DOCSLIB.ORG

The Brain's Concepts: the Role of the Sensory-Motor

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Brain's Concepts: the Role of the Sensory-Motor COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, 2005, 21 (0), XXX–XXX THE BRAIN’S CONCEPTS: THE ROLE OF THE SENSORY-MOTOR SYSTEM IN CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE Vittorio Gallese Università di Parma, Italy George Lakoff University of California, Berkeley, USA Concepts are the elementary units of reason and linguistic meaning. They are conventional and rela- tively stable. As such, they must somehow be the result of neural activity in the brain. The questions are: Where? and How? A common philosophical position is that all concepts—even concepts about action and perception—are symbolic and abstract, and therefore must be implemented outside the brain’s sensory-motor system. We will argue against this position using (1) neuroscientific evidence; (2) results from neural computation; and (3) results about the nature of concepts from cognitive lin- guistics. We will propose that the sensory-motor system has the right kind of structure to charac- terise both sensory-motor and more abstract concepts. Central to this picture are the neural theory of language and the theory of cogs, according to which, brain structures in the sensory-motor regions are exploited to characterise the so-called “abstract” concepts that constitute the meanings of gram- matical constructions and general inference patterns. INTRODUCTION First-generation cognitive science was strongly influenced by the analytic tradition of philosophy Concepts are the elementary units of reason and of language, from which it inherited the propen- linguistic meaning. They are conventional and rel- sity to analyse concepts on the basis of formal atively stable. As such, they must somehow be the abstract models, totally unrelated to the life of the result of neural activity in the brain. The questions body, and of the brain regions governing the are: Where? and How? body’s functioning in the world. Correspondence should be addressed to Vittorio Gallese, Dipartimento di Neuroscienze, Sezione di Fisiologia, Università di Parma, Via Volturno 39, 43100 Parma, Italy/(E-mail: [email protected]). For many of the ideas put forward in the present paper the authors are indebted to, and would like to thank, the following members of the NTL Project at the International Computer Science Institute of the University of California at Berkeley: Jerome Feldman, Srini Narayanan, Lokendra Shastri, Eve Sweetser, Nancy Chang, Shweta Narayan, Ellen Dodge, Keith Sanders, and Ben Bergen. Many thanks also to Giacomo Rizzolatti and Maria Alessandra Umiltà, for their most valuable comments on an earlier version of this paper. Vittorio Gallese, who was George Miller Visiting Professor at the University of California at Berkeley, would like to thank the Miller Institute for awarding him the fellowship that made this work possible. He was also supported by the EU Mirrorbot Project, and by the Eurocores Project “The Origin of Man, Language, and Languages.” © 2005 Psychology Press Ltd 1 http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pp/02643294.html DOI:10.1080/02643290442000310 pCGN-SIOBA9.qxd GALLESE AND LAKOFF Concepts, from this perspective, were con- neural substrate. One can reason about grasping ceived of as abstract, amodal, and arbitrary, repre- without grasping; yet one may still use the same Q1 sented in some “language of thought” (Fodor, neural substrate in the sensory-motor system. 1975, 1987), made up of symbols and having the Indeed, that is just what we shall argue. In doing properties of productivity and compositionality, so, we will extend what we know about doing and Q1 among others. In Fodor’s theory (see Fodor, 1975), imagining sharing a common substrate via the fol- the purported amodal nature of concepts draws a lowing hypothesis: The same neural substrate used in sharp dividing line between the modular input/ imagining is used in understanding. output brain structures and a generalised cognitive Consider a simple sentence, like “Harry picked system (unanalysed at the level of the brain), whose up the glass.” If you can’t imagine picking up a functioning rules are totally independent from glass or seeing someone picking up a glass, then those governing the input/output modules. The you can’t understand that sentence. Our hypothe- propositional picture of the mind conveyed by early sis develops this fact one step further. It says that cognitivism is that of a functional system whose understanding is imagination, and that what you processes can be described in terms of manip- understand of a sentence in a context is the meaning of ulations of abstract symbols according to a set of that