r the speciﬁc gravity n o r b ro mine abs o rpti o n fo llows a perfectly regular course ; this is very possibly due to

1 6 MAN UAL ETTE o r V D LL DESTRUCTI E ISTI ATION .

PARAF F I I DU T R Y N N S .

Parafﬁn o ilcan be p r epared from coal,bitumino us shale, cannel,lignite ,wood,p e at,Kimmeridge clay,and the like o n o n e lo w e o the condition that a very red heat is mpl yed . It is certain that the great e r part o f the decomposition di l 42 ° and stillation takes p ace below 7 C. The highest

° possible boiling- p o int of any normal parafﬁ n is 554 C ; ’ and R owan s inve stigatio ns have rendered it pro b able that this is the extr e me limit practically requir ed in a

r o i r shale r e to t . The material rig nally used in this c o unt y was b o gh ea d c o al,o r the T o rb a n ehill min e ral,exhausted

3 o f e il — — i n 1 8 7 2 ; this yielded 3 per cent . crud o ,and 1 1 5

fﬁ A - o f r r . t per cent . c ude pa a n present,selected mid vein

1 o f shales are used,which furnish about 3 per cent . crude o il,somew hat above the ave rage yi e ld o f good fo re ign

u i W Techn o lo s hales . Certain a thor ties q uoted by agner ( gy,

68 7 — 8 e o f m o o f pp . , give the r sults the exa inati n

o f & c t forty different kinds coal,peat, . ,as trea ed for low

o o h e a temperature tar . The means are, mitting b g d

r c e n t S r Oil e . . G a ra f n p p . P ﬁ .

O6 er e n p c t.

Th e ke ro s ene Shale in New S o uth Wales cove rs a vast

o d Gr t i n Cu m area . It is f un at Lake Macquarie and e a, berland Co unty ; at M o unt Magallon and Mount Y o rk, in Co o k Co unty ; at J o a dg a Creek,Camb e warra Ran ge s, Bro ughto n Cre e k, and T o o n a li River, B ur ragorang, in Camden Co unty,and at Blackheath,the Vale o f Hartley,

in u m and other places the Bl e Mountains . The ineral PA FF 1 7 RA IN INDUSTRY . was kn own to exist in N e w South Wales as early as

1 2 n o o r 8 7 . It has characteristic lamellar fatty structure, but the reverse ; being very compact,and breaking with large,smo oth conchoidal surfaces with equal readin ess in every direction,and witho ut a ny tendency to fo llow the

o f n o t ff planes stratiﬁcation . The mineral does di er very

r o 1 9 8 . widely f m cann el coal and torbanite . Sp . gr . 0 The —1 r 1 2 f . seams are f om foot to 2 eet in thickness It is much more di fﬁcult to mine than coal,and is usually won with r o i on picks and pointed r ds . It does not run down readily into blocks,but has to be separated piece by piece,

e ff and splint red o into Sharp thin pieces . It is easily lighted with a m a tch,and burns with a steady ﬂame li ke

o e W a candle,and emits a Strong odour of ker sen . hen w mixed with ordinary c o king coal,3 p e r cent . ill yield 1 8 gas of candles,and 6 p e r cent . with the same coal 22 l cand es .

The New S o uth Wales Shale is said to yield 1 00- 1 50 gallons of crude o il per ton,and cubic feet o f

- 9 0 . 3 candle gas . The oil yields more than 6 per cent o f reﬁned kerosene, i n addition to ga soline, benzoline,

h e n o i ds a n d p , lubricants . The composition o fthe Shale is approximately “later Hy dro c a rbi des 8 1 0 Fixed carbon Ash S ulphur 05

1 000

Co ke 1 8 0

The subj o ined table shows the qua ntity and value of Shale produ ced in the c o lony o f New South Wales fo r each year,from 1 8 65 to 1 8 84 inclusive 1 8 MAN UAL E TTE r V o DESTRUCTI E DISTILLATION .

e a r . u a n tt Y Q i y .

The fo llowing table shows the quantity and value of the export o f kerosene Shale from the colony o f New S outh Wales,for each year since 1 8 7 5

ea r a u e Y . V l .

T h e value o f this sh ale raised in 1 88 9 w a s

o f o and the amount tons . Much it is imp rted

n - n into E gland for gas maki g. A A FF 1 P R IN INDUSTRY. 9

The gas occlud e d in cannel c o al is chieﬂy carb onic dio xide, with which members o f the par afﬁn series a r e asso ciated . — o f40 e o flo w - e u e The presence 50p er c nt . pr ss r steam

e e o f o il b o 1 incr ases the yi ld crude by a ut 0 per cent . ; much superheated steam burns th e shal e ,and c o nverts the

n b o h a d ordinary alkaline i to an acid distillate . The g e o il was found c o mparativ e ly di fﬁcult to pu rify ; the m o re

o r o il recent, 1 3 per cent . ,is easier to purify,becaus e th e h o t poro us Shale in the retort has itself done wo rk o f p ur iﬁcation .

to o a r a fﬁ n s Sulphur is well known dec mpose p . Shales

o — 1 such as the Kimmeridge clays,c ntaining 5 5 per cent . o f sulphur ,yield scarc ely any parafﬁn wax (the kind o f

o n o e parafﬁn most easily thus attacked) distillati n . Irvin has therefo re pr o p o sed (1 884) to pass ammonia ted ste am thro ugh the reto rt ; this,he states,protects the pa ra fﬁ n s a n d so increases their yield . ’ It is an inference fro m Irvin e s result,that hi ghly nitro

e n i s e d e g shales are likely to yi ld well in solid parafﬁn . P arafﬁn shale,when fo und in contact with igne o us ro ck,is almo st black ; it then yields more light o il and

o n o il amm ia,but less total . Scottish o il shale o ccurs b elow the coal measures

e e o f li o o r g n rally in the neighbourhood marls . mest nes, sandsto nes . It conta ins,o n the average, a b o ut 7 3 per

o f . cent . ash Acc o rding to Cadell,who has reported in detail upon the oil Shale in West Lothian,the calciferous sandsto ne,a lowe r carboniferous series,as developed along the great anticline o f Mid- Lothian, consists at the base of a series o fred sandston e s with thin Shales a n d marls,and occa si o n a l to Ab interbedded volcanic rocks at the p . ove the red rocks come the whi te and gray sandstones of Granton ’‘ 20 MAN UAL E I TE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . and Cra igleith,whi ch are in turn overlaid by the black shales o f Wa rdi e and the sandsto nes and shales o f Hailes and

o R e d ha ll. Each of these two great divisi ns has,accord

o n ing to the measurements of Mr . J hn He derson ,a thick

il r n e ss o f over feet . The o shale g oup, which c o mes n ext, apparently begins with the Pum pherston Shale, situated some 7 80 fe et below the B ur di eh o u s e

e o f limestone . It occupies the remaind r the calciferous sandstone series,and has in West L o thian a thickness o f ab out feet,so that the w h o le thicknes s o fl o wer car b o n ife ro u s ro cks in W est Lothian pro bably exceeds D m feet . The unnet shale is the lowest ember of the upper group of oil shales,and lies abo ut 400 feet above the

r s A 4 B u r di e h o u s e o Camps lime tone . bout 50 feet higher up comes th e Broxburn shale,which is perhaps the most

f o imp o rtant o the West L thian oil shales . The strata intervening betwe en the D unnet and Pumpherston shales, and in cluding the limestone, are chieﬂy argillaceous shales, with thi n calcare o us bands and o ccasional sand

S o stones . Above the Dunnet hale they b ecome m re arenaceous,and thick sandsto ne b eds are developed,o n e o fwhich has long been quarri ed at Binny,near Uphall, fo r building and ornamental purposes . The Broxburn S hale,which is s everal fathoms above the Binny sand stone, forms a well - marked horizon, as it underlies a gro up o f marls and thin limestone bands,varyin g in thi ck

o 80 27 0 o ness fr m to feet . This calcareous zone,l cally “ ” kno wn as the Broxburn Marl, passes unde r the F ell shale, ab o ve which comes ano ther series o f sandstone b eds,about 240 feet thick, which underli e the H o uston

o hi ri c al . T s is,perhaps,the oldest coal seam in B tain,as in the Broxburn di strict it is Situated about feet f below the base o the carb o nifero us limestone series . The Houston coal is covered by about 200 feet o f pale PARAFFIN INDU STRY . 21 green a n d r e d am orphous marl, sometimes containing pieces o fvolcanic ash, and is apparently a ﬁne vo lcani c m u to il S d n e . A thin coal seam and s o me o hale o ccur just above the H o usto n marl,and two other o ilShales have been

N R L " GE E H S ECTION OF THE B ﬁ OXB Uﬁ N 0 1 .5 7 c 7 .

‘ 0 0 Co m. 25 0

4 5 o

52 o

CR IE Y s na re . 7 m F fE T

HO W o m .

, ﬁ m ‘ a m ”a n

GR OXB URN «SI/AL E .

M a m a ” "a ll 76? o 6m ”? S a m/W e Ou ts a n . u ovu -v a n :

o 65 .

e ne m a /rs s mu t. B a n e /e m u “ o n 0 9 mm A w a rm :

/a o

— ’ wo rked still higher up ,the highest o f which Ra e bu rn s — shale is so me 400 feet bel o w th e carboniferous limesto ne . The o il Shales and underlying parts o f the calcife rous E TTE o r 22 MAN U AL DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . sandstone seri e s have no re gular strik e , but are bent ab out into tro ughs,d o mes,and anticlines,and are dis lo cat e d by lar ge faults,b e sid e s whi ch th e r e is gr e at i rr e g u la rrty in th e thickness and char act e r o f the rocks , so that to work o u t th e ge o l o gical structu re o f th e gro und with o ut the aid o f mining info rmation wou ld b e

e e an imp o ssible task . The shal s were vidently deposited e xtr emely sl o wly in a larg e gr adually subsiding estuarine o r fr e sh - water are a inhabit e d by num e ro us ﬁshes,la m elli br anchs, and Small crustaceans whose r e mains, along with those o f plants,we re c o nstantly b e in g dep o sited o n th e sea- ﬂ o o r when mud did n o tdilute the organic pr e ci

to pitate o much . The section on page 21 o f the Shales in the Broxburn

to r Mr D . R . dist ict is due . Steuart . T h e fo llo wing re s ults,fo r which the author is indebted

r a r e o f e S i to M . Snodgrass, int rest as how ng the changes that may o ccur in the value of a shale with its depth

E h r m B o r e R es u lts of xp er im en ts up o n D un n etS a le f o .

t n N T c n e s s . S e c i o o . hi k

f . i n t .

° Ave ra ge 2 5 ' 1 5 1 2 ‘ 33 1 02 ' 1 9 1 2 6O

24 MAN U AL E TTE F O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . however,o fthe di fﬁculty with which heat traverses small Shale,such processes, especially when mechani cal power

o o is used, must involve considerable expense . H ll w cylinders,mo reover,sudde nly exp o se the whole of the Shale to gre at heat,and the yield o f solid parafﬁn is then materially reduced,

o S 4— Horizontal ret rts yield lighter oil ( p . gr . 8 8 6) but less p a rafﬁn than vertical retorts (the o il from which 8 9 is of about Sp . Much att e ntion has been devoted in recent times to f the improvements o reto rts . Henderso n,fo r example, constructs r e torts o f cast - iro n,1 5 inch thick,h o lding ab o ut

t f S o f u . 1 8 c w . o hale,and makes them in groups fo r Somewhat superheated steam is led in at the top,and the W distillate removed at the bottom . hen the distilla tion is complete (ordi narily in 1 6 hours),the spent shale

e f ﬁr is,by the disengagem nt o a catch,dropped into a e . This shale,together with the scrubbed gas,is adequate fuel fo r the distillation, excepting in cases where the

o r ret rts are much exposed, as in co ner sites . This

f o e u e method o w rking leads to a great conomy in f l .

o o f The result in ammonia is ab ut 1 6 lbs . sulphate per i ton . In th s retort the temperature averages about the temperature o f the exit gases is about The yield o f sulphate corresponds to o n e - fo urth o fth e n itrogen o f S l b the ha e . The permanent gas amounts to cu ic

e r o B eilb feet p ton . On the ther hand,Young and y take o ff their di stillate from a chambe r near the to p o f the

h o di s retort . As this p o rtion is only moderately t,the tilla te cannot practically e xceed a certain gr avity ; a c o n

o n n i dition am u ti g to mu c h the same thing as redist llation . S o great,in fact,is the im pro v e ment in the o il pro duc e d in thi s way,that the ordin ary ﬁrst distillatio n can be dis

en s e d o p with . Su c h oil,as might be exp ected,is ab ut FF PARA IN INDUSTRY. 25

f 02 S . . p gr lighter than ordinary tar . The retort itsel is compo u nd,consisting in its l o wer portion of ﬁ reb ri c k,in its upper portio n o f cast - iro n ; in the lower th e charge is heated white - red,and superheated steam mixed with c a r “ b o nio oxide fr o m a c o ntiguo us c o al - tower ( gas pro t duo er ) is drawn in . The retort is charged o n the o p, and the Spent shale and s Cr ubb e d g a s are e mployed

- to heat it . From the gas producer,a rather dry coal

- tar and ammonic sulphate are obtained as by products . The effect of the superheated steam is to conv ert th e ﬁnal p o rtions o f shale nitrogen into amm o nia and pre ele r it fo rm a ti o n o se ve after . It may be questioned,h wever, whether a very high temperature is ever really r e quired fo r f this . This method o treatment has been tried,and yielded promising results,with ironstone shale ; and th e skilfu l handling it requires should b e m o re than c o m pe n sated by the la rge return (stated as s o metimes a hundred

o f weight per ton,and ordinarily 65 per cent . the possible a m m o u n t) o fammonic s u lph a te T

In the Couper - R a e retort,steam inj ects air into a large

ﬁ r e - S brick chamber which receives spent hale . On this chamber an o val iron retort is set,in which the di stillation takes place ; the retort is heated externally by the g ases resulting from the injectio n,aided by a little extrane o us

A — o r a ﬁring . bout 80 9 0 gall ns o fw ate are usually ste med

o e through a to n of shale,as is the case with ther r torts . f The distillate is removed from the to p o the retort . The Henderson reto rt and Young o r Yo ung and B eilby

n o w retort are w in extensive use . Both ith these and

T his impo rta n tdis co ver y i s cla im ed by G ro u ven ,o f Leipzig ' T e rve t 1 8 83 n t f u l a t e r to n c a n be 1 ( ) ﬁ d s h a ta s m u c h a s 8 3 lb s . o s ph e p t o b a in e d by pa s s in g hyd r o gen o ve r c o k e ; th e a m m o n i a th u s m a de h a vin g th e re a t a a n ta e o f e n d r ro e n s u fﬁ c e n t u re fo r th e g dv g b i g y . Hyd g i ly p p u r po s e ca n be o bta in ed i n th e la ter s ta ges o f th e dis tilla tio n o f th e co a l ts i elf . 26 MAN UAL RTTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

o the lder forms an exhauster is invariably employed . APP X A [S ee ENDI . ] Heat is applied directly and laterally from bel o w,to Six four ,o r fewe r r e t o rts at the same time ; four being the usual — - 4 number . The exit tubes from the retorts are 8 inches in diameter,a n d feed into a main ; this may o r may not b e c o o led,and may o r may no tb e connected with a tar

to o r o tower c ndense very volatile products . F m some

position in thi s main the gas alw ays fo rmed is led o ff;

fr 1 3 om per cent . Shale about cubic feet per to n a r e

b o o l o tained . The order bserved in the distillati n is ( ) gases, (2) light o ils, (3) o ils containing solid p a ra fﬁ n s ,

4 o e ( ) dark and tarry alkal idal oils . The liquid distillat is c o llected in large tanks whic h are s o metimes ste a m

o r jacketed,s metimes not the latter is the English p actice .

a rn m o n i a l h e b Here the c a water s e ttles to t ottom . In order to accelerate th e pr o cess of separation,vario u s salts h a ve bee n tried s o dic chl o ride and sulphate),as in th e e xtrusion o f essential oils fr o m plants ; but these have been abandoned o n accou nt o f their cost a n d the cost o f A ° m recovery . temperature o f 50 C. ,i parted by a steam

jacket,answers very well ; o r the distillate may be im f e r d A s th . p fectly coole . a rule, e op eration is left to itsel

— o (a . ) Ga s Under th e inﬂuence o f extreme c ld and

r pressu e,Mr . Colem an has proved that the cubic feet of gas which a ton o f S hale yields can be made to furnish

r o f f ° 6 R a o o s 7 0. th ee gallons gas line p . gr . ther less than this quantity is n o w cheaply o btained by passing the gas, preferably much c o oled,through a c o ke tower do wn which

o il o il o rb heavy is trickling . This abs s the light hydro carbid e s o f the gas,which a r e afte rwards (b u t p e rhaps

e o l e o u t e nev r c mp et ly) steamed . Crude gasolin is rich in p o lysulphides it is r e ﬁn e d by tr eatment with stro ng w sulphuric acid and caustic soda o f s p . gr . follo ed by FF Y 2 PARA IN INDUSTR . 7 distillation,in which pro cess much free sulphur is observed to accompany the li ghter porti o ns . — (8 ) Wa tery [ nati o n T his,which co nstitutes about one third to o n e - half o f the bulk o f the crude distillate,but much more (say 1 20 gallons per to n ) when steam is led into the reto rts,is pumped o u tas a l o we r layer a fter c o o ling

o f and subside nc e ; it is maintained at a unifo rm s p . gr .

° T o - r e (6 w . ) by passing thr ugh the gas sc ubb r,distil lation,another transit through th e scrubb e r,and conversio n into steam fo r the ret o rts,thus never requiring to be di scharged fr o m the wo rks,so as to pollute a c o ntiguous

o o stream . The liqu o r contain s,in additi n to amm nia, pyridine and Similar amines in the ca ustic state (pro bably derived from Shale nitrile s,paracyan o gen,o r allied bodies) , ale * and as carb o nate,sulphide,c yani de, and sulph o cyanide . It is intro duced into horizontal cylindrical stills,cap a ble o f h o lding gallons,and is heated either directly o r by means o f an int e rior steam - coil ,s o as to fractionally

s i o ff o di t l the amm o nia . Lime (5 per cent . ) is s metimes added before b o iling,sometimes after partial boiling,b u t ofte n not added at all ; it should,however,b e,as a rule,i employed,so as to prevent the appearance o f cyanides in th e A o f distillate . mm nic cyanid e ,in pres e nce o air,rapidly c o rrode s iron ﬁttings,and the sulphat e afterwards pre pared has a distinct blu e colour,owing to the presence o f ferric

o P o il c ferr cyanide ( russian blue) . Olive and harcoal have both been used as puriﬁers o fthe gase o us amm o nia but the fo rmer abs o rbs ammonia,the latter oxidises it to nitrate ;

e i V the proper puriﬁ r s lime placed in the still . ery great advantage als o is d e ri ved from distilling the amm o nia in ’ some form o f the well - known Coffey s still (l o ng used i n

9“N ti n th e r u rn u o r t u a r t o B o xb liq (S e ) . “ I A n exc eptio n to this i s wh en th e s pe nt liqu id h a s to be a fter wa rd s a s m i to f p s ed thro u gh s crubb ers ,which li e s a pt o u l . 8 MAN UALE TTE o r RU V N 2 DEST CTI E DISTILLATIO .

the manufacture o f alcoh o l) ; or by passin g it through a tall tower ﬁlled with coke o r pebbles,into th e b o tto m o f 1 l which steam is introduced (st e am at 0 lbs . pressure wi l

frequently sufﬁce) . The gaseous ammonia with sulphide and carbonate and some steam,passes onward,in som e

wo rks,thro ugh a condenser and wash- bottle to a lead lined or Copper trough,the back of which is screene d by a curtain inside ; the curtain is parallel to the fro nt o f th e f trough,which is clo sed b ehind i t,but open in fro n t o it . The bottom of the trough slopes somewhat towards the

ni hi front . The ammo a and steam enter be nd the curtain, ” through a perforated pipe o r cracker, and encounter o il ° o f f 0 o f o s . 1 4 8 vitriol p gr . ( crystals ammonic

sulphate so o n form,and are removed in perforated ladles . ’ o The steam is kept hot by a coil,and returned to the ret rts . The vitriol,which is preferably prepared from pu re sulphur is renewed from time to tim e , as s o o n as a smell o f

o amm o nia is perceived, or the scum bec o mes br wn . If pyrites vitriol be used,it must be kept more acid,and the crude solutio n retained ab o ve crystallising point fo r a fe w i hours,in order to depos t impurities. S ometimes this vitriol is at ﬁrst on ly parti ally saturated with the ammoniacal sulphide vapours,in orde r to throw down ars e nious sulphide,whi ch can b e remo ved by skim ming the acid is afterwards c o mpletely saturated,in

r e d order to remove i on,which settles o u t. Acidity is gain during the evap o rati o n o f the aqueous sulphate,which

o o loses some amm nia by diss ciation . The crystals are dri ed by mere draini ng ; they then contain a little free hydri c sulphate ,w ith trac e s of u n l crysta lisable pyri din i c sulphate s,and some water . They c o uld undo ubtedly b e decidedly im pro ved by the use o f

th e Ri i centrifugal m achine . gorously pure ammon c salts cannot be prepared by any direct process from the watery P FF DU Y 29 ARA IN IN STR .

l o l i n iqu r . Su phate prepared from liquor obtained the lo w - temperature proc e ss is less liable to organic impurities than that which is similarly prepared from ordi nary gas

o liqu r . The hydric sulphide which escapes from the crystal li s i n g o r receiving boxes is generally burned under a tall “ ” chimney ; s o metimes it is collected in a puriﬁer con

n tai ing ferric oxide . The amount o f sulphate obtained in a Y o ung and B eilby retort averages ab out twice as much as in the Henderson reto rt ; in hi ghly carbonaceous shales the proportio n is very much g reater. “ ” u t r r — (on) Oi ly li q o r , cr u de o i l, o r a r p op e . This (which

S l ' is of p . gr . 8 9 from the o d forms o f retort,and 8 7 from the n e w kin ds) is pumped i nto cast - iron stills holding 250 gallons,and protected beneath by perforated b ri ck archi ng,s o that the heat plays round the Side o f the

ti a n s ll r ther than o its base . The stills are short upri ght cylinders, whose bases are convex upwards . Gaseous hydr ides ﬁrst come o ff,and are caught in a tar- tower : At some ammonic sulphide generally accompanies them .

° o r near 1 00 some stro ng ammo niacal liquor and light o il pass over ; after this the temperature ri ses rapidly,and m a b y exhi it an a pproximately stationary point . The operation is pu shed to dryn e ss,and fu rnishes a vesicular — c o ke,from 7 1 2 inches thick ; it is very free from sulphur

3 3 h n o 0 . and ash,and wort o th se accounts about . per ton During the earlier part o f the process, the condenser, w hich,like most large condensers,is separated from the still by a wall,is co o led by a stream o f cold water ; but as soon as the distillate becomes s o rich in parafﬁn as to

S o o lidify,the worm is all wed to heat up . The worm is m o f ade lead . Water comes over during nearly the whole o f the di stillation,but especially towards the close,when A E T r 30 MAN U L TE o DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

o f n a new destructive distillation oxyge ous pitch occurs .

o a o — 1 o f The residual c ke m unts to 5 0 per cent . the tar, its am o unt b e ing less from purer ta rs ﬁie This contain s

t o f . 3 per cen . nitrogen The o p e ration is not unfr equently aided by intro ducin g m 1 — from the c o mmence ent steam at 2 30 lbs . pressure a pressure which ought n o t to b e exceeded i n steaming “ parafﬁn,that substance b eing much m o re e asily burned

o A r t o than is usually supp sed . [ fter this Ope a ion Henders n interposes a continuous distillation through three stills ; he h a s also of late applied the p rinciple o f continuous

l o V distillatio n to the sti ls f r crude o il. ery clean distillates are thus o btained ] The m ixed distillates (fo r the p a ra ﬁi n magma is gene rally added) have now l o st about 01 6 in gravity and

o possess a green col ur . They were formerly stirred with

o f s n 2 per cent . by volume cau tic soda solutio ,in order to take up ph e nol and its analogues ac e tic bodies,and perhaps some terpenes the sodic extract was drawn o ff below, and the supernatant ﬂuid,sometimes

e 5 f after washing with wat r,agitated with per cent . o f 1 7 1 4° oil o f v itrio l o s p . gr . ( [A metal sti rrer,or an air current,pro du ces th e requir ed agitation ] This latter liquid has but little action o n the fatty

hydrides p r oper ; but o n hydrides c o n ta rn m g less hyd ro gen it acts p o werfully,resinifyin g and p o lymerising them as it

i t B eilby dis tille d a litre o f th e c r u d e o il,weighin g 8 82 gr a m m es ,to dryn e s s i n a gla s s ﬂ a s k (a c u rr en t o f lo w - pr e s s u re s tea m b e in g p a s s e d thro u gh th e o ildu r in g dis till a tio n ) with th e fo llo win g r es u lts

ra mm R e sidu e i n th e ﬂ a s k g es .

° Oildis tille d i n th e c o n den se r 8 60 OO Ga s U n a c c o u n te d fo r

8 82 ° OO ra mm e s g .

t ro en Th e ga s co n s isted m a in ly o f pa ra ﬁi n s witho u hyd g .

2 AN 3 M U AL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

In ﬁnishing bo th illuminants and lub ri cants . the temp era

u e d W o t re should always b low with aci . ith s da,it is the — i °— ° — practice after stirri ng the o lwith 3 4 T w . soda to steam the mixture to the oil keeps colour better in this

o w a y than when ﬁnished c ld . The mixin g tanks are of varied capacity, and have b e en constructed to hold as much as gall o ns ; mix ture is effected by mean s of rotating vanes,carried o n a

e vertical axle . The nec ssary degree of ﬂuidity may be imp a rted by a steam coil,gi ving a temperature o f ab o ut 5 ° 0 C. It is usual to separately reﬁne the illuminating and lubricating oils . For some kinds o f crude oil,the small proportion of

o f ri o o ﬁ o 2 per cent . vit l sufﬁces through ut the puri cati n .

The soda - tar is treated with carbonic dio xide under “ ” pressure : this sets free the kreasote, and the heavier aqueous hy dro s o di c carbon ate is run o ff and r e c a u s ti c i s e d ” with lime : o r it may be merely heated a n d settled . The ” vitriol - tar, rich in leucoline bases,may be di stilled with lime o r chalk,or even with the soda - tar,to recover the acetylenic polymers and the lik e above referred to ; or,as is more usual,diluted wi th h o twa ter,and steamed open, whereby those polym e rs are raised to the surface,the l o wer layer o f weak vitriol being used for making super

o r o phosphate, , more usually, amm nic sulphate . The

a o o . ste med tar contains ab ut 7 p er cent . of vitri l The polymers are also to a great ext e nt c o ntained in the later

- soda tars,and have a green c o lour o n distillation . Like most imperfect hy dr o ca rbi de s they combine with alkaline

e S ee R OIL bodies,forming in this cas e a gr ase . [ OSIN ] S o n s ta dt recovers quin o line and its h o m ol o gues, and acridine,fro m the acid tar by addition o f potassic ferro

cyanide . Itmay be observed that the treatment o f crude light PARAFFIN INDUSTRY . o il and blue o il pro duces certain sulphoni c acids,which

o o A n e are rem ved by the subsequent acti n o fsoda . d wh n the resulting soda tar is used— as it fr e qu en tlv is— to neutralise crude o il after its acid- tar treatment,s o me o f these are set free,and so return to the crude . Pro bably most of the ph e n o i ds are rem oved by the acid treatments . Rave treats the acid tar with scrap iron (which removes

o the vitriol as ferr us sulphate),washes,and distils . When half the substance in the retort has di stilled o ver,the residue consists o f an elastic bitumen suitable fo r varnish di making . The stillate contains a considerable quantity ’ o f li o o f R ght oils . The pr ducts ave s process may have been partly inﬂuenced by nascent hydrogen . ’ According to B eilby s researches,th e nitro gen in the “ ” alkaloidal tar is constantly about o n e - ﬁ fth

l S o f the t o ta present in the original hale .

r The reﬁned tar is f actionally distilled . The more volatile p o rtions are chieﬂy used fo r carburating

in mi n the air,thereby mak g an illu ating gas naphtha (Sp . 8— 7 b gr . 6 6) is used by painters as a su stitute for turpen tine,by i n di a r u bb er manufacturers as a s o lvent,by parafﬁn manufacturers themselves as a medium from which to

o crystallise paraffin,and as b enz line for sponge lamps . The succeeding fractio ns are s o ld as i llu m i “ — nating o il ( paraffin o il but in some cases as,for — t S . 8 4 . instance,in h o localities the p gr . taken is 5 Lubricating o ils succeed these ; the author h a s met with them o fgravities ranging from ° 8 65 Th e next distillat e solidifies on c o oling,yielding bro wn

crystals o fhard paraffin,whose mother- liquid,removed by “ ” a filter press and hydraulic press,is blue - oil, wh e nce mor e , but soft, crystals can be obtained by artificial

S o refrigeration . This is always conducted lowly,s as to C 34 MAN U AL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

- o f yield large crystals . The mother liquid these is again treated with vitri o l and soda, and distill e d : the earlier fr actions c o nstitute heavy illumi nating o il,the later lu bri

l A s o ﬁ cating o i . the press ro ms are seldom arti cially

c o o led,summer- made lubricant is apt in c o lder we ather to f dep o sit so lid para ﬁn . Th e normal pa ra fﬁn s are un suitable fo r use as lu bri

i l to o n e o r cants . The lubricat ng prop erties be ong more

- r fﬁn s series of iso pa a . It has frequently b een observed that pr o ducts o f destructive distillation are impro ved in colour by re

- ri n o distillation over lime,soda lim e ,or soda . Lub cati g ils

1 — 2 o f o are distilled over per cent . caustic soda with g od

ffe o o . e ct . This reagent rem ves acid and sulph nates The addi tio n o f zinc dust would be o f further advantage . Crude parafﬁn may b e puriﬁed by tw o meltings with

1 0 o f o f o h per cent . oil vitri l (more eat,but under being applied on the sec o nd o ccas ion) ; there is an inter v en i n g pressure of the cake,and it is ﬁnally m elt e d with aqueous caustic soda,which must b e entire ly remo ved, on account o f the greasiness it imparts to the wax . The m o re generalpro cess consists in di ss o lvi ng the p a ra ﬂi n in

b o 1 0 o f a ut an equal bulk to as little as per cent . the light parafﬁn oil,crystallising,and pressing very stro n gly ; this is done thrice at least,with a pressure after e ach crystal li s a ti o n , the solutio n b ein g sometim e s ﬁltered through ’ 3 — o f a n d e 5 per cent . animal charcoal ( pap r),fuller s

e r S n l e e earth,sp nt Shale,o magnesic ilicate,a d ﬁna ly st am d .

