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Home , Aaron Ciechanover, Ada Yonath, Akira Suzuki (chemist), Albert Fert, Elizabeth Blackburn, Eric Kandel

"There is Nothing so Theoretical as a Good Method"

Anthony G. Greenwald Department of Psychology Citation of article for which this is a supplement: University of Washington Greenwald, A. G. (2012). There is nothing so theoretical as a good Direct questions to: [email protected] method. Perspectives on Psychological , 7 , 99–108. Analysis details are on the following sheets Numbers of Awards Given for Theory versus Method, 1991-2011

Physiology Total

theory 2 4 8 14 9% 15% 29% 18%

method 21 22 20 63 91% 85% 71% 82%

1. In each discipline, the explanation of there being more than 21 total awards for the 21 years is the occasional practice of dividing Nobel Prizes between two distinct contributions.

2. For the -Medicine awards it is sometimes difficult to judge method versus theory from the press releases (two were classified as jointly for method and theory, counting 0.5 toward each.

3. For awards categorized as being for method, a large majority (71%) were classified as having been given for methods that were newly created by the awardee(s). The remaining 29% used existing methods, which often included methods for which the creators had previously received Nobel awards. Of the method awards that were judged to have relied on already-existing methods, 3 (16%) were in Physics, 4 (22%) were in Chemistry, and 11.33 (62%) were in Physiology-Medicine (one of three co-recipients of the 2000 award relied on existing methods). NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSICS 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. Name tion release old or new use of old method

"for discovering that methods developed for "has described mathematically how e.g. magnetic studying order phenomena dipoles, long molecules or molecule chains can under http://nobelprize.org/no Pierre-Gilles in simple systems can be 1991 theory certain conditions form ordered states, and what bel_prizes/physics/laure de Gennes generalized to more happens when they pass from an ordered to a ates/1991/press.html complex forms of matter, in disordered state." particular to liquid crystals and "

"for his invention and method "due to his work particle have been able to development of particle http://www.nobel.se/phy "for his invention and development Georges (which focus their interest on very rare particle interactions, 1992 detectors, in particular the sics/laureates/1992/pre of particle detectors, in particular the Charpak stimulated which often reveal the secrets of the inner parts of multiwire proportional ss.html multiwire proportional chamber" theory) matter" chamber"

"for the discovery of a Russell A. method "revolutionary "space laboratory" has been obtained new type of pulsar, a http://www.nobel.se/phy "discovery": new use of an existing Hulse & (which for testing Einstein's general theory of relativity and 1993 discovery that has opened sics/laureates/1993/pre method (clear method-theory Joseph H. stimulated alternative theories of gravity. So far, Einstein's up new possibilities for the ss.html synergy_ Taylor, Jr theory) theory has passed the tests with flying colours." study of gravitation"

"the technique … is contributing actively to the method elucidation of the forces that bind atoms to one http://www.nobel.se/phy Bertram N. "for the development of (which for the development of neutron 1994 another in bodies and that determine, for sics/laureates/1994/pre Brockhouse neutron spectroscopy" stimulated spectroscopy instance, the transition from the solid state to the fluid ss.html theory) state" "for the development of http://www.nobel.se/phy Clifford G. "He has shown how neutrons may be used to "for the development of the neutron 1994 the neutron diffraction method sics/laureates/1994/pre Shull determine the atomic structure of a material" diffraction technique" technique" ss.html contributions to the development of method http://www.nobel.se/phy neutron scattering techniques for "for the discovery of the (which "discovery of the tau was the first sign that a third 1995 Martin L. Perl sics/laureates/1995/pre studies of condensed matter tau lepton" stimulated "family" of fundamental building blocks existed" ss.html for the development of neutron theory) spectroscopy http://www.nobel.se/phy Frederick "for the detection of the "a pioneering contribution that opened the doors to 1995 method sics/laureates/1995/pre discovery: use of existing method Reines " the region of "impossible" neutrino experiments" ss.html

David M. Lee, "The discovery heralded the start of intensive method Douglas D. research on the new quantum liquid. A particularly http://www.nobel.se/phy The researchers at Cornell University "for their discovery of (which 1996 Osheroff, & important contribution was made by the theoretician sics/laureates/1996/pre were low-temperature specialists and in helium-3" stimulated Robert C. Anthony Leggett, who assisted in the interpretation of ss.html had built their apparatus themselves. theory) Richardson the discovery." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSICS 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. Name tion release old or new use of old method , Claude " … have developed methods of using laser to "for development of http://www.nobel.se/phy Cohen- cool gases to the µK temperature range and keeping "for development of methods to cool 1997 methods to cool and trap method sics/laureates/1997/pre Tannoudji, & the chilled atoms floating or captured in different and trap atoms with laser light." atoms with laser light." ss.html William D. kinds of 'atom traps'." Phillips

