Landscapesin tansition: the Iater Roman and ear$ medievalperiods StepbenRippon

ABSTRACT mass folk migration, and those revisionists who argued simply for a political take-over of the native In recent decades new ligbt bas been cast upon tbe population and their landscape by a new warrior impact of tbe Anglo-Saxons in England.. 6lite. \fhat this paper hopes to show is that Tltis cbapter examines tbe concept of continuity through the careful integration of a wide range of and discontinuity tbrougb tbe use of evidence, it appears that the transition from Roman documentary, place-n6tme, arcbaeological and Britain to Saxon England was in practice a complex palaeoenuironmental data integrated witb combination of these fwo processes. euidence from tbe landscape itself. Interdisciplinary study is the k"y to understanding this difficult period, and this paper KEYSTORDS will focus on the contribution that landscape studies have made. Firstly, it will be shown how Continuity, early medieval, land use, late Roman, large-scale fieldwork forced traditional views of settlement patterns, settlement types the late Roman period to be reviewed, and how various strands of evidence were used to postulate that many aspectsof the Romano-British landscape INTRODUCTION survived into the medieval period. Attention will then turn to a critical assessment of what It has long been argued that the ending of Roman 'continuity' actually means in the context of rural authority over Britain was associated with landscapes,which leads to a consideration of two profound changes in the landscape, with a critical issues: what happened to the native complex urban hierarchy and civilised countryside Romano-British communities, and, in southern and of villa-estatesbeing replaced by derelict towns eastern England, what were the relationships and regenerated woodland. The native population between native and immigrant populations at a - Gildas''wretched suryivors' (rVinterbo ttom 7978, site, local and regional level? Attention will then )OCV.l) - were forced westwards by the Anglo- focus on the wider landscape, with particular Saxon newcomers, who then cleared that emphasis on palaeoenvironmental evidence for woodland and created open fields and nucleated any changing patterns of land use. villages (e.g.Hoskins 1955). However, this traditional view was based upon three very weak strands of evidence: an exceedingly sketchy documentary record, the interpretation of place- CHANGING VIE\TS OF THE LATE- AND POST- name and linguistic evidence,and avery restricted ROMAN LANDSCAPE ran5aeof archaeological material, notably grave The 1960s and 7970ssaw a profound change in goods from cemetery excavations.The scholarly our understanding of the late Roman period, as philosophy was also highly unsatisfactory as the new techniques that were to become the archaeological evidence was used simply to foundations of landscape archaeology - aerial slrpport a documentary-basedhistory period of the photography, fieldwalking, open area excavations, dominated by invasion, conquest, kingdom and, palaeoenvironmental analysis - started to formation and certain legendary (or mythical?) occur on a large scale. The results have heroic figures (e.g. Myres 1986; and see Garwood transformed our understanding of the late 1989). Romano-Britishlandscape. It was realisedthat the One of the major achievements of landscape landscape of Roman Britain was more densely archaeology since the I970s has been to first populated than previously thought, expanding challenge, and then reject this traditional model. from Collingwood and Myres' (7937, p. 180) c. 1 The result was that a paradigm of discontinuity million, to Salway's(1981 , p.544) 4-6 mlllion (and came to be replaced by one of overriding see Millett 7990, pp. 131-6). Although some continuity, leading to a certaindivision in outlook scholarssee a relatively simple, two-fold division between scholars whose main focus was Anglo- in the Romano-British landscape (along similar Saxon cemeteries,settlements and material culture, Iines to traditional upland/lowland or mllitary/ who still viewed the post-Romanperiod as one of civilian divide: e.g. Dark & Dark 1997), it is ,i8 LANI)SCAI'I-] T{ISTOIT\

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r'l t) A ,;t'; I 4 o'- T--'- I town i\ I \ )_,,2 I smalltown J { +o la A villa ,'4 I A A

A*'r'^ -. O 5thcentury'Anglo-Saxon' t occupauon f'--.rP O -.j 'Anglo-Saxon' ioO O etit to 7th century - sites and finds t'()-" ''-'-€ 'f i.\. o Irig. r. 1rr. he clistlillr-rtior-l \. /\ of high stxtLls llotrtrtt-ttt- \LJ llritislr settlcnrent in Esser. i shou. ing its nrarkccl bias "ioo tourrrcls tlrc r-rolth ancl i'o s'est (eficr (ioing 1996). Srrclt l.t:tl r ltl'i:ttiottsin ! lltnclscupe strtl('ttlrc clllt .-.--''ra lre secn thloLtghout tltc o c()untf),'si(lt' Of Ittrtion o 'l,larlr., of Suxon' rtreterial 'l'vlcr in Irssex (uftcr o. 1996). Thcrc is rt tttarkecl 9o concentrltti()lt it-t the sor-rth ancl east. r.r'ltich is per-ticLrlurly' clcll r''''her-t or-rlt' fifth-cct-itr.tt'v sitcs rulc c'onsiclcrccl ( c'1. the clistril.tr-rtion of ll

increasingly possible to recognise that regional a flor-rrisl-ringlrrban ccntre. wlls vt:ly clif'fbrent tcr variution in ecctnt>micsystems ancl sclcial strttctr-tres the ancl Strffolk claylancls rvhere a few 'r crcclrrrccl at J mltch more local scale. The mainly hr-rrnltle villas c<>r-rlcllle for-rncl in cotrntrysiclc <>f Rcttnan llritain wls tt coniplex l:rnclsc:rpe in wliicl-r ltoth ltrll:.tn ancl rttral rnos:ric witl'r, fc>rexample, certain llrces of even settlements were in clecline, ancl fielcls werc going the south-cust lacking a strongly vill:r-lrasecl out of use (see below; ancl sce Rippon in press, lanclscapc (e.g. Fig. 4.1; ancl see Hinglcy 1989; chs 5-6). J