1 o Lundy ( 8 50) and A . Tayl r used prussiate char coal with c o nsiderable success ,and it is still emplo yed in

° W c 0 u Scottish works . hite lay, dried at 35 and sed

di b o e w o o imme ately,has also een empl y d ith g d effect .

o l 1 0— 20 o Carb nic disu phide ( per cent. ) has s metimes been

l o f f used as a so vent instead light para ﬁn oil . FF 7 PARA IN INDUSTRY . 3 )

An o ther method o fpuriﬁcation consists in p r e s s ing h o t in upright o r h o riz o ntal pre sses,whereupon s o ft parafﬁn o il,and brown c o l o uring matt er a r e rem o ved ; bleaching i s completed by agitating with ani mal charc o al fo r some

e t n r time . Lastly,the paraffin cake is mad o u de go liqua tio n o n mats o f cocoa - nut fibre,and finished as ab ove

e F o r e e o o f o o d scribed . [ a g n ral acc unt liquati n pr cesses h I 1 s ee T erv e . c n d 88 7 3 5 t,J S o . C . , , 5 ] The loss o n reﬁning parafﬁn scale amounts to about

1 6 t e 3 e r per cent . ; if the extrac ed oil b e credit d, p c ent . Th e pr o ducts which leave the retort after th e s o li di fi a b le o r e a r e S o e r paraffin,are thick buttery . Th se ld aft “ ” treatment, fo r lubricating purposes, with o r with o ut a f l o f o b e dditio n o vegetable o i . Much their col ur can r emoved by exact r eacti o n with hydric peroxide ,o r (which i s li the same thing) exposure to ght and moist air . Th e total wo rking loss in this man ufacture Is usually a - f i bout one third of the weight o the crude o l. S olid paraffin is used chiefly fo r making candles,fo r which i tis admirably fitted,by reason o f the gr e at lumi n o sity with which it burns : more o r less stearate is in this c di o to ase added . The s o fter kinds,when ss lved saturation

e o f e b in naphtha,a n d mixe d with about 5 per c nt . v geta le o il,a re ,as Stenhouse has shown,excellent waterproofers o f

e. i r wood, g . ,for matches and barrels,cloth,paper, n di a u bb e r h o se,leather,and o ther fab ri cs,to which they also imp a rt g reater tensile strength ; and in this state they are in ’ e xtensive use as lubri cating creams, when great d b ura ility is required . The imperfect hy dro c a rbide s in the lighte r liquid parafﬁn oils act s o mewhat ener ge tically o n lead and zinc,

a n d l ess upon b r ass and iro n,very slightly o n tin copper . Vegetable oils,when mixed with even as little a s 1 0 3 6 MAN U A L E TTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

o f f o il per cent . heavy para ﬁn ,are far less liable to underg o

o o o o o n sp ntane us c mbusti n waste tissue . Within recent times,conside rable attention has b e en bestow ed o n the production of hi ghly illuminating gas from the l e ss valuable liquid pro ducts o f the par afﬁn

“ il f ° . G o o s . 89 4 o industry Thus reen p gr . ,fr m the acid tar,has been fo und to yield 8 7 cubic fe e t per gallon o f

il o f s 4 . o . 8 4 i such gas An p gr . has,however,furn shed 8 8 cubic fe et per gallon ; a gravity of 8 22 corresponds to 9 0 cubic feet,with less tar,and that of a thinner quality . The pro duce of tar from the lighter oils is in general about

o n e - o n e o f o f S 1 08 1 half to gallon tar p . gr . for every

- — ﬁve g allons o f o il fro m the heavier o ils,about o n e and a

o f n half gallons . It is, course, either acid nor alkaline . After passing thro ugh condensers and a washer,the g a s travers es two puriﬁ ers,containing layers o f chopped straw,

i b f r o sawdust,and lime . It is adm ra ly adapted o c mpres

sion ; the original c o mpressio n being 30,the working pres 6— sure 1 0 atmospheres . Before such treatment it has the

h e n e o f S . 7 00 t o o o p gr . ; during process it dep sits gall n light “gasoline per cubic feet — thereby losing 20 m — mi per cent . of its illu inating power the eventual illu nat ing power being 25 9 candles,and the consum ption (in a ° 8 o o o railway carriage lamp) 7 cubic f t per h ur . Acc o r di ng to Armstrong and Mill e r,the gas is pra c ti cally free from acetyl e ne, but contains ethylene and

o o l o le ﬁ n e s to cr t nylene . The gaso ine contains normal

C t C C b e the ace ylenes 4 and as well as enzen and b toluene . The steam distillate from the tar yields mem ers

o f C H _ the series I, 2, 2,the three xylenes,mesitylene and pseudo cumene,naphthalene,and s o me ps e u do le ﬁ n e s ,with

a r a fﬁn s G e l W t races of p . r vi le illiams has analysed several samples o f gas o lin e with the following results FF PARA IN INDUSTRY . 37

P e rcen ta ge o f ben z en e a n d to u en e l . 656

The retort empl o yed in manufacturing o il gas

f o f a essentially identical with that o Taylor . It consists cast- iro n D - Shaped chamber,havi n g a capacity o f ab o ut 4} cubic feet,and acting as an upper retort ; the o ilis le d thro ugh this i nto a Simi lar o n e placed bel o w,and b o th are kept at a bright red heat . The pressure in the retort is equal to ab o ut 5% inches of water, diminishing to re

th e — o f o inches in gas holder . Two pairs ret rts make about

42 o f er o o 0 cubic feet gas p hour . The c st ranges fr m

6 to e r s d 1 6s . . 5 . . per cubic feet In anoth r a range ment,the reto rt is one - chambered and constricted at th e ° T h e o 9 00 middle . w rking temperature is and the o ilis distilled at the rate o f about 1 25- gallons per houn The accompanying statistical table o f annual working comprises the returns made by twe nty Sc o ttish m a n u fa c ’ turers to the Rivers Pollution Commission 38 MAN U AL E TTE OF S T DE TRUCTIVE DIS ILLATION .

. o o 8 8 o o o o n r 3 o N 0 m w

. . . . “ . s o e w m m m e m 2 m 8

8 S 8 8

. 0 8 8 8 8 8 8 o o m 0 8 8 i 8 8 8 o o 2 8 c ﬂ 0 8 8 0 8 8 s 8 8 m. 8 m o 8 x e r 8 w o A a s m s m m w 3 6 w m 3 n a 8 : s e m 8 m 2 E 8 5 8 8 0 0

40 MANUAL E TTE OF D LLA ESTRUCTIVE DISTI TION .

Oth er data are as follows

1 5. 1 8 6 8 8 8 .

Sha le (to n s) Cru de o il (ga ls ) N a t a a n d u rn i n il brls ph h b g o . . Lu bric a tin g o il Pa ra ffin s c a le (to n s ) Am m o n ic s u lpha te (to n s)

There are at prese nt 1 3 works, empl o ying about

men . The cost (1 882) of production (including repairs) w a s

0° o f n ° 2 f ° 2 d a l 0d 1 2d . o 5 . ; reﬁni g . ; depreciation, 5 tot ,

1 55 o n . A 9 7 . per gallon, excluding amm ia ccording to

2 ° l d another estimate,the total cost was 0 . In an individual w ork,the return s were (1 88 5) 38 per

. n o il 24 1 3 cent burni g , per cent . lubricating oil,and per

. fﬁ o f o cent para n scale . The cost reﬁning the crude gall n

1 ° 27 d o n w a s was . Taken the reﬁned gallon,the cost

1 ° 9 1 o f 889 1 . a 6 d . This has been reduced ( ) to cwt co l per

to n o f s o il ° 7 7 d hale in making crude ; and . per gallon

r fo reﬁning . T h e average p ri ce o f a mm on ic su lph ate per to n is

o n o f given the authority Messrs . Bradbury and Hirsch, o f Liverpool,in the fo llowing table

ea r . r ce . Y e a r Y P i .

. d s . 1 8 68 1 4 1 0 O 1 880 1 8 69 1 5 1 5 O 1 88 1 1 8 7 0 1 6 O 0 1 8 8 2 1 87 1 1 9 O 0 1 88 3 1 8 7 2 2 1 0 O 1 8 84 1 87 3 1 8 3 9 1 885 1 8 7 4 1 7 2 6 1 8 8 6 1 87 5 1 8 1 0 0 1 8 87 1 8 7 6 1 8 1 2 6 1 8 88 1 8 7 7 1 9 1 6 3 1 8 8 9 1 87 8 20 5 0 1 8 9 0 1 8 7 9 1 8 8 9

i t Th e a mo u n to f n a phtha wa s ga llo n s illu m in a n t, ” ga llo n s a n d ga s o ils (8 40 A F P RA FIN INDUSTRY. 4 1

The to tal production in 338 works in the United King dom during 1 8 9 1 ,fro m all sources,they estimate at to ns,viz

Ga s works Ir o n Shale Cok e and carb onising works

The productio n durin g the previous ﬁve years,adjusted from the report o f the Chi e f Insp e ctor under the Alkali Works R egulation A c t,was

1 88 1 88 9 . 8 . 1 8 86.

Ga s wo rk s I r o n Sh a le Co ke a n d c a r b o ni s i n g wo rk s

To ta l

A 8 0 r bout per cent . is expo ted . The totals o f the quantities o f S c o tch and American solid parafﬁn consum e d were

To n s . 1 887 1 8 88 1 88 9 1 89 0 1 8 9 1

T h e foll o wing are some examples o f individual varia tions among Oils from different Scottish shales 4 .7 MAN UAL E TTE OF O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N. FF 43 PARA IN INDUSTRY .

The fo llowing are w o rking results usually obtaine d fro m vario us S cottish Shales :

ea m . a s . cru e o il er to n S G l d p . Fells (thick) 37 (in ferior) 1 9 —22 Bro xburn C (Bro xburn seam) 31 ’ Youn g s (Uphall) Bro xburn seam 3 1 —5 ’ Young s N e wli s to n (D unnet seam) 27 D almeny (Broxburn seam) 32 Pumpherston 1 8

W t i D e 1 9 . Lo h an ( unn t) Caledo ni an (Tarbrax) 26 (Cobbinshaw) 30 Sta n ri g g 40 B u rntisland 30 ’ At the wo rks of Yo ung s Par afﬁ n Light a n d Min e ral Oil Company,the foll o wing ha s be e n an average yield o f th e various products from the crude Oll

Gasoline

— s ° 0 Naphtha p . gr . 7 0 B ur ning oils

° ° F P 1 1 A e L SL 1 s . 802 . 0 C No . , p . gr . ( b l ) ° ° F P 1 A 2 l . 1 0 s . 8 O . No . , p . gr ( bel test)

o . 1 e e Crystal (N ch mically tr ated) >as . oo

il s ° 1 P o 8 0 F . . Lighthouse , p . gr . (Abel test) Lubricating oils o fvarious speciﬁc gravities Parafﬁn ( solid) Loss

The percentages given are only approximate, 44 MAN AL E TT E r U o DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

o ften purposely varied by alterations o f the processes to

o f suit the requir e ments the markets . The loss is no doubt frequently c o nsiderably smaller than the prop o rtion

stated . At the Broxburn works an average yield has been as fo llows

P e r c e n t

— ° . 7 3 Naphtha Sp gr . 0 Burn ing oils

B r lin — S eto e . p gr .

1 il— s o . No . p . gr

o — ° Lighth use oil s p . gr . 8 1 0 Lubricating oils Solid parafﬁn Loss

The Broxburn shale furnishes P e r c en t Crude oil Water

Ga s

A sh

Carbon i n spent Shale

The Burntisla nd Company produce 30 gall o ns of crude

il ‘ o s . . 865 f l 8 . o o i , p gr and lbs sulphate p er ton . The yields PARAFFIN INDUSTRY .

The following conspectus o f operations and quantities (variable with the o il and the state of the markets) will render the whole process of reﬁning mo re intelligible

U N OPE R ATIONS AND Q A TITIES .

r u e il C d o .

D i s trll e d .

a s e w t a c ta rs W h d i h id .

a e w t s o a ta rs W sh d i h d .

s t Di ille d .

“ t o il e a 011 r Ligh . H vy ( G een

° °

a s e w th 1 er cen t. a c 1 7 0 T . o o e to 2 W h d i 5 p id, C l d C .

a s e w t 1 n . a 2 T ter a n e d r s . W h d i h per c e t s o d ,7 . Fil d p e s ed

t d r n i s e . ee o l Di ill G .

r r u n I r m a te a s e w t 2 er n t a c 3 d lighto il, n te e di , W h d i h p ce . id, °

0 1 7 0 T . 8 6. 8 60

a 2 a s e w t 1 er en t s w t e r n c s o a . e a c . W h d i h c e t. id, W h d i h % p d p °

1 7 0 T . 7 2 T .

° a e w r w r s t 2 e c n a 4 T tll t 1 e en t s o a . e t s o s e c . W h d i h p . d , . Di i d i h p d

n il 0 u il u r n o 8 5 8 50 o i l. e o . B i g , . Bl

° ° t a s w t 2 t s e . e r en a d 1 T o o o . e c . 8 [Di ill d] W h d i h 3 p c t. i , 7 0 C led C l ° a s e t T te r a n r w 3 er en t e d es s . c s a . e W h d i h p . o d ,7 Fil d p d

a e u o il t a e 3 . S c l d bl e . S o f S c l ( 8 C)

° w 3 er c en t 1 a s e t . a c 0 W h d i h p id, 7 T .

° w t 4 e r en t s a a s e c . o T W h d i h p d ,7 . “ u r ca n t 8 88 L b i , . MAN U AL E TTE OF O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

Parafﬁn is a mixture of neutral,n o n - oxygenated bodies,

5 . o 1 5 a n d con tains about 8 per cent of carb n to per cent . ” o o f o fhydrogen . Its c nstituents are the fatty hydrides

n which mention has already been made . This poi t was ﬁrst conclusively pro ved by Gill and Meusel,wh o found that when excess o fparafﬁn is heated with bro mine in sunlight fo r some time,half the bromi ne is converted into hydric bromide .

C H C H B I° HB I‘ H 2H + 2 Br, D 2H + 1 .

This reaction is characteristic of hydrides . The same C H O chemists found parafﬁn to yield cerotate ( Q 7 54 2) when

o h oxidised with chr mic mixture . Their sample,t en,which

o f c e r o t li H c C . melted at consisted chieﬂy y hydride 27 5 6 The softer and more fusible p a ra fﬁn S— melting at — and upwards are doubtless mainly composed o f l o wer

a lle tl S hydrides . G y isolated a hale paraffin melting at He has found the solubility o f pa r a ffin s to b e inversely as their m elti ng- p o i n t,and the specific gravity to be directly

- as their melting point . ) Crude parafﬁ n has been recently placed under in vestiga

f D eu t. Ch. . . tion by F . Kra ft ( G xxi , H e submitted ° ° samples of crude parafﬁn meltin g at 30 to 35 to a series o f fractional distillations i n a vacuum (H 1 5 and succeeded in isolating saturated hydrocarbons,rangin g

C C . o between 1 7 and 23 Alc hol was employed as the

o medi um o f crystallisati n . Kra fft also obtain e d the principal physical constants fo r these bodies ; they are shown in the foll o wing table

48 MAN U AL E TTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

when carri e d o u t by o n e c o ntinuous heating in a single ” s till,is termed crackin g, is frequently applied to h e a v v petroleum oils,with o r without the aid o f S uperheated

steam . On the oth er hand,it is quite possible for o le ﬁn e s to yield pa ra fﬁn s

T his reaction probably occurs in the manufacture o f

o ilgas fro m parafﬁn oils .

D D a u . T . y has,in fact,shown that p re ethylene ° (which at 344 und ergoes no change) slowly suffers c o n ° tractio n at 350 with formation o f a condensation °— ° product ; but at 400 408 it contracts to half its volume,

and contains about 40 per cent. ethane,with nearly as ° much methane ; and at 450 a little carb o n is deposited, h while the gas contains ab o ut 7 0 per cent . et ane,and less .

than 1 per cent . methane . In neither case is hydrogen

formed . The reactions are,perhaps

H 2 2 71 0 H C O H o n + 1 2D + 2 H 2I1 + 2 n 2 n + 2

n l ﬁ n a ra f n Pa r ff o n e s e e e . a n C d d o P ﬁ i .

2 - H n 1 &c . C H C & c . when , , ,the right hand term is ,, 4 1 0, [Ri eb e c h has applied the cracking process,under pres

o ul sure,to the producti n of light oils . The best res ts a r e — o btain e d w ith brown coal - tar at 3 6 atm o spheres,with — petro leum and its residues at 2 4 atmospheres,and with — - 4 a h r o ilgas tar at 6 tm OSp e e s .] F o r the fo llo wing very valuable tables (I and II) the author has to e xpress his ind ebtedness to the manager o f o n e of the leadi ng S cottish parafﬁn o ilcompanies

50 MAN U AL E TT E OF D S O ESTRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N.

II A n a l ti ca lR es u lts r o m Go o d A vera e Sha le. . y f g

Speciﬁc gravity Moisture at 1 04° Volatile matter

Fixed carbon .

As h

Co mp o s i ti o n

Soluble in water Silica F e rri c oxide Alumina Lim e Magnesia Sulphur

1 007 3

T otalsulphur in Shale ash

m o s i ti n n n s n t Co p o of Orga i c Co ti tue s .

n ta n s 9 2 s u u r c o e SO . Co i lph i xid ( 3) AR FF P A IN INDUSTRY. 5 ]

Co m o s i ti o n o Or a ni ns i t p f g c Co t uen ts ,exclus i ve of S u lphu r,

M tr o en a nd A s h g , .

1 0000

T he subjoined c omparison s hows that this organic portion corresponds to a deﬁnite chemical relation

o u n 0 H 0 F d 5 1 0 7

1 0000

hi h ni m a t u n der The decomposition w ch t is orga c ter . goes at a lo w heat has been found by the author to be in the proportion

7 C,R ,,o 1 SC 4 4H,o

e a s n d a r Fix d G a W te . c a r o n b . which agrees with the experimental ratio on page 49

o un a F d C lc . Fixed carbon il 8 0 Ga s and o . 5 Organic water 1 0 5 1 0 5

1 000 1 000 52 MAN U AL E TTE OF O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N.

Similarly ,at a high heat, 7 0 11 0 0 H 0 so 0 1 1 0 4H O 6 1 0 4 , ,0 , 3 5 62 3 2 ’

e Ga s a n d Oil. r Fix d Wa te . ca rb o n .

Fixed carbon Ga s and o il Organic water

The results for B o g he a d coal are as follows : At a low temperature 30 H 0 = 1 50 0 H 0 H 0 1 2 20 2 1 58 2 2

xe c a r o n . Ga s a n d il Or a n c wa t r . Fi d b o . g i e 1 (Calc . ) 00 (Found)

Ata high temperature 30 H 0 60 H O ,2 20 Q

xe c a r o n Or a n c wa ter Fi d b . g i . 00 (Calc . ) 1 (Found)

Cellul o se,from which the organic m atter in question

o n e 71 0 must at time have been derived,has also an 3

o h ur f rmula . and the same c aracteristic feat e reappears in m any o f the constituents,b o th of natural and artiﬁcial

o e fo a n r o o petr l um . Hence it llows that ) the ry of destru tive distillatio n,as h e re co nsidered,must d e al mainly with

r r See AL T AR 720 o . C the mig ations of an 3 g up [ O ] The organic matter o fshales,so far as hitherto analysed, corresp o nds to a mixture of bodies lying between the fo urth

O H O 0 o r and ﬁfth cumulates of cellulose ( G 2 6) with more H less in excess . S Y PARAFFIN INDU TR . 53

“ It is worthy o f remark that the aromatic hydrides

C H _ o o i o n e o f D 2n 6, ccur nly in very minute quantities n any

- the low temperature industries .

The following Special table contains the melting- points and boiling - points o f the normal primary pa ra fﬁ n s over an b h adequate technical rang e . The num ers ave been cal c u la te d by the author (Plzi lo s Op /i i eu lM a ga z i ne,March,1 8 84) fro m equations in whi c h a llthe r esults o f observati o n have

Wh er e x e rim e n ta l t been combined. e p values (marked wi h

kn o wn th e r o an asterisk) are ,‘ y in nea ly every case lie cl se to the calculated ones which may be regarded as cor r e c te d n t e f determinations . The symbol is h coe ﬁcient o f o 0 a ra fﬁn C in the general f rmula ,s 2 for p s ; and the symbol 0c indicates a melting - point o r boilin g- point which cannot possibly be exceeded in the o dd o r even series

o f n respectively .

ns N o r ma l P a mﬁ .

tn n t Mel i g Po i . S O 54 MANUAL E TTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N.

COAL TAR .

Coal - tar is formed by a destructive distilla tion o f c o a l

° - at a high temperature,us ually a bri ght red heat,01 b e yond . Although it contains fatty hydrides,they a r e chie ﬂy liquid

fﬁ A o s ones, and not para n . mong its c n tituents are aro matic hydri des (of which traces only are fo und in natural or artiﬁcial petroleums),their alcohols (o ccurring in very small quantities in petro leums) ,and naphthalin

o the (absent from petr leums) . Chrysene occurs both in lo w i - ls and h gh temperature oi .

A E TTE o r S U O 56; MAN U L DE TR CTIVE DISTILLATI N . hori zontal iron retorts,at This meth od admitted o f a comparatively Small c o n sumptio n o ffuel under the reto rts, — w hich,however,wore out very rapidly o n the average,i n about ten months . Hence horizontal clay retorts are now

o n t almost un iversally employed . These, the o her hand, — r e quire an increased amount o ffuel to heat them a n d are always worked hotter tha n iron retorts ; moreover,they ' produce an undesirably large a m ou n t of naphthalin,and

' " e n f n c o nsequently a diminish d qua tity o be zol . Never thele s s ,it is said that a gas - wo rk exists in which,despite the clay reto rts,no appreciable amount o f n aphthalin . i s formed . If this b e correct,we must attribute the gene ration o f naphthalin n o t s o much to temperature as to im purities (perhaps o rg anic sulphur and oxygen) pres ent in the coal distilled . A clay retort i s semicircular in section, having a diameter o f 1 8 inches,a length of 9 feet,and a thickn ess 2 o f 5 in ches . It is ﬂanged in front,so as to receive an iron door ,which is tightened with wet clay,and pressed o n by a screw (o r,more frequently,pressed on by a le ver,

n and spo taneously luted by pitch) . Five of such retorts can be conveniently heated together ; the best worki ng temperature being about The charge is sufﬁcient

to e - r o f ﬁll them to about thr e fou ths their capacity . [Ku n a th has pointed out that a di minished gas Space in

" the retort must necessarily lead to the formation o f a thinner ta n ] T he residual coke is drawn and quenched

every three hours (a minimum) to eight hours . By means

of an exhausting apparatus,the di stillati o n is kept in pro .

cess at an average internal pressure of about half- a n

a o a inch of w ter. S me gr phitic carbon is always formed, and remains strongly a dhering to the inside o f the

retort . T u o f s r u stl th e e he prod cts ; de t ctive di i lation leave r tort COAL TAR . 57

' a t about a n d after travelling rather more than 20 feet,cool do wn to about ’ ’ Henry s and Wright s experiments Show that,as the distillati o n proceeds,carb o nic dioxide,marsh gas,and other hy dro c a rbi de s are evolved in diminishing quantity ; hydro

n gen,and perhaps carbonic oxide,in i creasing quantity . Schulze considers that ph e n o ls a n d ph en o i ds precede aromatic hydr o c a rbi d e s ,and perhaps give rise to them . Cyano gen compounds occur, u nder the inﬂuence o f the

h n highest temperature,towards t e close of the distillatio .

- D W e . L . T . right distill d 2 cwt of a Yorkshire erby shire coal in clay reto rts at s uch (high) tem peratures as to t f require variable tim e s for complete genera ion o gas . The results as regards tar and ﬁxed carbon were as follows .

u ra to n Ga s r f t u e c c ra t er c en ta e e D i pe o o s p er Sp iﬁ g vi y . P g ﬁx d

i t r . o f ea t. f R r T a r . a r o n n a h o eto t. C b

Tars,obtained Similarly,were analysed w ith j o ined results,including also th e yie ld of gas in ton

ﬁ r a t 1 ' 086 Spec i c g vi y . Liqu o r 1 ° 20 Cru de N a phtha 9 1 7 Light 1 0 ' 50 Kre a s o te 26 ° 45

A n th ra ci n e 011 20 ‘ 32 F itc h 28 ‘ 8 9 i G a s 58 MAN U AL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

Naphthalin m ade its ap pearance prominently in th e

o tar : m st anthracene was found in the tar . Increased temperatur e w a s found to destro y preferably

o the light ils between crude naphtha and kreasote . Thus, a tar of s p . gr . yielded

Liqu o r Crude naphtha Light oil

ICre a s o te A nthracene oil Pitch

“ Sometimes the retorts are heated by producer gas,

for making which the red- hot c o ke,e ven when o f very

l o f poor quality,is extre me y handy . When the coke is fair quality,one part o f it,converted into pro du cer gas,is sufﬁcient to carbonise 1 0 parts o f c o al,provided a r e g e n e

ra ti v b e arrangement e used . Allthe products o f distillation,after leaving the retort, pass into a hydraulic main here the liquid products are

d eposited,and thereby separated from the gaseous ones . The bent pipe from the retort di ps Slightly under the liquid in the main,into which no air consequently passes when

o the retort is pen . l t b The il umina ing property is due,pro ably. chieﬂy to acetylen e and o ther degraded hy dr o c a rbi d e s fo rmed at

o e o f b the m m nt c o mbustio n . O viously,also, all the

constituents o ftar which have any sensible vapour- tensio n at the ordinary temp e rature must to so me extent be present and many o f them have ,in fact,been traced by

D avis .

When coal - gas is passed through a scr ubber containing 59 COAL TAR .

natural or artiﬁcial oils of high boiling - point,it gives up

(as in the low- temperature industry) a notable qu antity of

a r a ﬂi n s light oils,containing p and benzol . This process 6 was patented by Caro,Cle m m s ,and E n g elh o rn in 1 8 9 . D avis (1 8 82) aids the absorption by refrige rating the — gases,and thus obtains a total of 1 % 3§ gallons o f 9 0

n . b A di per ce t enzol per ton of coal . ccor ng to another 1 estimate,1 7 - candle gas should yield about 1 3; gallons of 9 l 0 . ed per cent benzo . The scrubb gas is a very valuable f uel . “ In the case of 1 7 - candle gas,Wri ght estimates

1 n o that ; gallons,o the average,of 9 0 per cent . benz l could be extracted from the gas from a ton of coal by s crubbing with oils .

' D avis states the amount i n o n e case (Tho rn cliﬂ e coal) a s 44 gallons,the tem perature of the scrubber being kept o very low (4 ° 4

According to Deville,Paris coal - gas contains constantly

1 o o f u per cent . by v lume p re benzene . The yield of tar in very large English works i s about

per cent . ; ammoniacal liquor, per cent sulphate 8 7 . e 1 per cent ; gas cubic f et), 6 6 per cent .

° 4 Speciﬁc gravity of gas, 8 illuminating power,1 7 candles . The treatment which th e crude tar undergoes is r e m a rka bly similar to that to which crude parafﬁn o il is

r submitte d . The liqu or is separated f om it and treated for ammo nia exactly as in th e low- temperature industry ; its speciﬁc gravity being a bout (4° and the

o f o 2 percentage amm nia about . It is observed that an increase of heat in th e retorts leads to an increased

o f amount cyanide and sulphocyanide in the liquor.

C — f o — oal yields from 6 1 5 per cent . o liquor,fr m 3 6

e r p cent . o ftar (cann el som etimes as much as 9 per cent), 50— 2— and about 7 0 per cent . of coke (containing 5 per O MAN UAL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DI STILLATI N .

r t cent . of ash) ; the remainder epresen s the yield of gas, a n d the working loss (about 1 0 per It is usual to distil coal,o r such a mixture of coa ls,as Shall yield ab o ut

o 05 — 0 6 cubic feet f gas (s p . gr. ) per ton,or about

2 er 0 p cent .

In a gi ven product o f coal - gas the middle portions i m conta n ost, the latest portions least ammonia .

Foster found the nitrogen per cent . ) in a

D urham gas- coal to be distributed as follows during distillation E volved as ammonia as cyanogen uncombined R emaining in coke

Here th e ' a m m o n i c ,uncombined,and residual nitrogen

N N : N are in the ratio 2 5 7 . The distribution seems to d epen d f s o m e wh a t on the proportion o f ash,such coals as c o ntain little a s h giving but little am m onia i n the distil

e m t late . This r lation is intelligible when we re ember tha

- coal ash is an alkaline substance .

o f It was observed by Knoblauch that per cent . lim e added to the coal in cre ased the yield o f gas 5 per

e 5 n . c nt . ,and diminished the illuminating power per ce t m There was so m e increase in the a monia .

