Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs : Significs, Semiotics, Phi- Losophy of Language / Susan Petrilli

First published 2015 by Transaction Publishers

Published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 2014008630

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Petrilli, Susan. Victoria Welby and the science of signs : significs, semiotics, philosophy of language / Susan Petrilli. p. cm Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4128-5492-4 1. Semiotics. 2. Semantics (Philosophy) 3. Linguistics--Philosophy 4. Iconicity (Linguistics) 5. Welby, Victoria, Lady, 1837-1912. I. Title. P99.3.P48 2014 302.2--dc23 2014008630

ISBN 13: 978-1-4128-5492-4 (hbk) For Genevieve Vaughan

Blessed are those whose hearts testify that they have loved much. (Søren Kierkegaard, Upbuilding Discourses, 1843)

Contents Foreword, by Frank Nuessel xi

Introduction: Prefigurations and Developments in the Study of Signs xix

Part I On Signs in the Direction of Significs 1

1 Significs: A New Approach to Signs and Language 3 1.1 The Scope of Significs, or “Semioethics” 3 1.2 Problems of Language and Terminology 5 1.3 Significs and Theory of Meaning 7 1.4 Iconicity and Translative Processes in Language and Knowledge 10 1.5 Geosemiosis, Heliosemiosis, Cosmosemiosis 14 1.6 Mother-Sense, Love, and Subjectivity 16 1.7 Interpretative Itineraries in the Relation between Religion, Philosophy, and Science 28

2 Understanding and Misunderstanding 39 2.1 Significs as het Critique of Bad Linguistic Usage 39 2.2 Ambiguity of the Live Word and Sclerosis of Definition 41 2.3 For a Significal Education 47 2.4 Common Sense and Common Speech in Welby and Peirce 52 2.5 Semantic Vagueness and Logical Abstraction 56

3 Life Sciences and Human Sciences in Dialogue 63 3.1 The Transdisciplinary Vocation of Significs 63 3.2 The Problem of Sense, an volutionaryE Perspective 64 3.3 A New Copernican Revolution 74 3.4 The Development of Signifying Processes 79 3.5 Similarity and the Figurative Nature of Meaning 91

4 The Question of Translation 95 4.1 Translation as Method 95 4.2 Significance in Interpretative-Translative Processes 105 4.3 Translation Theories: Welby, Peirce, Bakhtin, Wittgenstein 111 4.4 Translatability and Common Meaning 116 4.5 Centrality of Translation in Sign Processes and Evolutionary Development 129

Part II Among Masters of the Sign 143

5 Victoria Welby and Charles S. Peirce: Significs, Semiotics, Semioethics 145 5.1 The Welby Network 145 5.2 From “Code Semiotics” to “Interpretation Semiotics” 150 5.3 Sense, Meaning, and Significance 152 5.4 Interpretation, Translation, and Value 155 5.5 Significs, Semantics, Semiotics 163

6 Victoria Welby and Giovanni Vailati: The Critique of Language 167 6.1 An Intellectual Alliance 167 6.2 Linguistic Ambiguity and Definition 169 6.3 Figurative Speech, Analogy, and Communication 171

7 Victoria Welby and Charles K. Ogden: What Does Meaning Mean? 177 7.1 Welby, Ogden, and Others: A Communication Network 177 7.2 The Correspondence between Victoria Welby and Charles K. Ogden 181 7.3 Significs and “The Meaning of Meaning” 191 7.4 Meaning, Referent, and Linguistic Production 193 7.5 A Biobibliographical Study on Ogden 200

8 Victoria Welby, Mary Everest Boole, and Susanne K. Langer: Humanizing Signs 207 8.1 Victoria Welby and the Logic of Mother-Sense 207 8.2 Mary Everest Boole in Correspondence with Welby 217 8.3 Susanne K. Langer on Signs, Symbols, and Significance 229

9 Victoria Welby and Mikhail Bakhtin: The Vitality of Meaning 245 9.1 Intellectual Biographies: Difference and Encounter 245 9.2 Language and Culture 249 9.3 Identity and Otherness 252 9.4 Ideology, Language, Consciousness 254 9.5 Sign Theory in elby,W Peirce, Bakhtin 258

10 Victoria Welby and Genevieve Vaughan: Gift-Giving and Communication 261 10.1 Gift-Giving, Significs, Semioethics 261 10.2 For the Quality of Life in the World of Global Communication 266 10.3 Sensitivity to Otherness with Global Semiotics and Semioethics 272 10.4 The Gift from a Semioethical Perspective 275 10.5 To “Pull the Mother Back into Philosophy” 280 10.6 Significs: ollowingF 283

References 287

Name and Subject Index 321

Foreword Frank Nuessel

Remarkable is the appropriate descriptor to depict Victoria Welby (27 April 1837 to 29 March 1912), the subject of Susan Petrilli's perspicacious academic and biographical study of this truly extraor- dinary intellectual of Victorian England. Welby was known for her copious scholarship and her voluminous correspondence with the major academic titans of her era, including Michel Bréal (1831–1915), André Lalande (1867–1963), Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), Charles K. Ogden (1889–1957), Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914), Ferdinand C. S. Schiller (1864–1937), Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936), Giovanni Vailati (1863–1909), Frederik van Eeden (1860–1932), Mary Everest Boole (1832–1916), and Julia Wedgewood (1833–1913), to name but a few of her more than 450 distinguished correspondents from Great Britain, the United States, France, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands during the five-decade period of 1861 to 1912. Some scholars have argued that Welby would have received more attention during her lifetime were it not for the fact that she was a woman in an epoch when men dominated the academies. To be sure, however, Welby's work was greatly admired by all of her renowned letter writers. Susan Petrilli (University of Bari, Italy), a world-renowned semiotician in her own right, and the leading authority on the work of Victoria Welby, has now authored the definitive academic biography of this great English intellectual. This volume provides a comprehensive overview of Victoria Welby's scholarly achievements, her major contributions to the evolution of semiotics, and her considerable influence on her contemporaries and her successors. The bulk of Welby's unpublished scientific writing (composed from 1861 to 1912) is housed in the Welby Collection at the York Univer- sity Archives and Special Collections at the York University Library