sentence in that context. Q1 formal syntactic rules (see Fodor, 1981; Pylyshyn, Our proposal is not an internalist theory of 1984). Knowledge is therefore represented in meaning. The reason is that imagination, like per- amodal symbolic form. Meaning is referential, in ceiving and doing, is embodied, that is, structured that it derives from a posited correspondence by our constant encounter and interaction with the between the system of abstract symbols and their world via our bodies and brains. The result is an corresponding extensions, the objects and events interactionist theory of meaning. in the world. Thus, following the line of arguments Accordingly, we will argue that a key aspect of of early cognitivism, concepts are symbolic repre- human cognition is neural exploitation—the adap- sentations by nature, and as thinking, they can be tation of sensory-motor brain mechanisms to reduced to symbolic (not neural) computation. serve new roles in reason and language, while We will propose a radically different view. We retaining their original functions as well. We will will argue that conceptual knowledge is embodied, discuss two cases: conceptual metaphor and cogs. that is, it is mapped within our sensory-motor As we shall see, circuitry across brain regions system. We will argue that the sensory-motor links modalities, infusing each with properties of system not only provides structure to conceptual others. The sensory-motor system of the brain is content, but also characterises the semantic content thus “multimodal” rather than modular. Accordingly, of concepts in terms of the way that we function language is inherently multimodal in this sense, with our bodies in the world. Before delving deeply that is, it uses many modalities linked together— into the argument, we should discuss a major find- sight, hearing, touch, motor actions, and so on. ing in neuroscience that we will be assuming Language exploits the pre-existing multimodal throughout: Imagining and doing use a shared neural character of the sensory-motor system. If this is substrate. true, it follows that there is no single “module” for When one imagines seeing something, some of language—and that human language makes use of the same part of the brain is used as when one mechanisms also present in nonhuman primates. actually sees. When we imagine moving, some of According to our proposal, the concept grasp, the same part of the brain is used as when we actu- from which we will start, gets its meaning via our ally move. Note that these facts undermine the ability to imagine, perform, and perceive grasping. traditional rationale given above. We can imagine Our ability to imagine grasping makes use of the grasping an object without actually grasping it. same neural substrate as performing and perceiv- From this, it does not follow that actual grasping ing grasping.According to our proposal, imagining and imaginary grasping do not use a common is a form of simulation—a mental simulation of 2 COGNITIVE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, 2005, 21 (0) THE BRAIN’S CONCEPTS: THE ROLE action or perception, using many of the same sensory-functional theory, correlated structure neurons as actually acting or perceiving (Gallese, theory, and domain-specific theory (see Martin & 2003a). Caramazza, 2003; Simmons & Barsalou, 2003). Q2 Before developing our arguments, we would These theories differ along many dimensions, the like to conclude this introductory part by framing principal one being the extent to which conceptual our proposal within the extant and copious litera- knowledge is structured—and henceforth selectively ture on the neural underpinnings of conceptual affected by localised brain damage, by property or by knowledge. Any serious attempt to provide a neuro- category. scientific account of conceptual content as nested Similarly, it has recently been argued (Gainotti, in the activity of the brain faces the challenge of 2004) that the overall picture provided by func- explaining how the localised patterns of activation tional brain imaging studies is by no means con- of different neural cortical networks can enable the sistent and clear-cut (see also Gallese, 2003c). It Q3 capacity to distinguish, recognise, categorise, and should be added that even if one could provide ultimately conceptualise objects, events, and the unambiguous evidence for the neural correlates of state of affairs in the world. specific object concepts, the general principle Two main approaches have so far challenged defining the topology of such neural representa- the view held by first-generation cognitive science tion would need to be convincingly demonstrated. on the nature of conceptual knowledge: clinical Unfortunately, as argued by Malach et al. (2002), neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Clin- to