L e b o l o o y d f und about 2 per cent . (by v lume) hydric cyanide in the gas o f the hydraulic m ain,and ab o ut ° 02

er f d . o p cent in the gas the hol ers . The impurity is now e t under xtrac ion . W f 1 00 . o G o L T . right f und the grains ( ), sulphur per cubic feet o ther than hydric sulphide to depend on the g a s made per ton 61 COAL TAR .

i f ° r n Cub c e etpe to . G 44 - 1 7

26- 7 5

The above results refer to bituminous coal ; but Similar o nes were obtained with cannel. AS regards the distribution in the tar,Watson Smith obtained the following numbers with a tar containing per cent . of nitrogen

o e N tro en er cen t C k . i g p . Crude benzene Light oil Kreasote oil R e d oil ﬁltered from crude anthra cene Pitch

And,according to the same authority,the residual nitrogen di per cent . is found to be,in the cokes in cated

o e . N tro en er e C k i g p c nt. Ga s retort (Lancashire Beehive oven

Simon - Carves oven

o or inversely prop rtional to the temperature . Modern tar is heavier than the liquo r this must n e c es s a rily be the case where na phthalin a n d phenols are pro

du c e d . S . t in quantity The p . gr of English tars is abou to o f Scotch tars,which are derived from cannel coal,about Can nel tars are poorer in useful a romati c m co pounds than are bituminous tars .

Tar is treated with steam (or distilled with on e - ﬁfth of its volume o f water,o r distilled by the heat of a steam 62 MAN U AL E TTE o r S O DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

“ to o r o The coil) remove light naphtha, crude benz l . stills hold fro m 500 to gallons, and are horizontal

m ri — 5 1 0 e r . cylinders . The stea b ngs over about p cent — S . a tmost of light naphtha ( p gr. according as — the coal is bituminous o r cannel a n d some ammoniacal “ ” e h wat r, w ich is treated like the other liquor . The residue o f the di stillation is heated by ﬁre to about when most o f the heavy o ilcomes over,and afterwards to over The residual pitch,which amoun ts to 30 ’ 50— 7 0 per cent . of the tar,is after several hours cooling

i o ff (either in the st ll or a separate tank),run into moulds . ” It is generally utilised for asphalt, by mixture with a bout fo ur times its weight o f sand,chalk,or other inert “ ” mate rial ; o r for patent fuel, by mouldin g with four

o ri parts of coal dust r similar mate al . “ The light naph tha is run o ff the liquor beneath it,

— il o f and churned with 5 1 2 per cent . of o vitriol,a n d afterwards with about 2 per cent . of caustic soda (in

o f a d v n t aqueous soluti n,o Sp . gr . Lime may be a a g e o u sly used instead o f soda,if great care be taken to

t o f avoid excess . The percen age loss is about the same f t th as that o the added vi triol . Some imes e naphtha is distilled between the acid and alkaline treatment ; o n the other hand,the lime and acid treatment m a y be perfo rmed, i o f if desired,n the same tank . Mixtures lime and caustic soda are also used ; and thi s is probably the preferable

t r - course . It is also undoubtedly advisable o e distil the crude naphtha before su bmittin g it to this chemical treat ment . The residues of this second distillati o n,when mixed with lime (s ee R OSIN OIL ), yield a lubricating ” grease, as is the case with several genera o funsaturated

c a r i d s n hydro b e . Fi ally,the puriﬁed naphtha is distilled Ab “ . 50 by steam out half of it consists of per cent .

m r t s di stil a t wa s a we t rea c th s r ‘ o r e e o o e . . 9 F ly hi l ll d h p g 5.

1 64 MAN UAL E TTE o r D ESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . light oils,almost free fro m phenols,a nd ac c o m pa nre d o f A course by ammoniacal water . s soon as the latter has compl e tely pass e d o ver,a c o n siderable access o f h e at is necessarily required to volatilise, unaided, any furthe r por tion of the tar ; so that this period of the distillatio n i s t f u a lly very well marked . Ligh oils o th e naphtha class ° are di stilled up to 1 7 0 at least ; impure phenol (carbolic acid) and naphthalin to a point exceeding kre a s o ls to

o i lto d a n d anthracene The resi ue is pitch . ’ A S in the case o fpa raﬂi n stills,the wo rm must be kept hot

' o n a tthe end o f the distillati o n . N t u frequently,super heated steam a tvarious temp e ratures is e mployed in the

t o f e a re r e last,o r last tw o ,stages . S ills the larg st size

tw o charged about every days . “ - Cannel coal tars yield little,if any, 9 0 per cent . ” f benz o l, but a large pro portion of xylo l . O phenols,

cann el - tar yields the largest total bulk,but least phenol “ ” spro pe r ; Newcastle tar c o ntaining least total phenols,

o a furnishes the large st prop o rti n of phenol proper . L nca

‘ - o Shi re gas tar yields ab o ut 5 per cent . of crude phen ls,

W . . containing 65 per cent . of crystallisable phenol ( Smith )

The foll o win g percentages,taken from Crace - Calvert,may still (the author is assured by a distinguished practical

a authority) b e taken as f irly correct,viz .

n s Phe o l .

It is diﬂi c u lt to rec o ncile the numerous conﬂicting

statements made o n the subj ect of coal - ta r disti llation,b u t C OAL TAR . 65 the following may be taken as an average o f recent results

Fi rst runnings Light o ils Kreasote oils,naphthalin and phenol 27 ° 5 A nthracene o il 1 00 Pitch 550

1 000

The relation of pitch to tar is thus about the same as & that o f c o ke to c o al ; and th e kreaso te oils, c . ,generally weigh half as much as the pitch . Sometimes as much as

7 o f 5 per cent . is taken as pitch,the quality which is then,

o f o o f s . a t d d . course,s o ft . Go har pitch p gr melts ab o ut and has been found to have the composition

C H O. G S The following data have been given by Schultz on the authority o f R ii tg ers

m s t L - Ta r Co p o i i o n of o n do n Gus .

Benz o l of 50 per cent . S o lvent naphtha Burning n aphtha Kreaso te o il 30 per cent . anthracene Pitch Loss

i s Ta B er ln Ga r .

Benzol a n d to luo l fo r anili nes Bright (solvent) o i l Cry stallised carbolic acid 66 MAN U AL E TTE o r S E O DE TRUCTIV DISTILLATI N.

Kr e a s o l(disinfecting quality) Naphthalin Anthracene (pure) H e avy o il(for pickling timber) Pitch Water and loss

5 s u r a . 7 ( V. p ,pp ,

A ccording also to the same autho ri ty the yield of anthracene very seldom exceeds 05 per cent . ,and the maximum o f crude naphthalin is 8 per cent . ; the tar at h 4 t e . Berlin constitutes 8 p e r cent . of coal Anthracene from cannel tar generally c o ntains parafﬁ n, a troublesome impurity,b e st removed by washi ng wi th l carbonic disu phide .

The p o rtion o f coal - tar and pitch whi ch is insoluble in ” o rdin ary solvents,is known by the name o f free carb on, an e xpression obvi o usly very erroneous . ° Schulze states that the n eutral tar- oils boiling at 1 7 0 ° r e si n iﬁ a ble 1 2 1 0 c o nsist o f ab o ut 50 p e r c e nt . matter, 5 — trim th lb e n z e n e s 1 5 20 e . t per cent . e y , per c nt tetrame hyl — i benzenes,and 1 5 20 per cent . o f naphthal n . The three kre a s o ls occur in ab o ut the proportion m e ta kre a s o l 40,

r r r o th o k e a s o l35,and p a ra k e a s o l25. There can be little doubt that the future economical treatment o f dead o il,and in general of crude o ils o f high b o ili ng - point,will in the main turn upon some me thod o f i d stillation in vacuo . The fo ll o wing complete analyses o f London and

average cann e l gas- tar (Scotch) have been made in the ’ a u thor s laboratory CO AL TAR . 67

If we deduct nitrogen and sulphu r,we Shall obtain the fo llowing results

11 . 131 n n 0 0 . o tc 0 o o . c 0. L d 21 22 3 S h 1 8 20

1 0000

C th e c o m The ubiquitous 3 unit again appears in mean position o f the tars it must,therefore,b e common to both

o f kinds gas . A c o nspectus o f operations and qu antities in the tr eat

- n ment o f coal tar i s give n o the next page .

3“ w erm n a n s Mea n o f t o de t i tio . MAN U AL E TTE OF S O DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

. . o 3 o a 8 2 a . d . s 5 8 : m . 2 o ; c £ o a : E m E s E S 5 m : E E 3 a 6 5 2 3 S e c » E m u a o s 3 s m m ﬁ e m e 8 s a ? ? ? 69 COAL TAR .

Annexed is a table of the products o f destructive dis tilla ti o n o f a - coal . The formul e, boiling points, and meltin g- points are added,so far as known .

D es tr u ctive D i s ti lla ti o n of Co a l.

a m o r m u a . N e . F l

Hydr o gen M e thyh c hydr ide He xylic Oc tylic D e c ylic P a r a ﬂi n E thyle n e Tr ityle n e Tetryle n e P e n tylen e H e xyle n e He ptylen e A c e tylen e C r o to n ylen e Ter en e He xo ylen e Styr o len e I n den e Thi o phen e T hi o to lu en e T hio xe n e B en z e n e * Pa ra b e n z en e T o lu en e Ortho xylen e Pa ra xyle n e M eta xylen e C u m en e E thylbe n z en e Ps eu do c u m e n e H e m ellith en e M es ityle ne Cym en e D ur en e T e rpen e N a phtha lin M e thyln a ph th a li n N a p h th a lm hydride — N a ph to ls , a B Phen yl A ce n a phthen e

3“ r r Dip o pa gyl . 0 MAN UAL E TTE o r S V 7 DE TRUCTI E DISTILLATION .

D es tru cti ve D i s ti lla ti o n of Co a l

m o rm ula N a e . F .

Flu o r e n e Ph en a n th ra c en e A n thr a c en e Flu o ra n tnr en e Pyren e An thra c en e hydride Me thyla n thra cen e Chrys en e R eten e P i c en e Wa ter Hydric s u lphide c ya n ide s u lpho cya n ide Ca rbo n ic o xide dio xid e di s ulphi de - 1 1 0 S ulphu r ic di o xide Hydr ic a c e ta te . Ac eto n itril E thylic a lco ho l Phe n o l Hydr ic ben z o a te

- K rea s o ls , o ,m p . — — Pyro krea so ls , a .,B,y Phlo ro l um a ro n e C J Am m o n ia zo(s) B u tyla min e A nilin e Ce s pitin e P r rdi n e y . 7 - Pic o lin e a - a - Lu tidin e a B - L u tidin e

- u t n e a . y L idi C o llidin e Pa r vo lin e Co rid in e R u bidin e Vir idine

A c r idi n e .

Ca r ba z o l” P ne n yln a ph tylca rb a z o l Leu c o lin e Lepidin e Ir i do li n e Crypti di n e T etri co lin o

7 2 MAN U AL E TTE OF S O DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

Foster has also similarly examined a Sco tch cann el . His data may in li ke manner be reduced as follows

2C H O 1 20 C H 0 H O 1 2 1 2 1 2 22 Z 41 2 9 52 (Calc . ) 9 5 (Found) 41 3

The Heywood cannel gas - coal,which may b e taken as r e presenting an average Sc o tch cann e l,has (page 49 ) been l d — a n a v s e and di stilled . The reactions are a t a low te mperature

4O H O 27 0 0 11 0 Q ,2 9 4 6 3

e a r n n d a r r n w c o . a s a O a c a tr . Fix d b G t . g i e 1 0 (Calc . ) 0 (Found) 383

and at a high tem perature

410 0 n 2

a r n d a r r a n w e c o . Ga s a n t . c a ter Fix d b O g i . 0 (Calc . ) 1 0 see 438 (Found)

Mill u n / I S o c . zem . Mills and Mc a n (J o r . C n d , 1 89 1 ) distilled a Scotch bituminous coal with the following results

Ata low temperatur e

280 H O C H ‘ l‘ C H 0 C 11 0 “ 1 6H 0 1 8 1 2 444 1 23 3 0 7 6 9 3 0 1 05 3 l 2

o e . T a r Ga s C k . .

Ata high temperature

300 H O C H 0 11 0 20 H o “ ” 1 611 0 1 8 1 2 450 2 8 3 0 4 0 4 s o rs o s l 2

o e . T a r G a s . C k .

It is e vident that the high temperature vo latilises in

gas twice as much carbon as the low temperature does . CO 3 AL TAR . 7

The fo llowing results are known as regards th e c o m position o fthe organic matter in coal

o s D C H 0 Y rk hire and urham 24 1 8

B a l u h a ts to n e C H O q 1 8 1 2

B o h e a d C H O g IQ Q O

A n C H O verage ca nel 1 2 1 2 H O Heywood gas cannel 9 m

Go o O O od average Sc tch shale e o

It may n o w be regarded as proved that this organic

C . matter breaks up when heated in multiples of 3

a s A ver a ge Co mp o s i ti o n of Co a l G .

P h I l 2 . u m . n c 7 v J o r n S o . e Frankland ( . c C ,iii, 3) has gi en th e c o mp o sition o fﬁfteen samples o f puriﬁed coal - gas pre s u m a bl o y bituminous) . The mean percentage and variati ns are as fo llo ws

E thyle n e a n d its r n a r o n c O e a rs Ga s . o e . x . h e ui Hyd g C b i id M q v a len ts .

38 ° 8 3

a n Va r i tio .

These ratios c o rresp o nd to 3O H 24H 2CO QOCH 2CO 2 4 2 4 2

1 02 o vols . ; the last being added to fulﬁl the conditi n

f o e of unpuri ied gas) . Summing the above f rmul ae,we hav C H O h the collocation 3 0 M O G,which may ot erwise be ex

30CH 6H 4 to o n O H . pressed as 4 2 2 Having regard variati , we Shall be correct in regarding average unpurifi e d coal

- e gas as consisting o f redistributed marsh gas and wat r . li e re l C a so the 3 unit recurs . 7 4 MAN U A L E TTE o r S S O DE TRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N .

i t f (l c . c o The same author o . ) gives the composition f three samples o gas fro m Scotch cannels . His ﬁgures show that this gas tends to consist of redistributed methyl and water ; but the data are too few,and their vari ation

too great,to allow of any very exact infe rence . The output o f the United Kingdom in each twelve months Since 1 857 is given belo w

T To n s . o n s . 1 8 7 5 1 8 7 6 1 87 7 1 8 7 8 1 8 7 9 1 8 80 1 8 8 1 1 8 82 1 0] ,7 1 8 8 3 1 8 8 4 1 8 8 5 1 8 8 6 1 8 87 1 88 8 1 8 8 9 1 89 0 1 8 9 1

era e res en t r c 9 er to n a tth e t ea . (Av g p p i e,8 . p pi h d )

The American bituminous coal of all kinds raised 1 in 888 was tons o f lbs . ,having a value

o f dollars . i . . W Mr L . T right has compiled the follow ng very interesting table showing the percentage value o f each pro duct to the total revenue of the Co mpanies indicated

m a n m m n a . u n r e s . o . Ga s e T a r . o o . C p y . C k A i S d i

N o ttin gh a m ,1 88 1 a n d 1 8 82 8 2 9 8 ° 2 1 M etr o o ta n 1 8 8 3 ~ 34 s . p li , 7 2 0 5 5 s n d e 1 8 3 ° 4 1 ° 43 8 Ga lighta C o k Co s . , 8 7 8 7 1 2 9 a r s en n e 1 8 8 1 ° 3 ° 4 Ci e . P i i , 7 0 7 0 8

In 1 889 there were 57 8 gas undertakings in the United COAL TAR . 7 5

o 7 6 7 4 Kingdom,with an auth rised capital of ,59 3,2 l. Th e amount o f coal carb o nis ed w a s to ns ; and th e

o am unt of gas produced cubic feet . In 1 889 the Paris Ga s Company sent out millions cubic feet . There are 9 7 1 gas c o mpanies in the United States,and 47 59 2 th in Canada . companies in e United States manu facture their gas from coal,and 2 9 6 under vario us patents

24 i m and processes . In Canada compan es anufacture

o fr m c o al and 1 6 from o ther processes . One company m an ufacturing gas from co al with an output o f

7 c 26 cubic feet received 5 . per feet, companies , with an output of cubic feet o f coal - manu fa c tu r e d 6 o m a n u fa c tu r gas,received dols . ; c mpanies ing by other processes,with an output of b t 4 5 cu ic fee ,receive dols . ,and companies,manu fa c tu ri n g from c o a l,with an output o f cubic

t o f feet,receive dols . per fee The output

49 5 coal - gas companies is cubic feet,the 1 8 8 income from whi ch is dols . ; companies manufacturing by oth e r processes have a n inc o me of

dols . fro m an outp ut of cubic feet . 9 9 - 1 7 3 . The average price o f coal gas is 7 6 7,dols ; of gas 2 - 1 8 1 . manufactured by other processes, 1 6 dols In the f matter o fpublic lamps, receive gas at a cost o 1 0 . 5— ‘ 1 1 0 1 4 1 1 0 l e . 00 2 0. 0 per hour, at 3 ” at T 3 ,and at i

1 4 7 0 lamps range from 0. to . per hour ; lamps

l . f . realise do ls . ,an average o dols per amp The output of gas by 51 7 companies manufacturing fro m

o o f o f 206 c al requires tons coal . The output com panies using water and o ther processes require

f fo r a ll tons o anthracite coal . The capital required the gas interests amounts to dols the income h 1 89 0 from whic is abo ut dols . [ ] L E TT F S C S O 7 6 MAN UA E O DE TRU TIVE DI TILLATI N .

A T O - AR PPENDIX o C AL T .

In the manufactur e o f iron by the blast furna ce m ethod, tar and amm o ni a are naturally among the products when

o o f s o f c al is employed . Both the e pr ducts admit o collee

o F o r r o f e ti n . [ d awings various kinds of cond nsing and

f r hi r o u r n o h m I b o J . S c . n scrub ing plant t s pu pose,see C e . ch,

1 o f th e e h 885,p . The volume gas s from whic they a r e e e e to n s parat d is about cubic f et per . The p e rcentage comp o sition by volume o f th e se gases is,

o bo o — acco rdi ng to W. J nes,car nic xid e ,25 30; carbonic — — — dio xide,3 8 ; hydr ogen,5 7 marsh gas,2 4 ; nitrogen,

2 — 6 o 5 0. The yield of ammonic sulphate is pr bably about

1 6 p o un ds p er ton ; o f tar, o r ,more correctly,tar- emul

h rm si o n,20 gallons . The tar,w ich is inte ediate in its nature b etween Shale and ordinary tar,c o ntains a great am o u nt o f gas bubbles in su spensi o n, a n d intumesces “ ” : o f very much when heated it is rather dry quality . It c o ntains n o c o n siderable amount o ftrue ph e nol,b e n zol,

o o w o r anthracene . The f ll ing results were obtained in ’ the author s lab o ratory

f . o Sp . gr tar Afte r st e aming

V o e latile in st am per cent .

. o f Sp gr . portion v o latile in steam ° 90800 C TA OAL R .

E xa mi n a ti o n o P o r ti o n Vo la ti le i n Stea m f .

P e r en o f en s c t. ph o l lrn - n ta e . B o r o i n t. Pe rc e g g P a n d ph en o i ds in fra t n c io .

f s ° 9 54 Watson Smith examined another sample o p . gr . , and obtained the following (volume) percentage results Water (ammoniacal)

° Na phtha and o ilto 230 Oil to 300° ° 300 to s o lid di stillate Solidifying di stillate

r° The coke amo unted to 21 5 pe cent . by weight ; loss

d a ra ﬂi n 5 4 per cent . Har p was estimated at per cent .

The amount of coke is extremely large . 7 m Blast furnace tar contains 1 5 per cent . by volu e o f

A n t W . o phenols . mo gs these Smith has f und meta

l m x l n l - c u m e n o l A kre a s o , e ta y e o ,pseudo ,and naphtols . llen found in Ga rtsh e rri e tar carbon, hydrogen,

and sulphur,09 per cent .

A Specimen o f average Scotch cannel gas - tar gave the subjoined numbers

Sp . gr . of tar After steaming l

Volatile in steam per cent .

r o f o o Sp . g . porti n v latile in steam 9 3334 O 7 8 MAN UAL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

n ti P m E xa mi a o n o f o r ti o n Vo la ti le i n Stea .

o f n Per c ent. ph e o ls Perc n ta e o n - o n t. S . r . e g . B ili g P i p g i n fra ctio n

ts r m ke n s P r o d uc f o Co Ove .

J o f 1 882 d Mr . amieson, Newcastle,has ( ) propose the following Simple pro cess fo r collecting products from

o rdinary coke ovens . The oven is lig hted at the top ; a n d the pro ducts o f combus tio n, draw n downwards by . means of an exhauster, cause destructive distillatio n o f

P r the coal beneath . a a fﬁn ife ro u s tar and c o mbustible gas reach the bas e of the oven, whenc e they are carried

through perfo rated iron pipes to a main . The exhauster produc e s an inward pre ssure o f 1 inch (water),and effects f h o f o f o to n o . t e combustion 2 cwt . c ke per coal There

is a yield o f from 5 6 to 8 gallons o f crude (lo w - tem pera

il n — 1 o f ture ) o ,a d 3 0 p u nds o ammonic sulphate per to n . f 7 Sp . gr . o the oil about 9 . The gas amounts to 200

- cubic feet per hour per ton .

4na l i s o th i l g s f e O . Lubricant Illuminant Scale

Tar and loss,&c .

8 0 MAN UAL E TTE OF C S O DESTRU TIVE DI TILLATI N .

D m Wa ter C ° ‘ — N a phtha to 1 20 l d ° B elo w 2 1 0 N é ° ‘ - w 220 P t o s a t a n . 230° O m M ly N ph h li ° l—D 300 l C d a t a n a n d a n n N ph h li thra c e e . 0 o A I - m o e 300 o l o s t a n t r a cen Ab v M ly h e . H a lf- c o ked pitc h wo é b d L o s s (by diff. ) t

1 00 ' 0

“ V o r o il ery little red anthracene was present .

A ° 7 3 vailable anthracene, per cent.

- r Ta r Ga s P o du cer .

The tar from a Sutherland gas - producer has been fractio nated by Watson Smith . In general character it occupies a position b etwe e n the J amieson and Simon

Carves tars,but near the former. Sp . gr . The (volume) percentages are

° Bel o w 230 (excludi n g water) 230°— 300°

° 300 to solidiﬁcation o f distillate Oils,s o lidifying

Coke,30 per c e nt . by weight ; loss and water,32 per i cent . Naphthal n and anthracene could not be detected ; parafﬁn amounted to per cent . o n the weight of the

o f tar . The enormous residue coke is very noteworthy .

h H ydr o c lo r i c Ta r .

An important modiﬁcati o n in the conditi o ns o fformatio n

- i H 4 . e s er e r Pa . o f coal tar has b e en stud ed by E u s (G . t2 7 58, When a mixture o f chl o rine with hydric chlo ride is passed thro ugh an o rdinary charge d gas retort,it acts as a hydrogen a ting 01° dissociating agent,producing a tar wo o n TAR . 8 1 very rich in benzol,and having the following average composition Water Benzol Boiling at 60°— 1 80°

Chlor o - comp o u nds ,heavy hydrocarbides,naphtha lin,anthracene Pitch

o f 1 1 8 per cent . the crude benzol was reduced to 0 per

b y o di i cent . puriﬁcati n and st lling to On the other hand,zinc chl o ride,in presence o f hydric chloride, gre atly increases the yie ld o f heavy hydro carbides from coal,and can even c o nvert some of the lighter constituents o f tar,when distilled therewith,into heavy ones .

D TAR WOO .

W o o f n C H O od consists essentially cellulose ( e w s) and

1 3 o f 20— 25 per cent . an is o meric gum,together with per f . o W cent water,and a little mineral matter . hen heat is applied to it in closed vessels,it decomposes,giving o ff, * among o ther products,a qu antity o fsteam ; at ﬁrst,there “ ” fore,the process is necessarily under low- temperature

‘ o A s c u la xi o l i e conditi ns . m u i e re s pto n continu s,less water relatively is given off,and the heatc a n exert its full effect ; " the sec o nd sta ge o f the distillatio n is,therefore,under

- high temperature conditions .

u r r n F fu o l c a n b e o bta i n ed a ta b o u t o r eve lo wer .

5 5 55 T r ES IV 82 MAN U AL E T E o D TRUCT E DISTILLATION .

Cellulose is stable at The ﬁrst effect o f heat is ’ o V o at ﬁrst to dehydr ate it . By interp lation among i lette s

- n f A n n h h s o o . P well kno wn results the heating wood ( C . y .

n C H O xxxii . it appears that 6 B 4 corresponds to a

o f n C H O i n temperature about and 6 6 3 to about the abs e nce o f pressure ; in presence o f pressure,the latter t m n C H O . A temperature corresponds to 6 4 z a point so e what below and without pressure,the residue has h n C H O. T e n C the composition, e z ﬁnal stage 6 is probably not attain ed under ordinary experimental condi tions . Wood thus yields both aro matic and fatty b odi e s ; and these are sp e cially characterised by being to a great extent oxy- compounds,as is natural in a s e ries o f cellulose deriva

i v e t s . It is very interesting to note,as a further consequence o fthe mixed conditions o f this distillation,that naphthalin

See and parafﬁn are both present among the products . [

E L L UL SE C O .] Th e heat is allowed to reach bright redness ; charcoal is left in the retort,illuminating gas is evolved,and the tar is separated and condensed in a very wide c o pper

- worm . Sulphur c o mpounds and ammonia are not given o ff W a r xM a tel . ood may yield pp o y

2 — 0 Charcoal 0 3 per cent . — A cid water 28 50 — Oily (light or heavy) tar 7 1 0 Ga s and loss 20— 37

Morgan has foun d the following results ( 1 885)

o o a k c ppice . Liquid distillate (tar,acid, & — c . ) 50 60per cent . Glacial acid Naphtha Charcoal n wo o TAR.

Thus,dry w o o d is n o t. unfrequently Split up i n th e p r o p o r ti o n

30 4H O C H O ,. ,,

r o n W a t r a . e a s n d ta r . C b . G a 22 ° 2 tho ugh thi s equatio n must n o tbe take n as indicating th e m o de o f de c o mp o sition (page The general m e thylic character of the pro du cts is stro ngly marked ; and in the case o f different wo o ds,at the same temperature, the — ’ total methyl in the distillate is if Stolze s ob servati o ns be

o — a c rrect constant quantity.

The retort is nearly always made o f thick boiler - plate, a n d either horiz o ntal o r vertical ; the former p o siti o n is the

tw o P r f b etter of the . [ ierce uses a b ick still,capable o h o ldi ng 56 cords (1 00 to ns) o f wo o d ; h e distils during S ix

n — d ays and co ols duri g six days . The products a r e char

3 5 . 1 7 c oal, 0 per cent . ; gals pyroligneous acid and 5 cubic feet gases per 1 00 lb s ] When the object o f the distill e r is to obtain the maximum quantity of acid,the retort Sh o uld ° not be heated beyo nd 350 He,then,p ro bably d erives his produ cts,and their collaterals,from th e r e sidue s — f ll W n C H O n C O o . e fo r G G a n ce ulose hen wood is h ated the purpose o f making gas,the retort is fo llowe d by a heated e mpty c hamber o r gen erato r, in which takes

o place what is virtually a second destructive distillati n . Accordi ng to Ja ko wle w

c et a c A ic id .