xi Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

(Downsview, Ontario, Canada). This wealth of invaluable material includes notes, extracts, and observations on such themes as biology, education, ethics, imagery, language, significance, logic, matter and motion, number theory, philosophy and significance, significs, and time, as well as diagrams by Welby, unpublished essays, and a collection of poems, photographs, and translations. Although the York Univer- sity collection constitutes virtually all Welby's unpublished essays and correspondence, another useful archival resource is the Welby Library in the University of London Library, which houses one thousand volumes from Welby's personal library, pamphlets, reprints, newspaper clippings, religious tracts and sermons, and published lectures. In this sense, the London collection contains secondary sources while the York archives house primary resources. Welby's essays on theoretical aspects of semiotics, metaphor, semantics, meaning, translation, and interpretation are wide-ranging and insightful. Most important, however, is that she inspired the development of the significs movement, and this makes her one of the most influential figures of the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Significs was defined in theOxford English Diction- ary in 1911 as a “proposed science and educational method based upon the importance of realizing the exact significance of terms and conceptions, and their influence on thought and life” (Petrilli 2009: 253). Many of her ideas influenced semiotics and semioticians both during her lifetime and after her death in 1912. Equally remarkable are Susan Petrilli's painstaking efforts to pre- serve Victoria Welby's documents in an easily available format so that the academic world has access to Welby's central contributions to the history of semiotics. Petrilli's monumental volume (xx + 1048 pages), entitled Signifying and Understanding: Reading the Works of Victoria Welby and the Signific Movement (Petrilli 2009; Nuessel 2011, 2013), is a virtual treasure trove of essential primary documents gleaned from the York University Archives. This book includes reproductions of Welby's original correspondence with the great minds of her epoch as well as her treatises on various aspects of her research, which is discussed in detail in Petrilli's monumental volume. Moreover, it contains Petrilli's insightful commentary on the significance of Welby's scholarly ruminations within a historical framework, showing Welby's intellectual development and her conceptualization of significs and the movement that it spawned (a comprehensive listing of Welby's writings appears in Petrilli 2009: 952–958). Thus, interest in Welby's research has continued to the present day through various selected publications, including those edited by xii Foreword

