El último que apague la luz. Sobre la extinción del periodismo del extinción la Sobre luz. la apague que 2012 último El Taurus, and Javier Reivindicaciónde Solana. la política man, changedtheisolationist andunilateralisttradi- President Rooseveltandbrought tofruitionbyTru- Japan inWorld War II.Thatundertaking,headedby try’s owninitiativefollowingvictoryoverGermanyand tem ofmultilateralinstitutionssetupunderthecoun- had led70yearsofliberalglobalizationthroughasys- rival ofTrump intheWhiteHouse.TheUnited States A fullcyclehasjustcometocompletionwiththear- cial versionadoptedbypost-warGermany. them thatweresubsequentlyremovedfromtheoffi- linesfromthe Germannationalan- all intheworld), über allesinderWelt” (Germanyaboveall, an echo from the verses “Deutschland regime. Thenameofthisfar-rightanti-warlobbywas aviator CharlesLindbergh,asympathizeroftheNazi ticipation inWorld War II.Itsleaders included the cago in1940oppositiontotheUnitedStates’ par- association steepedinantisemitismcreatedChi- America Firstwasthenameofanon-interventionist written alloverit. andpopulistbanner,with“Americanationalist First” ed Statescametopowerunderanunquestionably in November2017.The new Presidentof the Unit- were washedawaywithDonaldTrump’s election most devastatingeventofthe20thcentury, these of a political ideology that was responsible for the strongmen. Iftherewereanydoubtsaboutthereturn return ofnationalism,asifoftenthecase,come has rarelybeenseensincethe1930s.Andwith Nationalism iscomingbackandwithastrengththat Journalist andPolitical Columnist, Barcelona Bassets Lluís Geopolitics Strongman Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism. Return The of the Strong Men 1 El País El of edition Catalan the of head current and columnist political and ajournalist is Bassets Lluís 1 El año de la revolución. Como los árabes están derrocando a sus tiranos asus derrocando están árabes los Como revolución. la de 2010, año El Debate, , Editorial über alles/ rent national populisms would not be possible without rent nationalpopulismswould notbepossiblewithout list incarnations. The strength and breadth of the cur- new thatopenlydifferentiatesitfrompreviouspopu This apparentreturntothepastcontainssomething still reviledincommonparlance. reality he is a commander, abossorFührer, words leadership. Let’scallhima“strongman,” althoughin and placesitstrustinasinglesingular with tifies who only acquires avoiceandfaceifthepeopleiden- This isanevanescentfigureofpoliticalaction, people. nation andbecomesthevoiceexpressionof inevitably requiresa leaderwhoembodiesthe – elite all else–andpopulismthepeopleagainst The syncretismof nationalism – the nation before ditional partiesandrepresentativedemocracy. quickly translatesintoadefamationofinstitutions,tra- es andadivorcebetweencitizenstheelite,which ished populations,thedeclassingofmiddleclass- political crises.Theyaretheresultofnewlyimpover- from therightandleftinreactiontoeconomic numerous movementsandpartiesthathaveemerged ulisms, a controversial but useful term to describe The return of nationalism also marks the return of pop- Populisms and Nationalisms on thescrapheap. til now, wasthoughttohavebeendefinitivelythrown izes alineofforeignpolicyinWashington which,un- apparent duringtheriseoffascism,butalsorevital- slogan doesnotonlyconnectwiththenationalism for sinceitsfoundation.So,thecurrentPresident’s tion thatthegreatAmericannationhadbeenknown , Taurus, 2013. , Taurus, . He is the author of, among other books, books, other among of, author the is . He - ,