Robert B. "In their refined experimental studies "for their discovery of a method Störmer and Tsui "made the discovery in 1982 in an Laughlin, http://www.nobel.se/phy of the quantum Hall effect, using new form of quantum (which experiment using extremely powerful magnetic fields 1998 Horst L. sics/laureates/1998/pre among other things lower fluid with fractionally stimulated and low temperatures. Within a year of the discovery Störmer, & ss.html temperatures and more powerful charged excitations." theory) … Laughlin had succeeded in explaining their result." Daniel C. Tsui magnetic fields," Gerardus 't "for elucidating the "...having placed theory on a http://www.nobel.se/phy Hooft & quantum structure of firmer mathematical foundation. Experiments at 1999 theory sics/laureates/1999/pre Martinus J. G. electroweak interactions in accelerator laboratories … have recently confirmed ss.html Veltman physics" many of the calculated results." "for developing " … have invented and developed Zhores I. " … have invented and developed fast opto- and semiconductor http://www.nobel.se/phy fast opto- and microelectronic Alferov & microelectronic components based on layered 2000 heterostructures used in method sics/laureates/2000/pre components based on layered Herbert semiconductor structures, termed semiconductor high-speed- and opto- ss.html semiconductor structures, termed Kroemer heterostructures" electronics" semiconductor heterostructures" "for his part in the http://www.nobel.se/phy " ...invention and development of the integrated " ...invention and development of the 2000 Jack S. Kilby invention of the method sics/laureates/2000/pre circuit, the chip" integrated circuit, the chip" integrated circuit" ss.html

"for the achievement of Eric A. Bose-Einstein "for the achievement of Bose- Cornell, condensation in dilute " ... have caused atoms to "sing in unison" – thus http://www.nobel.se/phy Einstein condensation in dilute Wolfgang 2001 gases of alkali atoms, and method discovering a new state of matter, the Bose- sics/laureates/2001/pre gases of alkali atoms, and for early Ketterle, & for early fundamental Einstein condensate (BEC)" ss.html fundamental studies of the Carl E. studies of the properties of Wieman properties of the condensates" the condensates"

" ... constructed a completely new " ... constructed a completely new detector, a detector, a gigantic tank filled with "for pioneering Raymond gigantic tank filled with 600 tonnes of fluid, which 600 tonnes of fluid, which was contributions to http://www.nobel.se/phy Davis Jr. & was placed in a mine. ... The work of Davis and placed in a mine. ... The work of 2002 astrophysics, in particular method sics/laureates/2002/pre has led to unexpected discoveries and a Davis and Koshiba has led to for the detection of ss.html Koshiba new, intensive field of research, neutrino- cosmic " unexpected discoveries and a new, astronomy." intensive field of research, neutrino- astronomy." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSICS 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. Name tion release old or new use of old method

In order to investigate cosmic X-ray "for pioneering In order to investigate cosmic X-ray radiation, ... it is radiation, ... it is necessary to place contributions to necessary to place instruments in space. Riccardo http://www.nobel.se/phy Riccardo instruments in space. Riccardo 2002 astrophysics, which have method Giacconi has constructed such instruments. ... His sics/laureates/2002/pre Giacconi Giacconi has constructed such led to the discovery of contributions laid the foundations of X-ray ss.html instruments. ... His contributions laid cosmic X-ray sources" astronomy." the foundations of X-ray astronomy."

"Alexei Abrikosov succeeded in explaining this phenomenon theoretically. His starting point was a Alexei A. theory that had been formulated for type-I Abrikosov, "for pioneering superconductors by and others, but http://www.nobel.se/phy Vitaly L. contributions to the theory 2003 theory which proved to be so comprehensive that it was also sics/laureates/2003/pre Ginzburg, & of superconductors and valid for the new type." "The decisive theory ss.html Anthony J. superfluids" explaining how the atoms interact and are ordered in Leggett the superfluid state was formulated in the 1970s by Anthony Leggett."

David J. "This discovery was expressed in 1973 in an elegant "for the discovery of Gross, H. mathematical framework that led to a completely http://nobelprize.org/phy asymptotic freedom in the 2004 David theory new theory, , QCD. This sics/laureates/2004/pre theory of the strong Politzer, & theory was an important contribution to the Standard ss.html interaction" Model"

"for his contribution to the "Roy Glauber has established the basis of Quantum http://nobelprize.org/no Roy J. 2005 quantum theory of optical theory Optics, in which quantum theory encompasses the bel_prizes/physics/laure Glauber coherence" field of optics." ates/2005/ "for their contributions to "for their contributions to the the development of laser- "This technique makes it possible to carry out studies John L. Hall & http://nobelprize.org/no development of laser-based based precision of, for example, the stability of the constants of 2005 Theodor W. method bel_prizes/physics/laure precision spectroscopy, including spectroscopy, including the over time and to develop extremely accurate clocks Hänsch ates/2005/ the optical frequency comb optical frequency comb and improved GPS technology." technique" technique" "The success of COBE was the outcome of prodigious team work "for their discovery of the "The success of COBE was the outcome of John C. involving more than 1,000 blackbody form and prodigious team work involving more than 1,000 http://nobelprize.org/no Mather & researchers, engineers and other 2006 anisotropy of the cosmic method researchers, engineers and other participants. . . . bel_prizes/physics/laure George F. participants. . . . These microwave background These measurements also marked the inception of ates/2006/press.html Smoot measurements also marked the radiation" cosmology as a precise science." inception of cosmology as a precise science." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSICS 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. Name tion release old or new use of old method

