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You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. ‘MAKING ITS OWN HISTORY’: NEW ZEALAND HISTORICAL FICTION FOR CHILDREN, 1862-2008 A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English at The University of Waikato by LOUISE HENRIETTE CLARK 2009 ii ABSTRACT This thesis considers historical fiction for children and young people dealing with New Zealand history from the arrival of the first Polynesian settlers to the end of the nineteenth century. It provides both a comprehensive survey of historical novels published between 1862 and the end of 2008, and an analysis of the way the same historical events and periods have been depicted in historical novels written at different times. Individual chapters discuss books set during specific historical periods or dealing with particular events – the pre-European period, early contact, nineteenth century immigration, the New Zealand Wars, the gold rushes, and the colonial period – in chronological order of publication. Since children‟s literature is particularly adept at reflecting and promoting the dominant ideas of the society in which it is produced, the chronological consideration of these texts reveals contemporary attitudes to such issues as race relations, gender roles, class, war and conflict, and concepts of national identity, as well as the way historical fiction has responded to societal changes since the 1860s. The predominant themes of historical fiction set prior to 1900 are: the arrival of settlers in New Zealand; encounters with the country‟s indigenous inhabitants; the taming of the often hostile landscape; the assertion of the settlers‟ claims to „belong‟ in their new land; and the establishment of New Zealand as a nation with distinctive characteristics. There are perceptible nuances and differences in the way these themes are discussed depending on the historical moment in which individual authors are writing. Novels of the Victorian period and early twentieth century reflect the imperialistic and evangelistic ethos of the time, and present the British settlers‟ right to colonize the land and the ensuing dispossession of Maori as largely unproblematic. Subsequent historical novels, particularly those written since the 1960s, offer a more inclusive version of New Zealand history, although the lack of historical fiction for children by Maori writers means that Eurocentric views of history continue to dominate, and that all representations of Maori and their history are mediated through Pakeha writers. iii Shifts in social attitudes have resulted in changes in the treatment of Maori in historical novels for children, and similar changes have occurred in the portrayal of gender, class, and ethnicity. The passage of time has seen increased agency and a wider variety of roles allocated to Maori, female and working class characters, as well as greater ethnic diversity. Developments in New Zealand historiography are also reflected in fiction, although at times historical fiction prefigures written histories, or provides alternative views by depicting the experience of women, children and Maori, who often did not feature in conventional histories. While many historical novels for children, especially the earlier texts, are adventure stories set in the past and are not necessarily concerned with historical verisimilitude, an increasing number attempt to present authentic recreations of historical periods, including accounts of actual people and events, based on extensive research, and reinforced with peritextual material in the form of historical notes, bibliographies, maps and photographs. The role of New Zealand historical fiction for children and young people has been not only to entertain young readers and inform them about their country‟s past, but to create and foster a sense of national identity. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “The voyage is just finished. […] It has been a pleasant time, I am sorry it is over.”1 A project which takes up four years of one‟s life would not be possible without the support of a great number of people, and I would like to thank everyone whose help and encouragement have made writing this thesis such an enjoyable experience. I am indebted to Dr Mark Houlahan, my Chief Supervisor, and Dr Kirstine Moffat, both from the English Section of the University of Waikato Humanities Department, who have supplied books, references, lunches, coffee, and good advice, and whose expertise and enthusiasm have guided this thesis to a successful conclusion. I was fortunate to have historian Dr Jeanine Graham as a supervisor for the initial research phase of this