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 55 Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 56 Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism Keys or Saudi Arabia autocratic states China like Russia, population control, implemented by behind the latest wave of totalitarian revolution, but are also key factors of the industrialThey fourth are part new technologies have on politics. There isadual nature to the impact Saudi Arabia. plemented byautocraticstateslikeRussia,Chinaor the latest wave of totalitarian population control, im- Artificial Intelligence,butarealsokeyfactorsbehind trial revolution,whichrevolvesaroundbigdataand Western countries.Theyarepartofthefourthindus- hybrid warsinUkraineorhiselectoralinterference endum-winning BrexitcampaignandbyPutininhis were usedbyTrump inhisrisetopower,therefer- emerging times. They servedto topple Mubarak, but tion andevencontrolforthestrongmenofnew, men of a fading era. Yet, they are also weapons of ac- Arab Springs,weaponsofliberationagainstthestrong- have on politics. They were instrumental in the 2011 There isadualnaturetotheimpactnewtechnologies my, trade,journalismandpolitics. by bringingintoquestioninterventionsintheecono- formed partysystemsandtheveryideaofdemocracy, instruments forpeacefulmobilization.Thesehavetrans- provides populist movements with new, exceptional ter, particularlysocialmediaandmobiletelephony, decolonization thattookplace80yearsago.Thelat- the West, aswouldhavebeenthecasebefore have reachedallaroundtheworldnotjustaffecting quent monetary, socialandpoliticalshockwaves.These Street in 2008, the Great Recession and its subse- across theglobe,triggeredbycollapseofWall former isattherootofpopulistwavesweeping globalization andtechnology. Thecrisisthathitthe the timeofHitler,MussoliniandFranco:economic two intertwinedsingularitiesthatdidnotexistduring from hisunpredictable Twitter account. Hisisamod- man thanDonaldTrump, directingthepoliticalworld Nobody betterembodiesthenew technologicalstrong- the continent’s wave of immigration. the continent’s waveofimmigration. all ofwhompeddleanagenda thatexploitsfearand roslav KaczynskiinPoland andMarinelePeninFrance, Matteo SalviniinItaly, theLawandJusticePartyofJa The samecanbesaidofViktor OrbaninHungary, the poor, indigenous peoples and sexual minorities. Brazil onanotherprogrammeofexclusion:leftists, on Hindusupremacy. Bolsonarohas risentopowerin India withaprogrammethatisanti-Muslimandbased dealers. NarendraModihaswonalandslidevictoryin ner ofphysicalandextrajudicialexterminationdrug Duterte winselectionsinthePhilippinesunderaban- ual minorities orevenunderprivilegedsocialgroups. whether thisbeforeigners,immigrants,muslims,sex- course ofresentmentandloathingtowardstheother, at thepollsclearlyowingtoeffectivenessofadis- with today’sgeopoliticsofhate,theirsuccessstories The riseofpopulistleaderscouldalsobeassociated democratic consensus. and bannersflauntedattheballotboxesforobtaining toward homosexuality have become the programmes nation, male-chauvinism,anti-feminismandanaversion been masculine,butinitsmorecontemporaryincar sexual identities.Absolutepersonalpowerhasalways “gender ideology” andtherightsofminorities is, attimes,openlyanti-feministandhostiletoward heavy masculinization of power and ideology, which typifies thisneweraofpersonalizedpower,itisthe And, wesaymenbecause,ifthereissomethingthat alliances andrelationstheyweavewithoneanother. Their strongmangeopolitics gathers strengthinthe ized andrecognizedautocratsinauthoritarianregimes. are democraticallyelectedtogovernasinstitutional One aftertheother,nationalistandpopulistleaders Power of Masculinization Salman inSaudiArabia. Korea, Vladimir PutininRussiaandMohammedbin box, suchas,XiJinpinginChina,KimJong-unNorth strongmen whosepathshavenotincludedtheballot those whoimitatehim,butperhapsmorestillthe power throughtheballotbox.Trump, inturn,admires throughout theworldonhismarchtowardspersonal er, Trump isadmiredandinvokedbypopulistleaders trol, yetwithhiseyesfirmlyfixedongrippow- the strongman.Individualist,erraticandoutofcon- el exampleofpopulistnationalism,asindeedheis - - - bate, assuming thereisone,encapsulated within Saudi Arabia.Inthesecountries thesuccessionde- seen in monarchical regimes such as Morocco and repressive controlduringthe ArabSpringswastobe a coincidencethatthehighest levelsofstabilityand began toenvisagehereditary solutions.Neitherisit Gaddafi in2011cameaboutjustwhenthedictators is notbychancethatthefallofBenAli,Mubarakand that aroseinthedyingmomentsoftheseregimes.It copying themodeloffamilysuccession; something This imitationofthemonarchicalsystemincluded which wasrepeatedinnumerousAfricancountries. al