"each independently discovered a "each independently discovered a totally new totally new physical effect – Giant & physical effect – or GMR. . . http://nobelprize.org/no Magnetoresistance or GMR. . . . The "for the discovery of Giant 2007 Peter method . The GMR effect was discovered thanks to new bel_prizes/physics/laure GMR effect was discovered thanks to Magnetoresistance" Grünberg techniques developed during the 1970s to produce ates/2007/press.html new techniques developed during very thin layers of different materials." the 1970s to produce very thin layers of different materials." " formulated his mathematical "for the discovery of the description of spontaneous broken symmetry in http://nobelprize.org/no Yoichiro mechanism of spontaneous 2008 theory elementary particle physics. . . . Nambu's theories bel_prizes/physics/laure Nambu broken symmetry in permeate the of elementary particle ates/2008/press.html subatomic physics" physics." "for the discovery of the "It is only in recent years that scientists have come to Makoto origin of the broken fully confirm the explanations that Kobayashi and http://nobelprize.org/no Kobayashi & symmetry which predicts 2008 theory Maskawa made in 1972. . . . The results were bel_prizes/physics/laure Toshihide the existence of at least exactly as Kobayashi and Maskawa had predicted ates/2008/press.html Maskawa three families of quarks in almost three decades earlier." nature"

"for groundbreaking "He carefully calculated how to transmit light over achievements concerning http://nobelprize.org/no Charles Kuen long distances via optical glass fibers. . . . The first 2009 the transmission of light in theory bel_prizes/physics/laure Kao ultrapure fiber was successfully fabricated just four fibers for optical ates/2009/press.html years later, in 1970." communication"

"invented the first successful Willard S. "invented the first successful imaging technology "for the invention of an http://nobelprize.org/no imaging technology using a digital Boyle & using a digital sensor, a CCD (Charge-Coupled 2009 imaging semiconductor method bel_prizes/physics/laure sensor, a CCD (Charge-Coupled George E. Device). The CCD technology makes use of the circuit – the CCD sensor" ates/2009/press.html Device). The CCD technology makes Smith photoelectric effect" use of the photoelectric effect"

"Using regular adhesive tape they managed to obtain a flake of carbon "Using regular adhesive tape they managed to with a thickness of just one atom. . . . obtain a flake of carbon with a thickness of just one for groundbreaking with graphene, physicists can now & atom. . . . with graphene, physicists can now study http://nobelprize.org/no experiments regarding the study a new class of two- 2010 Konstantin method a new class of two-dimensional materials with bel_prizes/physics/laure two-dimensional material dimensional materials with unique Novoselov unique properties. Graphene makes experiments ates/2010/press.html graphene" properties. Graphene makes possible that give new twists to the phenomena in experiments possible that give new quantum physics." twists to the phenomena in quantum physics." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSICS 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. Name tion release old or new use of old method Saul discovery: the two research teams "for the discovery of the Perlmutter, "the two research teams found over 50 distant http://www.nobelprize.or found over 50 distant supernovae accelerating expansion of Brian P. supernovae whose light was weaker than expected - g/nobel_prizes/physics/l whose light was weaker than 2011 the Universe through method Schmidt, this was a sign that the expansion of the Universe aureates/2011/press.ht expected - this was a sign that the observations of distant Adam G. was accelerating" ml supernovae". expansion of the Universe was Riess accelerating" The 2011 only Physics award is (so far) the only one in which the method seems already established, with the awardees exploiting existing technology, recognizing that the method was capable of doing more than it previously had.

51 awardees NOBEL PRIZES FOR CHEMISTRY 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. old Name tion release or new use of old method

" . . . a dramatic increase in both the sensitivity and "for his contributions to the the resolution of the instruments, two areas in which development of the http://nobelprize.org/ "for his contributions to the development Ernst has contributed more than anybody else. . . . Richard R. methodology of high nobel_prizes/chemi of the methodology of high resolution 1991 method discovered that the sensitivity of NMR spectra could be Ernst resolution nuclear magnetic stry/laureates/1991/ nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) increased dramatically if the slow radiofrequency resonance (NMR) press.html spectroscopy" sweep that the sample was exposed to was replaced spectroscopy" by short and intense radiofrequency pulses."

"for his contributions to "theoretical work on transfer - work which http://www.nobel.se/ Rudolph A. the theory of electron 1992 theory has greatly stimulated experimental developments in chemistry/laureates/ Marcus transfer reactions in chemistry" 1992/press.html chemical systems" "for his invention of the http://www.nobel.se/ Kary B. "for his invention of the polymerase chain 1993 polymerase chain reaction method (see below) chemistry/laureates/ Mullis reaction (PCR) method" (PCR) method" 1993/press.html

"for his fundamental "[Their methods] have further hastened contributions to the "[Their methods] have further hastened the rapid the rapid development of genetic method establishment of development of genetic engineering. The two http://www.nobel.se/ engineering. The two methods have Michael (which 1993 oligonucleotide-based, site- methods have greatly stimulated basic chemistry/laureates/ greatly stimulated basic biochemical Smith stimulated directed mutagenesis and biochemical research and opened the way for new 1993/press.html research and opened the way for new theory) its development for applications in medicine and ." applications in medicine and studies" biotechnology." "Olah and co-workers discovered that "Olah and co-workers discovered that stable stable carbocations could be prepared method carbocations could be prepared through the use of http://www.nobel.se/ through the use of a new type of George A. "for his contributions to (which a new type of extremely acid compounds ... 1994 chemistry/laureates/ extremely acid compounds ... Olah carbocation chemistry" stimulated "superacids"…. Olah's discovery completely 1994/press.html "superacids"…. Olah's discovery theory) transformed the scientific study of the elusive completely transformed the scientific carbocations." study of the elusive carbocations." Paul "for their work in "Molina and Rowland … calculated that if human use Crutzen, atmospheric chemistry, of CFC gases was to continue at an unaltered rate the http://www.nobel.se/ Mario 1995 particularly concerning the theory ozone layer would be depleted by many percent after chemistry/laureates/ Molina, & F. formation and some decades. Their prediction created an enormous 1995/press.html Sherwood decomposition of ozone" " Rowland NOBEL PRIZES FOR CHEMISTRY 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. old Name tion release or new use of old method