()ccLlpation ()f centLlry Lr village character to have bcen succeeclecl lty tl-reheacllancls of open (e,.g. Wh2rrniln Percey, Yorkshire: Beresforcl & flclcls, the large-scale replanning of these Micllancl Hurst 1990; Milne & Richarcls 7992), and where landscapes frctm arouncl the ninth/tenth ccnturies earlier scttlemcnts were cxcavated elsewhere they means that eviclence for any continLrity :rt the encl lackecl the size and rcgularity of meclieval villages of the Roman periocl will have been largely swept (c.g. Mucking, Essex: Hamerow 1,993;V/est Stow, away (e.g. Brown & Ford 199f1,fig. 1,1).However, Suffi>lk: \flcst 1985). Fielclwalking sr_rpportedthe extensive areas outsicle the Micllancls nevcr sa\\r er.,iclence frctm excavation in strggesting that this l:rter lanclscape transfctrn-ration,and as slrch scttlentents assctciatecl w.ith fiftli- to seventh- have greatcr potential for lanclscape continuity. ccntrlry p()ttery fomecl a 1-righlycli.spersecl pa.ttern In are:ls such as Esser. largc-scale excavations wl-ricl-r sho'nvecl a relativcly high clegree of in aclvance of gravel extracti<)n are revealing latcr (Arnolcl mobility & Warclle 1981; Hoclge.s 1989; prehistoric ancl Romano-Rritish fielcl systems cl. Hanrcror,v 1991). In tl-re Midlancls and North- wl-rich, althor-rgh partly abanckrnccl (ancl now. east, tliis c:llre to l-re replacccl by nucleated showing Llp as crop-n-rarks), appear to firllon villages :lrouncl the encl of the millennir_rm the general orientation

\ 'l'itA\SI'l'l()N: LANI)s(lAI)]lsIN Tttf,t LA'I'F.ttR()\'lAN A\t) EAtu.y \.tF.t)tF.\'ALpt.tRt()t)s 51

llecl)ani,slns - notrrbly the IX)litical slrprcmilcr xncl - rc>aclsancl urccs) I{ines 1tlc)o; I)olvlcsluncl - i,c)97. p. 90). Thc-se ritr-ralfoci (whcre rcligion uncl bLrrial \\rr.ls vrrrious pr()ccsscs of nrigrrtion ancl assirlilrrtion pr:-rctisccl) will havc occlrrrecl - in cliftbr-entways in ciif-fbrent soci:rl strLlctltres(inclLtclir-rg kinshil-t uroLrps) pluces, resulting in - n'r:lrkccl rcgionul variation in territoriul sttrcttrrcs (ccoru>n-ricancl tcnurilI ur"rits ho'rr,'the lanclscape u,':rs afllctccl, ancl therc is a n,ithin vn,hichlrll thc alxr','c wcfe lrrticulltccl) ncccl to inch-tcletopic.s - srrch:rs rLrr:rlclialccts in the clcmctgraphy(inclucling thc nrcial origins ncof gretrt enr,'irastal 'Anglo-Saron' u,'etluncls\\/cre inunclatccl ev'iclent in centcterics. w.hile the ut this tinte. ancl u,'l-rile this may in part h:.rr.e stLrclyof genctics. firr examplc. is shctn,ing that l>ecn clLrc to u fuilure to maintain f-looclclefcnces (u clistinctivc traits fitrncl in Frisia ancl Schlesrvig are culturul 1>henontcna), therc clctesappcer rarc in l]ritair-runcl clocs n()t sllpport the iclea that to havc ltecn u risc in relutivc sea-lcvel (Rippon all Englisl'r spcaking ul'eas \n/cre lctrge/,1,populatccl at tl-ristir-nc 2000; in 1;rcs.s, cl-r. 7). Horvcvcr, by those wl'ro sailecl acrc>ssthe English Clrannel a nurtrbcr ctf ccxLstalrnlrrshes appear to have ltecn in tl-rc fiftl-r ancl sixtl-r c<:ntrlries (El'ison 1.9()7: largely clcsertecllor-rg ltefitrc Mckie 1993). thc encl of thc fixrrth ccntllt-y ( c..q. arouncl tlie Tl'rames Estr,raryuncl This growing ertrl>l'rasislrpon c()ntinlrity culne <>nRstin Ircnllncl ancl arouncr the Scvern Estuary, this firrrnc-clasmull Clcrrranic ( c.g. Welch 1985; 1992: ScLrll1992 ,1993) 1>erccntuge <>fRritain :rs a u,'lxrlc. or Scunclinuvian (Hincs 1984) folk migratictn in Thcrc is alsct littlc cviclence tl'ratlowluncl llrituin suf-f-erecl the fifth ancl sixth ccnturies, \\-erc sccing an a significunt clin-ratic cleterioration at the cncl pcriocl. increasingly cliffcrent post-Rom2ln lanclscape tcr of the lkrnr:ln uncl if anytliing thc sixtl'r tl'reen less f:l'ourable to of clress. ancl other lxaterial culture, ltt:ly not agricr_rlttrrethan the fifth (Lan-rlr 7995, p. 165). Overall, any ch:rngc.ssccn in nrost rcprcsent thc r-rtovcnrentof 1;eople, lrlrt sir-nplythe lanclscal>escluring exchungc of ol>jects ancl tr:rnsmission of icleas thc fifth ccntllry \\'erc, thcrefirre, clue t-cconortriccirclrntst;.rnccs. in a periocl rrncfscc Cran'firrcl It)c)7;Harncrow. L()97:ancl Hines of cr-rltrrralupheuvul clifferent contp()ncnts ()f tl'rc 1997 for gcneral ovcrview.s). Hftcn livcly clelt:rte is tl'rat the cl-rangc. T'akc. firr crurtr;lle. a farr-nsteaclestal>lishecl variou.sstnrncls yAngl.-Suxrn inrn'rigmnts next tc) u Romano-Ilritish ficlcl systcrtrs,lturiuls, linguistics, etc - are all too villa u,'hich hacl lteen :llranclonecl fitr three often cliscr-rsseclin isnths. This r.r,'r>r-rlclentuil clentogr:rphic lanclscapc urchaectkrgy is tut frrnctional continr-rity ctf tltc fan-nsteucl. ternporal ancl spatial frarneu'rtrk into n,hich tl-rc as thc three-ntonth gap woulcl have becn rviclc runge of clata reluting tr>tl'ris periocl can lre of littlc practicxl significance in lanclscurpe woven tctgethcr uncl placccl in context. exploit:rtirn; ficlcl bounclurics rvotrrcr har,.c strrvivecl. crops ntay still ltave ltcen in a conclition tct hanrest (:_rncl.sc> procluce seecl fitr thc .CONTINTIII'Y' next year), ancl lir.,cstocknll)' n()t huvc r,vanclerccl ANI) THE ARTICL-II,ATION OF too far (uncl so coulcl huve becn POSI'_ROMAN LANI )SCAPES rounclccl rrn). Howevcr. if neighltotrring villas lrrrtl rrlso lrten ()wners Settlentents uncl ccnteterics, wl'rich harre prt crist in ncwc()nrers, then knorvlcclge of the Rornano-Ilritish a virclrLlrl lttrt \\,cre simply clc>ntesticand ritual p:rttern ctf lanclon,nership wor-rlcl prctltaltly elerrcnts of tl'relrroacler lanclscape. One key theme havc l>ecn lost, lcucling to the is tl'rcnatllrc r>ftl'rat n-rtrch-usecl phrase ,cctntinuity'. irlposition of tr nc\\, cstlrtc sitrLlctllre()n an cxisting p:lttern ne<>f tl-re lanclscape f'eatures leust likely to surr,,ir,.e was practisecl) ancl othcr areas of lanclccl zt peric>clof socio-ecl'nicclisnrttrion rrs scen at (sr,rcl'r res()Lu'cc as rlc:rclow ancl r,voocllancl) tl're encl cl. - non-agricultr,rral rcs<>urces (raw r-r-r:lterial pr()crlrcntcnt antl ntlrnufltctuling) I,AN I)SCAI)}., H IS'fOItY