thesis until her retirement, and Dr Rowland Weston as supervisor for the final stages. Between them they have provided a valuable historical perspective and helped to ensure the accuracy of the historical aspects of the thesis. In this regard, I would also like to thank Dr Peter Gibbons, who kindly read and commented on the draft at an advanced stage. My research was made much easier by the helpful and knowledgeable librarians of the New Zealand Collection of the University of Waikato Library, who never failed to find answers to my queries. I am very grateful to them, and also to the University cartographer, Max Oulton, who produced a map of New Zealand for me when I could not find one suitable. I am also grateful to the University of Waikato for the Doctoral Scholarship which allowed me to work full-time on my thesis for the last two years, and thereby finish it much earlier than anticipated. The fellowship and support of my fellow PhD students, Fiona and Carey, has been invaluable; and I appreciate the interest and encouragement of other friends as well, in particular Gillian, and the members of the Waikato Children‟s Literature Association. I am especially grateful to Fiona and Gillian for making time in their busy lives to proofread my final draft. My family have been a constant source of love and support: my mother, who fostered my love of books and reading, and who sadly did not live to see this thesis completed; my father, whose interest in history and research I have inherited; my sisters Maria and Ammy; my mother-in-law Phyl; and my children and their partners – Stephanie and Mark, Daniel and Natalie, Miffy and Ben, Caro and Pete, and Alexander and Carey – all of whom have provided both encouragement and practical support. I am particularly grateful to Daniel for providing IT advice and helping to create the tables and graphs, and to Miffy for her proofreading skills. And last, but very definitely not least, very special thanks are due to my wonderful husband Paul: for rearranging things at work and at home to give me time for writing; for well-timed words of encouragement and glasses of wine; for cooking meals; for proofreading; and, most of all, for always being there when needed. 1 G. A. Henty, Maori and Settler: A Story of the New Zealand War, illus. by Alfred Pearse (London: Blackie and Son, 1891 [1911], p.155. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Illustrations vi Introduction „A Little Land With No History‟ 1 Chapter One The Shaping of the Past: Theoretical Background 9 Chapter Two Moriori and Moa-hunters: Historical Fiction Set During the Pre-European Period 42 Chapter Three Mariners, Muskets and Missionaries: Fiction Set During the Early Contact Period 66 Chapter Four Imperialism, Evangelization and Antipodean Adventures: Immigrant Novels by Victorian and Early Twentieth Century Writers 109 Chapter Five Young Settlers: Immigrant Novels by Twentieth and Twenty-First Century Authors 158 Chapter Six Times of Turbulence: The New Zealand Wars in Junior Fiction 208 Chapter Seven Dreams of Gold: Historical Novels about the Gold Rushes 266 Chapter Eight „A Place of Habitation rather than Islands of Exile‟: Historical Novels of the Colonial Period 287 Conclusion Choosing Our Pasts 342 Appendix One Book Lists 351 Appendix Two Tables and Graphs 364 Appendix Three Summary of Author Survey Findings 369 Bibliography 373 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Map of New Zealand produced by Max Oulton viii Illustration by Douglas F. Maxted for Rangatira by Norman B. Tindale and Harold A. Lindsay 46 Illustration by unknown artist for The Story of Kawau and the Moriori by Arthur W. Stuckey 47 Illustration by Robyn Kahukiwa for Ihaka and the Summer Wandering by Joanna Orwin 49 Illustration by William Stobbs for The Spaniards Came at Dawn by Ronald Syme 69 Illustration by Russell Clark for Pitama by John L. Ewing 73 Illustrations by Anne Linton for John and Hoani by Valerie Grayland 74 & 75 Illustration by Ian Armour-Chelu for The Adventures of Johnny Van Bart by Cecil and Celia Manson 78 Illustrations supplied by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration for Seal Boy by Ken Catran 84 Illustrations by the author for Lizzie, love by Brenda Delamain 91 Illustrations by unknown artist for The Redfords, an Emigrant Story by Mrs George Cupples 112 Illustration by J. Jackson for Distant Homes; or, the Graham Family in New Zealand by J. E. Aylmer 113 Illustration by J. Jackson for Holmwood, or the New Zealand Settler by William Henry Giles Kingston 116 Illustrations by Gunston for Amongst the Maoris by Emilia Marryat 119 & 121 Illustrations by unknown artist for Across Two Seas by H.