I 1 1 . pa rts wo o d yield . Linden Birch Aspen Oak

Pm e . 8 4 M L TTE r E S V S O AN UA E o D TRUCTI E DI TILLATI N .

cetc c A i A id . I 1 1 1 00 pa rts wo o d yield . . Fir Birch bark Cell ulose from birch Cellulose from pine

W e The wood should,in any case,be dry . hen work d — fo r gas,the charge is about 50 60 kil o s ,yielding about

r fo r 1 6 cubic metres of gas in hou s . When worked tar the charge amounts to one o r tw o hundr e dweight o r — more,which are distilled in 1 2 1 4 h o u rs,the initial heat being lo w in this case the gas is burned under the retort . m 1 ° Much deco position ensues under 50 C. ; but the more carb o nac e ous products pass over above that temperature . A S is usual in destructive distillation,the tar becomes thicker and darker as the process advances,and the rapid application o f a high temperature leads to loss of valuable

o f ri pr o ducts with increase gas . The w ter has seen in use r o und cast - iron retorts 1 4 inch thick,7 feet lon g,and 34 fe e t in di ameter ; when wor n undern e ath,these could b e r e - set b ottom upwards,and had been known to last from

C Six three to ten years . harge,about hundredwe ight . When the gas is utilised,a ton of wood requir es ab o ut 7 — 1 0% hundredwe ight o fc o al for its distillation,the latter

a bein g demanded by o k wood . In the South United State s the destructive di stillation o f wo o d is carried o n (acc o rdi ng to Clark) i n cast or w r o u ght ir o n o r st e el re to rts,the two latter b eing e specially

used fo r lar ge retorts,and the former for small on e s . They — — are generally cylindrical ; 3 9 feet in di am eter,and 5 30

o n feet l g . The furnace gases are ﬁrst brought under a p r o tecting brick a r c h b el o w the reto rt, and afterwards

o o reversed ab ve it . The m st resinous pines,preferably with a deep red section,are selected, the o ld tapped WOOD 8 5 TAR .

r n T he m t ees givi g the most abundant yi eld . fuel is ainly ° the gas gi v en Oﬂ by the di stillati o n itself The tempera ture fo r th e ﬁ rst 1 2 hours is afterwards incre asing to The fo llowing are average results fro m 1 6 c — ° r harges z Wood, lb s ; light o il, 8 7 5 s p . g . ,

i l ° S s o gals ; pine o , 9 50 p . gr , gal ; pyr

o o f a . 1 o ligneous cid, s p g r . , 8 5 gals ; charc al p or

l 1 1 1 l s d e q ua ity, 5 b . The istillat s are allowed to settle

o il o n i o when the ﬂoats the acid. It is d stilled d wn to f - ﬁfth s our s ,and u e d fo r kr easoting purposes . R etorts in whi ch the wood is urged fo rward b y a ch a in, o r leaves a rme d with s crapers,are in use fo r the distillati o n o f wood

- Crude wood gas contains about 40per cent . of carbonic o 2 1 f f di 1 . xide, 6 per cent . o o xide,and per cent o marsh

a s o g . The e arlier portions contain a go d deal of carb o nic di oxi d e with hydr ogen and marsh - gas : next follo w

h r o s n o imperfect y d c a rbid e a d carb nic oxide . The last

n a r e ri hi o portio s very ch in t s xide . The puriﬁed gas

- o o 3 o f 2 5 . c ntains ab ut vols . hydrogen, vol marsh gas ,

08 o l h r o o v d o c a rbi s 3 v . . y de ,and o l carb nic xide It is

1 2 times heavier than c o al - gas,which it c onsiderably exceeds i n illuminating p o wer, and req uires very Open

fo r o o n burners its pr per c mbustio . The wa tery portion of the di stillate from a ton o fwood amounts to about 1 00— 1 30 gall o ns,containi ng 4— 8 per ” e o f o f c nt . the weight the woo d in glacial acetic acid

vi (hydric acetate),and ha ng the s p . gr . This “ m i 1 t lo 24 is ter ed pyrol gne ous acid . is al wed to rest ho urs,and then drawn o ff from bel o w the tar p ro per (whi ch,ho wever, is frequently beneath it),and may be used at once for making iron mordant,which is a s o luti o n o f scrap iron in aqueous hydric acetate, and c o ntain s i t ferrous,w h some ferric acetate . It is also treated with 8 6 MAN UAL E TTE OF O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

“ litharge,in o rder to prepare plumbic ac e tate ( sugar o f A better pro duct is, however, Obtained by r e distilling the crude pyro ligneous acid,an Operation which is condu c ted in co pper stills,heated by h o t gases or an

o 2 - 5 . C internal steam c il (at lbs pressure) . ast iron stills c a n s e o e be u d,but are less satisfactory . Tar dep sited her

o ff . o o r 20 must be drawn hot The ﬁrst porti n, per cent . o f the di stillate, consists of dilute crude wo o d sp i r i t or m e thylic alcoh o l (Cl this is used in preparing “ ” “ methylated Spirit or ﬁnish, a mixture of impure

o o A s o o methylic with rdinary alcoh l . the methylic alc h l l e aves the still,a quantity of tar which it h eld in solutio n

e o u s parates t. The subsequent acetic distillate has a b ro - o o o wnish yell w colour. It is puriﬁed by c nversion int s o dic o r calcic acetate,by saturation with the correspond i n o T h e t g carb nate . resulting solu ion is evaporated to dryn e ss and roasted to a point justShort Of deco mposition ° (240 in the case o fs o di c acetate) ; thi s tre atm e nt destro y s

m n w di all tarry atter. The residue can o be stilled with hydr ic sulphate or chloride, eithe r with o r without a previous crystalli satio n fro m wate r ; the op e ration is

o e o f - o o di perf rm d in horizontal retorts cast ir n . If s c acetate b e the salt chosen fo r treatmen t with hydri c s ulphat e ,the residue in the retort is sodic sulphate ,whi ch

b e o can sold to the soda manufacturer . The am unt o f hydr ic sulphate o r chloride used must d e pend o n th e amo unt o f acetate present but this latter is always k e pt Slightly in excess when hydric chloride is us e d,s o as to

th e r e o f e i avoid p sence chl o rine in the distillat . Calc c acetat e requir e s rathe r l e ss than an e qual weight o f

o f o s . W aqueous hydric chl ride p gr . hen hydric sulphate is emplo y e d,it is difficult to av o id c o ntaminating the product with sulphuro us oxid e ,m o re e specially when

m r i p e fectly roasted ac e ta te is used ; in this case, ther e

TE r D E STRU CTlVE 8 8 MAN UAL E T o DISTILLATION .

formate and acetate,formic,crotoni c,and angelic acids ;

C H 0 o f ni pyroxanthin, I5 1 2 3 ; traces ammo a and methyl

e amin s . The ta r p r op er is seldom utilised,at any rate ln Great

Britain ; and much of th e R u ssian wood - tar is adulterated

ui with bro wn British naphtha . [Gen ne Russian tar,from

s di il . n the ro o ts o f conifers,has the p gr . On st latio , ° il S ° 7 o o f . 0 . 8 41 7 it yields (at a light p gr .

This contains,successively, o xy - products,including syl

C H O e to r vane, 5 G ,and b nzol chieﬂy aromatic hy d ides to more aromatic hydrides and phenol,kr e a s o l,&c

c r - C H 0 i together with y phenol ( 6 6 2 ,a character stic product) to then naphthalin and parafﬁn . The parafﬁn H C 0 . contains lignocerate, 24 4 8 2,and retene Some pitch 1 50°— 200° remains behind . The fraction is known as ” “ kr e a s o l wood kreaso te ; it contains and phlorol . The °— — acid tar (1 80 A holds phenol,pa ra kre a s o l,a m eta xy ~ len o l, g u ra c o l, kr e a s o l, c aeru lig n o l, and the di m ethyli c ethers o f pyrogallol, m e thylpy r o g a llo l, dim ethy lpr o pyl

ro l ro a llo l pyrogallol picamar and p py py g . The inter mediate fatty hydrides seem to b e absent ; but they are

C n represented,certainly as far as 1 0,by the correspondi g fatty keta tes (a ci ds ), ethylic ald e hyde, and methylic

l l V n 0 11 0 f a coho . alerolacto e ( 5 1 0 2 ) has also been ound in

crude pyro ligneous acid .

The more volatile portio n o f Swedish pine - wood ta r yields, after treatment with potash, two terpenes australene,boiling at and sylvestrene,boiling

n 80 at the two together constituti g about per cent .

o A i e o f the il. ccord ng to Hag r,pure beech kreas o te is not soluble in twice its bulk o f anhydrous glycerin,as is

o the case with other kreas tes . Most wo ods are available for acetate makin g ; those ” being (acc o rding to Payen) the best which are hard, o r O 8 9 WO D TAR .

“ whose cells contain most m a trer e incrustante (oxy cellulose Hence the trunks are better than the

- o 1 4 branches . Pine wo d yields most tar ( per cent . from

1 er o o dried stems, 8 p cent . fr m roots) ; beech m st liquo r

4 ut ( 5 per cent . ) Sawdust can also be used ; b it requires to be fo rced through th e r e tort by means o f an endless P R screw . eat yields similar products . In ussia the outer bark o f the birch, after stacking, is made to furnish a ” o r da e t green tar g g , exceptionally rich; in pyrocatechin ; this is used in the treatment o fleather,to whi ch it imparts a peculiar smell .

The kreasoting o f wood with wood- tar was known to Glauber a n d the preparation of pyroli gneous acid is at least as ancient .

In certain cyder di stricts,presumably French the marc f o apples is destructively distilled . It yields very luminous gas and a yellow tar ; the latter turns black o n exposure to the air,and is thick,but becomes ﬂuid at The product from 1 00 parts of tar are

Wat e r “Benzol Phenol Kreas o te & mined carbides c . ‘ P r ﬂi il [ a a n o . lParafﬁn Carbon [ Loss 9 0 MAN UAL ETTE OF T O DES RUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

k Ta r Co r .

Co a n d rk furnishes illuminating gas a liquid distillate . The latter consists of a lighter aque o us and a lower tarry

e portion . The aqueous lay r contains hydric acetate and hi gher ho mo l o gues,ammonia,some methylamin e,hydric cyanide,and methylic alcohol .

e r l 2 The tar,which is v y ﬂuid,yie ds 7 per cent . boiling ° 1 n 4 f below 2 0 (n aphthalin ,be zene, per cent . o the tar ;

o 3 . o r t luene, per cent of the tar) . The oil boiling above

o o i o n bel w this c nta ns very little o fa phen lic ature . Much

o f ln - o anthracene occurs in the p rtions o highest boi i g p int .

J u te.

The analyses hitherto mad e of jute by Cross and Bevan H o to C H O 2C H O O. p int a mean composition M I S 9 ﬁ lo 5 Z It has been fo und by the present writer to break up o n destructive distillation i n a different manner from wood,

50 5H 0 C H 0 2 7 8 4

e c a r o n . a ter Ga s a n d ta r Fix d b W . . 1 00 1 Calc . 9 6 F o und

The results are calculated to dry original substance

o f the substance distilled having contained 9 3 per cent . “ c o n moisture . The water in the above statement

r o n ta in e d hyd ic acetate equal to 3 0 per cent . the dry substance . The foll o wing experiment on the destructive distil ’ lation o f jute was perfo rm e d in the autho r s labo ratory,

o f as in the case cellulose . 1 The sample contained 06 5 per cent . of water,and OS OIL R IN . 9 1

Th . e yielded per cent . of ash results,reduced as before,a re in accordan ce with the relation

C H O 7 0 C H O 5H 0 m ls 9 5 S 4 2

e c a r o n G a s a n d ta r Or a n c wa ter . Fix d b . . g i

r ‘ 1 ,h e formula for jute is calculated from the an a lysis of T h m 1 2 n C e . S o c . 88 1 0 Cross and Bevan ( r a s . , 0 who regard it as having the c o nstitution of an aromatic

u l o c ell i de . This may account f r the unusual relations between the c o - eﬂi c i e n ts o f C o n the right - hand side o f

i e r o f e J e 3 0 . the equation . ut furn shes p cent ac tate w e ta r hen distill d as above described . The amount of t from 1 00 grammes exceeded lc c . (a li tle having been lost) . The gas may have been 38 8 per cent .

o Jute is s mewhat aromatic in character. This may be the reason fo r its behaving,when distilled,in a different

r o manner f om w od .

R OI OSIN L .

— Ordinary pine resin o r rosin a French or South — American pro duct is essentially a mixture o fhydri c pinate with sylvate, both o f which bodi es have th e formula C H O i t Q O 3 O Q ; and is probable that the corresponding anhydrides are often present . These bodies are perhaps oxidatio n - pro ducts of turpentine o r turpentines

40 11 30 20 11 0 2H O 1 0 1 6 2 2 0 3 0 2 2

Rosin is stable at When distill e d with about 9 2 MAN U AL E TTE OF S O DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N . ten parts o fzinc dust,it yi e lds toluene (m e ta ) e thym ethyl

n n i o m ln b e ze e,naphthal n,and s me e thyln a phth a i . In the n o w obsolete manufacture of rosin gas,1 00 pounds o f rosin furn ished cubic feet of illuminating

o f gas o f high quality, c o ntaining about 8 per cent.

o n o 8— 9 f le ﬁ n e s carb ic di xide, per cent . o O ,and having

S 5 the p . gr. 8 . The tar,in this case,was very ﬂuid,and

e contain d benzol,toluol,xy lol,cumol,cymol . The destructive di stillation o f rosin much re sembles

tha to f wood ; b utit is wholly a low - temperature industry, and can be carrie d o u t below though this tempera

e ture is often exc eded . The retort consists o f a vertical cylinder,about two diameters high,and hav ing a Spherical to p and bottom,

o r - it may be less preferably pan Shaped . Ordinarily the — h e lm is sho rt,but in some cases attains a h eight o f 5 8

feet . It is charged to within a few inches of th e top with ro sin ; an ordinary charge consistin g o f about 7 0 barrels, ale holdin g about 25 gallo ns (s o lid after melting) each . Direct heat is appli e d to the bottom o f the still ; and the

o o 1 6 W entire peration lasts ab ut hours . ater passes over

o o e through ut the entire p ratio n . The products are “ — 7 S 60 0 gallons pirit . ” oil, for grease - making (if ﬁred

Slow) . — 7 6 cwt . coke . — 40 50 gallons weakly acetic water .

Th ese numbers may be restated in a verage per centages

if h r f s o r s n i s a o u t 5. T e s . o o p g . lid i b IL ROSIN O . 9 3

Spirit Oil Co ke Water Ga s and loss

There is very little gas ; but it is heavy,and power fully an aesthetic,c o n ta i n i n i n g carboni c oxides,ethylene, f butylene,and pentine . The layer o coke,containing a good deal of gravel and o ther mi neral impurity from the rosin,is about 6 inches thi ck ; sometimes,however,it is prefe rred to w o rk for pitch . It is probable that chemically pure rosin would leave

n no ﬁxed carbon o distillation . F u r c k applies direct heat to the bottom o f the retort, drives superheated steam through an upper central coil therein,in order to maintain the temperature,and passes steam through the whole mass of rosin . The following are the products

A cetic water under 1 65° Spirit (1 5 per

Oil (25 per cent . )

(25 per cent . )

(1 2 per cent . )

The residue in the still is liqui d,and is run o ffthrough

a cock,as pitch .

D istillati o n witho ut steam is ordinarily preferred . Oil is, m o reo ver,difﬁcult to separate from the water o f

o steam distillates . The ﬁnest products are pr duced from pale rosins,distilled at the lowest available tem

R e n n th o u m e o fth e ro s n cko e d o e v l i . MAN U AL E TTE o r S O 9 4 DESTRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N.

r u r F o r o f o f p e a t e s . particulars an examination the

f o s ee a 1 4 entire co urse o a distillati n, p ge .

The nature of the distillate is partially known . Benzol and to luol have been found in m inute prop o r tio ns in the products o f the steam pro cess ; but the

o f O characteristic feature is a series 1 0,1 bodies,directly related to turpentine and to the original rosin,just as the

l C H o f hexy ic hydride ( 6 1 4) petroleum is related to its

o n C H O . present cellul se ( 6 I O s ) R apidly distilled o il may c o ntain as mu ch as 1 0 per

. o e cent . unaltered rosin Even g od qualiti s have been 4 alleged to contain as much as per cent . “ ” The bl o om o r ﬂu o rescence can b e more o r less remo ved by sun - bleachi ng,or additi o n o fhydric peroxide, nitro - benzol, dini tro - benzol, nitro - toluo l, liqui d di nitro to luol, dini tro - naphthalin, carbonic disulphi de, o r by heating with sulphur . It is probable also that the bloom f may be removed by all these reagents from para ﬁn oils . Rosin o il turns the plane o f polarisati o n o f light ° ° — 30 — 33 to the right a property whi ch enables it to be easily detected and determined . It can be fraction ally diss o lved i n aqueous potash,and wh olly in glacial

9 9 . acetic acid . Sp . gr . about

o f At the request the late Prof. Anderson,a partial

o f o il investigation rosin was made by the author . A “ ” fraction from the spirit, b o ili ng pretty constantly at ° S . 8 1 54 had the p gr . 53 at and almost

f tu r i o n o l C . exactly the composition p ( 1 0H 1 6)2H 2 O The

i lo f W e u r n o s . t p igg rs and List is said to have the p gr . ° 8 52, and to b o il at Their product gi ves a crystal

o e C H 2HCl o tu r i n o l o n o t line hydrochl rid 1 0 1 6 ,but r sin p d es appear to do so,and is certainly n o tidentical with o rdi

i n l W tu r i n o l nary tu rp o . hen rosin p is treated with strong oil of v itro l,it yields a liquid havin g the odour o f

9 6 MAN UAL E TTE o r O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

N a m e .

Keta tes .

Fo rm a te A c e ta te Pr o pio n a te B u tyr a te I s o bu tyr a te Va ler a te M eth ylpr o pyla c e ta te Oen a n thyla te

N o n yla te . U n d e cyla te

A lco ho ls .

R f enard considers that ab o ut 80 per cent . o rosin oil

o f di ter eb en t l 1 0 e r o f di ter eb e n t l consists y , p cent . y en e ,

1 did e 0 . c en e and per cent of . The h exa hy dri de s are is o meric with the o le ﬁ n e series, and b o il at about th e sam e t e mperature as the o leﬁn e s . When t re at e d with hydric nitrate o r sulphate,they do n o t form nitro - comp o unds or sulphonates ; str o ng nitrate,in

o o tereb e n th e n e s fact,c nverts them into xalate . The are

lce vo r o ta to r e li to ° 03 y . The m thy c alc o h o l amounts per

o n . cent . the rosin it is found in the aqueous di stillate The l o ng whi te crystals whi ch separ ate fro m undried rosin oil, especially th e fracti o n 1 00° o n long

ri R standing,have received va ous formulae . ecent evi OS I R IN O L . 9 7

f C H H f o O . O dence is in avour the expression 7 1 4 Z Q . A cc o rding,h o wever,to later researches by R enard, the

2 to i o f o l C . o f rmu a is 7 H 1 2 H 2 O,corresp nding a derivat ve

r toluene tetrahyd ide . “ Rosin spirit has been used as a substitute for

- turp e ntine in painting,varnish making,and currying . “ ” “ B o th rosin Spirit and o il have the property o f combini ng with alkaline and oth e r hydrate s to fo rm p e culiar greasy b o dies ; which again can ho ld together, in the fo rm o f a buttery mass,an enormous excess o f

hi o to hydro carbide . T s phenomenon is mainly wing the “ ” unsaturated character o f the turpentines,o n e o f their

o r o oldest rec gnised chemical p perties . Synthetical ex ’ p e ri m e n ts carried o u tin the auth o r s laboratory Show that the foll o wing turpentin e mixtures

C H 2Ca H 0 m 1 6 2 2

C H N a HO lo 1 6 C H IO IG KHO furni sh what a r e pro bably real chemical compounds o f

o fe w these . The ﬁrst s lidiﬁes in a minutes ; the sec o nd hi in a few days ; the t rd after a longer peri o d . The “ ” mini mum ratio in the rosin grease o f com merce is

o 1 3 C H z Ca H O ab ut ( 1 0 1 6) z 2 ; so that the original calcic comp o und i s capable o f c o nverting at least eighteen “ o f u o times its weight liq id hydrocarbide int grease . The vario us rosin greases are a ll,when destructively di d o o o il stilled, ecomposed int r sin and hydrate . In the actual preparatio n o f rosin grease, a small portion is rapidly stirre d with about three - fo urths o f its

o f weight slaked lime made to a cream with water . The o il and hydrate quickly unite,extruding th e superﬂuous water,which i s at once run o ff; the solid comp o und is then diluted with more o il,and the s o lution stirred into a G 8 MAN AL E TTE OF S C S 9 U DE TRU TIVE DI TILLATION . fu rth e r ﬁnal quantity, until the to tal dilution already

l o t mention e d is attained . The who e Operati n takes abou

- a n - half ho ur . R osin grease is used as a lubricant fo r iron b earings, and especially fo r the axles o f pit waggo ns,which are m o to o e o o f uch exp sed m istur . On acc unt the rapidity with whi ch it a c e tiﬁ e s under the inﬂu e nce o f heat and

n o s A S friction,it is tadapt e d to brass b earing . ordinarily sold,it n early always c o ntains a ki ndred greas e , m ade

from the unsatur ated coal - tar hy dr o c a rbi de s which are left when crude benz o l is rectiﬁed ; ba ric sulphate,chi na

clay,and plumbag o a r e also frequ e ntly adde d . A siccative rosin o il is prepare d by passin g an air current thro ugh a mixture o f ro sin o il with litha r ge o r

- e . o r red l ad The preparati n dri e s in twenty fo u ho u r s . T h e puriﬁcation o f ro sin o il can be to a gre at e xtent

effect e d by t r eatment with lime - wat e r to re m o ve acetate,

- r r f and r e distillation with o without a cu r ent o steam . Open steaming removes almost every trace o f o do ro us matter, and the ﬂuo rescence o f the heavier o il is some

o n r - e o e tim e s c ncealed by addi g nit o b nz l . It has b en prop o sed to light e n the c o l o ur and r e m o ve the o do ur by

w 1 . o f e o f dr stirring ith per cent water,8 p r cent . hy o

chloric acid (to b e dilute d with 1 7} tim e s its weight o f

1 r f e . o a e water), p cent red lead,and further 5 per c nt .

o f r o A e o e o il the dilute hyd ochl ric acid . ft r s m days the is rem o ved,washed fre e fro m acid,and exp o sed to s u n

Gr e e o o f t i light . at care is r quisite with pr cesses h s kind,inasmuch as o ils,if chlori nate d,are unsuitable fo r

Go o e e b e lubricants . d r sults w o uld be obtain d y st aming at ordin ary pre ssures,foll o we d by dis tillati o n over a n

3 e r n alkali p cent . o f caustic s o da),an alkaline reduci g

o r agent, zinc dust . R osin o il,more o r less reﬁned,is used as a lubricant

1 00 MAN U AL E TTE o r DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION . W C H 0 ° the formula e o 3 0 2 hen distilled it melts at ° 350 swells up, gives o ff carb o nic dio xide and inﬂammable gas, succinat e , acetate, an 0i body, and

e u h o o n w chrys ne . The s lp ur,which may am unt the h o le

° 48 o n - e - o to per cent . , is from e half to thr e f urths in

° o o o A s h 08 . rg anic c mbinati n . , per cent

u h — u n C H b Ca o tc o u c . W o hen caoutch c ( lO w) is su mitted ° to a temp e rature o f ab o ut 31 6 in a clos e vess e l,it yields a very light vo latile distillate,and a re sidual mass w hich

u o i n f rnishes a good varnish when diss lved oil . The dis tilla te o o f o C H o e c nsists is prene or pentine ( 5 8 ),t g ther with

o C o f te ca utchin ( lo ) and other polymers the rpene

r o : o o f g up rectiﬁcati n is performed with the aid steam . lt so o n turns brown in c o ntact with air, especially if

e to o water be pr sent . It is said have the peculiar pr perty o f diss o lving c o pal without the aid o f heat,and readily takes up many re sins and oils .

PETROLEUM .

P etroleum is a natural mixtu re chieﬂy o f fatty

o hydrides,and proc e eds from an unkn wn source . Petro le um springs generally occur near the base o f mountain

n chai s . T h e main p o ints to b e considered in respect to the ge o l o gical c o n ditions under whi ch petroleum and gas occur in quantity seem to be as fo llows :

' 1 . They occu r in rocks o f all geo logical ages, from

S a r o e a iluri n upwa ds . The m st pro ductiv areas are pal eozoic A in North merica,miocen e in the Caucasus .

2 . There is no necessary relation to volcanic action . RO M PET LEU . 1 01 l

f r i l 3 . The most productive areas o o in great quantity i il are w h e re the strata a r e c o mparatively und sturbed . O but in less abu ndanc e ,fre quently o ccurs whe n the strata are highly disturbed and conto rted,but gas is rarely s o : fOu n d .

' 4 h r r ﬁ e ld . T e main requisites fo a productive oil o gas are a p o ro us reservo ir (sandsto ne o r limest o n e ) and a n impervious cover .

o 5. B th in comparatively undisturbed and in highly disturbed areas,an anticlinal structure o ften favo urs th e

il o f accumulatio n of o and gas in the domes the arches .

ri m o f o il 6. B ne is an almost universal acco paniment and gas .

“ Acc o rdin g to Mc Ge e : Every richly- productive g a s ﬁeld,at least in the Eastern States a n d Can ada , is a d o me o r inverted tr o ugh fo rmed by ﬂ e xu r e o f the r o cky strata ; and in e v e ry such do me o r inve rted trough ther e is a p o rous stratum (sandston e in P ennsylvania, and coarse - grain e d magnesian sandsto ne in Ohio and Indian a) o i r h verla n by impervio us Shales . These domes o arc e s vary in dimensi ons,fr o m a few square miles in some o f the P e nnsylvanian ar e as, to squar e m iles in th e

e W e - c gr at Indiana fi e ld . ithin ach gas harged dome ther e a r e fo und thr e e o r m o re substances arranged in the ord e r o f their we ight ; gas at th e to p,naphtha (if it exists i n the fi eld) and p etr o l e um bel o w,and fi n ally water,which is gen e rally sal t, and sometim es a stro ng and peculia r bitter . This order is invariable thro u gh o ut each fi e ld, whatever its ar ea,although in Indian a,at least,the o ils are fo und m ost abundantly about th e springing o f e a ch arc h,while to wards its cro wn gas immediate ly o v er li e s brine ; and the absolute altitude o f the summit - leve l o f each substance is generally uniform whatever th e d e pth 1 02 MAN U AL E TTE o r S C S O DE TRU TIVE DI TILLATI N .

b u th e o f eneath the s rface . Since v lume o gas o r o il accumulated in any field evidently dep ends o n the ar e a i and h e ght o f the do me in w hich it is c o nfin e d,and u p o n th e p o ro sity and thickn e ss o fr o ck in which it is c o ntained, the p r o ductiveness o f a given find may b e definitely pre dict e d after the structure and texture o f the rocks have

e b e n ascertained . “ In all p roductive bitumen ﬁelds the gas and o il a r e

e 1° W e conﬁned under gr ater 0 less pre ssur e . h n a gas w ell is cl o sed,it is comm o nly fo und that the pre ssur e at the w ell - h e ad gradually increa ses,thr o ugh a peri o d varying fr o m a few seconds in the largest w e lls to s e ve ral minut e s, o r even h o urs,i n wells o ffe eble ﬂ o w and that afterwards the r - e o o i i c n p e ssure guag bec mes stati nary . Th s s the o

’ ‘ ’ ‘ ’ fi n e d p r e ssure , cl o sed pressure, o r r o o k pressu re o f

‘ ’ o r o r r s the pr spect o r ; o , m e p o perly, the static pre sure . When a well is Op e n,a n d th e gas e scap e s fre ely into th e a i r ,it is fo und th a t if the stem o f a m e r curial o r ste am gauge is intr o duc e d,a certain consta nt pressur e is indi

‘ ’ c a te d r r e o r ﬂ o w o f . This is the Open p essu pressure the g a s expert, a n d th e capacity o f th e w ell may b e

e m a e f n d te r in e d fro m it . The static pressure v ri s in di fere t

n o 3 to 3 0 o d e r fi e lds . In Indiana it ra ges fr m 00 5 p un s p s quar e in ch,in the Findlay fi e ld it is from 450 to 500 p o un ds,a n d in the P e nnsylvania field it va ries fro m 500 to 9 un 00 po ds . “ The cause o f this en o rmous p r essure is rea d i ly s e en i n I i i w th e a s o f th e nd ana . The Cincinnat arch (in hich g gre at Indiana fi e ld is a ccumu lated) is substantia lly a d o m e, a bo u t fifty mil e s acr o ss,rising in the centr e o f a strati

r m e g raphic b a sin ful ly 500 miles in av e a ge dia te r . Thr o ugh o ut this imm e nse basin the wate rs falling o n the s u rfa ce a r e in p a rt abso r bed into th e ro cks,and co nveyed t o wards its centre,wher e a strong artesian ﬂ o w o f water

1 04 MAN U AL E TTE OF S C DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATION .

r h exp o sed at the su face . In suc cases the yield o f wells is comparatively small,ther e being little or no artesian

r pressure to fo ce up the Oil . Such regions rarely now

contain much gas . Although there is much variety o f geol o gical struct ure

p e tro leum - bearing regions,there is fre quently an anti clinala rra n g em ent o f the strata,the o ilcomi ng up along the arch . There is no unifo rmity in the geological ages of the strata which yield petroleum . Even in North Ame rica the age rang es from lower S ilurian to tertiary ; both g a s

l R o o f and o i also occur in the drifts . cks secondary age, h o wever,with the exception o f the cretac e ous, are n o t o il- b e aring in N orth America . In Europe, only small

a o r e quantities o ccur in pal e zoic ocks . In Hanov r it ranges

n from trias to cretaceous . In Easter E u rope it is m ain ly tertiary,and wholly so in the Caucasus .

In other parts o f the wo rld the petro leum - bearing beds are,so far as is kn o wn, rarely of o lder date than

V l o upp e r s e c o ndary . o canic rocks ccasi o nally contain petro leum,but there is go o d r e ason to belie v e that these c ases are generally the result o fimpre gnatio ns into porous rese r voirs o fv o lcani c ro cks from neighbouring sedimentary strata . T h e o iland gas ﬁelds o f P enn sylvania and New York

o hav e a very Simple ge l o gical structure . The ro c ks lie comparative ly undistur bed,be ing o nly ge ntly fo lded into a series o f anticlinals and synclinals p a rall e l with, and al o ng th e n o r th - west Sid e of the main axes o f the

l h a n i e s e m A le g . Thes fo lds have th e s e lve s a g e ntle

o r th e o - Alle h a n i inclinati n towa ds s uth we st . In the g e s , and to the s o uth - e a st o f the range,where th e ro cks are

r e r o il n o r g eatly disturbed,neith gas is found . S o me o f the larger gas wells are o n o r near the summits o f anti O M PETR LEU . 1 05 clin a ls a , but m ny are not so placed . In the Trenton limestone ﬁelds o f Ohio and Indiana, the produc tive ar eas a r e mainly o ver anticlinals, gas occurring at th e

o f i crown the arch,o lo n the sl o pes . T h e essential c o nditio ns fo r a largely productive ﬁeld o f gas or o ilare— a po ro us res e rvoir (ge nerally sandsto ne o r limestone) in which the hydro c a rb ons can be store d, and an impervious cover o f Shale retaining them in

r o h a s the reservoir. But over la ge areas the limest ne been do lomitized, and S O transfo rmed into a caverno us and porous ro ck in which gas and o il are stored . The enormous quan tities o f gas and oil gi ven o u tfrom beds of limeston e and sandstone can b e fully accounted for when their poro us n ature,thickness,and extent are taken into

o o f o considerati n . Some these r cks can contain from

- - il one tenth to one eighth o f their bulk o f o . The high pressure under which gas and o il ﬂ o w fro m deep borings is in most cases o f an artesian character . In Kansas, gas occur s mainly in the l o wer coal

o ili s o measures . In Kentucky and Tennesse e, f und in the Ohio shales (Upper D evo nian),in Co l o rado in shales o f

o o t cretace us age . In California it is f und in ertiary

o b strata,m stly much distur ed . In Mexico, the We st Indi e s , and par ts o f S o uth America,t e rtiar y strata seem to b e the chief s o urce o f o il T h e a e o f the o e - n o e . g petr l um bearing u f ssilif rous

& o f A r e R f sands, c . , the gentin epublic (provinc e o Juj n y) is n o t certain ly known ; the y have b e en re ferred by diffe rent writers to va ri o us ages from S ilurian to tertiary ;

o b - o A they are pr ably sub cretace o us. In Eur p e and sia the petro leum - be aring beds are o f sec o ndary o r t e r tiary age,the palaeoz o ic rocks yielding o nly an insignifi c ant supply . E r S C 1 06 MAN U AL E TT o DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATION .

In N o rth - West Germany we ﬁnd petrol eum in the Keuper beds, and mor e o r l e ss in o th e r strata up to and

A S o incl u ding th e Gault . we pass to the s o uth and s uth east from this district we ﬁnd,as a gener al rule,that oil

r r o o i occu s in newer st ata . The vari us pr ductive hor zons of differ ent districts are as follows

- W l North est Germany Keuper to Gau t . Rhone Valley 1 , Jura ssic . Savo y J Pyrenees Neocomian a n d Cretaceous . Spain

Elsass Oligocene .