date no such convincing solution has been ical neuropsychology has established a relationship proposed. between given patterns of localised brain damage Our present proposal does not aim to settle the and corresponding deficits in conceptual knowledge. clinical issues, and so we will not deal with clinical Cognitive neuroscience has more recently tried to cases. Our goal is to follow an alternative route, establish, mainly by means of brain imaging exper- that is, to provide a testable embodied theory of iments, which brain regions are activated by differ- concepts, based on the results of research in neuro- ent conceptual categories. science, neural computation, and cognitive linguis- During the last two decades, an impressive tics, capable of reconciling both concrete and amount of clinical data has accumulated, describ- abstract concepts within a unified framework.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Mirror Neurons
    CORE CONCEPTS CORE CONCEPTS Mirror neurons Jessica Marshall Science Writer Just over 20 years ago, an Italian team re- authorsofthepaperthatfirstreportedthe ported findings on macaques showing the neurons’ existence (1), but he believes it is existence of a “surprising new class” of neu- only for lack of looking. rons in a particular region of the premotor Although there may be little doubt that cortex of the macaque brain (1). These neu- these neurons exist, researchers differ con- rons were active not only when the ma- siderably in their interpretation of what they caque performed an action—like grabbing an do (6). Some say that the neurons are neces- object—but also when the macaque watched sary to understand the meaning of others’ thesameactionbeingperformedbyaperson behaviors. Others believe that they instead or another monkey. The researchers named play a more straightforward role, helping us these neurons “mirror neurons” and pro- to learn motor tasks or to choose our own posed that they provide the basis for what actions, or that we use mirror neurons to help became known as “action understanding” in predict the actions we are observing, without macaques, allowing them to interpret the assigning a goal to them. For example, when intentions or goals of the person or monkey others’ actions don’t jibe with what we expect, whose actions they are observing. we take particular notice and engage other The findings launched a new field of study areas to try to explain them. An example of a mirror neuron. Image within neuroscience. Researchers were quick to Nobody disagrees that our brains have a courtesy of Richard Cole, Wadsworth look for mirror neurons in humans.
    [Show full text]
  • Embodied Simulation Theory and Intersubjectivity1. Vittorio Gallese - [email protected] Dept
    Embodied simulation theory and intersubjectivity1. Vittorio Gallese - [email protected] Dept. of Neuroscience – Section of Physiology, University of Parma, Italy Abstract Primates and human beings are social animals whose cognitive development capitalizes upon the interaction with other conspe- cifics. Fundamental among social abilities is the capacity to accurately detect and understand the intentional conduct of others, to anticipate their upcoming actions, and to appropriately adjust one’s own behavior. From an evolutionary perspective, the traditional view claims the existence of a sharp cognitive discontinuity between humans and nonhuman primates. However, recent findings in cognitive neuroscience shed light on the existence of a common neural mechanism that could account for action and intention under- standing abilities both in humans and nonhuman primates. The discovery of mirror neurons and of other mirroring mechanisms in the human brain shows that the very same neural substrates are activated when these expressive acts are both executed and perceived. I summarize here recent neuroscientific evidence shedding light on the neural mechanisms likely underpinning important aspects of intersubjectivity and social cognition. I discuss this evidence in relation to empathy and introduce my theory of embodied simulation, a crucial functional mechanism of intersubjectivity by means of which the actions, emotions, and sensations of others are mapped by the same neural mechanisms that are normally activated when we act or experience similar emotions and sensations. Keywords Social cognition, mirror neurons, intersubjectivity, embodied simulation, empathy The discovery of mirror neurons and of other mirroring me- Introduction chanisms in the human brain shows that the very same neural Primates, and particularly human beings, are social animals substrates are activated when these expressive acts are both whose cognitive development capitalizes upon the interaction executed and perceived.
