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Sloth Bear Attacks in Sri Lanka

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Sloth Bear Attacks in Sri Lanka Hum Ecol (2014) 42:467–479 DOI 10.1007/s10745-014-9643-y Challenges of Large Carnivore Conservation: Sloth Bear Attacks in Sri Lanka Shyamala Ratnayeke & Frank T. Van Manen & Rohan Pieris & Varapragasam S. J. Pragash Published online: 5 February 2014 # Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014 Abstract Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) attacks in Sri 1600 h) in the dry season, when humans were likely Lanka present a major challenge to their conservation to engage in forest activities such as honey gathering. as human populations grow and compete with bears for Most attacks (80 %) occurred when humans and bears sur- space and resources. Bear attacks on humans predomi- prised each other at close proximity (<10 m). Most (84 %) nantly affect the rural poor and seem to be increasing in victims carried a weapon but 55 % said the attack was too frequency. In 2004, we conducted the first island-wide sudden to effectively use the weapon in self-defense. Human survey of bear attacks in Sri Lanka. Our main goals injuries included lacerations and puncture wounds, broken were to 1) describe where and when attacks occurred, limbs, skull fractures, and the loss of scalps, eyes, or other 2) describe the characteristics and outcome of bear parts of the face. Almost all major injuries resulted from bites. attacks, and 3) evaluate the influence of human group In 61 attacks bears were wounded and in 39 attacks bears were size on the severity of bear attacks. We interviewed 271 killed. The severity of human injuries depended on human individuals attacked by sloth bears between 1938 and group size; solitary humans experienced more severe injuries 2004. Sloth bears rarely entered village compounds, than expected, suggesting that the presence of other humans damaged property, or raided crops; conflicts predomi- may moderate the bear’s aggression and motivate it to flee. nantly involved attacks on people in forests. Most sloth Widespread fear of sloth bears poses a significant challenge to bear attacks took place during daylight hours (0900- modifying ineffective human responses to bear encounters (e.g., fleeing). Conservation outreach could emphasize that greater human safety may be achieved from remaining in F. T. Van Manen groups and using extreme caution around thickets and rock Department of Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries, University of outcrops likely to be used by bears. Tennessee, 274 Ellington Plant Sciences Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA Keywords Bear attacks . Human-bear conflict . Melursus R. Pieris ursinus . Sloth bear . Rural . Sri Lanka Department of Zoology, Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka V. S. J. Pragash Introduction Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Applied Science, Vavuniya Campus, University of Jaffna, Kurumankadu, Vavuniya, Sri Lanka Human wildlife conflict has emerged as a major challenge to conservation efforts as human populations grow and compete Present Address: with wildlife for space and resources (e.g., Distefano 2003, * S. Ratnayeke ( ) Madhusudan 2003, Woodruffe et al. 2005). Although a global School of Biological Sciences, The University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 338, Dodoma, Tanzania phenomenon, it is most acute in tropical countries with large e-mail: [email protected] human populations. Therein, human communities that are poor and marginalized suffer the principal burden of such Present Address: conflict with costs that extend well beyond direct conse- F. T. Van Manen U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center, quences such as physical injury, crop loss, and damage to Interagency, Grizzly Bear Study Team, Bozeman, MT 59715, USA property (Ogra 2008). 468 Hum Ecol (2014) 42:467–479 Although the broad causes and effects of human wildlife phenomenon, and played a significant role in shaping human conflict share similarities, the nature and intensity of conflict perceptions and attitudes towards sloth bears (Ratnayeke et al. often varies with the biology of the wildlife species concerned, 2006, 2007a). Sloth bears rarely entered village compounds, its distribution relative to critical resources and human- damaged property, or raided crops; bear conflicts predomi- occupied spaces, and the social and economic characteristics nantly involved attacks on people in forests (Ratnayeke et al. of human communities experiencing conflict (Distefano 2006, 2007a). 