Nina Cust (1929, 1931), Welby's daughter (1867–1955), and many others written during the twentieth century (a comprehensive listing of these publications appears in Petrilli 2009: 958–998). While many consider this to be Petrilli's magnum opus on Welby, Petrilli has, of course, written at length elsewhere on this important figure in the history of ideas. Her first monograph on Victoria Welby was her doctoral dissertation (Petrilli 1993), subsequently published as Su Victoria Welby. Significs e filosofia del linguaggio (Petrilli 1998). Petrilli, it should be noted, was named the Thomas A. Sebeok Fellow in 2008, the most prestigious award granted by the Semiotic Society of America (Nuessel 2008b). With Thomas A. Sebeok (1920–2001), Petrilli coauthored a ground- breaking essay entitled “Women in Semiotics” (Sebeok and Petrilli 1999 [2001]), which deals with Welby's contributions to semiotics. Subse- quently, she wrote an important treatise with the designation “Three Women in Semiotics: Welby, Boole, Langer” about three major women in this field; it appeared in Semiotica (Petrilli 2010). More recently, on the occasion of the centennial of Victoria Welby's death, she coedited a special issue of Semiotica (“On and Beyond Significs: Centennial Issue for Victoria Lady Welby (1837–1912),” Nuessel, Colapietro, and Petrilli 2013). Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs offers insights into Welby's writings both published and previously unpublished. The present volume contains two parts. Part I (“On Signs in the Direction of Signif- ics”) has four chapters, which address various specific aspects of her ideology and theory. These four chapters address different manifestations of meaning and language. The six chapters of Part II (“Among Masters of the Sign”) address Welby's interaction with the giants of sign theory during her own lifetime, her direct or indirect influence on other prominent scholars after her death, and further developments. The first chapter (“Significs: A New Approach to Signs and Lan- guage”) of Part I addresses Welby's enduring contribution to semiotics through her introduction of her philosophy of “significs,” which was an integration of various elements, including responsibility, freedom, dialectic-dialogic answerability, the capacity for creativity, and innovation manifested in the philosophy of interpretation, translation, and significance. To be sure, this chapter explicates Welby's views on significs and its relation to the science of signs and language, which Petrilli traces to Links and Clues (Welby 1881) and its evolution into her later volume What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance (1903 [1983]). All of these components have resulted in the development by Petrilli and Ponzio of a methodological perspective that they xiii Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs have designated “semioethics,” which is the major thrust of twenty-first- century semiotics (see their monograph from 2003, Semioetica, now revised, updated, and enlarged for a forthcoming edition in English translation; see also Petrilli and Ponzio 2005, 2010). Chapter 2 (“Understanding and Misunderstanding”) delves into the enigmatic intricacies of language and the problems related to existence and communication. Mere definitions fail to provide an adequate theory of meaning. Thus, Welby introduces a tripartite division of meaning into sense, meaning, and significance, along with a panoply of other subtle distinctions such as plain, actual or literal, and direct meaning compared to figurative, indirect, or reflective meaning. Within Welby's system, these terms are not strictly binary oppositions. In this sense, language is polysemous, plastic, and ductile in its ability to create multiple meanings. In this chapter, Petrilli also discusses Welby's conceptualization of analogy and metaphor, which, in many ways, prefigures contemporary views on metaphor. Her correspondence with Ogden certainly influenced his work (Ogden and Richards 1923). Moreover, her correspondence with Vailati (2000; see also Petrilli 2009: passim) influenced his views on language. In this chapter, we see the seeds of Welby's influence on her contemporaries, including Charles S. Peirce. In Part II (chapters 5–10), Welby's influence on her contemporaries is made explicit and her ideas are further developed in the light of the work of other scholars who came after her. The next chapter (“Life Sciences and Human Sciences in Dialogue”) deals with Welby's integration of the major scientific innovations of her era in developing a theoretical model of meaning and signification. To be sure, the biological sciences played a pivotal role in the nineteenth century, with numerous advances, including Darwinian evolution. As a transdiscipline, significs reaches its zenith inWhat Is Meaning? (Welby 1903) which connects the sciences to studies on meaning and language. In this sense, significs is a precursor of biosemiotics considering its planetary perspective and focus on progress in the sciences, with special reference to the life sciences (Sebeok and Umiker-Sebeok 1992). The fourth and final chapter of Part I (“The Question of Transla- tion”) deals with translation, which is “a method of interpretation and understanding, investigation and discovery, acquisition of new knowledge and its verification.” It should be noted that Petrilli herself is an accomplished and widely respected translator of academic treatises by prominent academicians (English to Italian and Italian to English). In this chapter, Petrilli notes that in Links and Clues (1881), Welby specifies xiv Foreword four essential tenets of translation: (1) the problem of literal meaning; (2) the risk of leveling sense; (3) the significance of context; and (4) the issue of dialectics as a condition for unity. Within the framework of Welbian significs, translation is a procedure for improvement and augmentation of meaning. Welby discusses the various types of translation. In Roman Jakobson's terminology (1959), these include: interlingual (standard translation), intralingual (rewording), and intersemiotic. Another expression introduced for intersemiotic translation is transmutation (interpreting verbal signs via nonverbal ones and vice versa). Welby further emphasizes that language is plastic, ductile, and flexible, and these characteristics are essential for life itself as manifested in biosemiotics. Again, Welby anticipates research that developed after her death and is now flourishing (nonverbal communication and translation, biosemiotics, and the burgeoning field of translation; Nuessel 2012). Part II (“Among Masters of the Sign”) contains six chapters that take Welby's research into consideration through confrontation with scholars who have also made important contributions to studies on verbal and nonverbal signs—scholars contemporary to her and in direct contact with her, such as Charles S. Peirce, Giovanni Vailati, Charles K. Ogden, and Mary Everest Boole, and scholars who came after her and can be related to her, in particular Susanne K. Langer (1895–1985), Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975), Thomas A. Sebeok (1920–2001), and Genevieve Vaughan (1939–). The second section of Petrilli's book thus deals in part with Welby's frequent correspondence with the intellectual luminaries of her time. These thought-filled communications provide insight into Welby's ideas and those of her correspondents. Chapter 5 (“Victoria Welby and Charles S. Peirce: Significs, Semiotics, Semioethics”), the first one of Part II, illustrates the epistolary interaction of Welby and Peirce from 1903 to 1911. This correspondence thus in- forms us of the philosophies of both of these contemporaneous scholars. The sixth chapter (“Victoria Welby and Giovanni Vailati: The Cri- tique of Language”) delves into the concern for meaning exhibited by Welby and the Italian mathematician, logician, and pragmatic philosopher Giovanni Vailati, who visited Welby in England. Their mutual concern for meaning and the science of sign was clearly different in certain respects. Nevertheless, they shared a common goal of the enhancement and improvement of expression. With the publication in 1903 of Welby's What Is Meaning?, Vailati wrote to her concerning their points of agreement on meaning as well as the use of metaphorical language.