dictatorshipundertheguiseofpresidenciesforlife, The post-colonialworldproducedamodelofperson- for Life Presidencies any kindofpublicactivity. spite his age and ailing health rendering him unfit for ganize anewpresidential election for thisyear, de- ation in power, Bouteflika even went so far as toor- last Februaryinprotestoverhisfraudulentperpetu- Brought downbythepopularrevoltswhichbegan false charisma of a figure like Abdelaziz Bouteflika. it alsocametoidentifywiththepersonalpowerand geria’s single-partyregime,althoughinitslastphase newly-liberated nation.ThesoleexceptionwasAl- sidered charismaticandthepersonificationof where andmostlyaroundafigurethatpeoplecon- rica where authoritarian regimes sprang up every- It wasthesameafterdecolonization,especiallyinAf- family clan,inAzerbaijan. or IlhamAliev, thesecondPresidentfromsame in Kazakastan,untilhisapparentresignation2019, NursultanNazarbayez bekistan (whodiedin2016), der LukashenkoenBelorussia,IslamKarimovinUz- who emergedfromthedefunctSovietUnion:Alexan the case of a goodnumberof ex-communist dictators and hisCroatcounterfigure,FranjoTudjman; itisalso nist parties: this was the caseofMilosevic in Serbia, direct resultofleadershipsuccessioninthecommu- trated orfalsetransitionsintheoldsocialistcamp,a prior tothecurrentgeneration,arosefromfrus- the SovietUnion.Asubstantialcohortofstrongmen, breakup ofthecommunistblocanddisappearance ative democraticprogressmadesince1989withthe speaking, theyhavenotreallyeverleft,despitetherel- The strongmenarecomingback.Although,strictly - serves as a model for Libya, where Sisi’s replica, the serves asamodel forLibya,whereSisi’sreplica, the defeated ayearafterhispresidential victory. Italso si andhisMuslimBrotherhood government,violently ly opposestheIslamicdemocracyofMohamed Mor- enough Presidentforlife,isa fineexample,asitdirect- Sisi, transformedintothePresident electandnear The dictatorship of the field marshal Abdel Fattah el- tory movementsandthefightagainstterrorism. containingmigra- able byproducttheenergysupply), the economicorder(withitsgeostrategicallyinvalu- tatorship for the sake of political stability, maintaining itary cancontinuetoproclaimtheadvantagesof dic- Islam inpower,withtheexceptionofTunisia, themil- failure of the Arab uprisings and especially of political Egypt, onceakeyplayerinArabpolitics.Afterthe has notentirelydisappeared,particularlythanksto the explicitfigureofmilitarydictator,althoughit One ofthedefiningtraitseraisdecline Dictator Military the of Decline and aEuro-Asianistpseudophilosophy. embellished bytheideasofRussianneo-imperialism nationalism, conservatism,anti-feminism–initscase and correspondswithmanyofitsideologicaltraits– ration formanyofitsleaders,fromTrump toOrban, the nationalist-populist model, serves as direct inspi- case ofVladimirPutin,althoughnotcorrespondingto built onthenewelectoralbaseor“constituency.” The public resourcesintheprivatizationera,hasbeen arising fromformercommunistcadrespreyingon structure. However,anewoligarchicalclass,largely gence services,followingtheendofparty-state there doesnotlieinthearmy, butinsteadtheintelli- The Russiancaseisanoddone,astherootofpower a Maoist-stylepersonalitycult. of accumulatingpersonalpower,evenborderingon torship, althoughithasnowreturnedtoitsoldways explicit exampleofadepersonalized,collegialdicta- na. UntilthearrivalofXiJinping,thiswasmost one, asisthecaseinPeople’sRepublicofChi- model, however,seesthearmyandpartyfusedas ance ofpost-colonialcountries.Themostsuccessful of militaryandpolicepower,theunderpinninggovern- countries havebasedthemselvesonasolidstructure The strongmeninwhatusedtobecalledThirdWorld tions areinplace,asisveryoftenthecase. the rulingfamilies,evenwhennosuccessionregula-