    [Show full text]
  • Measuring Debate About Mirror Neurons in the Humanities and Social Sciences
    The extent of engagement, the means of invention: measuring debate about mirror neurons in the humanities and social sciences David R. Gruber Abstract Mirror neurons (MN) — or neurons said to be able to “mirror” the sensed environment — have been widely popularized and referenced across many academic fields. Yet, MNs have also been the subject of considerable debate in the neurosciences. Using a criterion based sampling method and a citation analysis, this paper examines the extent of engagement with the neuroscience literature about MNs, looking specifically at the frequency of “MN debate sources” within articles published in the JSTOR and Communication and Mass Media (CMMC) databases. After reporting the results, the paper reviews characteristic examples in context and, ultimately, shows that MN debates remain largely absent from peer-reviewed articles published in JSTOR and CMMC. However, the paper suggests that this happens for good reason and that MNs retain the potential for inventive animations even though debates have gone largely unrecognized. Keywords Popularization of science and technology; Representations of science and technology; Scholarly communication In a now famous accidental finding from 1992, cognitive neuroscientists from Italy observed neurons firing in the F5 motor area of a macaque monkey’s brain both when the monkey saw an action as well as when the monkey performed that same action [di Pellegrino et al., 1992]. These special neurons were named “mirror neurons,” suggesting the idea that the monkey might be internally “mirroring” its visual environment. Ever since, mirror neurons (MNs) have been touted as central to imitation [Caggiano et al., 2009; Rizzolatti et al., 1999], to predicting other people’s actions [Gallese and Goldman, 1998; Gallese and Keysers, 2001; Goldman, 2006], and to expressing complex emotions [Damasio, 2003; Gallese, Keysers and Rizzolatti, 2004; Wicker et al., 2003].
    [Show full text]
  • Brain, Body, Habit and the Performative Quality of Aesthetics
    In: I. Testa & F. Caurana (editors), Habits: Pragmatist Approaches from Cognitive Neuroscience to Social Science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2021, in press. Brain, Body, Habit and the Performative Quality of Aesthetics Vittorio Gallese* Abstract: If cognitive neuroscience is meant to investigate what makes us human, cultural artifacts and artistic expressions should be at the top of the list of its explananda. Cognitive neuroscience, in tight cooperation and dialogue with the humanities, can shed new light on several theoretical issues related to aesthetics, traditionally dealt with exclusively within the camp of the humanities. A succinct description of embodied simulation theory in relation to aesthetic experience is proposed, and some accomplishments of this bottom-up approach to the experience of visual art and film are illustrated. The notion of ‘habit’ is introduced, it is connected to its potential underlying neural mechanisms, and to the production and reception of human cultural artifacts. Capitalizing upon Pragmatism, Pierre Bourdieu and practice theory, the relationship between body, habit, practice, rituals and its bearing on the creation of symbolic objects and cultural artifacts is analyzed from a neuro-pragmatist approach, which emphasizes the procedural and implicit forms of human cognition. The suggested gradual transition from tool-making to symbol-making, grants the following: 1) It shows that utilitarian and symbolic behavior are both chapters of the same cognitive technology trajectory; 2) It doesn’t require one to assume that symbol-making is the late externalization of a previously existing inner symbolic thought, because symbolic thought and symbol- making are the co-constructive outcome of the development of shared performative practices and habits; 3) It is fully compatible with the neurobiological characterization of human relational potentialities as instantiated by embodied simulation.
    [Show full text]
  • Vittorio Gallese - Selected References
    Vittorio Gallese - selected references 1 Gallese, V. (2014). Bodily selves in relation: embodied simulation as second-person perspective on intersubjectivity. Philos.Trans.R.Soc.Lond B Biol.Sci., 369, 20130177. Notes: This article addresses basic aspects of social cognition focusing on the pivotal role played by the lived body in the constitution of our experience of others. It is suggested that before studying intersubjectivity we should better qualify the notion of the self. A minimal notion of the self, the bodily self, defined in terms of its motor potentialities, is proposed. The discovery of mirror mechanisms for action, emotions and sensations led to the proposal of an embodied approach to intersubjectivity-embodied simulation (ES) theory. ES and the related notion of neural reuse provide a new empirically based perspective on intersubjectivity, viewed first and foremost as intercorporeality. ES challenges the notion that folk psychology is the sole account of interpersonal understanding. ES is discussed within a second-person perspective on mindreading 2 Heimann, K., Umilta, M. A., & Gallese, V. (2013). How the motor-cortex distinguishes among letters, unknown symbols and scribbles. A high density EEG study. Neuropsychologia, 51, 2833-2840. Notes: Previous research has reported that the perception of written language symbols activates the cortical motor hand representation of the dominant hemisphere also found to be activated during the writing of these symbols. It has been suggested that such motor activation supports reading. Nevertheless, the precise circumstances leading to such activation are still unknown. For instance, several studies suggested that motor activation necessarily depends on specific sensory-motor experience with the stimuli.