xv Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

The following chapter (“Victoria Welby and Charles K. Ogden: What Does Meaning Mean?”) details the correspondence between Welby and Ogden from 1910 to 1911 (Petrilli 2009: 767–782). Their brief correspondence dealt with significs, of which Ogden was an enthusiastic supporter. In fact, some of Welby's ideas entered into the famed volume by Ogden and Richards (1923) entitled The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. Chapter 8 (“Victoria Welby, Mary Everest Boole, and Susanne K. Langer: Humanizing Signs”) deals with one of Welby's contemporaries, Mary Everest Boole, with whom Welby had important exchanges of ideas. Welby's views can also be associated with the important work of Susanne K. Langer and her reflections on signs, symbols, and significance (Langer 1942). The penultimate chapter (“Victoria Welby and Mikhail Bakhtin: The Vitality of Meaning”) examines the ideology of two quite different individuals: the British Victoria Welby and the Russian Mikhail Bakhtin, who authored two important studies on Dostoevsky and Rabelais. Both scholars shared important theoretical notions in terms of textual interpretation, including Welby's ideas on semantic plurivocality and the inherent mutability of language as a collective and culture-bound phenomenon. Moreover, they also shared similar views on the philosophy of language, sign, and meaning, or interpretation semiotics (Petrilli and Ponzio 2005; Nuessel 2008a). The final chapter of Part II (“Victoria Welby and Genevieve Vaughan: Gift-Giving and Communication”) addresses the notion of “gift logic,” a persistent theme in Welby's writings; this term refers to the values of love and care for one another, justice, compassion, and listening as guideposts for social practice and engagement. This Welbian concept has now become manifest through the development of “semioethics” in the pioneering book coauthored by Susan Petrilli and Augusto Ponzio (2003) as well as in other essays written by Susan Petrilli during the past decade. In this chapter, Petrilli focuses on Genevieve Vaughan's (2007, 2013) research on the gift economy. The present volume about Victoria Welby, written by the world's leading authority on Welby, represents a work about one great scholar by another outstanding academic, separated temporally by a full century. This book provides a major overview of Victoria Welby, a nineteenth- and early twentieth-century semiotician, by a twentieth- and twenty- first-century semiotic researcher. Because of Susan Petrilli's career-long dedication to preserving Welby's extensive unpublished personal correspondence with the great thinkers of the Victorian age and exploring her posthumous influence on several distinguished scholars, this book xvi Foreword makes available to contemporary researchers the fundamental principles of this eminent British intellectual. Moreover, it conforms to Petrilli's dedication to recognizing and publicizing the major work of women in the field of semiotics (Sebeok and Petrilli 1999 [2001]; Petrilli and Ponzio 2005: 80–137; Petrilli 2010). Susan Petrilli's painstaking research and dedication to the expansion of knowledge through her research on Victoria Welby, as well as through her own innovative research in her numerous monographs and research conducted in concert with her renowned collaborator, the internationally acclaimed academic Augusto Ponzio, have served scholars well. This incisive academic biography of Victoria Welby provides the definitive overview of a British philosopher who influenced the course of studies on signs, language, and meaning and who inspired not only her contemporaries but also the successors to her intellectual legacy. This critical and historical account by Susan Petrilli, one of the greatest contemporary scholars in the field of semiotics, is essential reading for all those interested in the general science of signs. References Cust, Mrs. Henry (Elizabeth) 1929 (ed.) Echoes of Larger Life: A Selection from the Early Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby. London: Jonathan Cape. 1931 (ed.) Larger Dimensions: A Selection from the Later Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby. London: Jonathan Cape.

Jakobson, Roman 1959 On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. Jakobson, Selected Writings, vol. II, 260–266. The Hague: Mouton, 1971.

Langer, Susanne K. 1942 Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite, and Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Nuessel, Frank 2008a Interpretive semiotics. Semiotica, 169(1/4), 343–360. 2008b Susan Petrilli named seventh Thomas A. Sebeok Fellow of the Semiotic Society of North America. Sign System Studies, 36(2), 521–525. 2011 Victoria Welby and the signific movement. Semiotica, 184(1/4), 279–299. 2012 The semiotics of communication. Semiotica, 189(1/4), 271–285. 2013 Susan Petrilli's archival research on Victoria Welby and its implications for future scholarly inquiry. Semiotica, 196, 111–124.

Nuessel, Frank; Colapietro, Vincent; Petrilli, Susan 2013 (eds.) On and beyond significs: Centennial issue for Victoria Lady Welby (1837–1912). Semiotica, special issue, 196.

xvii Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Ogden, Charles K.; Richards, Ivor A. 1923 The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism. London: Kegan Paul.

Petrilli, Susan 1993 Segno e valore: La significs di Welby e la semiotica novecentesca. Doctoral dissertation. University of Bari. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Rome. 1998 Su Victoria Welby: Significs e filosofia del linguaggio. Naples: Edizioni Sci- entifiche Italiane. 2009 Signifying and Understanding: Reading the Works of Victoria Welby and the Signific Movement. Berlin: Mouton. 2010 Three women in semiotics: Welby, Boole, Langer.Semiotica , 182(1/4), 327–374.

Petrilli, Susan; Ponzio, Augusto 2003 Semioetica. Rome: Maltemi. 2005 Semiotics Unbounded: Interpretive Routes through the Open Network of Signs. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 2010 Semioethics, 150–162. In Paul Cobley (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Semiotics, 3–12. London: Routledge. forthcoming Semioethics. On Signs, Values, and Behavior. New Brunswick: Transaction. [Includes Eng. trans. of Semioetica 2003, revised and expanded]

Schmitz, W. H. 1990 (ed.) Essays on Significs: Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Victoria Lady Welby. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Sebeok, Thomas A.; Petrilli, Susan 1999 Women in semiotics. In Gerald F. Carr, Wayne Harbert, and Lihua Zhang (eds.), Interdigitations: Essays in Honor of Irmengard Rauch, 469–478. New York: Peter Lang. (Also in Thomas A. Sebeok, Global Semiotics, 145–153. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2001).

Sebeok, Thomas A.; Umiker-Sebeok, Jean 1992 Biosemiotics: The Semiotic Web 1991. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Vailati, Giovanni 2000 Il metodo della filosofia: Saggi di critica del linguaggio. Ed. by F. Rossi-Landi; new edition, ed. by Augusto Ponzio, Bari: Graphis, 2000.

Vaughan, Genevieve 2007 Women and the Gift Economy: A Radically Different Worldview Is Possible. Toronto: Inanna. 2013 Mother sense and the image schema of the gift. Semiotica, 196, 57–77.