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 57 Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism Keys IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 58 Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism Keys dence ofDonald Trump since20January2017. can be found in the White House, the official resi- the centreofgravitythese democraticgeopolitics tory: AdolphHitlerwasalso votedintopower.And ther a guarantee of anything, nor exceptional in his- and evenliberalsystems,acircumstance thatisnei- box, thankstoelectoralvictorieswithindemocratic ment, arethosethatrisetopowerthroughtheballot because theyarepartofthecurrentpopulistmove- The strongmenthataremostworthyofourattention, Path A Democratic Bashir, asaresultofpopularprotests. junta hastakenpowerafterthefallofdictatorel- A similarstoryisunfoldinginSudan,whereamilitary a self-designatedguarantorofanorderedtransition. from theoustedcorruptrulingelitewhohasbecome Ahmed GaidSalahinAlgeria,aneffectiverepressor ally, terrorism.Thesamemodelappliestogeneral cal Islamandanopendoortodisorderand,eventu- ered asadangertostability, aconcessiontopoliti- of democratic inclination, which is actually consid- his family, isoneofregimesremovedfromanykind chy andnow, morespecifically, DonaldTrump and and theirWestern allies,especiallytheUSoiloligar- by theconservatismofGulfArabmonarchies be comingtoanend.However,themodelretained The eraofall-powerfulpresidenciesforlifeseemsto uardo dosSantosinAngola. namely, RobertMugabeinZimbabweandJoseEd- two historicdecolonizationleaders-turned-dictators, the Sudanese dictator, and shortly after the fall of shir, flika’s defeatcomesalongsidethatofOmaral-Ba- hausted byalmostanentiredecadeofcivilwar.Boute- by highenergypricesandanAlgerianpopulationex spiratorial andnepotisticpresidency, compounded and corruptioninthetwentyyearsofhisopaque,con- Algerian revolutions,withastandardofdecadence that triumphed in the 60s, following the Cuban and brings togetherthesymbologyofthird-worldism ly significantforthepost-colonialworld.Hisfigure Minister inthefirstyearsofindependence,ishigh- The fallofBouteflika,ayoungandpopulistForeign the nameoffightagainstIslamicterrorism. Saudi Arabia,Egypt,FranceandtheUnitedStates,in pires totakepowerwiththebackingofEmirates, Benghazi-based warlordgeneralKhalifa Haftar, as- - all-powerful President ofapresidentialistTurkey. The of a parliamentary republic, and has since become the From 2003to2014heserved asthePrimeMinister erate IslamistAKPparty(Justice andDevelopment). thanks to the impeccable democratic rise of his mod- panorama isthatofRecepTayyip Erdogan,inpower But themostremarkablecaseoncontemporary TurkishThe Case siege ontheIranianeconomy. tilateral nuclearagreementandthetighteningof thanks toTrump’s dramaticwithdrawalfrom themul- country’s revolutionarymilitarismisslowlyweakening such asHassanRouhani.Hispowerinthefaceof try stillbeinginthehandsofareformistpresident also Iran,underAyatollahKhomeini,despitethiscoun- European power having any right to interfere. There is of theterritoryAmericancontinentwithoutany early 19th century, claimed its right to intervene in all roe Doctrine,underwhichtheUnitedStates,in sor, JohnBolton.HemadereferencetotheoldMon- shamelessness by Trump’s National Security Advi- ly geopoliticalreasonsthatwerejustifiedwithcandid These, naturally, includeMaduro’sVenezuela, forstrict- thies are those designatedaspartofhisAxis Evil. The onlycountriesoutsidetheradiusofhissympa- of thecollisioncoursebothcountriesareon. flattered sincethefirstdayofhisPresidency, aware amount leadersince2012,whoTrump haslavishly ton’s victory. AndthenthereisXiJinping,China’spar- invested efforts,energyandespionagetoavoidClin not onlygaveTrump hisbacking,butinwhichhealso one example,therealwinnerofelectionsinwhichhe head ofpastorfuturesuperpowers.VladimirPutinis autocrats alreadyinpower,especiallythoseatthe fore hiselection,therewasacloseconnectionwith least thosewithspecialorexcessivepowers.Evenbe- strongmen, dictators,authoritariansanddespots,orat Not onlyisTrump amodel,butalsopromoter.Helikes are nowissuesatthetopofeveryfar-rightagenda. the globe.ImitatingUSvotersandimitatingTrump was anearthquakewhosetremorswerefeltallaround electoral colleges,althoughnotinthepopularvote, former StateSecretaryandfirstladyHillaryClintonin lican candidatesintheprimariesanddefeating supreme authority of the US, after beating all repub- The arrivalofamediaandrealestatemagnateasthe - especially through theirinvolvementinthewars inSyr- Riyadh andTehran arevyingfor regional