Robert F. "By fine-tuning the experiment they were Curl, Jr., "By fine-tuning the experiment they were able in able in particular to produce clusters with Harold W. particular to produce clusters with 60 carbon atoms and http://www.nobel.se/ "for their discovery of 60 carbon atoms and clusters with 70. 1996 Kroto, & method clusters with 70. They found high stability in C60, chemistry/laureates/ fullerenes" They found high stability in C60, which Professor which suggested a molecular structure of great 1996/press.html suggested a molecular structure of great Richard E. symmetry." Smalley symmetry."

"Boyer and his co-workers have proposed, on the "for their elucidation of the Paul D. basis of biochemical data, a mechanism for how ATP enzymatic mechanism http://www.nobel.se/ Boyer & is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and 1997 underlying the synthesis of theory chemistry/laureates/ John E. inorganic phosphate. Walker and his co-workers have adenosine triphosphate 1997/press.html Walker established the structure of the and verified (ATP)" the mechanism proposed by Boyer." "for the first discovery of discovery: reading of the press release "discovery of the enzyme sodium, (Na + , K + - http://www.nobel.se/ Jens C. an ion-transporting indicates this is a 2nd (one in Physics) 1997 method ATPase). This enzyme maintains the balance of chemistry/laureates/ Skou enzyme, Na + , K + - example of pushing an established sodium and potassium ions in the living cell" 1997/press.html ATPase" method to a further limit "formed the basis for simplifying the mathematics in http://www.nobel.se/ "for his development of the 1998 theory descriptions of the bonding of atoms, a prerequisite for chemistry/laureates/ density-functional theory" many of today's calculations" 1998/press.html "developed the entire quantum-chemical "for his development of http://www.nobel.se/ methodology now used in various John A. "developed the entire quantum-chemical methodology 1998 computational methods in method chemistry/laureates/ branches of chemistry" Pople now used in various branches of chemistry" " 1998/press.html " is rewarded for developing computational methods" "for showing that it is "pioneering investigation of fundamental chemical method "for showing that it is possible with rapid possible with rapid laser reactions, using ultra-short laser flashes, on the time http://www.nobel.se/ Ahmed H. (which laser technique to see how atoms in a 1999 technique to see how scale on which the reactions actually occur. Professor chemistry/laureates/ Zewail stimulated molecule move during a chemical atoms in a molecule move Zewail's contributions have brought about a revolution 1999/press.html theory) reaction" during a chemical reaction" in chemistry and adjacent "

Alan J. Heeger, "… their revolutionary discovery that plastic can,after "rewarded for their revolutionary Alan G. "for the discovery and certain modifications, be made electrically http://www.nobel.se/ discovery that plastic can, after certain 2000 MacDiarmid, development of method conductive….[they] have subsequently developed chemistry/laureates/ modifications, be made electrically & conductive polymers" conductive polymers into a research field of great 2000/press.html conductive" Hideki importance for as well as physicists." Shirakawa NOBEL PRIZES FOR CHEMISTRY 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. old Name tion release or new use of old method "have developed molecules that can William S. "for their work on chirally "have developed molecules that can catalyse http://www.nobel.se/ catalyse important [hydrogenation] 2001 Knowles & catalysed hydrogenation method important [hydrogenation] reactions so that only one of chemistry/laureates/ reactions so that only one of the two Ryoji Noyori reactions" the two mirror image forms is produced" 2001/press.html mirror image forms is produced" "for his work on chirally "is awarded half of the Prize for developing chiral http://www.nobel.se/ "is awarded half of the Prize for K. Barry 2001 catalysed oxidation method catalysts for another important type of reaction – chemistry/laureates/ developing chiral catalysts for another Sharpless reactions" oxidation." 2001/press.html important type of reaction – oxidation."

"for their development of John B. "for their development of soft desorption soft desorption ionisation http://www.nobel.se/ Fenn & "John B. Fenn and have developed ionisation methods for mass 2002 methods for mass method chemistry/laureates/ Koichi methods that make it possible to analyse biological spectrometric analyses of biological spectrometric analyses of 2002/press.html Tanaka macromolecules ..." macromolecules" biological macromolecules"

"for his development of nuclear magnetic "for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy http://www.nobel.se/ Kurt "development of another favourite method among resonance spectroscopy for determining 2002 for determining the three- method chemistry/laureates/ Wűthrich chemists, nuclear magnetic resonance" the three-dimensional structure of dimensional structure of 2002/press.html biological macromolecules in solution" biological macromolecules in solution"