    [Show full text]
  • Embodied Simulation. Its Bearing on Aesthetic Experience and the Dialogue Between Neuroscience and the Humanities
    GESTALT THEORY, DOI 10.2478/gth-2019-0013 © 2019 (ISSN 2519-5808); Vol. 41, No. 2, 113–128 Original Contributions - Originalbeiträge Vittorio Gallese Embodied Simulation. Its Bearing on Aesthetic Experience and the Dialogue Between Neuroscience and the Humanities 1. Introduction The artist is he who arrests the spectacle in which most men take part without really seeing it and who makes it visible to the most ‘human’ among them. (Merleau-Ponty, 1945/1964, p. 18) Is there something invisible about reality that art reveals to all human beings? What is the ‘invisible’ Merleau-Ponty is talking about? ‘Già non attendere’ io tua dimanda, s’io m’intuassi, come tu t’inmii’. This is what Dante wrote in the IX Canto of Paradiso, addressing the blessed soul of Folco da Marsiglia. In these splendid verses that bear witness to the wonderful linguistic creativity of great poetry, we can find an illuminating anticipation of the notion of empathy. To empathize means understanding the other from within, as also suggested by the German term for empathy – Einfühlung, to feel inside, which interestingly enough was first used within the debate on aesthetics. This ‘intuition’ implies for the ego the possibility of connecting to the You without losing itself in it, attrib- uting to the other actions, emotions and sensations that, however, what the ego knows as part of its own vital experience. Empathizing means understanding what the other is doing and experiencing, without necessarily feeling compassion or being motivated to help. These latter characteristics refer to the notion of sympathy, which is often confused with that of empathy.
    [Show full text]
  • Neuroaesthetics, Lecture 1, 18.01.13: Introduction to the Course
    Neuroaesthetics, lecture 1, 18.01.13: Introduction to the course. First of all, my name is Per Olav Folgerø. I am Associate professor at the University of Bergen Norway. I have the strange background of being neurobiologist and art historian, but this has led to the reason why I am here, namely to teach neuroaesthetics. I am very happy and grateful to be here in Saint Petersburg to present my lectures. They are a mini-version of the course that I have presented the last four years at the University of Bergen. The lectures are intended to provide insights into recent scientific works and methods in neuroaesthetics. (next) The conception of ´Neuroaesthetics` was coded in 1999 by the neuroscientist Semir Zeki, who is a professor at the Wellcome Department of Imaging Neuroscience, University College, London. Hence, it is a relatively new discipline, (next) and lies at the intersection between cognitive psychology, neurobiology and art. (next) In neuroaesthetics, models mostly deriving from cognitive psychology and modern brain scanning techniques are used in studies on how the brain responds to aesthetic stimuli. (next) Zeki’s main interest is the primate visual brain system. From 1994 onwards, his studies also included the neural basis of aesthetic appreciation of art, and in 2001 he founded the Institute of Neuroesthetics, the first of its kind in the world, at University College London. The aims of this institute are: to study the creative process as a manifestation of the functions of the brain; (next) to study the biological foundations of aesthetics; (next) to provide a scientific forum for artists; (next) to instill among neurobiologists the virtues of using the products of art to study the organization of the brain; (next) to promote the importance of learning more about the brain when approaching topics such as art, morality, religion etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Interview with Vittorio Gallese
    Interview with Vittorio Gallese Hannah Chapelle Wojciehowski Hannah Wojciehowski [HCW]. The discovery of Mirror Neurons has broadened our understanding of human and animal cognition, and has also shed light on our affective lives—including our capacity for empathy and intersubjectivity. Many believe that this discovery has revolutionized the theory of mind. For example, in 2000, the renowned neuroscientist V. S. Ramachandran predicted that “mirror neurons will do for psychology what DNA did for biology” (Ramachandran 2000). How would you describe in the simplest possible terms the Mirror Neuron Mechanism (MNM) in humans and in non-human primates? And also tell us how this set of discoveries came about. Vittorio Gallese [VG]. Mirror neurons were originally discovered in the macaque