THII FATII OF IiOMANO-URITISH exchange m:ty hltve continttccl filr sevcral clccacles ()ll COMMLINITIES into the fifth ccnttrry, alltcit potcntially lt vcry local scalc (c.g. Miles 1984, p. 14). Tl-recc>ntinr-tecl In view'ing tl-rc latc lltttlan lanclscilpe as a serics r-rscof fourth-centLlry pottery '.tncl tletal artef:rcts of articulrttccl cotnp()ncnts, we mllst consicler twcl into tl-rcfifth century is uore clifficr-rltto recognise, rclatecl issr-rcstl'rat affcctecl it cltrring thc post- btrt why shotrld people stclptrsing existing:trtefitcts Rornun pcriocl: in all Ltreasof llritain there is the sirnply becattse tu:lnttfacttlling liacl ccltsecl issr-rcof r.vhathappenccl to the native population, (e.g. see Farley 198'i, p. 229)'l All that wc can ancl in thc sottth ancl east of Englancl tl-rere is the conficlently say is tl-rat lllltny Rcltttan<>-llritish intcractianclonccl sclt-tletirlle lrctw'ecn pc>ptrlation ancl the irr-rrligrants (how'ever l-l-tany tl-relate for-trth ccntltry ancl r,vhencver clltrallle ancl tl-rcrc wcrc). clatallle rlaterial cttltltrc was ()ncc again in ttse cln Tl-re latc fotrrtl'r/ear'1y fifth centLlry is rurral sites (which in :.treassttch tts Sr>tnersctis lls char:rcterisccl by tl're collapsb of ttrban cttltttre, late'as the tcnth centr-rry). r-nantrfucturing inclttstry, thc market economy, It is, thercfi>re, essential thltt wc secLlre lll()l'e ancl the ncccl to proclttcc an agrictrltttral sttrpllts tcl racliocarlton cl2ltt:s frot't't t1-rc latest stratigraphic sllpp()rt Rotnltn rr.rleancl thc ncltrcing horizons of sites that r,verectcctrpiccl into thc fifth secttrtanrule. In certain areas 1600+/-45 BP (cal ,q.rt.3'16-557) fronr anin-ralbone there appcurs to havc lteen a clecline in rttral rcc<>vereclfrom thc trpper fill; lt later recttt clnly prospcrity ancl tl-re intensity of lanclscape containccl altraclecl Rottlano-llritisl-r p()ttcry ancl exploitation clttring tl-rc firtrrth centtlry, as scen, n-right othern'ise h:.tve ltcen rcgarclccl as clating ttl firr exarr-rple,in prtrts ctf Hcrtfirrclshire (Neal et al. the Rc>rnan periocl (Chris Vellster. Sot-uerset \Williams 1990, p. 96), northern (Ilennett & County Council, pers. c()llllll., Octr>lrel'1999). An 1997), Esscx (Cloing 7996; Hc>clcler7982, Lavencler iron-smclting site on Extne o1>tltinecltl-rrotrgh clesefti by thc later fottrth ccntury' (Going \993tr, dcndrochronology. Fttr cxlttltple , at Sltlr-rghHc>ttse pp. 20-1). F:urn, ncar Hcyltriclge in Essex, trvc>titnller r.vells. In sr-rchafeas. the ltlt:rncllogical grc>ttnclscottlcl have llcen 'encl ancl ficlcl systel'ns ltegan r,vell ltefi>re the of Rornano-Rritish. \\'ere cctnstrttctccl frotn tirll>ers Itr>r'nanllritain', thor-rgl-rin ctther are2ls large f-ellcclin the early sixtl'r ancl cally ser''entlt ccntttries nurnbers of Il<>mano-llritish sites have clatable (\Wallis& Vaughrnan 1998. p. 57). r-nateri:rlfrotn thc very cncl of the for-rrth centluy. The cxtent ()f post-Rtn having been occupiecl suggesit tl-r:rt while there are signs of settlcrnent wcll into the fiftli centtlry ttr l:lter (cl. Uurrorl'1981, retr:lcttion in sctt-ne2lrcas thcrc wlls n() rviclespreacl p. 7/1.'lhe problern is that rvitl-rthc cclllapse of clescrtion ch-rringthe c:rrly fifth centtrry (c.g. Leech (the pottery prctcltrctic)n,ccssllticln of c cletermine what l-rappened tc>tl-rese sites after tlrrough thc reccnt literaturc shc>lvsthat therc are tl-rclatc llc>uan perictcl. nllfiler()Lls sitcs in one samplc c()Llnty, Essex, Thc scarcity of clistinctive ancl clatallle rnaterial u,'hcre srnall all()Llnts ttf fifth- t() sevcnth-ccnttrry cr-rltr,rrcon the fer,r,'native post-Roman sites that handn-racle pottery hlts llccn rcc()verccl frc>r'nthc havc l>ecn excavatecl ( e.g. Ral-rtzet al. 1c;c)2;Sparey latest contexts of Rrturancl-Ilritisl'r sites ( e.g Grecn 7987;'J7oochvarcl & Leacl-r 7993, p. 334), Ashclclharn: Bcclwin 1991; Castle Hcclingham: sLlggests that organic uraterials n-rtrsthzrve partly Lrtvendar 79c)6;Chignall: Clarke 1998; : replacecl tl-re incltrstrial rnanufhctttre of rnetallic Isserlin 7995, Great I)ttnmorv: Levenclet \997 Irncl, particularly, ceramic artef:lcts. Vliat Rotnano- \Wickenclen 1988 ; Cireat Sampfilrcl : Cl'.tt-wclclcl1998 ; Ilritish nratcrial cttlture sr-trvivccl uray also have Great \il/althanr: Tyler & Wickenclen 1996; remainecl in use far longer than is ofien thotlght. Kelveclon: Eclcly 7982: Rochvcll 1988; North On sor-ne sitcs. thc worn cctnclitictn of late firtrrtl-r- Shoebr,rry: 'Wyt-uer & Ilrorvn 1995). century coins inclicatcs that tnclney-llasecl .I.ItA\SI]'ION: .fIII] i-ANI)SCAI)I1S IN I,A,I.F]]TITO\1AN A\I) I-]AITL\-NIF]I)IF]\'AL I)i]ITIOI)S >3