Bavaria . Lower Tertiary (Flysch) .

Italy Eocene . Galicia Ne o comian to Miocene . N o rth - East Hun gary Po land

R o n uma ia Miocen e . Caucasus

The important districts o f Baku occur on plai n s over

n o a ticlinals of mi cen e beds .

The p e troleum - bearing sands are i n te rs tra ti ﬁ e d with impervi o us clays, separa ting the strata into distinct pro

du c ti ve o horiz ns .

A er o il e e In lg ia occurs in lower t rtiary b ds . The

e o o o Egyptian p tr leum c mes fr m miocene strata . P e tro l e um seems to be unkn o w n in p e n in sular India : but it o ccurs in many places along the ﬂanks o f the Himalayan rang e ,and also in L ow e r Burma,g e n erally in

e r J th e lower t tiary strata . In Upper Burma and apan,

- o ilbearing rocks a re probably newe r tertiary . In all th e s e ar eas the b e ds are greatly disturb e d,and the sam e is the case with the great Carp a thian ﬁeld ; but it fre

1 08 MAN U AL E TTE OF ES R C D T U TIVE DISTILL ATION . has been noticed, altho ugh rarely,in rock - sal t mines at N o rth w i c h (where p e troleum also o ccurs),and Winsfo rd,

o In o - s t G n but nly in small quantiti e s . N rth VVe erma y, and als o in R o umania,ro ck salt and petro leum occur in

o e o n o cl s ly ass ciated strata,but ttogether . Ga s was fo und in the early borings fo r salt at Middles bro ugh ; and at the Seaton Carew boring some Oil w a s b o tained . In both cases the source probably was the

o f n upper beds magnesia limestone .

UNITED STATES .

The earliest notice dat e s from 1 627 ,where some o il Springs near Lake E rie we re vi sited by D a illo n ,a Fre nch

o r 1 8 9 o missi na y . In 7 it is rec rded that the Indians sold

il o the o to the white people at f ur guineas a quart . There is go od r eason to b e lieve the petro leum o f Pennsylvania was kn o wn to races who p r ec e ded the Indians, as here and th e re shallo w wells o r hol e s ab o und, e vidently made fo r p e tr oleum,the history and

h I o f uses o f whi ch we re unkn o wn to t e ndians . S me o these ancient pits still remain in the wilder parts o f

W r b u t e w e e . ar en Co . , els here th y have disappear d The early petro leum wells w e re very shall o w,o n ly a few fe e t de e p, i n which w ater and p e tro leum collecte d,and th e latte r,ﬂ o ating on th e to p,was taken u p by blanke ts . P e tro leum and gas in d e e p wells and borings s e em to have b e e n disco ve re d accidentally in 1 8 1 4,in Ohi o ,wh e n

i fo r b III 1 829 r r e bor ng salt and rine . ,a rather ema kabl

event occurred n ea r Bu rkesville , Cumberland Co . , in

k o fo r - w e o il K e ntuc y . In b ring salt at r, was struck,which discharged many barrels at int e rvals o f fro m tw o to ﬁve

A fo r minutes . fter spouting in this way three or four RO M PET LEU . 1 09 weeks, the ﬂ o w b e came constant at several thousan d

T h e il o e gall o ns per da y . o ﬂ w d into the Cumberland riv e r and wh en set o n ﬁre it burned o n the su rface o fthe w fo r o t o ater m re han forty miles bel w the well . Altho ugh the imp o rtanc e of b o rin g fo r o ilSh o uld have been apparen t. fro m th e success o f the accidental trial in Kentucky,and fro m oth e rs in Alleghany,no systematic a e fo r o il 1 tt mpt to drill was made till 859 ,when Mr . Drake,th e superintenden t o f the S en eca Oil Co mpany, “ o o D W hi put d wn the fam us rake ell at Titusville . T s — was bored on ly 69 5 feet to an o ilbearing bed ; the

i 1 0 o f o l rose to within feet the surface . The well pro du c e d,at ﬁrst,25 barrels a day by pumping ; but after

o 1 l wards the yield fell t 5 barre s . Numerous wells w ere drilled in the fo llo wing y ear and in the “ ” o n Oi e At first flowin g well was Obtained lCre k . once many other wells were bored,s o me flowing at the rate

f a o from to barrels per d y . Wells were quickly bored in other areas,and the o il indus try rapidly

fo r o f il devel o ped . The ﬁrst pipe the transport o was 1 laid in 8 65. In accounts o f the earlier e xplorations fo r petroleum , we read little o f natural gas ; the gas had probably e scaped into th e air,and it was only met with in qu antity

r and und e r pressu re where deep b orings were car ied o u t. A s far back,however,as 1 821 ,n atural gas was used in a small way fo r lighting houses at Fredon ia,Ch a tu a q u a

o . 1 845 . C . ,New York In it was observed near Utah No further development o f this industry seems to have taken place till 1 87 0,when gas en gines were run by natural g a s 1 at Pine Gro ve,in V enango Co . In 8 7 2 gas was dis covered at Newto n ,and was laid o n in pipes to c o nsumers fo r e l Ga s - fu l and ight . was used in iron making at 1 8 7 4 Leechburg in . 1 1 0 MAN U AL E TTE o r DE STRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

w/c hi o a n ﬁ z i a n — P en n sy lva n i a , ZVew Yo , O , d d a . The

1 1 fﬁ l th e quo tati o n gi v e n o n p . 0 su cient y illustrates

e o n g e n e ral character o f this important r g i n . Its amazi g p ro ductivity is well kn o wn,a n d statistics o f th e vari o us

d T o e s o e distri cts are rea ily available . mphasi e s m p o ints o f chief ge o l o gical interest is all that can here b e

e att mpted .

T h e ge o l o gical p o sition o f the g a s and o ilbearing rocks range from lower silurian (Trento n lime sto ne) to

o o th e s o r e o f r e n o lo we r carb nife r us . Until great t s the T t n limestone were discov e r e d,th e D evo nian and l o wer car

r u h e n b o n ife o s strata were t most imp o rta t so urces .

T h e o il- o f V o o P i a r e sands enang C . , ennsylvan a, often in l e nticular beds,th e longe r axe s o f the b e ds ranging

o - - w t h from n rth east to south e st . In hickness t ey range

m o fro a thin band up t 1 00 fe et . Their width may be

o n e o r tw o e e 2 o nly mil s,their length sometim s 0 miles . S o me o f the strata di e o u t befo re re aching the o utcro p,

o e a r e o w o r and c nsequ ntly kn n nly by b o m g s . When tw o o r mor e su ch b eds o ccur in ve rtical succes

o o o o il si n,the l west usually c o ntains m st o r gas . The lenticular n ature of th e s and may explain h o w in some cases nei ghb o u ring wells affect each oth e r, whi lst els e

r e m a n o tdo s o whe they y .

T h e o W e early borings were mainly al ng valleys . h n expl o rati o ns were carried o n over high ground,the beds “ s o e r l di c v ed were ca led m o untain sands . Thes e lie some hundre ds o f feet ab o ve the true Venango sands ; th e y

o o o o e ccasi nally c ntain s me oil and gas . Ben ath the

V enango g r o up, o th e r gas o r oil - b e aring sands were subs e qu e ntly dis c overed,th e m o st imp o rtant o f which a r e

W r e o f W r e n o r r d the ar n sands ar C . ,and the B adfo d san s

n o f Mc Ke a Co . The B e re a grit is the most imp o rtant

r o f o il o sou ce in Eastern Ohi .

1 1 2 MAN U AL E TTE o r S C S DE TRU TIVE DI TILLATION . these anticlinal areas are closed at one o r both ends,by th e m co pactness and impermeability of the rock .

m . 12 m“) o 8 fi d e s m u c a m g c w o o a a —n m 4 S g f o 2 8 E o 5 a fi 8 i d o g a 1 s z s : m m g o 5 o s a e m £ m. w g a c m e e 5 m f 0 5 m w S . v fi m fi fi 5 s n B 5 5 g / 0 D A z z 5 mfl D

’ . . . . i r - J u c m. v co a

The anticlinal structure seems to be o f more import ance with gas than with o il,the gas collecting in th e M PETROLEU . 1 1 3

o t y crest o fthe arch . But c mplete an iclinals are not alwa s fo rm ed ; often there is merely a lessening of the dip,the

n th e e o gas c o lle c ting o terrac . In Eastern Ohi many of

- hi - i the gas and o ilﬁ elds have t s terrace l ke structure .

W o e h The village o fMurraysville (Co . estm r land),nort east o fPittsburg,is th e centre o f the principal gas area,

- - i c o n which is abo ut half a mile wide by 6 m les long . It ta i n e d (1 884) ni ne wells,one o f which is feet deep . Tare ntum, Washington and Ca n o n sbu r gh are o ther centres . The (computed) value o f natural gas used in the United States was dollars in 1 8 8 8,and 1 1 dollars in 88 . The de pth of the petro leum wells i n the United States increased fro m 436 feet in 1 8 61 ,to feet o r m o r e in 1 8 7 8 . There has been a further increase in depth since

the latter year,especially in certain l o calities . Thus the comparatively recently drill e d Gordon well in Washingto n

o f i C . has a depth of feet . The cost o th s well is

t 500 o s ated to have been 7 , d llars . The surface dia meter generally averages about 1 0 b inches,and the ottom diameter 5g inches . The di stributio n o f petroleum from th e o il districts,

“ and the mode o f conveyance,are certain ly among the

ri e o f h e - most st king featur s t industry . Pumping station s convey th e o il fro m s o mething like isolated o i l wells o fNorther n Pennsylvania,and carry it to Phila del

&c phia,New York,Baltimore, . It is pumped fr o m valleys over the hills,the highest e levatio n being i n any

- o n e place ab ove feet . The pumping stations are distant fro m 20 to 25 miles,and the o ilis pumped in from the 20- mile station in advance into enormous reservo irs of

1 00 feet in diameter,and 40 fe et to 50 feet in height ; it

H r 1 1 4 MAN UA L E TTE o DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

is again pumped o u t fo r another 25 miles, and so o n to Balti mo re and Philadelphia .

Petroleum is apparently produced by the lo ng - con ti n u e d application o f a gentle heat to s o me derived form

o f cellul o se ; fo r if th e temperatur e were a high o n e gas must be evolved fro m the s o il in more places,and in far

e gr ater volume than is ev e r found to be the case . “ ” A n e o D l m e t r l o xcepti nal well (the e a e ) in But e r C . is said to evolve cubic feet p e r hour (ab out 300

o r 1 l e . t ns per day),at a pressu e of 00 b s . per squar inch This gas has an illuminating p o wer o f 7 ; ca n dles,and

o 2 c ntains a bout 8 per cent . marsh gas,1 0 ethylene,and 7 hydrogen . Ford has g iven the fo llowing analyses o f gases from ” the gas well s o f Pennsylvania

Ca rbo n ic dio xid e o xide

1 00 ‘ 00

A go od well yields about cubic feet in 24 f o l . hours,at a pressure under 200 bs per square inch . ’ Carnegi e s results (Pittsburg,1 884) are as follows

C a r bo n ic di o xid e o xide Oxygen E thylen e E thylic hydr ide M a r s h ga s Hydro gen N itro gen

1 00 ° OO 1 00 0 0 1 0000 1 00 00

1 1 6 MAN UAL ETTE o r R DEST UCTIVE DISTILLATION.

r e s . 7 9 The distilla tes f om av rage petroleum of p gr . have been stated as follo ws

Gaso li n e “C Naphtha B Naphtha A Naphtha

After the illum inating o il been removed,the stills are sometimes ﬁred more slowly,thus causing their c o n te nts to undergo partial destructive distillation . The heavy o ilis thus cracked into m arsh gas and hydrogen, l naphthas,il uminant,and a thick re siduum (lubricant) . 9 1 o f . 7 Ohio petroleum s p . gr has furnished

1 7 u m . 6 per cent . Naphtha, 0 B a é

6 o il 8 Burning .

6 fﬁ o il Para n . 1 0 R esiduum .

Ma b er ° 9 2 y y and Smith found a sample of it (s p . gr . 5)

1 4 9 o f to contain 7 per cent . sulphur . In th e census year 1 87 9 —80,the total amount of crude petroleum treated was gallons,at the follow ing cost (Peckham) T M 1 PE ROLEU . 1 7

Fue l Acid Alkali Bone—black Packages

c Bungs,paint hoops,glue,& .

The value o f the crude oil is estimated at dollars . The 1 2 reﬁneries at Pittsburg empl o y (1 88 6) 9 80 hands,whose wage s amount to say dollars . The capacity of these reﬁneries is barrels cr ude a week .

o f The yield of reﬁned o ilis about 7 5 per cent . the crude, which,if the reﬁneries were all running to th eir capacity,

o i is equal to ab ut barrels reﬁned o la year . P etroleum and its waste products are themselves de s tru c tiv el e e y distill d in the Unit d States for gas .

P o v r T h e e e s etr leums vary e y much . b st and saf guide to their co mp o sition and usefulness is a kn o w le dg ' o f their speciﬁc gravity and the percenta g e o f bromin

o they absorb in dry s lutions . The fo llowi ng table shows the amount of petroleur raised in the United States,and exported

B a rre ls .

Yea rs .

u to n E o r t. P ro d c i . xp E TTE r C S O 1 1 8 MAN UAL o DESTRU TIVE DI TILLATI N .

B a rr els .

Yea rs .

ro u t n P d c io .

T h e subjoined table shows the ﬂuctuation s in th e price p e r barrel o fpetrol e um in America

‘ P er a rr e B l . o a r s D ll . 1 9 "7 7 9 ‘ 7 7

H ' 00

O “ O 1 1 Q 8 5 U O 65 O O 7 6 N ° 4O

O ° O 57 M

O ‘ C 8 6 Q ‘ 42 D C 6 8 H8 4 H‘ 1 7

1 20 MAN UAL E TTE OF S O DESTRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N .

25 luminant averaging only about per cent . It is said that o ilo f a better quality,in som e cases yieldi ng 61 per

- . u cent ,exists f rther to the north east .

a — P u n o C lzfo m i a . etrole m is chieﬂy fou d in the s uthern

n o f counties . It occurs mainly in sa dstone tertiary age . ° The beds are ge nerally inclined fro m 30 and,c o n

i - e sequently,w th outcropping edges . High pressur wells are naturally rare,and the o il is obtained by pumping . ’ An exception occurred at Adam s canon ,V entura Co . , where a boring 7 20 feet deep met wi th o il,which ro se 7 5 feet into the air,and ﬂowed at the rate o f 800 barrels per

o day . The yield is c mparatively small,but the wells give a steady production fo r a longe r time than m o st gushing

o w n o w o n e wells . S me ells are feet deep ; is feet but most are l e ss than There is not much natural gas in California it occurs

e o e near Los Ang les,ﬂ wing at a low pressur . The cost Of wells is stated in the Ofﬁcial r e ports to be ab out three times what it is in Pennsylvania,partly o n accoun t of th e

L o A ste ep inclination of th e beds . (The s ngeles wells

e o r u yield about barr ls fheavy quality p e ann m .) The statistic s o f the productio n o f o ilin Califo rn ia for — the past eight years are reported as fo ll o ws 1 8 7 9 gallons ; 1 880, 1 88 1 , 1 8 82, 1 88 3, 1 884, 1 885, 1 88 6, 1 8 87 , Through o u t the s o uthern portion o f the State th ere has b e en a great deve lopment in the p r o duction,and several com

n i s a pa e h ve been formed to work it .

RUSSIAN PETROLEUM.

Petroleum is found in abundance o n the shores o f the Caspian Sea,more especially in the neighbourhood o f O M 1 21 PETR LEU .

Aps ch ero n a n d B a ku ; and there are also solid d ep o sits o f n a p ht/za gi l o r weft- gi t,which re sembles bitumen,and h a s

o il ra fi n - e been wo rked for light and pa . Neft gil yi lds f 4 f o f 0 . o about 1 5 per cent . crude para fin,and per cent illuminating o il but the yield sometimes am o unts to f 40 pe r cent o paraffi n . The naphtha regi o n of the Aps ch er o n peninsula has an area o f43 squ are m iles,and may b e divided into two parts — Balakh any,which has yielde d naphtha Since the earliest

— S a bo u n tc hi 1 8 7 2 3 . times . and ,which was explored in The dist rict (as Abi ch long a g o p o inted o u t) lies o ver the crown o f a low anticlinal,which is probably the easterly c o n ti n u a ti o n o f the great Caucasus anticlinal . Another, and an increasingly important, productive area is o n the sh o res o fthe Caspian at Bibi- Eibat,south o f

b o te n Baku,and a ut miles from Balakhany . T h e surface is occupied by lo o se sand,the rocks bel o w being o flate tertiary date ; beneath these probably lie the cretace o us and jurassic strata,which fo rm the m ain m a ss of the Caucasus,but it is doubtful if any borings have touched these rocks . The most important area o f the Caucasus,after Baku,

f th e in some respects, is that o Kouban . This lies at

- o f T h e e north western end the range . w lls here are usually o f small e r d e pth,and are l e ss pro ductive than at — — Bak u ,although o n e we ll as far back as 1 8 7 9 is sai d to have been b o red to a depth o f feet ; and,in 1 8 66, several th o usand barrels o f Oil per day were given by o n e

fo r e well a consid rable time . Here, as at Ba ku, the

o il o m heaviest sometimes c mes fro the high e st beds .

a e a The third productive rea is near K rtch,in the Crime . The wells here are n o tdeep,and,com pared with the two

hi o l other districts, are not ghly pr ductive . One wel , however,has been carried to a depth o f 9 40 feet,and 1 22 MAN UAL E TTE OF S DESTRUCTIVE DI TILLATION . produced abou t 30 barrels per day fo r a time,its total

i b o production be ng a ut barrels . Around the Caucasus the re are several other petroleum ﬁ e lds,which will ris e i n value when the highly productive f district o Baku declines . Attempts have recently been m o o ade to w rk th se near Batoum . T h e c o nstruction o f the new line o f railway from Vla dika v ka s to Petrovsk,which is n o w being c o mmenc e d, will open up a new and hitherto almost unkn o wn petroleum ﬁeld,situa ted in T e rsko i o bla s ti ,near the town o f Gr z nii o . There are com paratively few petroleum areas in the interior o f Russia ; but o ilhas been noticed in the govern ments o f Sam ara, Simbirsk,Kazan,and elsewhere ; it is

o e n als recorded from P tch o ra ,in Archa gel . Since 1 8 7 6 above 300 w e lls have b een added,and the yearly production o f crude o ilhas increased from to poods,o r from to gallons ; a n d this remarkable incr e ase has b e en effe cted on the same o ld territories that were known c e nturies ago

- i i viz . ,Bibi E bat,Balakhany,and Sa b o u n tc h ,and Surak hane,at a distance respectively o f from thre e to nine miles from Baku,and o f a t o tal area n o texceeding

r ac es . The avera ge cost of a well,including labour,derrick, l borin g to o s, pipes fo r casing, boiler, engine, &c . ,is l recko ned to am o unt to ro ubl e s,o r ab o ut 2,000 . There are 1 36 reﬁneries,o f w hich th e twelve largest are furnish e d with 21 6 stills, of a capacity o f gallo ns, and pro ducing yearly gallo ns of ker osene ; a n d th e 1 24 small r e ﬁneries,having 325 stills, o f a capacity o f gallo ns,pro duce yearly ab o ut

o f e o to lo w gallons k r sene . Owing prices,forty

o f the above - mentio ned small reﬁneries have entirely

1 24 MANU AL E TTE o r S U I E I TI TION DE TR CT V D S LLA . and it is estimated that even at such a low ﬁgur e the cost

o th e f of pr duction is, in average,sa ely covered . The cost o f pro ducing reﬁned o il i s more amenable to cal

o o f 1 o f culation . The producti n pood kerosene requires, in the average,3% poods o f crude oil,at 2 Oopecks pe r po o d,delivered at the reﬁnery,6; copecks ; sulphuric acid, — 1 5 Oopecks ; caustic soda, cop e ck ; labour,4 c o pecks ;

1 2 o f l total, ; Oopecks . The above quantity crude o i ,upon having been reﬁned,leaves 1 5 poods o f residue,which,as liqu id fuel,may be realising at 2 copecks per p o od,giving fully 3 copecks,which have to be deducted fro m 1 2;

Th e o f o 1 f e i Oopecks . cost pr ducing pood o k rosene s thus m ade o ut to amo unt only to 9 % copecks, o r of 5

203. t gallons to about and a very small fraction . The cos of heating is n o ttaken into account,as the given quantity o f 35 p o ods of crude o il still l e aves - pood partly used up for heating, partly destro yed by the very process o f

ni F o r r o m fo r o o f reﬁ ng . storing pet leu in tanks a peri d ' from three to twelve mo nths 1° e sp e c ti v ely,fr o m 1 to 3 t o r d . o 03 o Oopecks per pood, from about i £ . per 5 gall ns,

F o r is charge d . conveying crude oil fro m the wells to the reﬁneries by pipe o n a di stance o f ab o ut 8 miles,th e a d 5 d T h e rate is i . per gallons, and it was formerly a . freight o n the same quantity from Baku to Tsaritsin has b o 20 to 1 3 O s o r een reduced fr m opeck , from ab o ut 5d. to

o t e 34d . The railway rate fr m Baku o Batoum has be n

1 6 k er o o r 4 5 o . reduced to Oopec s p p od, d . per gall ns Through transp o rts to the different markets o f Rus sia a n d Europe at ﬁxed rates are avai lable,bu t to a very limite d

o f e to number trad rs . The costs Of transports from Baku

r di o o — e e the mo e stant markets are as f ll ws To St . P t rs 5 W l0d burg, per gallons, arsaw,ditto, . ; Odessa, V di 7 d . 1 4d di 1 o 3 3 . 4 tto, ; ienna,ditt , . . ; Berlin, tto, d . ;

d 7 d. i A Constantinople, itto, ; Marse lles, ditto,8 %d. ; n t O M 1 25 PETR LEU .

di 8 d. di w erp,ditto,8éd. Hamburg, tto, é ; London, tto, 8 d 5 . Upon the annexation o f Baku by Russia,in 1 801 ,the mono p o ly of the production o f petroleum was grante d to

rz f n o a r e ﬁner named Me e o e f. This arrangeme t c ntinued until 1 8 7 2,when an excise duty up o n all petro leum raised was imposed .

1 87 7 . i The duty was abolished in . Mr Marv n states that,from 1 821 to 1 825,M e erz o eff paid the Government roubl e s revenue,and afterwards,up to 1 8 39,from to roubles a year,o r,at the high rate o f the the silver r o uble then prevailing (ranging between six and seve n roubles to the pound sterling),o n an average

l . D about 1 0,000 . to sterling uring this period the p r oduction o f crude petroleum rose steadily to more than

A e w : gallons . ft r ards the output was as under

a rs To n s . Ye .

1 849 1 30 In there were about pit wells in Operation . Between 1 850 and 1 8 63 petroleum yielded a to tal revenue

o o n 1 o f r ubles . Fr m the to 8 67 the average revenue yearly was roubles,and afterwards,until the abolitio n of the monopoly,and substitution o fan excise 1 7 2 duty,in 8 , roubles . The production in the meantime was as follows AL E TTE OF 1 26 MAN U DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

In 1 8 7 2 the number o f pit. wells had increased to 41 5, and two wells had been drilled .

" After the abo litio n o f the mo n o poly,Me e rz o e fl fo r a time maintained his supremacy in the trade,bu t,in 1 8 7 3, the Kha lify Company struck a flowing we ll,and thus obtained the largest supply o f the crude mate rial,and a — year later th e T ra n s c a Spi a n Tradi ng Co mpany afterwards called the Baku Petro le um Co mpany— took the l e ad in the 1 R b i . 7 5 o business In 8 , Messrs . ert and Ludw g Nobel inaugurated a new era i n th e Russian petro leum industry, introducing improved applianc e s fo r producing,trans portin g,and refining the o il,and gradually building up the great organisation which,u nder the name of the No bel Company, now conducts so large a prop o rtion o f the

Russian petroleum business .

f a r S e s . 1 8 7 3 1 8 7 4 1 8 7 5

In 1 8 7 7 the number o f drilled wells had increased 1 to 30. From 1 87 7 the production o f the crude Oil has been as follows

Stea r s . 1 8 7 8 1 8 7 9 1 8 80 1 8 8 1 1 8 82 1 8 83 1 884

‘ . o f n 8 2 The s p . gr the crude oil ra ges from 89 mor e

N TT r S C O 1 28 MA UAL E E o DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

“ — . 8 0 9 residues ( astatki, sp gr . 8 03) are used as a fuel, the efﬁciency o f which is about 1 ; times that o f coal

f J o u r th e e o n . (p . For pr paration lubricants,see 1 1 / I 1 8 . 1 . S c z n d . 8 5 C . o . , ,p As re gar ds c o mparative vi scosity,the fo llowing table due to Redwo o d,will prove of interest

co s i ti es o R u s s i a n a n d A m r ca i ls Vi s f e i n O .

Tem er a tu r e p . a F hr .

R il eﬁned rape o .

A e s m rican mineral p . gr. M PETROLEU . 1 29

o u li sh a mba ro ff, The follo wing table was given by M . G in an article Sur les propriétés Physiques e t le Pouvoir Ca lo riﬁ q u e des Pétroles e tdes Huiles Minérales Co mp tes — R endus,lxix,442 453)

l Cr u de P etr o leum Oi .

R U SSIAN .

er cen t. er c en t er c en t. er c en t. p p . p p ’ 8 4 “9 8 6 3 8 6 6 8 7 ' 1 1 3 ° 7 1 ‘ 4 O ‘ 1

1 00 ‘ O 1 00 0 1 OO° G 1 00 ‘ O

S . r a t0 p g . C . H ea tin g po wer, B ritish therm a l u n its Theo r etica l e va po ra tio n a t t 8 a m . r es s u re i n lbs o f p , . wa te r er 1b o ffu e p . l

Allen (1 8 87 ) found astatki to contain carbon and d hy rogen per cent . The Baku petroleum is, according to Men deley eff, strongly characterised by the presence of o lefi n e s ; some acetylenes also are present . Its specific gravity for a given boiling - point is greater than that of American o r Scotch o il; a n d its viscosity— exceptionally large at first 1 is sooner degraded by heat . It contains at most 4 per

. o f a ra fﬁn s T c h eleke n o il cent solid p . [The , however,

6 Ma rk w n ik ff O lo bi n e yields about per cent .] o o and g 1 M A E TTE F O 30 ANU L O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

h h dro c a rbid e s C H ave found a series of y n 21 1 (isomeric with the ordinary o leﬁ n e s and h exhy dro b e n z e n e s ),boilin g at ° ° — S r 7 7 1 4 n = 7 1 5. 1 01 havin g the p . g . and

They term these substances naphthenes .

The still coke is steel - grey,hard and gli stenin g,and

l 1 — e difﬁc u lt . . 8 29 y combustible Sp gr. . It contains wat r,

e hydrogen, carb o n, ash, per c nt . The ash contains sand,calcic oxide, and 7 67 1

u ferric oxide per cent . this last constit ent being derived from the corrosion o fthe reto rts . Other Caucasian petroleum di ffers from that o f Baku

o h dr o c a r ide s by containing far fewer ar matic y b . That from the springs o f Z a rskij e Ko lo dz y,in Ti ﬂi s ,yields a — b i - C H C H portion of lower oil ng point,containing 4 1 0 7 1 6,

o with a little benzene and toluene . The fracti n °— ° 1 80 200 contains principally is o mers o f cymene,meta m ethylpr o pylb e n z en e , with a li ttle o f the hydrocarbide

° o H leﬁn 24 - 2 0 o C o e s . 0 5 I I I G’and In the fracti n occur

1 o o o f r o ln a hth a len e 2 C H ( ) a m diﬁcati n p py p ,( ) H 1 4 and H C 0 ‘ o i s and lastly 1 5 1 0 The investigati n of this petroleum is attended with much difﬁculty,by reason o f

l ﬁn a decompositio n in to o e e s , & c . , which occurs with increasing intensity as the te mperature rises during di stillation . Near Wo s din s chi n ski in N o rthern Caucasia,naphtha springs in several places from the soil,and there are large

o o f dep sits sulphur . The Caucasian Oil stratum reappears at Krasnovodsk, o n the eastern side o f the Caspian ; and th e same stratum has been tr aced for 300 miles across Turkestan to the foot

o f the Himalayas . The water in the Caucasian p e trol eum wells is remark ably rich i n sodic bro mide and iodide,the wells being — about 600 900 feet deep,and worked by hand .

1 32 MAN U AL E TTE OF U S O DESTR CTIVE DI TILLATI N .