" succeeded in isolating a membrane protein that, a year or so later, he realised must be the long- sought-after water channel. This decisive discovery Peter Agre & "for discoveries concerning http://www.nobel.se/ discovery: this one is difficult to code, opened the door to a whole series of biochemical, 2003 Roderick channels in cell method chemistry/laureates/ but it may be an example of using existing physiological and genetic studies ..." "Roderick MacKinnon membranes" 2003/press.html methods. MacKinnon surprised the whole research community when in 1998 he was able to determine the spatial structure of a ." NOBEL PRIZES FOR CHEMISTRY 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. old Name tion release or new use of old method discovery: This could be another case of pushing an existing method: "Using such an extract , Avram Aaron Hershko and , in a series of http://www.nobelpriz Ciechanover "for the discovery of epoch-making biochemical studies in the e.org/nobel_prizes/c 2004 , Avram -mediated protein method late 1970s and early 1980s, succeeded in hemistry/laureates/2 Hershko, & degradation" showing that protein degradation in cells 004/press.html Irwin Rose takes place in a series of step-wise ". . . together discovered ubiquitinmediated reactions that result in the to be proteolysis, a process where an enzyme system tags destroyed being labelled with the unwanted proteins with many molecules of the 76- amino acid residue protein ubiquitin." polypeptide ubiquitin." , "In metathesis reactions, double bonds are broken and http://nobelprize.org/ "for the development of the Robert H. made between carbon atoms in ways that cause atom nobel_prizes/chemi "for the development of the metathesis 2005 metathesis method in method Grubbs, & groups to change places. This happens with the stry/laureates/2005/ method in " organic synthesis" Richard R. assistance of special catalyst molecules." # Schrock

"Kornberg's contribution has culminated "Kornberg's contribution has culminated in his creation in his creation of detailed crystallographic of detailed crystallographic pictures describing the http://nobelprize.org/ pictures describing the transcription "for his studies of the transcription apparatus. . . . The pictures are so Roger D. nobel_prizes/chemi apparatus. . . . The pictures are so 2006 molecular basis of method detailed that separate atoms can be distinguished and Kornberg stry/laureates/2006/ detailed that separate atoms can be eukaryotic transcription" this makes it possible to understand the press.html distinguished and this makes it possible mechanisms of transcription and how it is to understand the mechanisms of regulated." transcription and how it is regulated."

"Step by step he has created a "Step by step he has created a methodology for methodology for surface chemistry by surface chemistry by demonstrating how different demonstrating how different experimental http://nobelprize.org/ "for his studies of chemical experimental procedures can be used to provide a procedures can be used to provide a nobel_prizes/chemi 2007 processes on solid method complete picture of a surface reaction. . . . Acquiring a complete picture of a surface reaction. . . . stry/laureates/2007/ surfaces" complete picture of the reaction requires great Acquiring a complete picture of the press.html precision and a combination of many different reaction requires great precision and a experimental techniques." combination of many different experimental techniques." NOBEL PRIZES FOR CHEMISTRY 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press indications that method was new vs. old Name tion release or new use of old method , "this protein has become one of the most important http://nobelprize.org/ "for the discovery and Martin tools used in contemporary bioscience. With the aid nobel_prizes/chemi "for the discovery and development of the 2008 development of the green method Chalfie, & of GFP, researchers have developed ways to watch stry/laureates/2008/ green fluorescent protein, GFP". fluorescent protein, GFP". Roger Y. processes that were previously invisible." press.html Tsien

Venkatrama n "for having showed what the looks like and "It would actually take another 20 years of http://nobelprize.org/ Ramakrishn "for studies of the structure how it functions at the atomic level. All three have hard work before managed to nobel_prizes/chemi 2009 an, Thomas and of the method used a method called X-ray to map generate an image of the ribosome where stry/laureates/2009/ A. Steitz, & ribosome" the position for each and every one of the hundreds of she could determine the location of each press.html Ada E. thousands of atoms that make up the ribosome." atom." Yonath

"This chemical tool has vastly improved "This chemical tool has vastly improved the the possibilities for chemists to create possibilities for chemists to create sophisticated Richard F. http://nobelprize.org/ sophisticated chemicals, for example "for palladium-catalyzed chemicals, for example carbon-based molecules as Heck, Ei-ichi nobel_prizes/chemi carbon-based molecules as complex as 2010 cross couplings in organic method complex as those created by nature itself. . . . Negishi, & stry/laureates/2010/ those created by nature itself. . . . synthesis" Palladium-catalyzed cross coupling . . . provided press.html Palladium-catalyzed cross coupling . . . chemists with a more precise and efficient tool to provided chemists with a more precise work with. and efficient tool to work with.

http://www.nobelpriz discovery: "On the morning of 8 April "On the morning of 8 April 1982, an image counter to Dan "for the discovery of e.org/nobel_prizes/c 1982, an image counter to the laws of 2011 method the laws of nature appeared in 's Shechtman quasicrystals". hemistry/laureates/2 nature appeared in Dan Shechtman's electron microscope" 011/press.html electron microscope"

45 awardees NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method "The two German cell physiologists . . . have "The two German cell physiologists . . . have together developed a technique that allows the together developed a technique that allows the "for their discoveries method registration of the incredibly small electrical http://nobelprize.or registration of the incredibly small electrical concerning the (which currents . . . . this new knowledge and this new g/nobel_prizes/me currents . . . . this new knowledge and this new 1991 & Bert function of single ion stimulated analytical tool has during the past ten years dicine/laureates/19 analytical tool has during the past ten years Sakmann channels in cells" theory) revolutionized modern , facilitated 91/press.html revolutionized modern biology, facilitated research, and contributed to the understanding of . research, and contributed to the understanding . . " of . . . "