Welby, Victoria 1881 Links and Clues. London: Macmillan. 1903 What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance. London: Macmillan. 1983 What Is Meaning? Ed. by A. Eschbach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. xviii Introduction Prefigurations and Developments in the Study of Signs

Victoria Lady Welby (1837–1912) was praised by her contemporaries and biographers for the independent nature of her thought and way of life with respect to her time and the circles she frequented.1 She was born into the highest levels of the British aristocracy and before her marriage to Sir William Welby-Gregory spent two years serving as maid of honor at the court of Queen Victoria, her godmother. However, despite the formal lifestyle that marked her privileged social condition, her upbringing and early years of life were sui generis, altogether excep- tional thanks to the influence of her extravagant mother. As she was to report in a letter to Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914), Victoria Welby believed that her capacity to see things in a somewhat independent way was largely the expression of the fact that she had not received a formal education, aside from some private tutoring (22 December 1903, in Hardwick 1977: 13–14, see below 8.1; also available in Peirce's Collected Papers, referred to throughout this volume with the initials CP followed by volume and paragraph numbers). From 1848 to 1855, she traveled widely with her mother in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Spain, Italy, France, Morocco, Turkey, Palestine, Syria, and many other countries, often in dramatic circumstances. She published a travel diary as an adolescent, in 1852 (see Cust 1928). After her mother's tragic death in the Syrian desert, Victoria lived with a succession of relatives before being taken in by the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen Victoria. In 1861, she was appointed maid of honor to Queen Victoria; she spent almost two years at the royal court before her marriage to Sir William Welby-Gregory, in 1863. Soon after, not at all attracted to life at court, she retreated to Denton Manor, Grantham, where she began her studies with her husband's full support.2

xix Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Initially, her interest was directed toward theological questions, and in 1881 she published Links and Clues, which expressed her sympathy at that time with evangelical movements. It was considered unorthodox, and its poor reception caused her to reflect further on the inadequacies of religious discourse, which was, she came to believe, cast in outmoded linguistic forms. She was drawn into an examination of language and meaning, and she found a pervasive linguistic confusion that stemmed from a misconception of language as a system of fixed meanings. This could only be resolved by recognizing the live nature of language, which grows and changes with the development of human experience. Welby also dedicated a large part of her studies to the different sciences. She firmly believed that religious discourse could be transformed into something more meaningful in the light of scientific discovery.