monkey brain premotor cortex. They are motor neurons, which means that by definition they activate when the monkey performs purposeful goal-related motor acts with the hand or the mouth or both—for example grasping and holding a piece of food. We didn’t start out looking for mirror neurons. The discovery happened by chance. But what I always say is that it was not completely by chance that we discovered mirror neurons, because we were ready to see them. At that time [the summer of 2001] we were looking for a more quantitative way of testing visual properties within the motor system, which in those days was still considered to be something pretty odd. And therefore we [the Parma group] had a lot of trouble in getting papers published, because people wouldn’t accept the idea that motor neurons also showed visual properties.
    [Show full text]
  • [This Letter Is Closed Now, Accepting No More Signatures]
    March 31st, 2017 To: H.E. Réka Szemerkényi, Ambassador of Hungary to the United States of America Zoltán Balog, Minister of Human Capacities, Ministry of Human Capacities, Hungary László Palkovics, Minister of State for Education, Ministry of Human Capacities, Hungary Dear Ambassador Szemerkényi, Minister Balog, and Minister Palkovics, We are writing to express our dismay about the proposed legislation that would effectively end a 25-year history of scientific excellence in Budapest. As an international body of psychologists, neuroscientists, and cognitive scientists, we can tell you that our colleagues at Central European University are among the most respected in the world. Their intellectual legacy has had a global impact. We believe any city should count itself fortunate to have such a renowned center of academic excellence in its midst. The proposed legislation will make it effectively impossible for CEU to continue to occupy its current position as one of the foremost scientific institutions internationally. We respectfully ask that you preserve CEU’s ability to act as a center of leadership and innovation in Hungary and the world by withdrawing this legislation. [This letter is closed now, accepting no more signatures] Sincerely, 1. Laura Schulz, Professor of Cognitive Science, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT 2. Rebecca Saxe, Professor of Cognitive Science, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT 3. John E. Richards, Carolina Distinguished Professor, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina. 4. Michael Tomasello, Duke University, Durham, NC, and Max Planck for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany. 5. Philippe G. Schyns, Professor of Visual Cognition, Director of the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, university of Glasgow, UK 6.
    [Show full text]
  • Presentation Vittorio Gallese
    Creating Connections II EFTeling, 19 April 2013 Bodily Selves in Relation: From mirror neurons to Embodied Simulation. Vittorio Gallese Dept. of Neuroscience University of Parma Italy “It is not logical, however, to oppose the mental and the physical as these are not of the same stuff. Mental phenomena are complicaons of variable importance in psyche- soma con<nuity of being, in that which adds up to the individual's self” Donald Winnicott (1975, p. 254). However…. • This explanatory process is referred to as Theory of Mind (ToM). • ToM, according to many, is the attribution to others of mental states, mapped in the mind of the observer as internal representations in propositional format. • If one believes that a gap separates individual human beings, conceived of as mentalizing monads, whose only meaningful connections consist of their theoretically-driven mentalizing skills, an obvious consequence will be that of looking for the neural correlates of beliefs and desires as such. • The reification of propositional attitudes inevitably led many cognitive neuroscientists to look for the brain areas/circuits housing desires and beliefs. The mindreading brain (?) The mindreading brain (?) Problems with this view… We do not have a clear neuroscientific model of how humans can understand the mental states of others. Problems with this view… • What we have is a series of brain imaging studies showing the activation of a set of cortical regions, (mesial frontal areas, the temporo-parietal junction etc.), during explicit mentalizing tasks. Problems with this view… No one to date was able to provide a convincing explanantion about why those specific areas do activate during mentalization, beside the tautological statement that mind reading is implemented in those brain areas.