"for their discoveries discovery probably using existing methods: Edmond H. concerning 'reversible method "They purified and characterized the first http://www.nobel.se "They purified and characterized the first Fischer & protein (which enzyme of this type. Their fundamental finding 1992 /medicine/laureate enzyme of this type. Their fundamental finding Edwin G. phosphorylation as a stimulated initiated a research area which today is one of the s/1992/press.html initiated a research area which today is one of Krebs biological regulatory theory) most active and wide-ranging." the most active and wide-ranging." mechanism'"

discovery: "One of several possible "independently discovered that could be explanations was that the DNA segment Richard J. method discontinuous, that is, a given could be http://www.nobel.se corresponding to this end was not located in Roberts & "for their discovery of (which present in the genetic material (DNA) as several, 1993 /medicine/laureate the immediate vicinity of the rest of the gene. To Phillip A. 'split genes'" stimulated well-separated segments. ... Roberts' and Sharp's s/1993/press.html determine where this segment was located on Sharp theory) discovery has changed our view on how genes the long DNA molecule, they used electron in higher organisms develop during ." microscopy. They surprisingly found"

"for their discovery of Alfred G. 'G-proteins and the [press release doesn't make it clear whether the http://www.nobel.se Gilman & theory & 1994 role of these proteins contribution should be regarded as theory or /medicine/laureate Martin method in signal transduction method; so it will be treated as half of each] s/1994/press.html Rodbell in cells'"

Edward B. Lewis, "for their discoveries "Using Drosophila Nüsslein-Volhard and "The strategy used by the two young scientists Christiane concerning 'the Wieschaus were able to identify and classify a http://www.nobel.se was novel. It established that genes controlling 1995 Nüsslein- genetic control of early method small number of genes that are of key importance /medicine/laureate development could be systematically Volhard, & embryonic in determining the body plan and the formation of s/1995/press.html identified." Eric F. development'" body segments." Wieschaus NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method

"there was an unexpected discovery: the T- lymphocytes, even though they were reactive "there was an unexpected discovery: the T- against that very virus, were not able to kill "for their discoveries lymphocytes ... were not able to kill virus-infected Peter C method virus-infected cells from another strain of mice. concerning 'the cells from another strain of mice. What decided http://www.nobel.se Doherty & (which What decided whether or not a cell was 1996 specificity of the cell whether or not a cell was eliminated by these killer /medicine/laureate Rolf M stimulated eliminated by these killer lymphocytes was not mediated immune lymphocytes was [whether] they carried the s/1996/press.html Zinkernagel theory) only if they were infected with the virus, but defence'" 'correct' variant of histocompatibility antigens, those of the infected mouse itself." also if they carried the "correct" variant of histocompatibility antigens, those of the infected mouse itself."

"in 1982 he and his colleagues successfully produced a preparation derived from diseased The press release indicates that the award was "for his discovery of method hamster that contained a single infectious http://www.nobel.se for a long series of studies that appeared to Stanley B. 'Prions - a new (which agent. All experimental evidence indicated that the 1997 /medicine/laureate (very perseveringly) use methods related to Prusiner biological principle of stimulated infectious agent was comprised of a single protein, s/1997/press.html ones used previously to isolate genes and '" theory) and Prusiner named this protein a prion, an demonstrate their function. acronym derived from 'proteinaceous infectious particle.'"

"for their discoveries concerning 'nitric oxide "Furchtgott ... demonstrated in an ingenious "Furchtgott ... demonstrated in an ingenious Robert F. experiment that acetylcholine dilated blood as a signalling method experiment that acetylcholine dilated blood Furchgott, molecule in the vessels only if the endothelium was intact. He http://www.nobel.se vessels only if the endothelium was intact. He (which 1998 Louis J. cardiovascular concluded that blood vessels are dilated because /medicine/laureate concluded that blood vessels are dilated stimulated Ignarro, & system'" (RFF & LJI the endothelial cells produce an unknown signal s/1998/press.html because the endothelial cells produce an theory) produced results that molecule that makes vascular smooth muscle unknown signal molecule that makes vascular FM interpreted cells relax" smooth muscle cells relax" theoretically)

"[Blobel] postulated that proteins secreted out of "for the discovery that the cell contain an intrinsic signal that governs 'proteins have intrinsic http://www.nobel.se Günter them to and across membranes. … Based on 1999 signals that govern theory /medicine/laureate Blobel elegant biochemical experiments, Blobel their transport and s/1999/press.html described in 1975 the various steps in these localization in the cell'" processes." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method

" developed an assay that made it possible to measure tissue levels of dopamine with high sensitivity." "Paul Arvid "for their discoveries method Greengard showed that slow synaptic Carlsson, "have made pioneering discoveries concerning http://www.nobel.se concerning 'signal (1/3 transmission involves a chemical reaction 2000 Paul one type of signal transduction between /medicine/laureate transduction in the existing called protein phosphorylation." "With the Greengard & cells, referred to as slow synaptic transmission" s/2000/press.html '" method) nervous system of a sea slug as experimental model [Eric Kandel] has demonstrated how changes of synaptic function are central for and ." "[Leland Hartwell] used baker's yeast, Leland H. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as a model system, Hartwell, R. "seminal discoveries concerning the control of which proved to be highly suitable for cell cycle "for their discoveries http://www.nobel.se Timothy the cell cycle. They have identified key molecules studies." "He used a different type of yeast, 2001 of 'key regulators of method /medicine/laureate (Tim) Hunt, & that regulate the cell cycle in all eukaryotic Schizosaccharomyces pombe, as a model the cell cycle'" s/2001/press.html Paul M. organisms" organism." "The discovery of cyclin, which was Nurse made using sea urchins, Arbacia, as a model system..." Sydney "for their discoveries "By establishing and using the nematode "By establishing and using the nematode Brenner, H. concerning 'genetic Caenorhabditis elegans as an experimental http://www.nobel.se Caenorhabditis elegans as an experimental Robert regulation of organ 2002 method model system, possibilities were opened to follow /medicine/laureate model system, possibilities were opened to Horvitz, & development and cell division and differentiation from the fertilized s/2002/press.html follow cell division and differentiation from the John E. programmed cell egg to the adult." Sulston death'" fertilized egg to the adult."