Welby's studies on sign and meaning ensued from her initial concern with problems of a religious, moral, and theological order. She focused on problems of interpretation related to the Sacred Scriptures, and then her interest in ethical-theological discourse and in social and pedagogical issues merged with her linguistic-philosophical studies and found expression in a series of writings published toward the end of the nineteenth century. These include the essays “Meaning and Metaphor” (1893) and “Sense, Meaning and Interpretation” (1896); a book of reflections, Grains of Sense (1897); and her monographs What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance (1903) xx Introduction and Significs and Language: The Articulate Form of Our Expressive and Interpretative Resources (1911). Editorial events that have contributed to the revival of significs today include republications of these works. What Is Meaning? was presented in 1983 thanks to the initiative of Achim Eschbach, and the volume Significs and Language, containing Welby's 1911 monograph together with a significant selection from her other writings, published and unpublished, appeared in 1985, edited by H. Walter Schmitz.3 To resume then, besides articles in newspapers, magazines, and scientific journals (The Spectator, The Expositor, The Fortnightly Review, The Open Court, Nature, Mind, The Monist, The Hibbert Journal, Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods) and a long list of privately printed essays, parables, aphorisms, and pamphlets on a large range of subjects in numerous spheres—science, mathematics, anthropology, philosophy, education, social issues— Welby's publications include six books: her travel diary (1852), written and published during her childhood; Links and Clues (1881); a book of prayers (1892); Grains of Sense (1897); and her two theoretical monographs, What Is Meaning? (1903) and Significs and Language (1911). In addition to the volumes collecting her correspondence, another valuable document is her biography, Wanderers, written by her daughter Nina Cust (1929). A large collection of papers by Welby is now available in Signifying and Understanding: Reading the Works of Victoria Welby and the Sig- nific Movement (1048 pages, see Petrilli 2009a). This volume presents papers from the Welby Collection at the York University Archives (Toronto, Canada), together with a selection of texts published during her lifetime. However, a significant part of Welby's work is still hosted unpublished in the archives. In addition to writings by Welby and her correspondence with preeminent figures of the time, complete with a description of the materials available at the Welby Archives in York, and a series of appendices and updated bibliographies on Welby, her significs, the signific movement in the Netherlands, and its developments, Signifying and Understanding also features an anthology of writings by first-generation significians such as Frederik van Eeden, Gerrit Mannoury, L. E. J. Brouwer, and David Vuysje. Welby introduced the term “significs” for her special approach to the study of sign and meaning toward the end of the nineteenth century. Her work inspired the signific movement, which flourished during the first half of the twentieth century through the mediation of the Dutch xxi Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs poet and psychiatrist F. van Eeden (1860–1932; see Schmitz 1990; Heijerman-Schmitz 1991). After her death, more than as an intellectual in her own right, Welby continued to be recognized among the international community of researchers thanks above all to her correspondence with Charles S. Peirce.4 She was in the habit of discussing her ideas, and to this end she engaged in epistolary exchanges with numerous personalities of the day. In addition to Peirce, these included Bertrand Russell, James M. Baldwin, Henry Spencer, Thomas A. Huxley, Herbert G. Wells, Max Müller, Benjamin Jowett, Frederick Pollock, George F. Stout, Ferdinand C. S. Schiller, Charles K. Ogden, Henry and William James, Mary Everest Boole, Julia Wedgwood, Michel Bréal, André Lalande, Henri Bergson, Henri Poincaré, Rudolf Carnap, Otto Neurath, Harald Höffding, Ferdinand Tönnies, Frederik van Eeden, Giovanni Vailati, Mario Calderoni, and many others. Ogden promoted significs as a university student during the years 1910 and 1911; he had met Welby personally and at that time contributed to spreading her ideas. Part of this correspondence was edited and published by Welby's daughter Mrs. Henry (Nina) Cust, in two volumes: Echoes of Larger Life, 1929, which collects letters written between 1879 and 1891, and Other Dimensions, 1931, which covers the years from 1898 to 1911. Other selections with various interlocutors have also been made available in Signifying and Understanding (see below, ch. 3, note 1). A good part of Welby's scientific writing is constructed through recourse to metaphor and imagery in general, with which she provides direct witness to the development of theory through metaphor, testi- fying to the intellectual power of figurative language. The expressive power of metaphor and figurative language in general calls for a critique of language and for a significal education. Welby draws attention to the need for the development of an adequate linguistic consciousness from the very beginning stages in the processes of language and knowledge acquisition, attributing enormous importance to education in childhood. Having discovered her writings on metaphor and meaning, the Italian scholar Giovanni Vailati (1863–1909) initiated correspondence with Welby. He and his collaborator Mario Calderoni visited her at her home in Harrow in 1903, the year of the publication of her monograph What Is Meaning? A fruitful intellectual friendship was born. Welby translated some papers by Vailati into English for circulation, and, thanks to her, he discovered Peirce. Through her mediation, Vailati introduced Peirce's pragmatism to Italy, and he proved to be one of Peirce's most rigorous interpreters. Ultimately, it was thanks to this connection with Welby xxii Introduction that Peirce's work was brought to the attention of the Italian public. This particular line of thought had captured the attention of another eminent Italian philosopher and semiotician, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, and it led to an invitation from Schmitz for Rossi-Landi to contribute an essay to the collective volume Essays on Significs. At the time, however, Rossi-Landi was busy completing other editorial projects and turned the invitation over to me through my mentor, Augusto Ponzio.5 Ponzio contributed an essay on theory of meaning and theory of knowledge in Welby and Vailati, and I wrote a chapter on sign and meaning in Welby and the renowned Russian thinker Mikhail Bakhtin (1895–1975). These circumstances marked the beginning of our research on Welby and significs-related issues. Essays on Significs was published almost twenty-five years ago. The title is the same as that of another book dedicated to key concepts in significs, planned by George F. Stout and John W. Slaughter at the beginning of the twentieth century and approved by Welby herself. Contributions to this book were expected from a series of noteworthy authors, including Peirce, Harald Höffding, and Ferdinand Tönnies. However, though all other essays had been collected, publication was repeatedly postponed to wait for Peirce's essay, and it was definitively abandoned with Welby's death in 1912. Schmitz's volume is a homage to this project (see Petrilli 2009a: 38–40). My research on Welby and her significs is also connected with my collaborative relationship with the eminent American semiotician and inventor of “global semiotics,” Thomas A. Sebeok (1920–2001).6 I met Sebeok in real life and Welby ideally in the same years, the early 1980s. Sebeok had been a student of Charles Morris (1901–1979) who exerted a strong influence on his engagement in semiotics. However, in his early student days, Sebeok was also influenced by a book by then already a classic, The Meaning of Meaning, coauthored by Charles K. Ogden (1889–1957) and Ivor A. Richards (1893–1979), published in 1923. Ogden too was closely connected to Welby. In fact, as a student at Magdalene College at the University of Cambridge, he had become a significs enthusiast (Petrilli 2009a: 7.1). His interest in Welby's research led to a series of encounters and a substantial exchange of letters between the two over a period of approximately two years (Petrilli 2009a: 7.2). Ogden visited Welby and stayed with her at her home, with free access to her library and papers. Later on, in 1923, he included an excerpt from a letter to her from Peirce in the appendix to his monograph coauthored with Ivor A. Richards, The Meaning of xxiii Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Meaning, which became the official channel through which Peirce's work at last reached the vast English-speaking public. Considering all these happy interconnections and coincidences, Sebeok, as Editor-in- Chief of the journal Semiotica—which he directed from the time of its birth in 1969, when the International Association for Semiotic Studies was founded, until his death in 2001 (since then Semiotica has been directed by Marcel Danesi)—commissioned me to write an essay on the relation between Welby and Ogden. It appeared in 1995 and was focused on the correspondence exchanged between the two scholars. Sebeok encouraged me to write a monograph on Welby. Originally, the idea was to publish it as a special issue of Semiotica. That volume became what is now Signifying and Understanding (Petrilli 2009a). Most regrettably, though he commissioned this volume, he did not live to see it. Given that it kept growing as I continued working, things came to a point where it was no longer feasible to present it as an issue of a journal. It did appear with the same publishers, but in the form of a monograph in the book series Semiotics, Communication and Cognition, codirected by Paul Cobley (who also wrote the Foreword, pp. vii–x) and Kalevi Kull. Since then, a special issue of Semiotica dedicated to Welby and significs has also appeared:On and Beyond Significs: Centennial Issue for Victoria Lady Welby (1837–1912), edited by Frank Nuessel, Vincent Colapietro, and myself (2013). As stated in the title, this volume cel- ebrates the first centennial of the death of Victoria Lady Welby. I dare say that Sebeok would have been pleased to know that this special issue of Semiotica was occasioned by publication of Signifying and Understanding. This journal and official mouthpiece of the Interna- tional Association for Semiotic Studies was founded by Sebeok himself in 1969—with such figures as Umberto Eco, Julia Kristeva, Roland Barthes, Roman Jakobson, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi—and also directed by him from its inception to the time of his death in 2001. In his essay for the volume Essays on Significs (which did not appear until 1990, though it was organized in the early 1980s), Ponzio introduces the term “ethosemiotics,” keeping account of both Welby and Vailati in his studies in the philosophy of language.7 The expression “ethosemiotics” indicates an orientation in our studies which Ponzio and myself have developed together and renamed “semioethics.” Semioethics (Semioetica) is also the expression we chose as the title of a monograph we coauthored in Italian, published in 2003. But “ethosemiotics” already signals the inevitable relation between signs xxiv Introduction and values in human semiosis, and therefore between semiotics and axiology, semiotics and ethics. In addition to our 2003 monograph, we also coauthored an essay entitled “Semioethics,” commissioned by Cobley for his Routledge Companion to Semiotics (2010). Responding to John Deely in regard to the term “semioethics” in an e-mail exchange from 4 to 5 January 2010, Ponzio recounts the following (in Petrilli 2012: 185–186):