SLrchp()ttery is poorly clatccl,ancl its falrric ancl \florn late fbr-rrth-centllry coins ft-ctntthc llctntanct- style lrcars littlc rcsenrlrlancc to latc llornano- British f:rrmste:rclsuggests activity thcre cr()ntinuccl Ilritish m:rnufucturccl w:lres. ancl sharesi solne int<> the flfth ccnttrry (Fig. ,{.3;. l'har tl'rc src)ne chanrcteristics lvitii rnatcrial frctr-r-tr-nainland bLrildings v/cre thcn cler-nolisl-recl.presuntablv Europc. Hor,vcver, this cloes not tnean that it rvas bccatrse the matcri:rls rver" ,"-,-,r".i elsen,here only usecl lty imrtrigrant populations, (rvhy ils it rnay else ltother clcnrctlishing e sit()ncltLrilcling'i ), huvc becn ol>tuinecl throtrgh cxch:lnge ancl r,rsecl irlplies occlrllrtion cm c()ntinLl()LlsoccuD2ltion. It mav n'as). Pallreocnvof()nntental cviclcncc fl-r>mSaxctn l>c thet ln()re curefr-rl oltservatictn in thc fielci. contexts points to a lunclscapc that rcnt:rineclopcn particularly ocllancl/^scrtrltrcgeneration). (ancl thc plor-rgl'rsc>il!)w.ill revcal thut post-Ror-nan 'rvitl'r ltoth araltle trncl ;xrstoral f:rrrtring. ltut l,u,hich ruse<>f Rclnanct-Ilritish sitcs is ntore corlrlon th:rt was Lrsecl less intensively' th:rn in tl're Ilctntan has been prcviously tl-rougl-rt. periocl, reflecting the neecl tcl (for tl-rcmarkct. taxation ctc). llp to eight typologically Lrncliagn()sricp()sr- NATIV'I1S AND NE\(/COMERS l>r,riltstructures \vcle lrlso rccorcleclat Ilurton court Furrn. Onc (Strr-lcttLlteC) nas stnltigraphically ancl A nur-nltcr of llonlano-Ilritisl-r settlements havc artefacttutlly clateclto the early Saxon periocl. lttrt proclucecl nrorc subst:lntial cviclencc- for later postholes c>f another (Structr_rrcA) only yiclclecl occLrputinrth-c:entLlry 'carly nlllterial. rl.,hilcthe renraining becn callecl Anglo-Saxon' buildings. strulctures yielclecl nr> cluting eviclence: c()Lllcl at Altl-ror,rgl'rpost-lttrilt strtrctures periocl of this mav least sctnte^st:rntialnatirre e lemcnt to thcir clesign to thc st()nc f'arn'rholrse'lE1>hemeral tl-:lces; (l)ixecn n()tccl ut othcr Ikrrtrano-llriti.sh villas l>uilclings' :lrc gcnerally rcgarclecl as being (e.g. I3rixrvorth in Nrset:Sr-nith et al. 1997: Ri'u.enhall in Essex: Itctcln,cll & Roclvn,ell 19g5: Mcrnkton in Kent: \Williarns Bennett .t 1997). brrt see Millctt 1987, Shaken<>akin Oxfirrclsl-rire: ancl tl'rese afe alsct fctr-rncl et al. 1978), uktng r,vitl-ra nuntlter of appear:i tct l>e a native post-Rornan settlentcnt :rt trrban (e..q.Vr<>xeter in Shrlcl on 1987). However, 'Anglo-Saxon' tl're exanrples are Haclrians Wall: Wihnort I9()7, pp. 209-31; yc>rk: morphmrnunities of clircct foctrs was ()n thc secluence of st()nc bLrilclings-i Gerntunic cleccnt. with a meritory of thcir Clreat c2rrc,however. is rcc|-rireclin cxuntining honrclancl (Flamerc>w 1997, p. 39). thc chronol.gy .f sites rvith b'th Ronun'-llritish If fifth-centtrry sunken-featurecl 'early l>r_rilclingsare ancl Anglo-Saron' occLlpution. At tl'reOrsett regurcleclas inclicatir.,cc>f an immigrant popLrlation, Cock. Essex, fbr exan-rplc, a total trilclings()ccuf witl'rir-rancl just the key qtrestion is tl-re relationsl-rip between the outsicle :l sultst:lntial Ront:rno-Ilritish firrn-rsteacl two colltntunities. At Heybriclge in Essex, enclosure. Hctwcver, the site was iargely firr cx:lntple thc e:,rrlie.stAnglo-Saxon ()ccLtpati()n , al;anclonecl by tl-re late firtrrth centllry. encl the appcars to huve been cctntempc)rary rvith thc final sul>scquent occupatictn tnlty clatc to as latc as the stage.sof native occtrpatir)n ()n this substantial rnral sixtl-r centLrry (Carter' 199u: Milton 1985r ancl see settlcrncnt (Drury & Wickenclen 1982; Langton Tyers 1996, fig. 2, firr the possiblc exrenr <;f tl-re & Holl>rook 1997; Wallis \Waughn-ran & 1993, site). Users of the sunken-featurccl ltuilclings may p.229). At llarton Court Farm, Oxforclshire . Miles hzrvc been attractecl tc> the site as therc were (1984, p. 5D argtreclfor:l 'butt-jointecl'sequcncc eurthw()rks against whicl'r they cor-rlclttrck their w'itlt Suxctn colctnists scttling a recently clcsertecl builclings, ltut there cunn()t have l>een firnctional Rctn"r:lnct-Ilritishfarmstead, though the clating continLlity of this location as a furmste:rcl:tl-rc site. er.,iclcnccwe have cannot rule out the possibility ancl prestrm:rbly its associatccllanclsc:lpc, hacl lost that tl'rc twct populations livecl sicle lty sicle. its artictrlation as a ftrnctioning agricultural systelt-r. )1 I-A\I)SCAI)I] I IISTOITY