Lauterbur "described how addition of gradient Lauterbur "described how addition of gradient magnets to the main magnet made it possible to magnets to the main magnet made it possible to Paul C. "for their discoveries visualize a cross section of tubes with ordinary http://www.nobel.se visualize a cross section of tubes with ordinary Lauterbur & 2003 concerning magnetic method water surrounded by heavy water." Mansfield /medicine/laureate water surrounded by heavy water." Mansfield Peter resonance imaging" "utilized gradients in the magnetic field in order to s/2003/press.html "utilized gradients in the magnetic field in order Mansfield more precisely show differences in the to more precisely show differences in the resonance." resonance." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method

". . . examined the sensitivity of individual ". . . examined the sensitivity of individual olfactory cells to specific odorants. By receptor cells to specific odorants. By means of a means of a pipette, they . . . showed exactly pipette, they . . . showed exactly which odorant "for their discoveries of which odorant receptor gene was expressed in receptor gene was expressed in that cell. . . . ". . . http://www.nobel.se odorant receptors and that cell. . . . ". . . showed that receptor cells 2004 & Linda B. method showed that receptor cells carrying the same type /medicine/laureate the organization of the carrying the same type of receptor converge Buck of receptor converge their processes into the s/2004/press.html " their processes into the same , and same glomerulus, and Axel's research group used sophisticated genetic technology to demonstrate Axel's research group used sophisticated in mice the role of the receptor in this process." genetic technology to demonstrate in mice the role of the receptor in this process."

"for their discovery of "together they initiated a study of biopsies from "together they initiated a study of biopsies from Barry J. http://nobelprize.or the bacterium 100 patients. After several attempts, Marshall 100 patients. After several attempts, Marshall Marshall & J. g/nobel_prizes/me 2005 Helicobacter pylori and method succeeded in cultivating a hitherto unknown succeeded in cultivating a hitherto unknown Robin dicine/laureates/20 its role in gastritis and bacterial (later denoted Helicobacter bacterial species (later denoted Helicobacter Warren 05/press.html peptic ulcer disease" pylori) from several of these biopsies." pylori) from several of these biopsies."

"After a series of simple but elegant "Their discovery clarified many confusing and experiments, Fire and Mello deduced that "for their discovery of http://nobelprize.or Andrew Z. contradictory experimental observations and double-stranded RNA can silence genes, that RNA interference - g/nobel_prizes/me 2006 Fire & Craig method revealed a natural mechanism for controlling the this RNA interference is specific for the gene gene silencing by dicine/laureates/20 C. Mello flow of genetic information. This heralded the whose code matches that of the injected RNA double-stranded RNA" 06/press.html start of a new research field." molecule, and that RNA interference can spread between cells and even be inherited."

Mario R. "for their discoveries "Their discoveries led to the creation of an "Their discoveries led to the creation of an Capecchi, Sir of principles for http://nobelprize.or immensely powerful technology referred to as immensely powerful technology referred to as Martin J. introducing specific g/nobel_prizes/me 2007 method gene targeting in mice. It is now being applied to gene targeting in mice. It is now being applied Evans, & gene modifications in dicine/laureates/20 virtually all areas of biomedicine – from basic to virtually all areas of biomedicine – from basic Oliver mice by the use of 07/press.html research to the development of new therapies." research to the development of new therapies." Smithies embryonic stem cells"

"Against the prevailing view during the 1970s, "for his discovery of http://nobelprize.or postulated a role for human Harald zur human papilloma theory & g/nobel_prizes/me 2008 papilloma virus (HPV) in cervical cancer. . . . Hausen viruses causing method dicine/laureates/20 Harald zur Hausen pursued this idea for over 10 cervical cancer" 08/press.html years by searching for different HPV types" NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method "By 1984, Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier had Françoise "for their discovery of obtained several isolates of the novel human http://nobelprize.or Barré- human retrovirus, which they identified as a lentivirus . . . g/nobel_prizes/me Descriptions in the press release do not 2008 Sinoussi & method immunodeficiency . Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier's discovery dicine/laureates/20 mention any newly created methods. Luc virus" made rapid of the HIV-1 08/press.html Montagnier possible."

" and Jack Szostak discovered that a unique DNA sequence in the Elizabeth H. protects the from degradation. "for the discovery of Blackburn, Carol Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn identified http://nobelprize.or how chromosomes are Carol W. , the enzyme that makes g/nobel_prizes/me Descriptions in the press release do not 2009 protected by telomeres method Greider, & DNA. These discoveries explained how the ends dicine/laureates/20 mention any newly created methods. and the enzyme Jack W. of the chromosomes are protected by the 09/press.html telomerase" Szostak telomeres and that they are built by telomerase. . . . a discovery that has stimulated the development of new therapeutic strategies."