Semioethics was born in the early 1980s in connection with the introductions (written by Susan Petrilli) to the Italian translations of works by Thomas Sebeok, Charles Morris, Victoria Welby and my own introduction and interpretation of works by Mikhail Bakhtin, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, Giovanni Vailati, and Peirce (see my Bibliography). The problem was to find, with Susan, a term which indicates the study of the relation between signs and values, ancient semeiotics and semiotics, meaning and significance, and which somehow translates Welby's “significs” into Italian: we coined terms and expressions like “teleosemiotica,” “etosemiotica,” “semiotica etica” in contrast with “semiotica cognitiva” (see the Italian edition by Massimo Bonfantini of Peirce. La semiotica cognitiva, 1980, Einaudi, Torino). The beginning of semioethics is in the introductions by myself and Susan to the Italian editions (translation by Susan) of Sebeok, Il segno e i suoi maestri, Bari, Adriatica, 1985, Welby, Significato, metafora e interpretazione, in the essays by Susan and myself published in H. Walter Schmitz (ed.), Essays in Significs, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 1990, in Susan's books of the 1980s, such as Significs, semiotica, significazione (Pref. by Thomas Sebeok, Adriatica, 1988), and Ponzio's, such as Filosofia del linguaggio, Adriatica, 1985. In a private note written in the context of the International Col- loquium, “Refractions. Literary Criticism, Philosophy and the Human Sciences in Contemporary Italy in the 1970s and the 1980s,” held at the Department of Comparative Literature, Carleton University, Ottawa, 27–19 September 1990 (in the discussion following delivery of my paper “Rossi-Landi tra Ideologie e Scienze umane”), I used the Italian term “semioetica” playing on the displacement of “e” in the Italian word “semeiotica”: indicating in Semiotics the ancient vocation of Semeiotics (as conceived by Hippocrates and Galenus) for improving life, bettering it. But in the title of 3 lessons delivered with Susan at Curtin Universi- ty of Technology, Perth in Australia, we still used the term “teleosemiotica”: “Teleosemiotics and global semiotics”: (July–September, 1999, Australian lecture tour: Adelaide University, Monash University in Melbourne, Sydney University, Curtin University in Perth, Northern Territory University in Darwin).

xxv Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

The bookSemioetica , co-authored by Susan and myself, was published in 2003 and is the landing achievement of this long crossing of texts, conceptions, and words, as results from our bibliographic references.