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Thc sante appcars to h:rvc ltecn trurc rvitit mecliev:rl Saxon scttler-ncnts(or trt least llt:lny of tl'ro.sctl-urt churches that are locatecl ctn Ror-n:rno-tsritisl-rsites: have scen large-scalc excavetion) thtrt rvere in most clrscs thc latter eppcar tmanperi<>cl (ar-rcl rvhich n'raystill I'urvcltccn 1998; ancl sec Nlorris 19119;Iloclwell & Roclwcll occr-rpieclin the fifth ur-rclsixth ccntllrics). At Wcst 7977), suggcsting that tl-rcse sites w.ere chosen Stow, . fc>r ex:rrnple, tl'rc Anglo-Saxon simply fi>r tl're sytnltolisr-n tl-rat these remains of scttlement occrlrs ()n a gravel terlllcc r,r,'ithpoc>r Romc.tnitl./s p()ri.sessecl(e.g. FLrlfc>rd& Itippon soils, in contrast tct tl're Roru:.rn<>-llritishsettlclnents 1994). arouncl the Lark Vallcy th:rt concentfttte alctng On sites such as Ilalton Cctr-rrtFarm (ancl Orton the fertile fen-eclgc. \7csr (19U5, pp. 159-63) Hall Farnt near Pcterltorough: Mackretl'r j,()96), ha.sargr-recl that this represents .a shili in location. tl-re kcy qLtc'stion is h<>w any srtrviving nzrtive cllreto clirnatic or sea-level change. tliough it coulcl poptrlatir>ns interactecl r,vitl'rwl-rat do appeer havc l>een that the ncwcoltters were sirnt>lv fi>rcecl (]crmanic to have lreen thc nes,/comcrs to <>ccupyan arca of poor heathluncl. bcyoncl the (assr-rnring the br-rilclcrsof the fifth-ccntury core lancl of a still-filncti()ning nativc estutc (llcll sunken-fcaturccl ltuilclings werc ilnmigrants). 1989,p.278; Mtrrphy 1985;Taylor 1983, p 119). Our tr:rclitir>nalstory is of thc native ancl Clcrmanic I)ue to thc agcncies of clisctaltly lurge- popr-rlationsl>eing constantly 2rtw.ttr, with tl-relatter scale rescller excavatictns in aclvancc of ntineral s()()n gaining sllprent:.lcy.Sctrll (1992, p. 15), extracticln), there is certainly a rnarkccl lties in the for exarnplc, paints rr picture of tl-re native clistrilrtrtion of kncllvn carly Anglct-Sux()n popr.rlatic>nin East Anglia lreing forcecl into a settlements tow.arcls'rnarginal' arcas tl'rctugl'runtil hanclfr-rl<>f lrnw:rntecl corne rs ancl clef'endecl sites other geologies ale as tl-rorotrghly investigatecl, it such as llurgl-r Castlc ancl the Wigliton enclosurc. is irnp