hegemony, inspected bytheInternational AtomicEnergyAgency. thorization foraciviliannuclear plant,monitoredand the unfreezingofIranianassets intheWest andau- enrichment programmebeing haltedinexchangefor Netanyahu andMbS,bothopenlyagainsttheuranium Iran nucleardealisconsistentwithhisalignment icy intheMiddleEast.Trump’s withdrawal fromthe and RiyadhisacentralelementofTrump’s foreign pol- the rulingclass.ThealliancebetweenWashington far-reaching purgeinsidetheroyalfamilyandamong tablished atthedeathofKingAbdullah,aswella has alsoentailedchangesinthelineofsuccessiones- required thefullsupportofaTrumpist White House.It modernizing, yetnolessauthoritarian,programme,has The consolidationof MbS’ powerin Riyadh, with a ther ofthecurrentKingandgrandfatherPrince. ing of the kingdom in 1932 by Abdelaziz bin Saud, fa- take over from the second generation since the found- bin Abdelaziz and the first of the royal princes in line to crown prince.MbSistheyoungsonofKingSalman the appointmentofMohammedbinSalman(MbS)as consolidating personalpowerhasmaterializedwith and theocraticversion.Inthelatter,drifttowards for political Islam to counterpoint Saudi Arabia’s feudal Despite hisauthoritarianism,Erdoganisstillamodel feudal and theocratic version toIslam counterpoint Saudi Arabia’s Erdogan isstill amodel for political Despite his authoritarianism, powers andholdsallthestringsofeconomicpower. vergence inakindofpresidencythatenjoysdictatorial among theworkingclasses.Thefinalresultisacon- to his popularity and a well-rooted Islamism, especially sian oligarchs,Erdogandidsodemocratically, thanks pointment, andwiththeacquiescenceofnewRus- Unlike Putin, who rose to power following Yeltsin’s ap try’s prisonswithsuspects. diciary andmediaofanyoppositionfillthecoun- regime, accumulatepower,purgethearmy, police,ju- en theTurkish strongmantheoccasiontohardenhis State actions and military coup in July 2016have giv- war inneighbouringSyria,arrivalofrefugees,Islamic - ocratic recession thatishittingusfullinthe face. storm oftheeconomicrecession, itisthegreatdem- pore, LeeKuanYew. Nowwehaveriddenoutthe ing father,thatofthesuccessfulcity-state ofSinga- had evenbeencoined–andshaped byanotherfound- thoritarian andprematurelyilliberal –beforetheterm nomic system,wasinspiredbyideasthatwereau- Deng Xiaoping,founderofChina’scurrentsocioeco- national populists likeOrban. After all, the communist political system,whichservesasanalluringmodelfor no surprisethatitfindsitsmirrorinChina’scurrent ed tothe market, isnothing new. Itshould come as the luxuriesofliberalismanddemocracyislimit- The ideaofauthoritariancapitalism,whichoverrides ers likeRussia,ChinaoraTrumpist UnitedStates. compete onaglobalpanoramadominatedbypow- concepts forwhoeverwantstoleadthewayand resentation areapparentlyobsoleteandineffective minorities, ruleoflaw, pluralismanddemocraticrep- of today’sworld.Separationpowers,respectfor thing newandthebestpoliticalmodelforneeds appropriate theideaofilliberaldemocracyassome- is the Hungarian Viktor Orban, who has managed to democracies. Its most devout contemporary apostle expression ofthecrisisinliberalorrepresentative Strongmen geopoliticscanalsobeinterpretedasthe tification withthepersonality. support forthatprogrammeisattainedthroughiden- programme consistsofaleader’spersonality, and programmes andideas.Or,toputitanotherway, the with aleaderthananykindofknowledgeparty more determinedbyapersonalandsentimentalbond political identificationandmilitancy. Thesearenow the useofsocialmediaandchangesinsystems past, butratheradoptsnewforms,closelylinkedto is notfollowingthesamewell-troddenpathsof The returntotheextremepersonalizationofpolitics Non-liberalism of an Apostle Orban, Brotherhood. while Turkey andQatararefirmlyonthesideof di frontaretheUnitedArabEmiratesandEgypt, the ArabSpringsin2011.ParticipatingonSau- Arabia, unleashedwithparticularvirulencefollowing sions betweentheMuslimBrotherhoodandSaudi of acoldwarwithgreatergeopolitical repercus- part ia andYemen. Buttheirconfrontationalsoforms

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2019 59 Nationalism, Populism and Sovereignism Keys