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Natural Products and Their Potential Anti-HAV Activity pathogens Review Natural Products and Their Potential Anti-HAV Activity Agnieszka Jama-Kmiecik 1, Jolanta Sarowska 1, Dorota Wojnicz 2 , Irena Choroszy-Król 1 and Magdalena Frej-M ˛adrzak 1,* 1 Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, Wroclaw Medical University, Chalubinskiego 4, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland; [email protected] (A.J.-K.); [email protected] (J.S.); [email protected] (I.C.-K.) 2 Department of Medical Biology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, J. Mikulicza-Radeckiego 9, 50-345 Wroclaw, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-71-784-00-13-06 Abstract: The role of purified natural products in the prevention and treatment of countless diseases of bacterial, fungal, and viral origin cannot be overestimated. New antiviral drugs have been obtained from natural sources and transformed into preparations for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes. Flavonoids, polyphenols, saponins, proanthocyanins, polysaccharides, organic acids, proteins, polypeptides, and essential oils derived from plants, animals, or microorganisms can control and combat foodborne viral infections, including hepatitis A. The components of essential oils are characterized by numerous therapeutic and antioxidant properties and exhibit a broad spectrum of antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Due to these properties, they can be used to preserve meat, fruit, vegetables, and their products. Over the past two decades, much effort has been made to identify natural products, mostly of plant origin, to combat foodborne viruses. Natural plant extracts have several potential uses, not limited to increasing the safety of food products and improving their Citation: Jama-Kmiecik, A.; quality, but also as natural antiviral agents. Sarowska, J.; Wojnicz, D.; Choroszy-Król, I.; Frej-M ˛adrzak,M. Keywords: HAV; essential oils; plant substances; foodborne viruses Natural Products and Their Potential Anti-HAV Activity. Pathogens 2021, 10, 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/ pathogens10091095 1. Introduction Academic Editor: Anna Rosa Food contaminated with viruses can be a source of contamination for consumers, Garbuglia although foodborne viruses cannot multiply in food, unlike many microorganisms. Hepati- tis A virus (HAV) has been associated with many recorded major outbreaks, while other Received: 29 June 2021 human intestinal viruses such as human astrovirus (HAstV), human rotavirus (HRV), Accepted: 26 August 2021 sapovirus (SaV), enterovirus (EV) and Aichi virus (AiV) have caused sporadic outbreaks Published: 28 August 2021 around the world [1]. According to Yeargin et al., human intestinal viruses were detected in 13.1% and 45% of foodborne outbreaks in the EU and the USA, respectively [2]. Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The transmission of viruses to humans occurs through the consumption of contami- with regard to jurisdictional claims in nated food, through direct interpersonal contact, or through the environment, e.g., water [3]. published maps and institutional affil- Viruses can contaminate food at different stages of its production, from harvesting to post- iations. harvest [4], and food ingredients can protect the virus during processing and human consumption. For example, fat, sugar, and protein in food can prevent viruses from deacti- vating [5,6]. The infectious dose of foodborne virus is generally low and a small quantity of virus particles can cause infection. Foodborne viruses can survive in food for long Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. periods without losing infectivity [1]. Heat treatment is an effective means of deactivating Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. foodborne viruses, but it can alter the organoleptic properties (e.g., color and texture) and This article is an open access article reduce the nutrient content (e.g., protein and vitamins) of food [7]. Methods based on the distributed under the terms and use of heat as an effective method of pathogen deactivation are currently used in the food conditions of the Creative Commons industry to combat bacteria and yeasts [8]. However, thermal deactivation of intestinal Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// viruses, especially HAV in food, has not been fully understood [9–12]. Several studies have creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ shown that heat treatment induces a conformational change in the capsid, leading to a 4.0/). Pathogens 2021, 10, 1095. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091095 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/pathogens Pathogens 2021, 10, 1095 2 of 19 reduction in initial viral titers, but the effect depends on the heat treatment conditions and the composition of the processed food [13,14]. A wide variety of food items, including drinks and juices, are usually preserved through heat treatment, which is characterized by a combination of two parameters: temperature and time. However, high-temperature treatment negatively affects food quality, ultimately reducing both the nutritional and sensory value of food [15,16]. Foodborne virus outbreaks are frequently associated with minimally processed and ready-to-eat foods, which is why alternative preservation methods are needed to inac- tivate viruses. It should also be noted that companies responsible for processing food should consider whether innovative non-thermal food processing technologies to deac- tivate viruses can also deactivate bacterial pathogens, such as Listeria monocytogenes, which may potentially survive in food during cold storage [17]. Gut viruses have received less attention than other foodborne pathogens, and strate- gies to combat them are necessary to ensure food safety and reduce the number of infections in humans. Today, vegetables and berries are most commonly associated with intestinal virus outbreaks as they are generally eaten fresh or mildly processed (e.g., frozen or freeze-dried blueberries, blanched vegetables), increasing the risk of infection. These foods are prone to contamination due to the use of fecally contaminated water for irrigation or the lack of proper hygiene among food contact persons [18,19]. The consumption of fresh vegetables has increased significantly around the world with the advent of new technologies, and a wide range of products, from packaged salads to freshly cut fruit, makes the consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables affordable and convenient for consumers. The consumption of fresh produce is part of a healthy diet, but pathogenic contamina- tion has serious public health implications. Outbreaks of infections are often associated with tomatoes, spinach, lettuce, and seed sprouts. Vegetables can become contaminated with human pathogens at several points along the production chain [20]. Clear strategies for identifying sources of pathogens should be developed and steps taken to prevent contamination of vegetables along the entire production chain [21]. Sources of plant contamination have been broken down into pre-harvest (focused on improving soil quality, irrigation water, climate change, and geographic location) and post-harvest (harvesting, handling, and processing). Potential sources of pathogen contamination prior to harvest include soil, wildlife feces, soil alteration, agricultural water, reconstituted fungicides and insecticides, dust, wild or domestic animals, field workers, and harvesting equipment [20,22,23]. Research shows that animal manure used to improve soil can contain viruses, parasites, or bacteria, which pose a risk to human health. Irrigation is considered to be one of the most important ways of transmitting intestinal human intestinal pathogens to vegetables [24]. It is known that plants produce secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity in response to pathogen attack as a defense mechanism. Today, there has been a significant increase in the interest of usage of natural products as effective antiviral therapeutic agents. This paper discusses the action of selected essential oils and natural products against hepatitis A virus. Recent in vitro study revealed that green tea extract (GTE) demonstrated excellent antiviral activity against hepatitis A virus under controlled conditions of concen- tration, pH, temperature, and also time exposure. It now appears that grape seed extract (GSE) exhibits rather greater antiviral activity by potentially blocking host cell receptors and consequently preventing virus entry, replication, and infection, while not causing any structural damage to the HAV viral capsid. In turn, proanthocyanidins from blueberries slightly reduce HAV replication in the host cells, but they interrupt HAV binding and penetration to a much greater extent. Research into natural anti-HAV products is promising as several have shown remarkable potential for controlling HAV infection and replication. These natural agents have been shown to exhibit significant antiviral activity against HAV Pathogens 2021, 10, 1095 3 of 19 and can act at different stages of the virus life cycle, replication, assembly, release, as well as targeting specific virus–host interactions. The aim of the study was to evaluate, based on the available literature, the effect of essential oils and plant substances on the growth and survival of HAV. 2. Hepatitis A Virus Hepatitis A virus (HAV), the cause of hepatitis A, is responsible for approximately 1.5 million reported cases and tens of millions of infections each year. Although hepatitis A is a self-limiting disease of the liver, it sometimes progresses to a severe, life-threatening
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