F,rriclcnce fror-n .southern Essex. fctr examnlc. latter r-nay h:rve firrciblv rcplacccl thc firrnter. or sllggcsts 2rnt()re variecl picture . as u-l'rilcMLrr.king occupiecl are2ls that tl'rc nutivcs hacl allrnclrrranperiocl 1992. p. 4I; :.rnclsee Horvevcr. cluring thc fifth ccntLlr)', ancl pcrhaps Clelling 1.976;1988.pp. 121-3rGoing I9L)6,p 21), mlrch rksl'rirc7:Eagles 1991: Lctvcluck 1996): sr-rcl-r Anglo-Saxon rnlrterial frctrn the n'hole countv arrangerncnt rn:iy cven lravc been agrcecl by trcaty (Wyrr-rcr ct Ilrorvn 1995). Overall, thc eviclcnce fil- (c..q. Susscx'/: \Welch 1983). Thc in-r1>actthat tl'ris flfth-ccntury Saxon ly in coastal ancl later lanclscapc is yet tr> ltc ltrlly explorecl areus, 1.r\\,uyfrorn the' r,'illa-clor-ninateclboulcler (but sec Williantson 198U). cl:ly lunclscape of northern ancl r,vcstern Flssex (Fig. ,1.1).Is this another example of contrctlled Anglct-Sax<>nscttlerrcnt, as has lreen urguecl for THE UIGGER I)ICTLIRE: PA'fTEltNS OF LANI) in Srrssex(Welch 1983)/ L]SE Our Lrnclcrstanding of this markecl spatial variation in tl-re xppalcnt character of tl-re post- $(/hateverwas ctccurring at thc local lcv'cl. wc' lnllst Rorlan lanclscapc in Esscx cr>ulcllre pursued by not l()sesight ctfthe biggcr picttrrc: rvhat rvas going thc carcful integratictn of a rvicle range of eviclence. on in thc lanclscupc t.rs:r n'hctlc (irrespcctii,'c' of Mo.st lurge-sc:lle excavtrtions have lteen carriecl the origin of the pc>pulation)'iThe occurrencc of or-rt in the sotrth ancl cast of the county (the Ror-nan<>-llritishscttlentcnts in ureas that llre no\\' coastul/e^stuaryarc2ls: e..q.Hamcroiv 1993; Wallis lvooclecl illtrstrates a clegree of post-lt<>nran \il7atrghlnan \Wyner .\ 1998; Wilkinson 1988: & u'crcrcllanclregenerution (e g. I3ellanty I99D, llrf the Roman one (Hockham Mcre in SLrffirlk)lay tc>thc- east of periocl \\'ere vr,ithin 200 rnetrcs ctf settlerlents a line ltetrveen Scarltrtror-rgltancl llriglrton. I)espite knor,vn to have ltecn occr-rpied in the eleventl-r consiclerlrltle lctc:rlvuriatiacl regional (this centLlry figtrrc is rrcirrrlly too low as it trencls clo ernergc. In \Wales and Sccttlanclntost cxclr-rclesu number of locations R'here chance seqLlences shctw c()ntinLlity in lanclscape fincls ancl thc pattern ctl' r-nanlrr-ingsuggest that exploitation cither sicle of A.t).400. tltctugh urouncl rrcclicr':rl/rnctclern settlcmcnts lie clirectly over Haclrian's Wall. fi;r erar-r-rple,a rcccnt rcasses;sllcnt Itomano-llritish sites). Clearly there has lreen of the pfal>undonllcnt cluring the e:lr-lier intcrvening 500 ye2lrs, br_rtthere does appear to fifih century witl-r a recluction of :lgrictrltr-rral lancl bc u lrroacl c<>ntinr-rityin preferecl settlemcnt trse ancl rviclespreacl revcrsic>n to wo<>cllancl (rnost location notaltly in tl're river v:rlleys r:lther (l)ark & I)ark lc)96).lJowcver, in :,rnarca u,'ith a thun on thc hcavier ssuggestecl that elements of fits well rvitl'r tl-re picture that appe:rrs tr> be tl-re nteclieval/rnoclem ficld :lncl roacl pattern in emerging in lowlancl llrituin in thut thc rtrctre tl'ris area ntay clatc lrack to at leust the llontln Romanisecl aspects cl. Thc north-west of Essex also lacks social, cc()nolt-ric ancl political links rvitl'r the e viclcncc for fifth-ccntury Anglo-Saxon Roman empire, wcre abanckrnccl, n'hcrea.s tl're (Fig. cc>lonisation 4.Itt). while the place-nante w'icler rr.rral lanclscape rer-nainecl in r-rse. Ir-r this 'Valclr t1-rc contintrctus occLtDation ancl a vcry small perccntage r>f for-rrth-century cxploitation of this lanclscape by tite Rontuno- settlelnents (sec Mark Corney. this vctltrme). Frtr British/strb-Rornan popul:rtion, in cc>ntr:rstto example, trctuncl Verulamittm in Hertforclsl'rirc. 'Tl-re the strongly c<;astal/estuarine clistriltution of Neal e/ al. argve tl-rat genenrl picture wl-ricl'r (Drurry Anglo-Saxon settlerrlent & ltoclwell i980; emelges is that of ctnce-ricl'rcor,rntry hor-rscsf:rlling Tyler 7996). into clisrel>air or lteing altanclctnecl, ltr_rtr,r,'itl-r Overall, tl-re picture that is emerging is of associatccl farms continlring in r-rse,allteit ()n il nlarkccl regi