2003). For example, reports from India suggest substantial In this study, we present data collected during the first spatial and temporal variation in the nature and intensity of island-wide survey on human-sloth bear attacks in Sri Lanka sloth bear conflicts (Rahpurohit and Krausmann 2000; Bargali using interviews with victims and eyewitnesses of sloth bear et al. 2005; Chauhan 2006). Most incidents involve humans attacks. Our main goals were to determine 1) where and when mauled by bears and most attacks occur in forests. In certain sloth bear attacks occurred, 2) characteristics of sloth bear regions (e.g., North Bilaspur) conflicts are more intense where attacks, and 3) the influence of human companions on the bears attack humans within village premises and raid crops outcome of bear attacks. and other food sources in fields and village gardens. Clearly, strategies for mitigating the frequency and severity of sloth bear attacks must begin with detailed knowledge of how, Study Area when, and where bear attacks occur (World Society for the Protection of Animals [WSPA] 2009). Increasing human safe- Sri Lanka lies to the south of India between 5°55’–9°50’ N ty in areas occupied by large, dangerous carnivores also and 79°42’–81°52’ E. The climate is tropical, marked by 2 requires that key factors associated with attacks are recognized monsoonal periods bringing rainfall, mostly to the southwest so that the probability or severity of an attack can be reduced region of the island. Sri Lanka has 3 main ecological regions (Herrero 2002; Löe and Røskaft 2004;Herreroet al. 2011). based on total annual rainfall: the southwest receives Currently, such information is limited regarding sloth bear 2,500 mm rainfall annually, the dry zone receives 1,900 mm, attacks on humans. and the intermediate zone transitions between the 2 regions Sloth bears occur in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bhutan (Domrös 1974). The island’slandareaof67,864km2 (United (Garshelis et al. 1999) and are listed as Vulnerable throughout Nations Environment Program [UNEP] 2003)consistsof3 their range (Garshelis et al. 2008). Sloth bear populations have physiographic regions, namely the coastal lowlands (0– suffered from habitat loss and their future throughout most of 250 m) that surround 2 successively higher plateaus in the their range is uncertain in the face of high human densities central hill country (Fig. 1a). combined with poverty and unsustainable land use practices. Sri Lanka was identified among some of the first global In Sri Lanka, migration and resettlement of people into sloth biodiversity hotspots for its high biodiversity, species ende- bear range now occurs in the aftermath of almost 20 years of mism, and the exceptional degree of threat to its biodiversity civil war. (Myers 1988). Human densities in Sri Lanka exceed 300/km2 Sloth bears have a formidable reputation for inflicting and more than 80 % of the population is rural (United Nations serious injury to humans, often to the head and face. Secretariat 2010). The majority of the human population lives Humans mauled by sloth bears may die or experience perma- in the wet zone (UNEP 2003). Human life expectancy nent physical disability and subsequent social and economic (73 years) and literacy (91.6 %) are high, but 25 % of the hardship. Thus, the sloth bear is one of the most feared population lives below the national poverty level (World Bank animals throughout its range (Phillips 1984;Rajpurohitand 2002). Agriculture is the mainstay of Sri Lanka’seconomy, Krausmann 2000; Ratnayeke 2007a). Between 1989 and accounting for >30 % of total employment and almost 50 % 1994, Rajpurohit and Krausmann (2000) reported 735 human of Sri Lanka’s land area (Narayan and Yoshida 2005). In casualties in the adjacent Indian states of Madhyar Pradhesh 2003, forests occupied approximately 24–26 % of the is- and Chhattisgarh, 48 of which were fatal. Bargali et al. (2005) land (UNEP 2003), most of which consisted of dry mon- reported 126 human casualties and 11 fatalities from sloth bear soon forest (Legg and Jewell 1995) in the dry zone low- attacks in the North Bilaspur Forest Division of Chhattisgarh. lands.Muchoftheremaininglandinthedryzonelowlands These two studies suggest that sloth bear attacks can have comprised sparse forests (18 %) consisting of low-stature profound consequences for people. For bears, consequences vegetation and grasslands (UNEP 2003). are also severe because humans often kill bears from fear, self- The survey area encompassed the historic range of the sloth defense, or retaliation, and every attack erodes local support bear in Sri Lanka (Fig. 1a). Early accounts indicated that sloth for their conservation (Chauhan 2006;Ratnayekeet al. 2006). bears occurred almost exclusively within the dry zone in the During an island-wide survey in 2004 to map the distribu- early 20th century (Phillips 1984). In 2004, Ratnayeke et al. tion of sloth bears in Sri Lanka it became apparent that sloth (2007a) confirmed that sloth bears still occurred in the dry bear attacks were a widespread and under-reported lowlands where there was sufficient forest cover (Fig. 1b)and Hum Ecol (2014) 42:467–479 469 Fig. 1 A) The study area included the historic range of the sloth bear in The 2004 range of the sloth bear was closely tied to monsoon forest in the Sri Lanka. Boundaries of the surveyed area were subjectively determined dry zone lowlands of Sri Lanka (Ratnayeke et al. 2007a) based on sloth bear reportings in forests of the dry zone (Phillips 1984). B) where human densities were substantially lower than the is widespread in the dry zone (Bandaratillake 1994; national average. During that study, the poorest households Ratnayeke et al.
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