Oil is found in the Medi na at a depth of 7 50 feet ; o n the to p,and fo r a con siderable distance through it,the r o ck is a reddish hue,changing to grey to wards the

th e o il bottom ; was found in the grey sand . In Nova Scotia o i l is known to occur,it bein g fre qu ently seen to rise thro ugh the waters o f Lake Ainslie, a n d swamps in the di strict are often fo und to be c o vered,

n l and many springs impreg ated with petroleum . Severa companies have been formed to test this distri ct, but “ ” o n e D o bey nd i dications, nothing has be n found . esult ry borin g has bee n done in New Brun swick also,o n similar At indications and with identical results . several p o ints

P o o f Ga P in the r vince Q uebec,notably in the spe eninsula . oil is kn o wn to exist,and much exploratory work has

th e o f been don e . In regi o n lyin g t the north o the t errit o ries o f Alberta and Saskatch e wan,and drained by the P eace and Athabasca rivers, lies an im mense Oil regi o n,the e xploratio n o f which,sli ght as it has been, has been sufﬁcien t to Show that it is o f great value in this resp e ct,and may b e expected at a future time to contri

o f n r bute largely t the output o Canadia pet oleum . As has been observed,however,the production is at

o th e o il present c o nﬁned to Lambton C . ,Ontario,where “ occur s in two distinct p o ols, known as the Oil Sprm g s and the P e trolia ﬁelds,the fo rmer comprising an area o f

about two square miles,and the latt e r o f about twenty - six

square mi le s (which furn ishes nine - tenths o f the entire

e yi ld) . In 1 88 1 , the ratio o f crude to reﬁned o il was a s — 1 w — 1 9 0 50; in 887 it a s as 1 00 38 . It is now about — 1 882 1 600 1 00 7 42. In there were almost wells,yielding

c o llectively barrels per day . The wells are about

47 0 feet deep . It is estimated that some we lls are now being M 1 33 PETROLEU . pump e d, o f which are in th e P etro lia ﬁ eld,and the

e n il A o 400 n e w e l r mainder o the O Springs ﬁeld . b ut w l s a r e annually drilled,to take the place o f about the sam e

b e o o il e s num r that are annually aband ned . The from th e is run o ff by pi p e lines into th e tanks o f the vari ous tanking c o mpanies,the total c apacity o f which is ab o u t barre ls,certiﬁcates being issued to the owne rs

e e th r fo r. Thirte en re ﬁneries are in Operation,nine o fwhi c h are located in Pe tr olia,two in L o ndon,o n e in Sarnia,and o n e

i o e o 260 o in Ham lt n . Th se employ ab ut men in and ab ut

the wo rks, and throughout th e o il- producing territo ry there are about m e n emplo yed directly o r indi rectly, i l in the pro du ction o f crude and reﬁne d o . Muspratt examined Canadi an petrole um with the fo l lowin g results

° 9 4 20 s . 7 Light coloured naphtha ( p . gr )

e 37 50 H avy y ello w naphtha (s p. gr . 8 ) Lubricating o ilrich in pa ra ﬂi n 22 Tar 5 Charcoal 1 L o s s 2

The pa ra ﬂi n amounts to about 3 per cent . Can adian o il is m o re di fﬁcult to purify tha n the

A i n o mer can kind . Eve a treatment with litharge and s da fre quently fails to remove i ts organic sulphur, It i s als o richer in aromatic compounds, and poorer in ga s e ou s

r n s p a a fﬁ .

In 1 887 ,Canada produced barr e ls (o f 35 imp . f 1 9 1 . o 8 gals each) crude petroleum . In , barrels, l 2 09 09 l va ued at 0 , . 1 4 MAN AL E TT F I S 3 U E O DESTRUCT VE DI TILLATION .

AL IOIAN O M G PETR LEU .

l Tb /z s — e e a rp a t i a n f The most important petroleum ﬁ lds skirt the Carpathi ans, especially along th e ir s o uth e rn,

a n d o e R m m l eastern, n rth rn ﬂanks . In ou ania,petroleu ies in clays and sandsto nes o f the P a lu di n beds (miocene) . Th e o il o ccurs in fo ur horizon s,the lowest being the

h il A e ric est in gas and o . rgillac e ous b ds, with thick dep o sits o f salt,o ccur und e r th e P a lu di n beds ; this salt is o f e o e th e o great thickn ss,over 650 feet . F rm rly petr leum was extracted by shafts o f m o re than 600 fe et in depth ; ab o ut 400 such sha fts have been sunk in the n eighb o u r h o o o f e e d Sarata . Wh n drilling was introduced,the b ds

to e o f e were pierced a d pth f et .

Campina, about forty - ﬁ v e miles west of Sarata, is

o o W an ther imp rtant petroleum district . ells have been

to o f drilled a depth feet .

P e e trol um and salt are worked in Bukowina . In Galicia p e trol e um occurs in th e lowe r eocene beds,

r but s o m e times,p e rhaps,in the upper c etaceous . The strata are fo r th e m o st part hi ghly inclin ed, genera lly dipping away to the n o rth fr om the Carpathian highlands, ’ P o f but the beds are o ften conto rted . aul s sections this district show tha t petroleum frequently o c curs in anti c li n a ls o f o the f lded strata . Petro l e um h a s l o ng been known to o ccur i n Galicia,but i t n o t o has been much sought for till r e cent years . B rings n o w g o do wn to over fe e t o il,s o metimes with much

e i o gas,b ing ch eﬂy fo und in b e ds o fsandst ne . The district ro und Sl o boda was fo rmerly the most im

r e e o po tant petroleum ﬁeld . T h e d v l pment has progressed to th e west along the line o f the petro leum belt,and in the district o f Ustr zyki a very imp o rtant are a has been o e d o n o t e p ned up . The wells yi ld large quantities of o il; but they last for a comparatively long time .

1 36 MAN UAL E TTE o r O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

o il These ﬁgures may refer to ordinary wells . The from drilled wells is generally more uniform, having,

° o s . 85. rdinarily,an average p gr . Gin tl obtained the foll o wi ng results with Galician rock - oil

t a E a st a lc a . Wes Ga lici . G i i

° S r ° 864 r 24 . . (Sp g . 8 ) ( p g )

The Sloboda - Run gur ska o i l furnishes about 1 0 per

. m ri 3 41 cent petroleu spi t, 65 per cent . kerosene,and per cent . intermediate and heavy oils . The Ustrzyki oil, which is rather heavier,yields about 6 per cent . spirit,

29 . 1 di per cent kerosene,and 5 per cent . interme ate and

. o n o f heavy oils The former c ntai s at most 6 per cent .

B o r s la u o — 1 a n d scale ; but the y oil c ntains 8 0 per cent . ,

o f Sta rm ia 20— 25 that per cent . A ccording to Lachowitz,the B o ry s la u (Galician) o ilis free fro m o le ﬁ n e s ,but contains b enzene hydr o c a rbi de s as

a ra fﬁ n s far as mesitylene, together with the usual p .

A nn a l n ( e . ,ccxx, Pa wle w s ki found the Kleczany crude o il to c o ntain

o f 2 per cent . aromatic hy dr o c a rbid e s ,mainly consisting o f

z ben ene and paraxylene . The depth o fthe wells in the Ustrzyki district is 220 250 metres the ﬁrst indication o f oil being met with at 30

e - m tres . In Sloboda Rungur ska the depth is greater,

to 400 ranging metres . p- v M 1 3 1 PETROLEU .

In 1 889 —9 0 the total Galician pro duction was

o barrels,having a value o f about 234,1 8 1 l. The fﬁcial

ﬁgur es (pro bably understated) Austria - Hungar y,are as follows

The declared value of petro leum reﬁned in the Austria Hungarian Empire was as stated belo w

At the P e c z en y z en reﬁnery (Kol o mea),the o ilis dis tilled in h o rizontal stills,containing each 200 barre ls,and

2 th e 1 charge s a month are wo rked o ff. Only benzene f and kerose ne are c o llected,the rest being used o r fuel.

Po tstills are used elsewhere . The loss amounts to about

1 0 per cent . R o um a n i a n petro leum may possibly be connected with

o il- ﬁ e lds r o o that o f Galicia . The st etch al ng the S uth Carpathians,in the provinces o f Prah o va,D i mb o vitz a ,

Is tra ti and Bazen . , who examined the oils from eight 42— 65 h districts,found them to yield per cent . p otogen,

— 2 — 25 s f 5 0 petroleum naphtha,and 1 1 olid para ﬁn . 1 38 MAN UAL E TTE OE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

R CE E MINO SOU R S OF PE TROL UM .

Petroleum o ccur s in India ,in U pper and Lowe r Burmah (including the Arakan Islan ds),i n Assam,in the P u njab, and in Baluchistan . The p e tro le um o f B u r ma h occurs in the upper tertiary str ata,probably o f the age o f the Sw a lc k formation in I ndia . The o il occur s in s o ft sandy beds,covered by a stiff blue clay,chieﬂy o n the to p o f an anticline,the beds on each side dipping n o rth - east and south - west,at angles up to 35° The petroleum ﬁelds are those o f Beme and Twin

w i u 3 goun g . In T n g o n g ,o f 236 productive wells,only 0

e 300 e e e 1 wer f t,the de pest being 3 0 feet . In Beme,of

7 2 o t 7 0 e pr ductive we lls, h e deepest was 2 f et . S o me o f the wells have been productive fo r 1 00 years, but with pumping no do ubt this dur ation wo u ld have been

e consid rably reduc e d . The maximum productio n is under ﬁve barrels per da y

e o n e most produc nly about o barrel . Along the Arakan c o ast,from Cheduba Island north d wards,there are mud vo lcanoes with hy rocarbon gas . P e troleum there o ccurs at Baran ga Island and R amree

Island . The rocks,o f tertiary age,are crushed together and W l greatly folded . ells have been dri led to a depth of over feet ; for a few weeks o n e well yielde d gallons daily,but the t o tal production from 1 1 wells for a year was only gallons .

P e o P troleum als occurs in egu . Just s o uth o f Akyab lie the Baranga Islands,and

n d u still further south the islands of Ramree a Ched ba .

1 4 MAN UAL E TTE o r S C O 0 DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

distant about 300 miles fro m Rango on,o r about 80 miles from th e terminus o f the railway at Allanmyo . The country fo rms a to lerably level and ﬂat plateau,rising to 260 feet above the low lev el o f the Irrawaddy at Y e n a n g

o y ung.

T h e superﬁcial area o f the T wi n g o u n g o il- ﬁ eld,which lie s between the villages o f T w i n g o u n g and E n a u s u ,is

b th e o f a o ut 9 0 acres . The total number of wells all

kinds,new and o ld,is 37 5,and of these 1 66 (443 per cent . )

o m 209 5 are utterly unpr ductive . The re aining (5 7 per

e a r e cent. ) may be called productive,but thes divided by “ ” D r N o e tli n o f e . g into productive wells, which ther are

1 2 o e - 0 (32 per cent . of the wh le),and scarc ly productive f wells, which number 89 per cent . o the whole) . One o f the wells is 31 0 feet deep (the greatest depth reached by a Burmese dug w e ll), and another 305 feet ; the majority of the ﬁnished pro ducing we lls do not,how ever,exceed 252 feet deep,the difﬁculties o f digging b e y ond this depth both o n account o f the presence o f “ ” pe tro leum vap o ur and because o f cavin g b e ing very

r u g eat . It follows,therefore,that these wells drain b ta

s e - o mall d pth of the oil bearing sandst ne .

The wh o le area o f the Beme o il- ﬁ e ld is ab o ut 35 acre s,

o f l 1 1 and the total number wel s does not exceed 5 . Of

m o 2 4 6 these not re than 7 ( 7 per cent . ) are productive . Fifty o f the productive wells yield m o re than 20 viss p e r day,a n d 22 less than 20 viss per day,the daily av erage

o to 60 to p o f e am unting 7 0 viss . The de th the B me wells is n o t as great as that o f th e Twi ng o u n g wells,and,

D r N o e tli n according to . g , their yield is smaller,not a single well pr o ducing more than 1 65 viss per day,while

o e th s giving more tha n 1 00 viss are scarce. — The wells are shafts 4 4% feet square . Over the

h o fthe - o ri is r c d mout well a cross beam n up ghts e e te . 41 PETROLEUM . 1

Co . Messrs . Finlay,Fleming and estimate the present to tal productio n Of the Yenangyoung ﬁelds at

o gall o ns per m nth . Much o f the crude p e troleum from the Yenangyoun g

1 — 1 h dr o c ﬁeld contains from 0 2 per cent . of solid y bi des ; bu tin conse qu e nce o f the unfavourable condition s

u e under whi ch the work is necessarily cond cted,M ssrs .

n o do Finlay,Fl e mi g and C . not practically obtain from

o 4 e o f the average raw material m re than ; per c nt . “ f — o f para ﬁn . The melting point (English test) the crude ° f s 1 2 o 3 . is 1 25 F . ,and the reﬁned is no le s than F

The company has a candle - making department,but finds it impossible to compete against the D utch stearin candles, which are sold at an extremely lo w price,and the paraffin is acco rdingly exported to London . The other products ” “ ° s 8 1 3 hi n i nclude naphtha of p . gr . and flas ng poi t ° 7 A a n d n 6 F . ( bel test) as well as intermediate lubricati g oils .

o ca i t L l y .

Yen a n gyo u n g (fro m T wi n z a s w s ell ) . Ye n a n gyo un g (fro m T wi n z a s w l s e l ) . e n a n o un (fro m n a , Y gy g ’ Fi l y l m in a n d o s o d N o . 1 Fle g C . o r e b ) . e n a n o un (fro m nla , Y gy g ’ Fi y em n d s m e r ca n F l i g a n Co . A i o r e N O 2 a t a e t o f b . , d p h 260 f t ee ) . Y en a n o un fro m F n a , gy g ( ’ i l y F l s m er c a n e mm g a n d Co . A i o r e N 4 a ta e t o f 2 2 b O . , d p h 7 to 3 f t 30 e e .

R o 2 edwood subjected a portion fthe sample from No . 1 42 MAN UAL E TTE OF V O DESTRUCTI E DISTILLATI N .

well to fractional distillation,and foun d that under atm o ° spheric pressure it begins to distil at 260 E ,but less than

di o f 30 per cent . stils within the range the mercurial ther

f ° m o m eter . S . . o b The p gr the ﬁrst tenth y volume is 7 7 9 . 9 5 The to tal distilla te amo unts to per cent. ,and the last °

- - half of this solidi ﬁes at 50 F . Twenty seven a n d a half 26 b per c e nt . by volume (equal to about per cent . y

- . 23 ﬂ a s hi n o weight) o f kerosene of s p . gr 8 and g p int ° o o f 7 3 F . is obtainable,and ab ut per cent . the more volatile hy dr o c a rbi de s has to be eliminated in order to get

- Th e o an oil of this ﬂ a s hi n g point . ker sene is easily reﬁned

o l o il o f and is o f go d qua ity . The heavy c ntains para ﬁn — amounting to from 1 0 1 2 per cent . of the crude o il,and the carbonaceous residu e,when the distillatio n is conducted i to dryness,amounts to per cent . ,the loss ( n c o n den s

b . a le ga s es,& c . ) being equal to per cent “ Illuminating Oil is obtainable from Rangoon tar by the transmi ssio n o f low - pressure ste am ; parafﬁ n o f high

- i o il b melting po nt and lubricating y higher heating . The distillate s are puriﬁed by the successive action o f caustic f t il ilo . o h a s s . soda and o vitriol The ligh a p . gr °— ° a n d boils at 27 200 it amo unts to ab o ut 25 per

f h e n o t . ce t . tar The natural tar is in use as a lubricant ; when partly pur iﬁed it is employed as an anti - rust,but its entire consumption is exceedi ngly small . The yield

— o r — amounts can amount to hogsheads annually . De la R u e and Mii ller distilled crude R angoon tar in a current o f steam (whi ch was Superheated when the boiling - point rose above and obtained th e following fractions

1 44 MAN U AL E TTE OF S DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

R e n d P r d uct ﬁ e o s .

il ° O s . 8 32 Burning ( p . gr )

o il ° 1 s . 9 Lubricating ( p gr . 0 ) Scale (melting at Bottoms

° — ° S e tting point,7 2

The only o ther locality in Upper Burmah where petro leum has been actually collected in notable quantity is

Pagan - Kyet, about 1 0 miles above Pagan,o r about 50 a bove Yenangyoung,on the opposite or west bank of the 1 4 River Irraw addy . Here there are wells which about a year ago were ofﬁ cially stated to yield about viss o f

F o i° oil per month . some time past Messrs . Finlay

Fleming and Co . have reﬁned the produce o f these wells together with the Yenangyoung o il at Rangoon,but the yield o f the Pagan wells has been steadi ly di mini shing ,

e and is now v ry small . The ﬁrm in question have,how ever,obtain ed a concession,and are about to commence

- ﬁ el o m drilling in the Pagan o il d . The oil fr this locality ° ° - s . o f 837 60 F . s has a p . gr ,a setting point of ,and a vi f 9 1 9 ° il 6 ° c o s ity o 5 at 0 F . (rape o at 0 F It is, therefore,of c o nsiderably less density than the Y e n a n g young oil,and it yields a larger percentage of kerosene,

o f f but a very much smaller percentage para ﬁn . In the F er gh a n a district of Tu r kes ta n there were (in 1 883) 200 valley wells,in two chief ranges, 27 and 65 miles long respectively, and situated in the limestones “ ” f o f . o and slates the local chalk formation . Sp . gr the oil, f P s i a n er n . o er petroleum yields 8 7 p ce t burning oil .

f r i a The pitch lake o T i n d d is well known . The O M 1 45 PETR LEU . bituminous matter comes from the Newer Parian

o m o W . i s f r ati n of G P . all, which probably upper miocene .

Petroleum i s recorded from Cu ba a n d from S t.

D o mi n go . In Co lumbi a , the existence of petroleum in some quantities has been reported at Tubara,twelve miles from

Barranquilla,near the mouth of the River Magdalena . — M exi co Petroleum occurs in tertiary b e ds o n the east coast,in the State o f Vera Cruz,between the Panuco and

T ta R S O ux n ivers . The wells far sunk are mostly near the coast . Around Lake Culco there are said to be forty

- oil springs . — A lger i a Petroleum springs were discovered about ten y ears back in Algeria,in the eastern part o f the pr o vince o f Oran,at Ain Z eft,nearly midway between Cassaigne

R Of and enault . Here the beds are lower tertiary age ;

n N .N . W . . . they dip at a high a gle from to S S . E The petroleum,with salt water,comes o u t of grey and blue

u marls with gypsum and sulph r .

V ery little has yet been done to explore these deposits . The importance of any considerable amo unt of p e tro leum

f o near the shores o the Weste rn Mediterranean is Obvi us . As regards local consumption ,there is the pro tection duty o n imported petroleum,which may allow workin gs to be

o made at a pr ﬁt . In P o la n d,petroleum occurs at Wo j e z a ,in th e govern ment o f Kielce ; it is found in sandstone,intercalated with shales,in miocene beds .

- H u u n a r r t . In so th west g y, C o a ia ,and S la vo ni a ,D r . J Noth describes the petroleum as occurrin g in folded strata ; sometimes along anticlinals, sometimes wh e re these anticlin als have been bent over to the north- east, so that a boring goes twice through the same bed . 1 4 M N A E T F O 6 A U L TE O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N.

n a B itiI- i Further south,p etro leum is known i B o s n i . min o us matte r also occurs in pliocene gravels o f S elen itz a

A lba i a w o r in n . No petroleum is yet kno n in Bulgaria

e th e c o n e o . S rvia ( f. p but in latter u try the ocene strata a r e ri ch in bitumino us schists,and contain thin b e ds o f o e o o f o r salt . The wh le g logy this c unt y is said by

. Gri f o fth e G e . Dr A . B . ﬁths to resemble that alician ar a

In North - Eastern Hu n gary,along the s o uth e rn ﬂanks of th e North e rn Carpathian s,petro l e um o ccurs in neocomian,

d o e o e o r n mi dle e cene,upp r Olig c ne,and in m e rece t strata . Exceptions to the general rul e as to the o ccurrence o f petro l e um in ordinar y cretac e o u s o r tertiary b e ds are sa id

t o r f T o by Noth o ccu in parts o this district . the south

' o f - o ty e o east Nagy banya . in the Szatmar c un r ,p tr leum

o n m - is f und in dolomitic limesto ne, underlyi g ica schist .

In the Nagy- banya basin, and als o in the Matra Range,

o r r f o f o e a e it ccu s,imp egnating trachytic tuf s mi cen g . — Ger m a ny Attenti o n has hither to princip a lly b e en di r ect e d to the L ii n b er g er H e ide district,known as th e O elheim B e lt,thr ee miles north o f P e ine,o n the Hanover

n and Bru swick Railwa y . At the easte rn part o f Oelheim the o ilis st o red in the gault . There se e ms, also ,to be s o me in the w e alde n b e ds,and in the upper jurassic strata . To the west there a r e triassic beds ; but thes e s e em to be m o stly barren o f o il, altho ugh Pi e db o e u f beli e ves that th e fossilife rous middle trias (Mu s ebel/ca llc) is th e tru e s o urc e o fthe petro

e o e e leum,which has b en stored in the v rlying b ds . At Ho r st, petroleum was ﬁrst fo und in th e gault ; recent borings passed into l o we r s tr ata— pro bably w e ald e n

— o e o il e e and then btain d in larg e r quantitie s . H r ,as is frequen tly the cas e ,th e lighte r o il came fr o m th e l o wer

P r m t bed . et oleu also o ccurs at Wietz e and S ei n fii r d e r, near the Ri v er Aller,some mile s n o rth o f Hanover ; h e re

O 1 48 MAN UAL E TTE OE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

Total (1 8 88)

Total (1 88 7 )

In the reﬁnery at P eine the amount of raw o ilworked up was as follows

T h e petroleum o f Hanover has been kno wn fo r a long

e b time . It escapes from the gault and oth r eds,to which it properly belongs,into the drift sands ,and then appears

fa at the sur ce .

- Hanoverian petroleum somewhat resembles coal tar .

It contains pa ra fﬁ n s ,o leﬁn e s ; pseudo - cumol,mesitylene, and othe r aromatic hy dr o c a rbi de s ,in n o t inconsiderable quantities ; resi ns, and sulphur co m pounds, and their

hydrides . The lubricating fraction is thin . Bavarian petroleum is found comparatively near the

° - o 1 C s . 8 1 surface . olour, greenish br wn ; p . gr . On dis ti ° 1 tilla o n ,it yields at 1 80 4 per cent . of light naphtha

° 7 o f l . r . (s p g at 39 per cent . a yellow i l uminant

° 7 1 e s . 6 . ( p . gr and thereafter, per c nt of a reddish

lo e s . . 25 o f y l w lubricant ( p gr and per cent . f lubricant rich in para ﬁn . Oelheim and Wi e tz er crude petroleum yield nothing below In Bavaria,petroleum occurs to the s o uth of Munich,

n th e o v o the shores of Tegernsee . B rings ha e been made

o f o f to the depth nearly 650 feet . The quantity o il is O M PETR LEU . 1 49 not large ; it occurs in the Flysch (here of lower tertiary age),a serie s o f hard shales,grits,and impure limestones, which form a zon e along the northern ﬂanks o f the

Bavarian highlands . The beds are sometimes nearly vertical,o r they dip at a high an gle to the south,in whi ch case they may be reversed . Beds o f asphalt and bitumi nous schi sts occur in the

. V Gii m bel district . Dr . states that these by distillation

o il yield an like that of the Tegernsee . He concludes that the petroleum has been thus produced . In Elsass,petroleum occurs at Schwab weiler,impreg nating b eds o f sand and sandstone,which are mainly o f lower Oligocene age,but perhaps partly middle Oligocen e .

o f 9 At Borings have been made to a depth 50 feet .

Hirzbach the o il occurs in dark- coloured clays,in the

o m iddle o l wer part of the Oligocene . All the petr leum D t r . strata yield brine . Andrae thinks tha the petroleum f here was ormed in the rocks in which it is now found . Pi e db oeu f and Strippelm a n n thi nk thatit has impregnated them from underlying strata . Petroleum also occurs at

o the foot f the Eastern Vosges,from Worms to Basle . The crude oils o f the three leading German di stricts have been compared (by Kraemer and B Ottc h er) wi th the o rdinary standard Oils . The results are as follows

t L o c a li y .

1 2 o f From and 4 (fraction above 50 4 per cent. good E TTE OF S U S O MAN UAL DE TR CTIVE DI TILLATI N .

‘ c p a ra ﬂi n was obtained ; 2 and 5 yielded per cent . The percentage o f sulphur was i n ° 1 4 ; 08 ; and

° l 67 0 i l t. . . 2 6. S D n o J ( ee also Engler, g . p y ,pp and — Ita ly Petrole u m Springs are wide ly di stributed al o ng the northern ﬂanks of the Apennines,from near Bobbio on th e west to near Imola o n the east ; oil impregnates the rocks,whi ch are mostly o f eocene age,so that wells are

l i e frequent y contam nated . Petroleum has long be n worked ’ i i Ga e o w at Monte G bb o . s ,p tr leum,and salt ater issue in small mud vo lcanoes ; the S a ls a di S a s s u o la a n d the S a ls a di uer o w t Q e la b eing perhaps the best kno n . The na ural gas o f Barigazz o has long been famous ; but gas issues at h many ot er points . T he following are the most importan t statistics

r u c to n P o d i .

ea r To n s . To n s . Y .

3“E u t 2 2l tr q iva len to 2 ,31 . s e li n g .

In 1 8 87 ,Italy produced 208 tons of petroleum,and

n s o f to asphalt and bitumen .

Ancona is the chief oil - producing distri ct ; Tocco,in

1 52 MA AL E TTE OF C O N U DESTRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

° hi o th e above and 7 7 residue . The t rd and f urth had

° 1 9 7 4 l s p . grs . 9 5 and respectively ; they furnished several y

635 and per cent . of oil, and of pitch,and

1 20 o f 2 and gas . — In di a The petroleum o f India occurs In m i ddle or lower tertiary rocks along the ﬂanks o f the Lower Hima hi layas, generally where the beds are ghly inclined . Frequently it o ccurs in the neighbourhood of salt deposits, or is associated with saline water. Throughout India petroleum occurs in the tertiary

o i n R G f rmation,as ussia and alicia . The strata in the oil producing localities are greatly di sturbed,and drilli n g is everywhere in India more or less di fficult . Apparently petroleum occurs in the greatest abundance in the Khatan o il- fi eld in Baluchi stan,but the oil is not o f satisfactory quality, even regarded as liquid fu el ; the locality o f producti on 1 s comparatively inaccessible,and the climate is bad . Undoubtedly the best o ilfrom the p o int o f vi ew of the kero sene refiner is that whi ch is obtained in th e Arakan islands (the eastern Baranga and R ami,p .

Petroleum seems to be u nknown in P eninsular India .

o f The petroleum ﬁeld Baluchistan lies in the Mari Hills . AtKhatan,in a boring 524 feet deep ,o ilwas obtained o n

f b o f seven horizons . The petroleum o the Punja , which great things were once expected, seems to b e of small M d i value,and Mr . e lc o ttthinks it the least productive of

the Indian areas . T h e petroleum Of Assam seems to be of some import

e o s - o f ance . It is gen rally f und in the coal bearing beds

t il- S ri the middle tertiary . A Makum,o p ngs occur,and b o rings we re here made to a depth o f nearly 200 feet,

o il o when r se to within 44 feet o f th e surface . From one

bore - hole gallons were drawn in 1 2 hours,after O M 1 5 PETR LEU . 3 whi ch the ﬂ o w varied much, occasionally reachi ng the o o 200 riginal rate . In one h le, feet deep,the oil spurted f r f i o o 30 . a time with a pressure lbs . to the nch — P unj a b Accounts o f the Punjab o il- springs were

e published by Mr . A . Fl ming in and in 1 8 2 A Mr . M . by aclagan in 6 1 ; and by Mr . Fenner in

A few years later Mr . Lyman was deputed to examine the deposits,and hi s reports were issued collectively in From these it appears that in the Rawalpindi district there are som e 1 6 spots at which indi cations of petroleum are met with in the tertiary rocks .

luchi s ta n — il- ﬁ ld f B a . The o e o Khatan is situated on the Mari Hills of Baluchistan,about 40 miles in a direct line to the east of Sibi Station o n the Q uetta branch o f the

North - Western Railway running from R u k Junction to

Q uetta . The Oil occu rs in the eocene formation,and is found exuding in m any pla ces,much o f the o il which has thus escaped having been converted by exposure into a hard mass . Borings were ﬁr st made here on behalf o f the Indi an

R . . o Goverment by Mr . A T wnsend,Superintendent of — Petro leum Explorations,in the co ld season of 1 884 8 5, a n d it was fo und that immense quantities of petroleum

o were btainable at moderate depths . The wells drilled

o n t by Mr . T w send are ﬁve in number,and are si uated in a valley surrounded by mountains about feet high . Their di ameter is only 4g Inches,and th e ir depth does not

0 o f much exceed 5 0 feet . The geological features the

J o u r n A si t. S o c n . a e a . I ,B g l,xvii f bid . ,xxii . ” u e m e n tto th e u n a o v e r n m n t a et I S ppl P j b G e G z te .

ro c . u n a o e r n m en t u c o r s e a rtm e n t P P j b G v P bli W k D p . “ e o r ts o n th e Pu n a Oil a n s S . m a n o e rn m en R p j b L d by B . Ly , G v t e s a ho re Pr s , L . 1 54 MA NUAL E TTE o r S S O DE TRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N.

w locality have been carefully dealt with by Mr . To nsend * i n o ﬂi c ia l o an rep rt. Unfortunately the o il obtained is of remarkably high

i r v i c r n o spec ﬁc g avity and s o s ty . Its de sity is,acc rd ’ i n g to R e dw ood s recent results, practically identical with that of water,and it is i n consequence freed with very great difﬁculty fr o m the water with which it is

h o il associated as it comes from the well . Even w en the

a n is warmed the water do es not readi ly subside . If attempt be made to distil the oil c o ntaining water,the

o f di contents the still froth up and pass over bo ly . By prolonged exposure in a capacious vess e l to a temperature somewhat above the boiling - p o int of water,the o il can be sufﬁciently d e hydrated,but a far better system has b e e n suggested,and will pr o bably before long be ann o unced .

The o il is black or extremely dark - brown i n colour by transmitte d light,with comparative ly little fluo rescence, a n d e t o fl a s hi n - o n it possess s very li tle od ur. Its g p i t is ° 28 o 0 F . (Abel test), and it contains no hydrocarb ns il available for use as o rdinary burning o . According to the official report o f Colonel Co nway Gordon,experiments made by pumping four o f th e wells (the fifth had not then been drilled) showed that th e yield o f each well was from 400 to 600 barrels o f Oil in the

24 n e hours . Thus any o of the existing wells is m o re than competent to deliver the entire supply o f barrels o f o il a year,whi ch is estimated to be the amount

— - requir e d fo r the Sind Pishin section o f th e North Western R w ail ay . An oil similar to that obtained at Khatan occurs at Shoran,in Kalat,in the province o f Kach Ga n da w a ,in

R T o wn sen R e p o rto n th e P etr o l e u m E xplo r a tio n s a tKh a ta n ,by . A . d S u p er in te n de nto f Pe tr o le u m E xplo r a tio n s i n B a lu c hi sta n (R ec o rd s o f the G eo l i c a lS u r ve o I ndi a v l xi x a rt4 og y f , o . P ,

1 56 MAN UAL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION. s o lid hy dr o c a rb i de s is not large ; the carbonaceous residue ’ varies,according to Redwo od s experiments,from between 3 4 e . 8 and per c nt to over per cent . Another sample had a speciﬁc gravity of ° 9 7 1 ,and 4 ° commenced to boil at 60 F . — E gyp t Petroleum occurs in Egypt,in the vicinity o f

R e d e m a h the S ea,at G s ,and Gebel elZ eit . It doubtless o riginates in the lowest D evonian sandsto ne (Mitchell), nowhere more than 300 feetthick,and resting directly o n crystalline rocks . Above the sandstone,o n the eastern slo pe of the plateau lying behin d the cry stalline coast range,are layers o f marl, alternating with fo ssilife ro us breccias b e lo nging to the upper cretaceous formation,

5 t h o about 2 0 fee thick . T ese are succeeded by m re chalk, fo llowed by upper miocene limestone about 300 feet

hr o thick . Oil occurs superﬁcially t oughout a district ab ut

40 n — 1 2 i miles lo g and 5 miles wide . The speciﬁc grav ty

° o fthe oil is about 880; it has a dark - brown col o ur,and a disagreeable od o ur,due to the presence o f sulphur com

o o o n o 50 p unds . The l ss treatment with vitri l is about l per cent . It yields no burning oil,but a very arge per centage o flubri cant o fapparently good quality .