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'anc'ict'rt'. u.ooclluncl Iic lltcl tlter tcnth centur\:. lanclscape cxpl()itati()n hacl clisappearecl,rcsr-rlting Overall, it appcars tl'rat the lanclscape of pctst- in greater clislocation in lulrv the lanclscape $,.as Roman Ilritain rcruainecl largel.y,()pen in the pctst- Lrtilisccl. Itom:rn peri()cl, 1>r,rtrvitl'r lc>caliscclt'cgcncl'rltion in In soLlthern ancl castern Englancl there is certain areas. c()n.siclcrable variatictn in the pollen cviclencc, Most of thcse polle n seqllencc h:.rvccolrlc fhtn-r inclLrcling n()tal)le chanscs in tl-re agricultr-rr:tl pe:lt, bnt in a nLlml)er <>fc:lscs (usually colltrvilrl/ enrphasis ()f certain irrc2ls (Dark 1996. At Aller alltrvial seqllences in lakes ancl rivcr vallcys) a F-arm, near St()cklancl in Devctn, there was little m()re cletailecl pit.turlc cnlcrgcs front tl're cl'rangc. At Hockhal'n Met'e in Suflolk tl'rere was il combin:ltion r>f palae()envirllen are tn:lcr<>fossilsrvithin a siltecl-up rir,'cr chunnel both bricf in cluration ancl p()orly clatccl( e..q.Diss suggests Lr contintrously-open uncl cr-rltiv'atecl Mcrc in Norfirlk ancl the Mar l)yke in Essex: Peglar lanclscape in the surrrtrncling arcas, rvithor,rt :.rny et (tl. 19f19,p 218; Wilkinson 1988, pp. 109-14). wcrocllanclregenemtion (Murphy 1994, pyt. 25-6). At Snelsr-nore, in llerkshire , there is firmer At Mickelrnere (ne:rr Pnkenhanr in Suffolk). eviclcncc for :r limitccl woc>cllanclrcgeneration, tl-reseclirncnts frcrr an infillccl lake lrasin inclicate 'uvhereas at Sicllings C<>pscjust to the nctrth in a lanclscupe that :tlsct rer-nainccl largely ()pen Oxforclshire tl'rerc w2ls an incre:rse in pastoral cltrring the post-R()1ltan periocl. ancl thctugl'r there activity (Fig. ,i.4). At Il:rnwell, in Sctnlerset,there wzls Llclecrease in cr-rltivatir>ntl-ris appears to huvc appears t() havc bcen a sliglit expansion of been rcplacecl by pasture nctt wr>f Caclbtrry Congreslrr-rry Brecklancl soils to heavier lxrr-rlclcr clay. rvhich sr,rggestsa 'nvcaltl'ryelite that rrr-rst have been can be cc)ntrasitecln'ith fielclr,valking cviclence in supp()rtccl by continr-rccl agrictrltr-rralprocltrction sorrth-cast Sr,rflolk (Ncrvrnan 1992, p. 32), Essex (Rahtz et ctl. 1992; Rippon 7997, pp 133-8). ('sflilliamson 198(t ), rrncl Northuntptctnshirc r.vl'ricl't 'l'Hll l,A\l)S(lAl)FlS I\ ]'IIANSITION: i.ATIllt ITONIAN ANI) IARLY Nllll)ttr\iAl l)lltl()l)S )7

:iLlggcsts a shift in settlc-r-ncntfl-olr the ltoulcler qr,rality ctf livestctck in cighth-ccntLrry Hcttrttt,ic clays to'rvarcls (e.g. lightcr soils llellamy 1991+: suggeststhat there hacl nr>tl>ecn a significunt lrre:lk IJrr;wn ct Foarcl 1998; Foard 1978). in the cluality of anir-r'rall-rusl>anclry in i3ritain. A rangc of palaec)-ec()nortic eviclence lencls At flrst sight, tl'rc eviclence fr>r'r-rpollen, 'nvhich firrther sllpp()rt t' this cr-nerging pictllrc of a bnracr generally sllggests a lack of post-R<)lltlrn rvooclluncl continLrity in agrictrltural practice. On a ntrrnltcr fegenelation, is at Oclclsr,r,ith the rcsults of recent of early meclievul settlernents there are sir-r'rilarities tree ring stuclics (thftl'ris cluta crk ancl c()mparccl to the Romun pcriets were usecl), ltut rvhcn the trces st:lrtecl Esscx; Stonea, Camlrriclgeshire; West Ston,, tcl gr't a significant ltreak in the cultivati<>n l-ralfc>f the fifth cenrlrry (thoLrgh thc sr.rrneis not crf aralrlc fielcls (Allen 1995; Lavencler 1998; trure of Irclancl). Howcvcr, this ncecl not inclicatc Mrrrpl'ry 1991, j.()96: p. 27, ancl see Tyler Rackharn th:rt forrtrcrly agricr-rltutrl lancl r,vasbcing invaclccl l994lt, p. 126; r,an cler Veen 1993, $7est 19lli). by woocllancl cltrring the fifth centLlry; these trecs Anirrul ltone asscmltlagcs sin-rilarly suggcst that rvere being fellecl in tl-rcluter flrst nillennilrn-r locul changcs in tltc way that wha.t rer-naine.cla A.t). lray have been clerivecl frorl formerly basically ()pcn ancl agrictrltur:rlly .still functioning coppicecl woocllancl that was no longcr be'ing lanclscaper\\'1ts (1994) exploitccl. Cralrtrce has managecl (ibicl.. p. 20). l'he munagcllent of cor-nparccl the far,rnal assemblages frorn the u,,octcllanclis sc>rretl-ringalt<>r-rt rvhich rvc actuallv sr-rbstantial Romuno-Britisl-r settlement at know. very littlc, thor-rgh it lnu)' ri'ell huve Icklingl-ran-rin Suffolk, ancl nearby Iron Age, continuecl in certain afe:rs to sr-rst:.rinthe clen-rancls Rr>mano-Ilritish ancl carly Anglo-Saxon rr.rral for cc>ntn-rction ancl ftrel fitr l>oth clctr(G..lLrllcff. pers. cornn-r.) pattcrn is inclicative c>f a self-sr-rfficient ()r 'proclLrcer" ancl the northc-rn lranks ctf thc IJlackwate r Estlurrv sitc. A grcater cc)ntrast c:.rn be clr:lrvn in Esscx (Wallis & \WaLrghrlran1998, pp. \We.st 125-6. bet'nvccn Stctrv ancl latc Roman Icklingharl, ))1 241) u'hcrc cattle werc orlyrepresentccl. Howcver. seetrir-rgly clisparatc set of environn-rcntul clata. Icklinghall 'consluner' w:ls a .settlernent.ancl the Firstly, therc u,as n() w.iclcspreucl rl,oocllancl lncat 'appe::lrs tct huvc ltcen obtainecl thrcttrgh the regenerittion in the irtllecliate p()st-ll()lxan pcriocl, large-scalc late Rctman market systenl in rncat ancl seconclly, therc w2ls con^siclcralrlelocal prrl, the clifferent post-Roman period. In places tl-ris clicl inclr-rclea clccreasc in cxpcricnces ctf mainly 1-righ-statr_rssites. clepenclent the intensity of lanclscape cxpkritation. thor,rgh in on the nloney-basccl ntarket econotny whicl-r m:iny cases tliis prctltaltly rcflects localisecl collapsecl, ancl rurralsettlelncnts ,il w,herc c:lse can changes in specific envirctnntents, rtr the firte of be rtraclcfirr local continr_rityin anirr-ralhusl>anclry incliviclr-ralestates. Overall. the lanclscapes<>f p()sit- pnrcticcs' ( ihid.). Ron)lrn Rritrrin rell't:.rirrin rrsr'. At Hamurzc (near Southan'rpton), the conclition of livcstw.cclno RI]GIONAL VARIATION ANI) THE POST- clecrease cor-r-rpurecl periocl to thc Ror-nan ROMAN LANDSCAPE (llotrrclill<>n t994, pp. 122-r. Tl'rc sizc ntintrityin thc cLrltr_rralhistory of l>cyoncl the llmpire). If therc hacl l>c-ena collar;se Britliin, with n-rany asipccts of the Rctr"nanswhicl-r tl'ris n,as ch-rcto ltt2rssfirlk rnigr-ution ctr horlclancls sincc these areas only cver haclsm:rllcr incligenoLtsclevclc>plrent trnclcr thc infhte ncc of :r st<>ck.It cor-rlcl be argr-reclthat if there hacl been zl srnall imntigr:rnt elite has been nrrrch clebatecl.ancl collapsc ck hr_rslt:rnclryin post-Roman will prr>ltably only be resolvecl thror-rgh llrore Britain, thc Gcrrnanic cc>lctnistscctulcl iravc then ach,.unceclscicntiflc lleth()cls such as genctics. That workecl to irnprovc tl're quality of str>ck, altl-ror-tgh is ftrr the fr-rture: tl'rere unclc>r-rlrtecllylvas s()nrc tl'ris argr-rntent woulcl lteg the questictn of why tl-ris imrnigratictn, ancl a key thcr-r'rc<>f this pepcr is tl'rat was n()t clonc in thcir homclancl. Insteacl,the goocl we neecl to unclerstancl the n'urrkccl local ancl 5u I,A\I)S(]AI't] I I]S'I'OItY