"His efforts were finally crowned by success on "His efforts were finally crowned by success on 25 http://nobelprize.or 25 July, 1978, when the world's first "test tube July, 1978, when the world's first "test tube baby" Robert G. "for the development g/nobel_prizes/me baby" was born. During the following years, 2010 method was born. During the following years, Edwards Edwards of in vitro fertilization" dicine/laureates/20 Edwards and his co-workers refined IVF and his co-workers refined IVF technology and 10/press.html technology and shared it with colleagues shared it with colleagues around the world." around the world."

"[Hoffman] had access to flies with mutations in several different genes including Toll. . . . When Hoffmann infected his fruit flies with or Bruce A. "for their discoveries fungi, he discovered that Toll mutants died http://www.nobelpri Beutler & concerning the because they could not mount an effective ze.org/nobel_prize Descriptions in the press release do not 2011 method Jules A. activation of innate defense." "Beutler and his colleagues discovered s/medicine/laureat mention any newly created methods. Hoffmann immunity" that mice resistant to LPS had a mutation in a es/2011/press.html gene that was quite similar to the Toll gene of the fruit fly. This Toll-like receptor (TLR) turned out to be the elusive LPS receptor."

"Ralph Steinman discovered, in 1973, a new cell "for his discovery of http://www.nobelpri type that he called the dendritic cell. . . . In cell Ralph M. the dendritic cell and ze.org/nobel_prize Descriptions in the press release do not 2011 method culture experiments, he showed that the presence Steinman its role in adaptive s/medicine/laureat mention any newly created methods. of dendritic cells resulted in vivid responses of T immunity" es/2011/press.html cells to such substances." NOBEL PRIZES FOR PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE 1991-2011

Type of URL for Nobel For method-coded contributions, indications Laureate Year Contribution Citation Contribu- Supporting Material from Press Release Foundation press that method was new vs. old or new use of old Name tion release method

The coding for 2001 assumes that developing a 48 novel is more properly treated as awardees newly invented (than existing) method NOBEL PRIZES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCHERS POST WORLD WAR II

Type of Contribu- URL for press Year Laureate Name Contribution Citation tion Supporting Material from Press Release release for his discovery of the Through the use of a refined and accurate technique he has succeeded functional organization of the in applying stimulation to or causing the destruction of very small areas, http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 1949 interbrain as a coordinator of method and thus he has been able to study the effect of the , as well as dicine/laureates/1949/press.html the activities of the internal of the disappearance of a function organs

Von Békésy's distinction is, however, to have recorded the events in this fragile biological miniature system. Authorities in this field evaluate the elaborate technique which he developed for this purpose as being for his discoveries of the worthy of a genius. By microdissection he reaches anatomical http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 1961 Georg von Békésy physical mechanism of method structures difficult of access, uses advanced teletechnique for dicine/laureates/1961/press.html stimulation within the cochlea stimulation and recording, and employs high magnification stroboscopic microscopy for making apparent complex membrane movements, the amplitudes of which are measured in thousandths of the millimeter.

We honour for his discovery of elements in the for their discoveries possessing differential spectral sensitivities as determined by means of Ragnar Granit, concerning the primary electrophysiological methods. The first work together with Svaetichin http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 1967 Haldan K. Hartline, method physiological and chemical appeared in 1939. It was followed by an impressive series of dicine/laureates/1967/press.html visual processes in the eye investigations which led to the conclusion that there are different types of cones representing three characteristic spectral sensitivities.

observational studies to deduce means of communicating direction and 1973 method for their discoveries distance of food source 1973 concerning organization and method observational studies of imprinting http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me elicitation of individual and dicine/laureates/1973/press.html experiments to determine the nature of releaser stimuli for instinctive 1973 social behaviour patterns method

In experiments on monkeys Sperry found that, if these connections were severed, each cerebral hemisphere would retain its ability to learn, for his discoveries concerning but that what had been learned by one hemisphere was not accessible http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 1981 Roger W. Sperry the functional specialization method to the other. [H]e was able, through brilliantly designed test procedures, dicine/laureates/1981/press.html of the cerebral hemispheres to show that each cerebral hemisphere in these patients had its own world of and was entirely independent of the other with regard to learning and retention

By tapping nerve-cell impulses in the various layers of the visual cortex, for their discoveries Hubel and Wiesel have been able to demonstrate that the message David H. Hubel, concerning information reaching the from the eyes undergoes an analysis in which the http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 1981 method Torsten N. Wiesel processing in the visual various components of the retinal image are interpreted with respect to dicine/laureates/1981/press.html system their contrasts, linear patterns and the movement of the image across the retina NOBEL PRIZES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCHERS POST WORLD WAR II

Type of Contribu- URL for Nobel Foundation press Year Laureate Name Contribution Citation tion Supporting Material from Press Release release for their discoveries Avid Carlsson, Paul With the nervous system of a sea slug as experimental model he has concerning signal http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/me 2000 Greengard, Eric method demonstrated how changes of synaptic function are central for learning transduction in the nervous dicine/laureates/2000/press.html Kandel and memory. system

for having integrated insights Kahneman’s main findings concern decision-making under uncertainty, from psychological research where he has demonstrated how human decisions may systematically into economic science, method & http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ec 2002 depart from those predicted by standard economic theory. Together especially concerning human theory onomics/laureates/2002/press.html with Amos Tversky (deceased in 1996), he has formulated prospect judgment and decision- theory as an alternative, that better accounts for observed behavior making under uncertainty