Colour,dark- brown,almost opaque ; when diluted with petroleum spirit a gre e n fluorescence was observed . ° 2 5 . Specific gravity at 1 7 C. 09 3 ° 5 o il When coole d to 1 C. ,the became thicker,but no solid separated out . ° ’ The Speed o f fl o w,measured at 35 C. in Engler s viscosimeter,was 6 min . 40 sec . The extracts obtained by treating the o ilwith water and alcoho l were neither acid nor alkaline in reaction . The ash c o nsisted entirely o firon and lime,and equalled

W o il d per cent . hen the was distille ,the only gas evolved was sulphuretted hydro gen . M 1 5 PET ROLEU . 7

The amount of hydro c a rbide s soluble in a mixtu re of c o ncentrated and fuming sulphuric acid in the portion o f ° 24 e r the o ildi stilling up to 31 0 C. was found to be p cent .

e a ra ffi n s The residue (7 6 per cent . ) consist d of p and naphthenes, and gave figures for its refractive powe r closely agreein g with those obtained from Baku petro leum, whi ch consists chiefly of the latter ; th e Egypti an o il, how ever,contained sulphur,even after the treatment with acid . The oil was examined as to it commercial value by distillation from a copper still,sup e rhe ate d steam being ° t o em ployed when h e temperature reached 300 C. ,as is d ne at Baku .

B urning o i l Intermedi ate o rl Machine II Machine I Cylinder Co ke a n d loss

— P er u . D eposits of asphalt have l o ng been known to

o f P n o f exist in the north eru, ear Payta . A tract land 20 miles l o ng by 1 2 m iles wide,at Talara,near Payta,has now six wells ; a n d the reﬁned product is in extensive

o f S demand on the west coast outh America . In the valley of T u ci g a l,about metres from the — coast,there are 28 wells,ranging in depth fro m 45 240

metres,the daily output of which is barrels . The shipments in 1 8 9 1 from Z a i r e to s amounted to

o il illu kilos . crude ; min a n t,a n d

lubricant . ‘ 1 58 MAN UA L E TTE OE CTI S O DESTRU VE DI TILLATI N .

Sa la th e states that the crude oil from Z a ir e to s yields

P e r c e n ro u ct. t. P d

h e R i go li n .

Ga s o lin e . B en z lm e o .

t r n Ligh ke o s e e . e a er s en H vy k o e . t u r n t Ligh l b ic a . H e a vy l u b r ic a n t, fr ee fro m pa ra fﬁn ,b u tter y a t t Pi ch .

Th e re is a pipe line to the harbour o f P a loen a ,which

r is 1 1 kil o m etre s f o m the wells . P etroleum is known to occur over a tract 1 20 miles

n lo ng by 60 mil e s wide o this coast . In Ven ez u ela ,betw een the Rivers Z ulia and Ca tu tu m b o and the Cordilleras,petroleum in considerable quantity is

n e xpelled fro m natural springs,t o gether with b o ili g water . In A r gen ti n a th e Juju y pro du ct has been found to yield

° o 1 00 9 0 e o f o il s . 8 61 1 0 o . (fr m litres) litr s p gr . ,and kil s

di 9 0 e o f o il : o f c o ke . On stillation,the litr s furnished

r Lit es . ° 7 s Naphtha, 40 p . gr .

o ° 2 e 8 s . 34 Ker s ne, 7 p gr .

° 0 s . 30 Heavy oils, 9 0 p . gr

7 0

Z a la n — P n a o f N ew e d . etroleum occurs o the e st coast North Island at Po verty Bay,and at Waiapu,East Cape ;

r n e f e m b o i gs to a d pth o about fe e t have be n ade .

o o f e a n d The r cks th s e districts a r e cretac e o us tertiary . f e o . Here the crud product yields 8 4 per cent . illuminant On the west coast o f No rth Island,at Sugarloaf P o int,

il s 9 60— 9 Taranaki (New Plymouth),a heavy o , p . gr . 69

1 60 MANU AL ETTE o r S S O DE TRUCTIVE DI TILLATI N .

Petroleum is found near Burgos (Spa i n ),and also i n

in cretaceous beds Catalonia .

A SPHALT .

d e Asphalt is soli at the ordinary t mperature . It a p pears to b e formed by the oxidation of th e unsaturated

i des hy dro c a rb in petroleum . The most remarkable deposits are in Cuba and Trinadad,the asphalt from which islands

s i f h a been found to y eld per cent . of para ﬁn . Other noted localities are the Dead Sea, Seyssel (France),

A a n d Va l Limmer,the bruzzo, the de Travers . It occurs also,o f every degree o f consistence, and in immense quantity,along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico,chieﬂy in the States of Tamaulipas,V era Cruz,and Tabasco,where n o tunfrequently it is associated with rock - salt and salt ” A e o petre . sphalt being,lik resin and terpenes,s mewhat acid towards li me, is frequently retained i n limestone rocks,o r contains much lime . Organi c sulphur has been foun d in some American specimens to the extent of per cent . It is in g reat request for paving purposes . Stripp elm a n n and Engler obtained from Bentheim asphalt (s p . gr . when working on the large scale, “ burning oil, gas o il and lubricant, parafﬁn,

parafﬁn grease, coke,&c . , loss,

o per cent . The tar was free from phenol and kreas te . Asphaltic rock and bitumen in the form of c o n glom erate

un i n e are fo d various localiti s in Italy .

In the Abruzz o there are two clearly- de ﬁ n e d rocks grey and black these are found in the miocene formation o f the tertiary epoch . The calcare madreporico is con t s idere d the true horizon of the asphal . H 1 1 ASP ALT . 6

Yields have been stated as follows

n n a A co .

N t n 1 00 1 8 o e . N en 7 8 giv o t giv . 1 8 7 9 50 1 8 80 1 50 450 1 8 8 1 7 500 500 1 88 2 400 1 38 3 233 1 8 8 4 2 50

To ta ls

The Abruzz o bitumen yields on distillati o n

The shipments o f asphalt fro m Tr i n i da d amounted in

Si o 1 8 o the ﬁrst x m nths of 8 9 to t ns . Tu r lci s b asphalt from Albania (about 1 6 m iles from

V o al na) is free from parafﬁn . On an alysis its four quali ties give the follo wing r e s ults MAN UAL E TTE OF T DESTRUC IVE DISTILLATION .

The ﬁnest quality is inso luble in alcohol,Sli ghtly soluble in ethe r,but readily s o lubl e in bisulphide o fcarbon,chl o ro ° ° — 6 o r 1 40 form,benzol, and turpentine melting at 0 C. ff F . Neither bleaching agents nor carbon has any e ect

o o n d on the col ur . The ﬁnest, being distille at a low

5 o temperature,gives o ff 0 per cent . of an ily substance,

s . o il i having a p gr . On redistillation the beg ns to ° ° ° o 1 00 0 C. n o n 2 0 3 C. b il at ,risi g so to 0 C. ,and at 0 will

W n - boil over . hen the remaind e r Of the high b o ili g point fractio n is frozen,no paraffin separates,whilst that of the lo we r temperature assumes th e semi - soli d appearance o f va seline . The foll o w ing organic analyses o f the finest and ordi nar y, o r C kind,may be instructive, as the large amo unt o f oxygen present sh o w s that they do n o tbelong to the oz o kerite o r paraffi n series,but are true asphalts

n es t. Fi C . 7 8 8 7 4 ° O

° 5

T h e better kinds are suitable fo r the best japans,while the m o st inferior can be used fo r inferi o r articles,such as

r n & o B u swick blacks,ironwork, c . The c mmonest can be

sweated and puriﬁed to be e qual to the best . The cheapest can als o be utilised fo r str en gtheni n g the rock asphalts,non e o fwhi ch c a n be used with o ut such addition, the Trinidad bitume n having up to n o w ousted every other

e th o articl from e marke ts o f the wo rld fo r thatpurp se . In 1 88 8 the Un i ted S ta tes pro duced tons o f a o sphalt and t ns o f s e rviceable bituminous rock .

1 64 MAN UAL E TTE o r S C O DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

th e spot,are tanked to Austro - R oumanian reﬁneries at

Or s o va o n the Danube, Fiume,Vie nna,Buda - P esth,and

i In o o il 1 the small refiner es Transylvania . Oz kerite s r e o fined in the same manner as native petroleum . S lid brown ozokerite is refined by (1 ) di s tillatio n ,usually with °— ° superheated steam— a t300 320 for pa ra fli n s (fo llowed ° ° a t 380 — 420 by yellow oxi dised resin o us b odies) ; (2)

o f treatment o f the soli d distillate with about 6 per c e nt .

o ilo f b o strong vitriol (about 1 p e r cent . y v lume of soda o f 1 2 s . i p gr . be ng used when required) and washing w ith water (3) crystallisati o ns from a low p e rcentage o f the light o il— o r m e thylic, ethylic, o r amylic alco ho l

o o w f ll ed by treatment with charcoal . In the last Opera tion the melted ozokerite may be preferably melted with a nimal charc o al,in the absence of a solvent,and the use o f magnesic silicate has be e n patented as an efﬁcient

fo r o to 60 . substitute charc al . The yield amounts per cent ’ o f white scale . Fuller s earth also gives excellent results a n d aluminised charcoal might pr o bably b e very usefully

e Ce o o e i mployed . resin is z k rite bleached without d stilla °

o e . . ti n, g ,by heating to 200 C. with strong oil of vitriol,

washing,and ﬁlte ring the melted mass through silicat e s . ” An o ther mode of bleaching c o nsists in melting at

m — 1 o f decanting, elting with 5 5 p er cent . sulphur,and ° d e 35 istilling in st am . The product is pressed at crystallised fro m amylic alcoho l, and again similarly

o ri e pressed . Native oz ke te may yield approximat ly

25 Petroleum . Lubricating o il 2 1 Parafﬁn 36 Cok e 8 Pitch and loss 1 0

1 00 M OZOK R 1 65 E ITE .

AtSwa to i As tro w ,near Aps c h e r o n ,ozokerite is di s tille l in ﬂ a t- b o ttomed reto rts,h oldi n g pounds di G b each . The results are,accor ng to ra owski

P er c en t. Benzol 2— 8 Naphtha 1 5— 20 Parafﬁn 36— 50 — Heavy lubricating o il 1 5 20 Coke 1 0— 20

Having regard to the fac t that native o zokerite is c hieﬂy wo rked for the purp o se o f obtaining solid pa ra ﬂi n s , distillation in a vacuum might obviously be advantageous ;

c e this would be. fa ilitated by the circumstance that littl

o r a s is o ff no g given in the process . Crude ozokerite,as

o di h n o t n r narily distilled,contains c rysene,but naphthali .

l o The sti l h lds about three tons . The puriﬁcation o f ozokerite by oil of vitriol is attende d

with very appreciable loss,o n account o f the oxy- c o m

p o unds whi ch the mineral is now known to contain . These,unlike the pa ra fﬁ n s ,are attacked somewhat en e r

e ti ca ll o il ti g y by of vi r ol .

Oz o kerite,after puriﬁcation fo r candle - making,melts

° at 51 is quite o do urless and colourless,and has a

T h i o f ra n kfo r t waxy section . e k nd prepared by Otto, F

o n - the - Oder,is said to m elt at and to be so hard as t scarcely to yield to h e ﬁnger nail . The natural undistilled hydro c a rbide s o f ozokerite a re

r of great value fo r lub icating purposes . The following table gives the quantity and value o f

ozoke ri te mi ned i n Austria - Hungary in the years i ndi

c a te d 1 66 MAN UAL E TTE OF S O DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

a rs To n s . Ye .

In 1 89 0 the United States produced lbs . Of reﬁned o zokerite,valued at 6,563l.

Among the by - products from ozokerite is the residue

l 1 7 5 n of the steam disti lation . Since 8 ,Field and Talli g have employed a vulcanised weld o f this hard, black, waxy substance with india - rubber as an ele c tIi c a l insu lator . Vaseline, pa ra va s eli n e , and the like,are mixtures of

- a ra fﬁn s 0 — 0 h dr o c a rbi de s iso p 1 6 20) with lower y , and are taken from petro leum and oz o kerite stills after f s o me o f the o il has volatilised their solid pa ra ﬂi n is m o re or less removed, and the residue bleached with o ut di s ill ti ff 3 ° t a o n . Bleaching is e ected by treatment at 0 with

1 0 e r o f o il o fo r - a n - p cent . of vitri l,stirring half hour,and

o separating the carbonised layer. The clear porti n is treated with aqueous potassic dichro mate,washed,heated ° — to 80 with g ranular spodium (bo ne black),and ﬁltered h o t A o o i n o il r o . n ther method c nsists passing the th ugh

h o o r - r eﬁ n i n thirty c arc al ﬁlters (as c nstructed for suga g ) . After the bituminous m atters have been removed,there is

O 1 68 MAN UAL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N .

8 F i br o u s co a l ui with Neocomi an limestone . , from Antioq a . “ ” “ ” 1 0 F us a i n o Mo n tra m 9 , F us a i n from Bla nzi . , fr m

o o f bert, L ire . Fnsain is a variety coal resembling

- wood charcoal in appearance . Some stalks,the interior o fwhi ch is c o mp o sed o f fusain,are covered with a bark which has been converted into coal . It is apparently the fo ssil form of wood which was dried by exposure to air befo re becoming embedded,and which has n o tunder ’ gone the same changes as vegetable debr i s ,w hich d e c o m

i t A n th 1 1 A n thra c e C i . 1 2 r a poses in swamps . , from hil ,

i t G i n c e from Muso,New ranada . It occurs in masses the l schists in the emerald mines . It is hard,bril iant,and

A n th hi . r 1 3 a takes on a very gh p o lish ; s p g . , r

1 4 r a hi t o ci te,supposed to come from Brazil . , G p e fr m

Kaison .

PEAT .

Peat consists o f the cumulatively resolved ﬁbrous parts o f certain mosses and graminaceae . It gradually darkens

o a e u d in from br wn to black with increasing g . J g g from ’ D r A o f . ngus Smith s results,it grows at the rate about an inch in the year . A pectinous substance and a c o mplex hydrocarbide ﬁ c htelite ,have been found among its c o n

A s stituents . a fuel it is most economically used at the

o IS o o sp t where it gr wn . It has been,however,destru ti v ely distilled at a low temperature for tar,a branch o f

o industry now scarcely pr ﬁtable . The process gives a very poro us, friable charcoal, p o ssessed of great deco lo ri s in g p o wer ; gas rich in carb o nic dioxid e is also given o ff A to n o f . good peat may yield mor e than cubic

e f et of gas . The puriﬁed gas contains about 1 1 p e r

. o h dro c a rbi cent of vap rised y de s , 37 per cent . of marsh G B ROWN OOAL OR LI NITE . 1 69

f c a r 3 o f o 1 9 . o gas, 1 per cent. hydr gen, and per cent b o n i c o xide ; it is thus (as i ts mode o f formatio n suggests ) less oxygenated than wood gas,but m ore o xygenated than coal gas . The liqu o r is rich in hydric acetate,which amo unts to

b o o n o a ut 2 per cent . the peat ; amm nic sulphate,taken similarly,e xceeds 1 per cent .

o — n o f e Go od peat yields ab ut 3 6 per ce t . tar prop r,

o whi ch is c o mparative ly easy to purify by the usual meth d . ’ ° 4 s . 9 5 . A Specimen in the writer s museum had the p . gr According to V o hl,1 00 parts o f p e at tar fro m six s o urc e s

o f f fur nished,o n the average, per cent . para ﬁn oil

il s s . o . . ( p . gr . per cent lubricating ( p gr and

o f f o . per cent . para ﬁn . This last estimate seems d ubtful

a e n m a n o f fﬁ VV g n fo und as a mean, per cent . para n ;

e Kane and Sullivan ab o ut 1 per cent . other exp rimenters

° ° have obtained from 7 5 to 5 ,and even 1 per cent .

P o f o n e - i o f eat yields from 5 to 50 per cent . ash, th rd

n i o e m a which may co s st of ferric oxide . To this s urc y n o timpro bably be due the occasional ferrugino us charac ter o f peaty waters ,and the dec o lorising power o f peat

o charc al .

BROWN COAL OR LIGNITE . Brown coal is intermedi ate between wood and coal i proper,which latter it succeeds in geolog cal time . It s o metimes retain s the ﬁbrous structure o f wood,ha s a yellow o r brown col o ur, and pasty con sistence, and is easily fusible ; at others it is quite black,and closely h nru c . resembles coal . The better kinds retain moisture One o f the co mmon constituents o f lignite is py r o pi s site,a crystalline m ineral,more o r less soluble i n petroleum, 1 7 0 MANUAL E TTE OF C O DESTRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

° ether,and alcoh o l,melting at 7 9 and closely related

o C H O to a f rmula Q IS . A ccording to Thomas,the greater part of the gas occluded in lignite consists o f carbonic di o xide,with whi ch o leﬁ n e s ,o ily aromatic compounds,and appreciable quan

o tities of carb nic oxide are associated . Lignite coke is in use as a substitute fo r bone

black . Brown coal has been worked for many y ears at Weis s en fe ls ,in Saxony,where it has yielded by the ordinary

treatment,the ordinary pro ducts o f the low- temperatu re

u process . At these works,according to a report of D llo 1 8 62 ( the brown coal furnishes 1 7 8 per cent . of buttery

f 43 . tar,which yields 20 per cent . of para ﬁn,and per cent ’ o f i il o f Vo hls illum nating o . The means more recent

o f ﬁgures,which refer to 1 3 sources,are per cent .

fﬁ o il o f o il s . para n ( p gr . per cent . lubricating ,

o f a r fﬁ n — o n and per cent . p a reckoned the tar,which

m a r y be taken at 1 1 per cent . In g avity and other

respects,this tar very closely resembles shale tar. A

e o c era te C H 0 e . g , 26 52 2,is among its constitu nts It also

. C H contains a remarkable hydrocarbide, picene, 22 1 4 , melting at but obtai nable in larger quantities by the destructive distillation o f the residues o f Californian

petroleum . The above numbers re fer to distillates obtained in

- o horizontal cast iron reto rts . If steam be intr duced during the pro cess,the tar yields,it is said,as much as 30

e o f f per c nt . para fin . The pro duct is purified with some diffi culty from l su phur and nitrogen . Although brown c o al in many respects resembles peat, it much surpasses that substance in the value of its pro ducts o f destructive distillatio n,furnishing,in fact,abou t

1 A A L E TT r S C O 7 2 M N U E o DE TRU TIVE DISTILLATI N .

f . W Thus bones yield about 6 per cent o nitrogen . hen they are soaked fo r several days in dilute hydric chl o ride, their calcic salts dissolve,le a v in g a mass o f ﬂexible osseine, f which re tains the shape o the original bone . Osseine disso lves in boiling wate r,being thereby trans formed with o ut change o f comp o sitio n,into an equal weight o f ge latine hence it is an iso mer o r polym er o f

l n o gelatine . In the destructive disti latio of b nes it is the t f osseine alone hat furnishes distillate . The manu acture o f b o ne oil is an industry that survives from mediaeva l times . The bones are submitted to a preliminary treatment in t hi ff order to remove fa . T s is e ected by prolonged contact with hot water,o r,much better,by steaming in vertical

li o cy nders . The cylinders h ld about 5 tons of bones,and

o o f 1 2 o At the operati n steaming lasts about h urs . the end of that time cold water is admitted from below in quantity m o re than sufﬁcient to co ver the bones ; the fa t is thus brought to the surface,and is then skimmed o ff. D uring the o p e ratio n s o f steaming and watering,s o me g elatine so lutio n is o f co urse formed in the cylinders ; this

e d o is removed,concentrat ,and s ld as glue substitute . The b o nes are preferably distilled as thus saturated with moisture ; dry bo nes furnish a partially solid distillate, whi ch would inevitably choke an exit - pip e of moderate

o c li n length . The distillation is performed in horiz ntal y dri c a lretorts made of cast - iron a c o nve nient size is 9 fe e t

l r long by % feet in diameter . The re to t is c o mplete ly ﬁlled with its charge,and then closed after the fashion o f a gas reto rt ; the addi tion o f an exhauster has also be e n

t e prop o sed . It is next heated o the lowest possible d gree o f d o e redness, uring eight h urs . The residue in the r tort “ “ c o nsists o f animal charcoal o r bone- bla ck ; this consists approxi mately o fz B ON E OIL 1 7 3

Charcoal 1 0 Calcic phosphate 8 4 carbonate 6

1 00

According to some autho rities,it invariably retains nitr o gen in greater proporti o n as the temperature has been lower .

o Seven ret rts can be heated at one time . Anoth e r and l e ss manag e able metho d is applied to th e di b n o e stillation of dried o es . The ret rts,pref rably ﬁve in

c o n number. are charged as before,and their distillate ducted whil e gaseous,and through a very sho rt exit - pipe,

o n e int recta gular leaden chambers . Here a great d al of the ammoni c carbonate solidiﬁes ; it is puriﬁed by sublimation . Both methods furnish a liquid distillate,conta ining,as i n o o the case of c al,an aqueous and an oily p rtion . The aqueou s portion is a s o lution o f a mm o nic carb o nate , cyanide and hydrosulphi de,together with m ethylamine and its homologues,pyridi ne and its homol o gues (o f at

o least two series),py rrh o l and ethylic alcohol . The ily portion is also charged with these,and c o ntai ns in addi

0 — 0 o n tion,fatty nitriles 2 6 (not, h wever,whe fat is abs ent),fatty and ar o m atic hydrides,n aphthalin,aroma tic di - r C H — C H n hydro hyd ides, Q M H IS, pyrroli e and its ﬁrst

o s o f o il ' 1 4 two hom logues . The p . gr . the is 9 it begins to boil at about This product was formerly

u i l known under the name of Ole m a n ma e D ipp eli . The aqueous distillate is treated for ammonia in the same manner as the aqueous distillate from coal,excepting

s 1 2 o f that weaker vitrio l ( p . gr . ) is used,on account the h richness of the ammoniacal liquor . The resulting sulp ate

rrh o l- is apt to be coloured wi th py red . MAN UAL E TTE OF S DE TRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

A to n o f bones yie lds gallo ns of oil,and 1 30 f . A 1 40 gallons o f liquor o sp gr . ttempts to purify th e o i l for illuminatin g purposes have hith e rto

l e re sulted in fai ure . The xhausted amm o niacal liquo r has

- T h e o il di be e n us e d as a sheep dip . ,wh e n stilled,yie lds an e lastic pitch,in re quest fo r varnish - makin In additi o n to th e ab o ve products,the destructive di s tilla ti o n o f e e o f bon s furnishes a very decid d amount gas . Unfo rtunat e ly this gas contains to o much sulphur,and i n to o intimate a state o f c o mbinatio n,to admit o f e co nomical

ﬁc e e o e o f e o e puri ation . It is,how v r,p ssess d v ry c nsid r ab le illuminatin g power,and is there fo re somewhat used to light the m o re o pen parts o f works ; but the greater

f e e th e o e o p a rt o it is burn d und r b il rs r reto rts . B o ne oil

in is e a sily utilis e d the same way . The e xtent of this industry depends in a great measur e

- n n e up o n that o f sugar r eﬁ i g . Some c o nc ption o f its mag n itu de may be fo rme d fro m the fact that fo r every to n o f reﬁned sugar m o re than a ton o f animal charco al is used the charc o al is then r e - burned and us e d again,thus under

o a o f to th e m o o f 40 g ing loss value a unt per cent . per annum . H o r n ,ha i r and lea ther yield a liquid distillate,very

o similar to that fro m b nes . Weidel and Ci a m i ci a n distilled g ela ti n e, and fo und

o o o C H N o am ng the pr ducts pyroc ll, i o s z z (a crystalline

o rrh o l h o m O rrh o l 0 H N dim eth l rrh o l s lid),py , py , 5 7 ,and y py , together with methylami ne, butylamine, and perhaps quinolin e .

1 AL ETTE OF S U 7 6 MAN U DE TR CTIVE DISTILLATION .

o o of nitrogen . The f ll wing equation corresp onds the determinations so far as made

C I—I N SO C N C H {S O GS I I Q I S 1 0 3 9 e c a r o n a s a n d ta r Fix d b . G .

5 N H 00 S O H s 311 0. ( 3 2 ) H N , 2

Percen ta ges f u n o d . Water 54 R esidual carbon . Nitro gen therewith Ammonia 8 6

Itmust,however,be added that the sulphur was n o t

o ° entirely ev lved,as 24 per cent . was found in the ﬁxed

o o 0 H N u . o f 0 C nitrogen s carbon Porti ns, also, 2 and ought doubtless to be credited to the gas and tar ; but it would have been a matter o f extreme difﬁculty to deter mine the free cyanide and carbonate . The actual tar

r m o f amounted to about cc . per 50 g . wool ; it was lighter than water.

F IX E D OIL S .

V a . e eta g ble.

These bodies are mixtures of solid and liquid g ly c e rides . They were ﬁr st destructively di stilled, on the

1 8 1 r industrial scale,by Taylor,in 5 . The reto t consisted o f a horizontal iro n chamber,ﬁll e d wi th coke,and heated to lo w A redness,or a little higher . bove this was placed

o the Oil reserv ir,by which the gas was washed . From

9 0— 9 6 o f per cent . the Oil was converted into gas .

° — . . 604 o leﬁ n e s 1 2 A Sp gr , 6 3 per cent . nalysis O FIXED ILS . 1 7 7

1 4 showed 37 per cent . marsh gas ; carbonic oxide, per

dr 21 . cent . ; hy ogen, per cent Ca s to r Oi l is de structively distilled at J e ypo r e fo r the f production o illuminating gas . The seed,pressed at the

— n o f W lllCh works, yields 33 40 per ce t . oil, is distilled 2 il A m . o fo without puriﬁcati o n . aund (8 lbs ) yields abo ut f 1 d . 800cubic fe et o puriﬁed gas,at an average cost Of 35s . 0

n o f per cubic feet . The illumi ating power the gas is such that the burners i n use consume only 1 —5 cubic feet

o — 1 i per hour,c o rresp o ndin g t 1 7 8 candles . Some tar s

i n formed the process .

A nim l ,8 . a .

These Oils,in the ir general chemical deportm ent,much

resemble the vegetable ﬁxed Oils . Warren and Storer have made a detailed examination of the distillate from the lime soap o f M e nhaden Oil,which i s prepared from a kind o f

r A lo s a n ha clen s a o n iﬁ e he ring ( m e ) . The Oil was p d with

- n e . t m o e fo urth of its weight,i . ,an excess of caus ic li e,and

o o the dried s ap distilled from iron ret rts . The brown malodorous distillate was rectiﬁed in a ste am current,which

hi n l left a t ck residue,contai ing much crysta line matter . After puriﬁcatio n with vitrio l and soda,and by di stillation in steam,the Oil exhibit e d the general aspect o f a p e tro

o t leum . The foll wing able gives the relative yield,in a

o f b total distillate cc . Of the su stances indicated

intermediate fractio n s,in whi ch the boiling- p o int was not c o nstant,n o tbeing taken into consideration

P n t u sta n c e . er c e . S b Amylene Am ylic hydride Hexylene Hexylic hydride Benzene O 7 8 MAN UAL E TTE OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATI N.

u s ta n c e Per c en t S b . n n h len e 9 5 (E a t y . Heptylic hydride 9 7 8 T o luene 1 1 1 Octylene 1 238 1 252 Octylic hydride 1 28— 1 29 X ylene Nonylene Cumene D ecylene Undecylene D u o de c ylen e

Thus the distillate,whi le well characterised by the pres ence of o le ﬁ n e s and hydrides of the fatty series,is

remarkably rich in aromatic products . The latter are mainly due to the high temperature requisite for the f l decomposition o the ime soap .

SUINT .

Suint,the dri ed sweat o f sheep,constitutes about 1 5

e f e p r cent . o the weight of the ﬂ ece . It dissolves in the

water in which the raw wool is washed . The evaporated

o f 5 residue consists 0 p er cent . organic matter,and yields — o n e third o f its weight o f pure potassic carbonate,the remainder being sulphate a n d chloride ,very free from

n e - o fthe o s o dium . O third p tash used in F ra n c e i s derived

hi e o o . o fr m t s s urc kilos Of wo l) . The distillatio n o f th e s o lid suint gives rise to gaseous hydro c a rbide s and a good deal o f ammonia ; the residual c o ke is lixiviated f A . o fo r potassic salts . kilo suint furnishes 21 0 litres o f

a o f ll g s very high i uminating power .

1 MA A TTE F 80 N U L E O DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION.

CE LLULOSE .

The fo llowing experimen ts o n the destructive distilla ’ ti on o f cellulose were carri e d out in the author s laboratory .