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Clay'.'l'., 1999.'llLrral cliulccts ancl sr.rlviving 13r'itons'.-13r IIoskins, \\'. Cl. 19i5. 7.he .llttkitt,q rtf l/.t<'litt,qlisl.t Lrurt/scttltL' Arc' hctu tl. .i(r. p. lfi. (Lonclon ). (iclling. ''l'he N{.. 1976. pluce-nlures of the N|-rcking arca'. Hr-rr.rr-r..T. It.. 199.1. llt,c-rtttslt'ttt'lirttt ruttl .llt'rtstu'ctn(nl ().f. (.f I)cutrtrcuttct Thlrlr'ock Local Hist Soc) 19. pp. 7 20. LctrtclscrtpeC'bttttg<'; o sItrd.J'rtf'si.t/xrrisltt's itt lltt' .\'1,1Ibrrtts Gelling. NI., 1988. .!tgr{ro.sl.slo lba I)ctst(2ncl ecln. (lhiclrester). araa (.()xl'rtrd). ()clling, l\1.. 1993. \\'h1.rrren't n'e sprcaking \X-clsh'l',in Artgkt- Isserlin. R. N{..J..1995. tlonrun (lounclaries in Anglo- 10+. Srtron Fir.rgluncl:u stutistic'lLlstLlcl\", tllediet'crl Archuao/, .fetncs, S.. Nlershall. A.,.\ l\'lillett. Nl.. l98i. An eru-li.nrcclicvll 28. pp. l-21. lrtrilclir-rgtracliti()n . Archctutl .1. l +1. pp. 182-215. (1.. C)

'l'ltt' Nlyrcs. .l . \. L.. 1966. litt,glisb .\cttlt'tnattts (()rfirlcl ). Snrith. R.-J.C.. I{eul1.l.'.. Allcn, \'1..J.. \1or-r'is.Il. I-., lJurncs. 1.. 'l'ltc \crrl. I). S. 197i. li.t'cttt'cttiottof'the Iktntatt l'i/kt itt .\ V'nclon). the I)rtrcl.tastcr13.1'-l)crss. I)rtrsct. I986 I (SulisltLrr-r'). \r'rrl. l). S.. \\'lrlcllc. A.. & Ilr.rnn..].. 1990. E.xcctt,aliortsrf'tbt' Spare,v (lrccn, (1.. 1987. Il.t'cttt'rtliortsrrl I)ottttdbtrrl,. l?tl. l. lrott 1,qc. Ilotrttttt rtttd .lladicrul .sattletttcnt dt IIte Se| | It, urt,l/.s ( [)orchcstcr). ()rtr/.trtntbtu'1'. ,\l Alburts ( Lonckrn). Trti.'lu'lcr, pp. 159,62. 'Vcgerarion 'licttttostr l)c'glrtr..S. NL. lrritz. S. (1.,& llirks. FI..l. B.. 1989. Trtrelset llrtssctt. pp. 75-fi3. Lt'rc,ls. l99J l'. lJrituttrtict. Sl. pp. 69-2(X). \\/elc'li. \{.. I992. A tt,qI r t-Srt.t'rttt L t tgltt tr tI ( l,onclon ). 'l'ba llil-r1rlrlclclClrrl,s . Ptrtc' I)t'cltis,!r.,c'.5J. 1-rp. il9-31. Ilclncll. K. A. (ccls). 1985. Rit,etthctll. W-intcrlrrook, N.. 19S9.'The prclristoric. llorrrun ur.rclclrrll, ;rost llonlrn site at Hat.es Frrrnr, (il1'st Honitor.r. Prrtc I)ct'ort Archtteol Soc. .'i7, pp 1- 28.