    [Show full text]
  • Mirror Neurons and the Simulation Theory of Mind-Reading Vittorio Gallese and Alvin Goldman
    Gallese and Goldman – Mirror neurons and mind-reading Opinion Mirror neurons and the simulation theory of mind-reading Vittorio Gallese and Alvin Goldman A new class of visuomotor neuron has been recently discovered in the monkey’s premotor cortex: mirror neurons. These neurons respond both when a particular action is performed by the recorded monkey and when the same action, performed by another individual, is observed. Mirror neurons appear to form a cortical system matching observation and execution of goal-related motor actions. Experimental evidence suggests that a similar matching system also exists in humans. What might be the functional role of this matching system? One possible function is to enable an organism to detect certain mental states of observed conspecifics. This function might be part of, or a precursor to, a more general mind-reading ability. Two different accounts of mind- reading have been suggested. According to ‘theory theory’, mental states are represented as inferred posits of a naive theory. According to ‘simulation theory’, other people’s mental states are represented by adopting their perspective: by tracking or matching their states with resonant states of one’s own. The activity of mirror neurons, and the fact that observers undergo motor facilitation in the same muscular groups as those utilized by target agents, are findings that accord well with simulation theory but would not be predicted by theory theory. How do we understand other people’s behavior? How cortex (referred to also as inferior area 6) is composed of two can we assign goals, intentions, or beliefs to the inhabitants distinct areas, designated as F4 and F5 (Ref.
    [Show full text]
  • Empathic Response in Office Space. the Notion of Embodied Simulation in 2
    ACADEMY OF NEUROSCIENCE FOR ARCHITECTURE ANFA 2016 CONFERENCE E M Empathic response in office space. The notion of embodied simulation in 2. REFERENCES PAT Duffy, F. (1974). Office Interiors and Organizations. A Comparative Study of the Relation Between Organizational Structures and the use of Interior Space HI C corporate interiors in Sixteen Office Organizations. (Princeton University, Doctoral dissertation). RESPONSE ALESSANDRO GATTARA, M.ARCH, PH.D., VITTORIO GALLESE, M.D., PH.D. Duffy, F. (1997). The New Office. (London: Conran Octopus Limited). Rizzolatti, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., and Gallese, V. (1997). The Space Around Us. Science 277: 5323, 190–191. doi: 10.1126/science.277.5323.190 I N Alessandro Gattara, M.Arch, Ph.D., Università di Parma, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Ambiente, Territorio e Architettura, Parma, Italy Gallese, V. (2000). The Inner Sense of Action: Agency and Motor Representations, J. Consciousness Stud. 7; 2000, 23-40. OFF I [email protected] CE Gallese, V. (2007). The “Conscious” Dorsal Stream: Embodied Simulation and its Role in Space and Action Conscious Awareness. Psyche 13: 1-20. SPACE Vittorio Gallese, M.D., Ph.D., Università di Parma, Dipartimanto di Neuroscienze, Unità di Fisiologia, Parma, Italy Gallese, V. and Di Dio, C. (2012). ‘‘Neuroesthetics. The body in aesthetic experience,’’ in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, ed V. Ramachandran. (San . University of London, Institute of Philosophy, School of Advanced Study, London, United Kingdom Diego: Academic Press). T H [email protected] E Mallgrave, H. F. (2013). Architecture and Embodiment: The Implications of the New Sciences and Humanities for Design. (Abingdon, UK and New York, NOT I NY: Routledge).
    [Show full text]