The still used was a glass ﬂask ho lding cc . ,and

r gradually heated to re dn ess during six hou s . The — “ material u sed fo r distillatio n was well sc o ured hand f o a . o kerchief cl th . It cont ined per cent water,and

i f s h o f o f e . o y lded 6 5 per cent a . By means a piece

c o b 1 3 o w a s c o n ombusti n tubing a out m . l ng,the still n e c te d w ith a two - necked receiver, o n the outside o f

i l o f wh ch cold water was constantly p aying . The top

o th e still was covered with sheet asbest s . Heat was

a i o pplied by means o f a Fletcher burner . The d stillati n lasted six hours,du ring whi ch a red heat was gradually

tta i n e i a r e o f e x eri d . The follow ng the particulars an p 1 ment (substance taken 00 grm . )

ra m m es G . Wa ter measured after drawing from rec e iver 425 in substance 6 0

365

24 Hydric acetate (s p . gr . in water

34 5

A C H 0 211 0 1 2 cetate water 2 4 2 2

357

E xperimental drainage correction

Total water 368

39 4 r o t . per cent . on d y rganic cot on CANNOSE . 1 81

Gr a m m es F ixed ca r bo n in retort Ash correction

per cent . on dry organic cotton .

a h er T r ( e a w than water),about cc .

Hydric ac e tate , grm .

r per cent . on d y organic cotton .

The equation is 30 11 0 1 20 0 H 0 1 1 11 0. 6 1 0 5 6 8 4 2

e ca r o n . Ga s a n d ta r . Or a n c wa ter Fix d b g i . 1 00 2 9 (Calc . ) 2 6 408 (Found) SO° O 39 - 4

In this case the weight of (gas and tar) is about equal h o . T e C to that of the ﬁxed carb n 2 from the acetate,

th e 3 added to tar,amounts to about 6 p er cent . Hence the gas,saturated with moistur e ,mus thave amounted to

a n d abo ut 26 0 per cent . [In this similar experiments,all the acid in the distillate is reckoned acetic ]

A C NNOSE .

The fo llowing are th e particulars o f an experiment carried o u t by the author o n the destructive distillation

o ° 1 5 o f Of cane sugar . The sample c ntained per cent .

° o f moisture,and yi elded 03 per cent . ash . The same f apparatus was used as in the case o cellulose . The operation is e xtremely liable to fail,owing to i n tu m e s

A o 25 e cence . cc rdingly, only grammes w re distilled,

the time taken b ein g eleven hours . The corrected results were as follows MANU AL E TE OF 1 82 T DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION .

so 0 11 0 1 051 0 1 2 22 1 1 3 2 2

xe ca r o n . G a n d ta r r n a s . O a c wa ter Fi d b g i .

31 5 1 7 ° 7

i o f Sugar furn shes per cent . acetate when thus distilled,and very little tar . The gas probably amounted 1 to about 7 5 per cent .

o n - - W . Foster has f u d high temperature cane sugar coke f o f . o to contain 9 5 per cent . carbon and per cent hydrogen ; the low - t e mperature coke contained per 1 . o 2 r . cent of carb n and per cent . of hyd ogen Fischer and Layc o ck found the distillate to contain prOpyla ldehyde

m h lfu f ra n and di et y r u .

STARCH .

— o hem Centr . 1 887 . 38 39 H rvat ( C . , ,pp ) distilled starch with lime, and found among the products acetone, m e sityli c oxide, and isophorone The fraction ° — ° 1 28 207 comprised a s eries o f ketones o f the formula C O. a n

1 8 6 APPENDIX . relieved o fits counterpoise weight,and folds down to dis charge the bu rned S pent Shale into the hutch bel o w,to be passed (through a pond of water requiring evaporati o n) to the spent Shale heap . The products of combustion pass from the fu rnace up thro ugh the ﬂue which protects the bottom o f the I e to rtS from overheating,into the oven The new hot products di Spla c e the previous cool e r on es at the top o f the ar ch,and the colder pro ducts pass o fffro m the botto m o f the o ven by the e xit - pipes which either (as in dra wing) let Offthe products of c o mbustion di rect into the atmosphere,o r ,as is always don e n o w,into a common ﬂ u e whi ch passes along the Side o f the retort bench,and

e - k carri s the gases to the chimney stal . Superheated steam is carried in by a pipe V e ry

t S n S li tle air is required to burn the pe t hale . The bottom plate (1 7 ) o f furnace is solid,and allows air to pass only at its edges,and the suction thro ugh the oven from exit,

n bei g at the bottom,is only gentle . ’ — Y u n s R to r t i C . V o g e . [F g . ] ertical sections of two

r o f i th e - fo ms th s retort are given in ﬁgure . Low red heat distillation takes place in the upper portions,A,B ; the I 1 1 A B - D under portions , being at a cherry red heat . D,

fo r o il A d are outlets vapours and ammonia . damper can be slid inwards to form a divisi o n between the two l o o A A o f - E p rti ns , the left hand retort . is a circular chamber furnished with num erous openings e into the retort ; into thi s steam is introduced thro ugh F placed preferably i n a coil in the main ﬂue G leading to the

hi - o c mney stalk . The heated pr ducts of combustion pass from the combustio n cham bers H thro ugh the p o rts h into the chamber o r oven,and around the l o wer part of the 2 retorts,as shown by the arms ; then thro ugh ports h in the partition wallC1 into the upper chamber or oven,and 1 APPENDIX. 8 7

4 o h round the upper part f the retorts . A brick damper regulates the relative temperatures o f th e upper and l o wer

di s retorts . The retorts are charged at the top, and charged a t the bottom,by means of a trap and shoot,

- o o f into the combustion chamber . In the right hand f rm retort the steam,a mmonia,and gases from the lower retort have to pass up through the shale in the left - hand

n o t form this is the case .

— - Y u n a n d B ei lb R eto r t . D . o g y . [Fig ] The left hand di agram Shows the reto rts proper in th e right- hand ﬁgure

- a superh e ater S and g a s producer are combined . The retorts are charged at the to p,fro m which part also oil

ni vapours and ammo a are led away . The upper part A o f each retort is of ir o n,the lower parts are o f ﬁ re - clay, and th ese are subjected to a very high temp erature . 8 Steam is in troduced internally below a t S ,in orde r to destroy residual nitrogenous compounds and generate ” wate r - gas, and th e retorts are heated partly by pro duo er gas,partly by the internal combustion due to the r steam . In O der to prevent fusing,not quite all the f ff carbon o the shale is burned o . In this retort a very high temperature is employed below,in order to obtain an exhausti ve yield o fammonia “ f - hence the need o r a producer . This gas producer is a vertical retort,built o f brick,closed by a door at the top,and provided with an exit- pipe whi ch connects the retort with a system of mains and condensers . At its lower end the retort terminates in a closed ﬁr e - place a n d

- r ash pit,with regulating doors or dampers . The dross o small coal is introduced by the top door, and,resting

n fi re - e o o the bars,fills the r tort from top to b ttom . The upper part of the retort, being surro unded by fl u e s through which fi re- gases are led,is kept at a full red tr eat . The coal at this part o f the retort is distilled,and 1 8 8 APPENDIX . parts with gases and vapours w hich pass away by the

- to o A S exit pipe be c oled and condensed . the coke passes do wn into the re tort it is met by a current o fsteam which is partly decomposed,burning the carbon, and

“ ‘ pro ducing ammonia and water- gas, which pass o ff

o along with the other v latile products . When such coke as has escaped the acti o n o f the steam reaches the ﬁ re bars,i t is bu rned in to carbo ni c oxi de by a regulated

f - h t o s o ff admission o air. This red o carb nic oxide pas es by ports at the lower end o f the retort,and is burned in

ﬂ u e s S the surrounding the hale retorts . The gases from

the upper part o f the ret o rt,after having been dep rived o f ” r thei conde nsable constitue nts,are also returne d . Ithas been found an advantage to give each retort a

o l o e r separate h pper and va ve . M reov r,in recent fo ms,

the superh e ater S i s dispensed with,and the gas - pro ducer

u h D 2 is in d plicate ; so that t e left p o rtion o f Fig . ( ) is

o f now the same as the right . Total yield gas about

fS cubic feet per ton o hale . — o u r - R R i E o A a et r t. . C p e e o [F g . ] Bel w each retort is

a chamber B o f ﬁ r e - brick,and having about twice the

capacity o fthe r e tort . This chamber is built solid is

n o t n e to f C surrou ded by ﬂu e s . A j Steam at also injects

— a i f r e A e air pecul arity o this reto t . The r tort is ext r nally fir ed and surro unded by fl u e s ,as well as heated by f o o . the gases fr m B . The figure shows a pair retorts

S t i R r i - P e 9 7 8 a n r to t. o 3 gg e [F g . (Neils n, at nt , The v er tical section Shows the constructio n o f thi s

o o f e o U o o e very simple f rm r t rt . p n a c re bed li s a charge o f ab o ut 60 tons o f Shale,the daily charge b eing

o 1 2 f 9 - b ab ut tons . The retort is o inch rick,in a casing o f iron ; and is abo ut 46 feet hi gh by 7 § fe et at the tOp

1 1 L o w - e i and feet at the b o ttom . pressure steam (w igh ng G about 1 00 lbs . per ton o f Shale) is introduced at ; air

1 9 0 P A PENDIX .

APPE N D IX B .

O R A H BIBLI G P Y.

[Th e following list o f Memoirs and W o rks ha s reference to the leadin g p o In tS in the development o f

u D modern Destr ctive istillati o n . The student consulting it will ﬁnd it afford a c o nveni ent starting- point fo r the v o luminous bibli o graphy of this subject]

M r a . em o i s .

1 8 25 o o f b . C C Faraday,M . On New omp unds ar on and

dr T Phi lo s o hi ca l r a s a cti o ns 1 82 . Hy ogen, &c . p n , 5, p

440.

1 e V 826. Unverdorb en,O . U ber das erhalten der organ ’ ’ r r h r e P o en do r s ischen KO pe in hO e e n Temperatur n . yg ﬁ

A n n 4 7 a len ,viii,253 and 7 .

1 3 e n a h e ren Ke n tn i s s 8 0. Reichenbach,C. B itrag zur der

wei trocknen Destillatio n organischer KOrpe r . S ch g ’ a ger s J o u r n l,lix,241 .

R chwei 1 8 32 e r &c . S . eichenbach,C . U be das Kreosot, g ’ r 1 ge s J o u r n a l,lxv,46 .

1 8 4 de r R . . U P o 3 . unge,F F eber einige r dukte Stein ’ k hle n d ti l P endo r s A n n a l n 65 o e s la ti o n . ogg f e , xxxi, , 1 5 3,and xxxii, 308 .

R P r o l e unge, F . F . Kyanol und y , zwei neu

D o hen Is i s CO1 . Produkte der trockn e n estillati n . C , ,

608 . ’ 1 rit 3 . . P i l s . e 8 5 Dumas,J B ,and élg o t,E . Sur p de bois, & l n s h m h . c . A n a e de C i i e etd e P y s iqu e,lviii,5

1 836. i e lii Klauer,C. Ueber das Ol e um animale D pp der ’

A e . L i bi s A n na l lt n e g en xix,1 35. A 1 9 1 PPENDIX .

1 r i i r n u en 42 Z . e n e e 8 . inin,N Besch eibung g organischen Basen,dargestellt durch die Einwirkung des S chw e fe lw a s s ers to ffe s auf V e rbindungen der K o hlenwasser

' ' r l t rsa u s to ﬂ e mit U n te s a pe e re . A 1 843 . Hofmann, . W. Chemische Untersuchung der ’ ’ im t i nko hl n th e r l L i ebi s organischen Basen S e e e O . g

A n n ln 3 — n o a e ,xlvii, 7 . Ueber ei e Sichere R eacti n auf ’

L i ebi s A n n a len 200. Benzol . g ,lv,

4 d A o o n 1 8 8 . . C n C Bro ie, B . Investigati n the hemical

f Phi lo s o h T r a n s a ti ns 1 848 Nature o Wa x. p i ca l c o , ,

1 4 . p . 7

i Ph hi c 1 849 . . i lo s l s Brod e,B C. (On the same .) op a Tr a n

a cti o n s 49 9 1 . ,1 8 ,p .

A o f nderson,T . On the Products the Destructive D f hi h o E . P l s o i c l istillation Animal Substances . d o p a

Tr a n s a c i o s t n ,xvi .

C R C . J o u r na l Mansﬁeld, . B . esearches on oal Tar

o th h m a i 2 4 f e C e i c lSo c ety,i, 4 .

o itr n d Stenh use,J . On the N o g e a te Principles o f

' V e o f i egetabl s as the Sources Artiﬁcial Alkalo ds .

Phi lo s o hi ca lTr a n s a cti o n s 1 8 0 p , 5 .

1 851 . V o é e . i lette . M moir sur les charbons de bois

A nn h . Ch. P 4 ys . xxxii,30 . ’

1 854 . B éc h m A l i n a p, . De a c to des pr o to s e ls de fer sur

n itro n a hta lin e t A n n a les d la p e la nitrob e nzine . e

himi e etole Ph s i u e 1 8 6 C y q ,xlii, . 1 8 W 56. agenmann,C . Ueber die D estillation des Ph o ’ to e n s Pa ra ﬂﬁn o ls im V D i n ler s J o ur n a l g und acuum . g ,

cxxxix,43 .

Vo hl,H . Ueber di e Produkte der trockenen Des tilla ti o n des rheinischen B latters c hi efe rs (Schiste ’

&c . L i ebi s A n n a len 9 bitumineux), g ,xcvii, .

1 856 V ° ohl,H . U e ber die D e s ti lla ti o n s pro du kte d e r

J u r n a l u r k h Braunkohle und des Torfs . o f r p a ti s c e

hem i e C ,lxviii,504 ; lxxv,289 . 1 9 2 APPENDIX .

G . o f 7 l C. 1 8 5 . Wi liams, On some the Products o f the

D o f B o h e a d Phi Destructive istillation g Coal . lo

hi a Tr a n a cti o s 1 57 44 7 s 7 3 . op c l s n , 8 ,pp . and 7 A U 1 . C di 8 58 . Kekule, eber die onstitution und e Meta m o rph o s en der chemi s chen V erbindunge n,und ueber ’ di e K hle n s to ﬂ L i bi chemische Natur des o s . e g s

A n n a n 1 29 le ,cvi, .

Hl s iw e tz B u c h en th e er - o a ,H . Ueber Kreos t und die

s tilla ti o n r o d kt kh z J u r n a ur D e s p u e des Gu a j a a r e s . o lf

r a k i h m 1 p ts che C e i e,lxxv, .

F h r A elouz e, J and Ca o u s , . Recherches (sur les ’ é o Am éri u m ts r n du s 1 24 l p tr les d q e ) . Co p e e ,liv, 1 vi , 2 505 ; lvii,6 .

6 rr n . e . e o a e . M . R n 1 8 7 . ) V ,C ,and Stor r,F H esearch s

o l M m o i r s o the A m r i ca n V lati e Hydr o carb o ns . e f e A ca d emy,ix,1 7 7 . ﬂi 1 H e . Pa ra n C. . 8 68 . Gill, ,and M usel,E On and the

o o f J o u r n a l o the hem i ca l Pr ducts its Oxidation . f C

So ci ety,xxi,467 . Phi l h o rle m m r th e Pa ra fﬁn s . o c e . 1 8 7 2 . S ,C On Normal

h ca r a s s 1 2 1 1 1 s o p i l T n a c ti o n 8 7 ,p . .

Co E . J . Thorpe,T . ,and Young, On the mbined

s Pr o A c ti o n o fHeat and Pressure upon the Pa ra ﬂi n .

ceedi ngs of the R o ya lS o ci ety,xx,48 8 . hi / 1 7 E R o . P o 8 7 . Mills, . J . On Cumulative esoluti n

s o hi a lMa a z i n e p c g .

1 8 o f Co 83 . o o f Foster,W . The Behavi ur the Nitrogen al

J u r n . D hem . So c . o during estructive D istillation . C

T a n s 1 1 . ( r ),p . 0 ’ Pi e db oeu f tr lifer e s d E u r o e M ,L . Couches pe o p eri

di n a l R o e . U i (l s Mi 3 . ev. n v. e n es ,xiii,

T rv h o f A m e e t,R . On t e Productio n mmonia fro

I 445. S h m d t . . o u n . o e . n u s r Coke J r c . C y,p

1 4 R e A e t é . 88 . nard, . Sur les essences huiles de r sine

A n n hi P 2 3 C m . h s 2 . . y . i,

1 9 4 APPENDIX.

[Wood vinegar,with drawing o f plant] ; a n d F u rn i

hi c i 26 R novi phi lo s o p ; pars prima,p . [ osin oils]

47 — 2 D u l pp . 5 ,[ estr ctive distillation in genera ] C 1 686. Lemery,N . A ourse of Chemistry,translated —1 2 t from the 5th French edi tion,pp . 3 [Principles] e

s o n eq . [Operati s ]

- M di m 1 7 30. e c u Q uincy,J . Lexicon Physico ,or a New

s . Medical Dictionary . Art . De tillation [Physical theory,by F r ei n d ; also various special di stillations ] S ee also,F r ei n d,J Chemi cal Lectures,2n d edition ,

Lect . iii 1 64 7 . Macquer,M . Elements of the Theory and Practice

f e 2n d . o Ch mistry, edition A Translation . [Oils,

f f . Charcoal,& c . , rom a phlogistic point o view ]

7 E x rM n t n r 1 8 6. Higgins,B . p e e s a d Observations e A & lating to Acetous cid, c . iii 1 l. 800. Watson,R . Chemical E ssays . V o ,Essay i On

Bitumens and Charcoal . x 1 62 3 . o W 1 8 6 A . 8 H fmann, . International E hibition, mi R eport on Che cal Products and Processes . [Nume rous details on the Principles and Processes of Destr uo tive

1 865 W W . R . right, The Oil egions of Pennsylvania, Showing where Petro leum is found,ho w it is obtain e d,

and at what cost,&c . N . Y .

— i n k n 1 7 1 . Z c e . 8 65 1 8 Die Braunkohle . 1 8 P 67 . ayen,A . Chimie industrielle,vol . ii (organique) .

W . 1 8 68 . urtz,A Dictionnaire de Chimie pure e t a p

li u s p q ée . [Special article ]

n R b W . 1 87 2 . ag er, A Hand ook of Ch emical Technolo gy

o o (Translated by Cr kes) .

1 87 4 . A r . D a s P fﬁ n di e Min era lo l A lb echt,M ara und e . [ pamphlet containing very numerous manufacturing deta ils ] APPENDIX. 1 9 5

1 8 7 4— o f 5. Watts,H . A Dictionary Ch emistry, 2n d

s edition . [Special article ]

1 . M u 87 5 Ure,A . Dictionary of Arts, an factur es, a n d i Mines,7 th ed tion . [Special articles ]

. R o Wrigley,H E . Special eport n the Petroleum o f Pennsylvania its Production, Transportation,

Manufacture, and Statistics . Maps and illustra

tions .

1 - 8 7 7 . . d i A Hofer,H Die Petroleum In ustr e Nord mericas .

t l a n d h [His ory,economics,geo ogy, tec nology .]

1 87 8 . C Pechar,T . oal and Iron in all Cou ntries of th e W orld . [Statistics ] — 1 - 7 8 9 . tri lm n n 8 S pp e a ,L . Die Petroleum Industrie Oester

- reich Deutschlands . [Geology, mining, economics,

technology .]

1 8 1 . . n Pro 8 Burgmann,A Petroleum a d E rdwachs . [ cesses,plant,and testing ]

R P d o P f Brunton, . H . The ro uction f ara ﬁn and

P f . P r o c . In s t. C E e a n d ara ﬁn Oils ( . .) [Process s results of manufacture] 1 hl h 882. C d s Stei n ko en t e e rs Schultz, G. Die hemie e . [Materials plant,reference s ]

R a n d o f Meade, ichard . The Coal Iron Industries the United Kin gdom, comprising a descripti o n o f the Coal F ields and o f the principal Seams o f Co al, with returns o f their produce and its Distribution,a n d A nalyses o f specia l varieties ; also an account o f the occurrence o f Ores in Veins and Seams ; Analysis o f each variety ; and a history o f the Rise a n d Progress

o f Pig- Iron Manufacture since the year 1 7 40,exhibit ing the economies introduced in the blast furnaces fo r

its production and improvement .

u A o n C L nge,G . Treatise the Distillation of oal Tar and Ammoniacal L iquor,a n d the separation from A N PPE DIX.

f V A a them o aluable Products . [ lso in German

edition .]

Mi r ho ra hi e n u i e c o to b. d R einsch,P . F . p g p Strue

haltn er v 3 . tu r er i s s e d Steinkohle dem Carbon . 1 plates 4 1 88 to . Leipzig, 3 . A 1 83 . u fo r 8 Gro ven,H . New Method the Determina

o f tion Nitrogen in all its Combinations . Translation

eil by G . B by . 1 4 88 . n C. R rn Marvi , The egion of the Ete al Fire . [The Petroleu m R egion of the Caspian in 1 883]

Schaedler,C. Die Technologie der Fette u . Oele

Mi n er l le Illu s r a O . t . . der Fossilien [ ] Plates L eipzig . h R d 1 88 5. Peck am,S . F . eport on the Pro uction,Tech n o lo g y, and Uses o f Petroleum and its Products (1 8 7 9 [An exhaust ive treatise o n the subj ect, w ith voluminous bibliography] — 1 C. 88 6 7 . Schaedler, Die Technologie der F ette und

o & c . Oele der F ssilien Leipzig . — P 1 7 C . . 88 . rew Practical Treatise on etroleum

’ hr s b i c t A . Wagner s J a e er h . ( nnual ) ’ R r to r i u m d r techni s hen L i ter a tu r e e c . Kerl s p e (Annual . ) ’ a Wo r ks S ta ti ti s Hastings s G s s c . (Annual .) ’

o P tr lu m R o r tr . St well s e o e ep e (Monthly . ) i hti r n a a s n l . J o u lof G L g g . (Week y )

h P r leum Wo r ld W T eto . e . ( eekly )

u l the S o ci et o Chemi ca lIn du s tr J o r na o . f y f y (Monthly . ) ’ a d Co lo ur m a n s o ur n a l The Oi l n J . (Monthly . ) ’ N eue Wo chen s chr i t ur den Oel u n d F ettwa a r enha n d l f f e .

(Weekly . )

R r t o the Geo lo i ca lS u rve o P en n s lv n i a e o a . p f g y f y (Annual .

1 885—8 6 fo r d See years , etailed maps and section . )

r a l R es o u r ces th U i Sta ts Mi n e o e n td . J . e e D . W f ( eeks .

Annual . )

1 8 E 9 APP NDIX .

7 m ra tur e p e e.

C . . Deg . 5 (Deg F

c ic r a vi t Sp e if G y.

l 1 0 0 ” Deg . Twadde l x 5 0 Sp . gr .

. x 1 000 1 000 Sp . gr Deg Twaddel] 5

Wa ter bein g ta k en a s I N D E X .

ru e o il 1 6 29 c ,a c etc ,87 . , , . A id i ’ C d r a tm en t 33 . u m ula t e reso u to n ta r,R a ve s te , C iv l i ,7 . i n 1 46 Alba m a ,petro le u m , . e i n 1 45 Al r a , e tro eum , . g i p l D eblo o m in g,9 4 . m r A e ,9 9 . b e t n d u t f 2 a a o s a e 2 . m D p h q li y h l , A m o n a c u m ,9 9 . i s i a D t to n , e s tru cti e, e ne ,5 . n t ra cen 66 i ll i d v d ﬁ d A h e , . t n ra c o a ,1 1 . A e ta r 8 f i l pp , 9 . ’ l ra o n s o o D ,9 9 . n 1 8 g bl d Ar gen tin a ,p etro leu m i , 5 . s a t A ph l ,1 60.

s s a m etro eu m i n 1 55. E u ct e n e A ,p l , d ,d ﬁ d,5. A s ta tlri 1 2 E t e tro eum i n 1 5 , 9 . gyp ,p l , 6. E em 9 9 l i, . 1 B a lu chi sta n ,pe tro leu m i n , 53 . a B a ra n ga s ,petr o leu m o f,1 39 . Ga lici ,o u tpu to f petro leum i n ,

- e et r tre s u e 1 9 etro eum i n 1 34 . B o o id s , 7 . p l , i ra 1 9 0 Ga s fro m a r a fﬁ n o il 3 o 6. Bibl g phy, . p , tum en 1 6 a n a a n 5 Bi , 0. C di ,7 . a t- t Ga s a n i n s u rn a c a r . a Bl f e ,7 7 ,Co l,c y ide ,60.

o n e u o r r o m 1 3 . a r s 7 5. B ,liq f , 7 P i . ilfro m 1 1 r o s c u e 59 . , 7 . bb d, o sn a etro eu m i n 1 46 s u u r i n 61 B i ,p l , . lph , . wn 1 ro c o a 6 n te ta tes 5. B l, 9 . U i d S ,7

ro urn s e c to n i n 21 . G n a tu 0 B xb , i , a s, ra l,1 9 . m r m 3 ur t eu in 1 . n a tu r n f 4 B a h,p e o l , 8 a l,a a lys es o ,1 1 . c u o c l de d,1 9 . ﬂ 36 l O , , 7 6. C m i n 1 20 a o rn a etro eu . lif i ,p l , i n a s t n 2 sh le di illi g, 6. a n a da etro eu m i n 1 31 . ,p , - C l Ga s ta r ,ni tr o gen in ,61 . a nn o s e 1 8 1 . C , G a s o o 8 5 ,W d, . a o u tc o u c 1 00 C h , . a tn 1 4 e e, 7 . 0 G l i e u o s e 1 8 . C ll l . n Germ a y,pe tro leum i n ,1 46 . e re s n 1 4 6 . C i , u a a cu m 9 ’ G i , 9 . h en a l 4 C ls pr o c es s , 7 . o e a 5 59 1 C k ,Co l, 8 , ,6 . w ea ts , a n d lo ,49 . C o a l,co mpo s itio n o f,55. H high 4 la n o f 5 0 H u n a r e tro e u m i n 1 5. c o ur s e o f dis til tio , 7 6 . g y,p l , s tlle i n a r e tm e 5 di i d v i d i , 7 .

t i m e 0. dis tille d wi h l ,6 m 2 I n dia ,pe tr o leu i n ,1 5 . a s co m o s to n o f 7 3 . g , p i i , a r u m 1 1 I n dia n ,p et o le i n , 0. o r a n c m a tter i n ea te 7 1 . g i ,h d, r e u m i n 1 0 Ita ly,p e to l , 5 . u u f 4 o tp to ,7 . r m yields f o ,59 .

4 1 J a a n e tro e um i n 1 59 . Co a l ta r,5 ,6 . p ,p l ,

6 J u te i s t a to n o f 9 0. c o m po s itio n o f,65, 7 . ,d ill i , n n r e ﬁn in g,o pe ra tio s i ,69 . n t f 1 tre a tm e o ,6 . Kentu cky,p etro l eu m i n ,1 1 9 . c o n s titu en ts o f,69 . u ts r m 8 Co k e o ven s ,pro d c f o ,7 .

n te 1 69 . Co lo ra do ,petr o leu m i n ,1 1 9 . Lig i ,

m L u o r a ra f n 27 . Co lu bia ,pe tro le u m i n ,1 45. iq ,p ﬁ ,

r - ta r 1 ro s m 9 3 . Co k ,9 . ,

ra c n 4 wo o 8 5 . C ki g, 8 . d, 200 INDEX .

’ exco etro eum in 1 45. R eto rt o m s i ,p , , e s ,23 . M l H ’l R o lle s ,23 s a e e scr e 1 h , , 8 5. N a phtha ,wo o ,8 7 l d ib d d St n i a r 1 8 8 . N e w u t a e s s a e 1 gg, So h W l h l , 6. ’ Ta o r s 37 1 7 6. s ta stc s f 1 yl , , t o , 8 . ’ i i o u n Y s ,1 8 6. N e w r r o u 1 g Yo k,pet le m in ,1 0. o u n a n d B eilb 25 1 Y , , 8 7 . N ew Z a n e r m i n 1 g y e la d,p t o leu , 58 . R o s n s t a to n f 1 i ,di ill i o , 3,9 1 . o il 1 9 ,9 , 3 .

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o ut u to f 1 66. s r p , pi it,9 3,9 7 . R o u m a n a etro eu i 1 i ,p l m n, 37 . R u s s a n il o ,c o e 1 30. a ra f i k , P fin in du s try,1 6. o s c o m o s to n o f 1 2 , p , 9 . era t n s i 4 il i i o p o n , 5. i o il s ta ts tc f 2 , s o ,1 5. s ta ts t f 3 4 i i cs o , 8, 1 . i i r n n t f 24 e c o s o 1 . e fi i g, , j lly,47 . n a t r 4 u e o f, 6. P a r a ffi n s ,n o rm a l,bo ilin g - po in ts o f, co tts s a es e o o f S i h h l ,g l gy o ,1 9 . 53 . r e s u ts ro m ,43 . P a ra ffi n s ,n o rm a l,m eltin g - po in ts o f, l f a r a t n s i n v i io ,42 . 53 . er a 011 s a e in 1 59 Pa r f n il r n n S vi , h l , . a fi o , e fi i g,30. r w t, o o 8 8 . s o e 4 Spi i d, , 7 . lidifi d t a rc 1 8 2 . s ti l 1 0 S h, l ,c o ke, 3 . u n t 1 7 8 . wa x u e e 4 S i , ,liq fi d, 7 . u a te ,28 . re ni n 4 S lph fi g,3 . r c es o f 40 e a t 1 68 p i , . P , . ul d a r fli ur a n a ns 1 9 . en n s a n a etr o e um i n 1 1 0 S ph p , P ylv i ,p l , . S u mm a r 1 83 . e r s a etr o eu m i n 1 44 y, P i ,p l , . e r u tr e u m n 1 P ,p e o l i , 57 . Pe r u m 1 0 to e , 0 . l T a r a s ro u c er ,g p ,80. t n f 1 1 5 d c o mpo s o o , . i i r o c o r c 8 0 h h , . u rm e s e a n a s e 1 43 yd l i B , , . ly d wo o 8 1 8 , , 8 . a n a a n co m o s to n o f 1 33 d , p , . C di i i Ten n e s s e e etro e u m i n 1 1 9 ,p , . ro u c t n o f 1 33 l p o , . d i Tu r e s ta n e tr e m i n ,p o u ,1 4 4. a c a n c o m o s to n o f 1 5 k l , p , 3 . G li i i i Tr n a 1 44 . w f 1 2 i id d, e a tn o er o 9 . h i g p .

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