With Sebeok we planned another international and interdisciplinary research project. This was dedicated to “light” and was related to the Welby project. In fact, light is a theme pervading much of Welby's writings and is a central focus in her reflections on the Sacred Scriptures as presented in her 1881 book Links and Clues, at the origin of her significs. Our “light” project produced two collective volumes, one in Italy, Luce, for the book series Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, directed by A. Ponzio (1997), and another in English, Signs and Light: Illuminating Paths in the Semiotic Web, for Semiotica, edited by myself (Petrilli 2001b) and again commissioned by Tom Sebeok, inventor of “global semiotics.” Indeed, many of the contributors were identified by Tom himself. He in fact dedicated a large part of his attention to creating bridges and expanding the metasemiotic universe, signaling people's scholarship and putting them into contact with one another. His attitude toward scientific research was always open, unprejudiced, and generous. This particular project resulted in my 2001 essay on light in Welby's interpretation of the Sacred Scriptures. In that same year, the essay “Women in Semiotics,” which Sebeok invited me to coauthor with him, was published in his monograph Global Semiotics (his last, appearing just a few months before his death). The expression forming this title, “global semiotics,” is destined to set the agenda for semiotic studies during the twenty-first century. The original version of our coauthored essay was written to celebrate Irmengard Rauch, in 1999, as a contribution to a volume published in her honor, Interdigitations (edited by G. F. Carr, W. Harbert, and L. Zhang). Rauch was elected the eighth Sebeok Fellow in 2011 by the Semiotic Society of America, preceded by myself as the seventh, in 2008. She too contributed an essay to the 2013 special issue of Semiotica dedicated to Welby (Rauch 2013: 229–242). Since Sebeok's Global Semiotics, a chapter featuring Welby as the “mother of semiotics” has appeared in the volume Semiotics Unbounded: Interpretive Routes through the Open Network of Signs, coauthored by Ponzio and myself (2005). Previous to the 2001 essays, Sebeok had already involved me in another interdisciplinary project. This was more closely connected with general sign theory, with a special focus on the junction of the sign xxvi Introduction sciences and the life sciences, and therefore between semiotics and biology. This project resulted in two essays authored by myself, commissioned once again by Sebeok for Semiotica and published together in 1999; one on Welby's significs and the other on Charles Morris's research. These themes are still at the center of my own research and are developed in the present volume. At this point I will add that my early studies on Welby and Bakhtin not only marked the beginning of my ongoing work on Welby which has continued uninterruptedly over the past thirty years or so, but also on Bakhtin in dialogue with Ponzio whose Bakhtinian studies have been underway since the mid-1970s. The focus in my own research is largely on the relation between signs and values taking not only Welby and American semiotics into account, with special reference to Peirce, Morris, and Sebeok, but also writings by various members of the so-called “Bakhtin Circle,” including, in addition to Bakhtin himself, Valentin N. Voloshinov and Pavel N. Medvedev. My studies have also revolved around writings by a series of continental thinkers including Edmund Husserl, Emmanuel Levinas, Roland Barthes, Umberto Eco, Ferruccio Rossi-Landi, and Augusto Ponzio. The most recent expressions of this aspect of my research are the publication of a selection of texts by Welby composed between 1879 and 1911, under the title Inter- pretare, comprendere, comunicare, in 2010, and of a selection of writings by Morris, Scritti di semiotica, etica e estetica, in 2012. (Both collections are translated into Italian by myself with an introduction). These were followed by my monograph on Bakhtin, also published in 2012, entitled Altrove e altrimenti: Filosofia del linguaggio, criticaletterari a e teoria della traduzione in, con e a partire da Bachtin, subsequently translated into Portuguese in Brazil (2013). And in these same years has appeared what I now like to call my “Transaction trilogy” featuring Sign Crossroads in Global Perspective. Semioethics and Responsibility, 2010, Expression and Interpretation in Language, 2012, and The Self as a Sign, the World, and the Other, 2013, all of which can be traced back to my interest in the problem of the relation between signs and values in human behavior. The masters of the sign featured in these pages, which in addition to Victoria Welby include such names as those already mentioned in this introduction—Charles S. Peirce, Giovanni Vailati, Charles K. Ogden, Mikhail Bakhtin, Emmanuel Levinas, Charles Morris, Ferruccio Rossi- Landi, and Thomas A. Sebeok—all share a common approach in their explorations of the sign, language, and communication. These scholars, xxvii Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs in fact, may all be considered as exponents of what Sebeok identified as, in contrast to the “minor tradition” (see Sebeok 1979), the “major tradition” in semiotic studies—that is, what we have designated “interpretation semiotics” (see below, 5.2). Far from considering meanings and utterers, signs and signifiers as though they were fixed and defined once and for all outside the live context of communication, and therefore contrary to the tendency toward a sort of sign fetishism, this tradition theorizes signs and signifiers, meaning and interlocutors, as parts of a process in the making, articulated in signifying processes in becoming, in the dynamical terms of shift, unending research, open-ended deferral among signs, infinite interpretation/translation. Recalling Morris and his reflections on meaning in his epochal text of 1938, Foundations of the Theory of Signs: “Meanings are not to be located as existences at any place in the process of semiosis but are to be characterized in terms of this process as a whole. ‘Meaning’ is a semiotical term and not a term in the thing-language; to say that there are meanings in nature is not to affirm that there is a class of entities on a par with trees, rocks, organisms, and colors, but that such objects and properties function within processes of semiosis” (Morris 1938: 45). Rather than reduce the signifying universe and its variously different aspects to the status of abstract notions predefined and preconstituted outside the communicative context, signs, signifiers, and signifying processes emerge as ongoing interpretative phenomena interrelatedly with other signs, signifiers, and signifying processes. This approach to the life of signs evidences the public, social, and intersubjective dimension of expression and communication, at last recognizing as their distinctive features such characteristics as intercorporeality, dialogism, and unfinalizability. Important to underline is that a related characteristic shared by these authors in their studies on language and communication is their common focus on the connection between signs and values. To recall Morris once again, our allusion here is to different aspects of meaning, identifiable under two headings—“signification” and “significance,” as recites the title of yet another one of his monographs, Signification and Significance: A Study of the Relations of Signs and Values, published in 1964. To this distinction (but not separation) we may add that between intentional and unintentional meaning, explicit and implicit meaning, uttered and unuttered meaning, the said and the unsaid, literal and figurative meaning, public and private, external and internal, outer and inner meaning, meaning in the semiotic sense and in the xxviii Introduction

semioethic sense. Moreover, Morris's distinction between “signification” and “significance” can be related to that made by Welby between “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance,” by Peirce between “immediate interpretant,” “dynamical interpretant,” and “final interpretant,” and by Bakhtin and Voloshinov between “meaning” and “actual sense” or “theme.” Welby corresponded with Peirce, Vailati, and Ogden, referring to them as sounding boards—as was her habit—that helped her to develop and improve her ideas. She maintained intense epistolary relations with each of them; she personally met Vailati first, then Ogden. Instead, to bring authors like Bakhtin or Morris into the picture means to establish a relation with scholars whom she could never have met in real life. However, their work can be associated with Welby's in what can be considered encounters on a theoretical level. The same can be said of the women scholars featured in this volume, some of whom Welby met in real life, others who can be associated to her ideally. In his introduction to the abovementioned essay, “Women in Semiot- ics,” Sebeok describes Susanne K. Langer, Margaret Mead (1901–1978), Ethel M. Albert (1918–1989), and Irmengard Rauch (1933–) as “four dis- parately illustrious twentieth century trailblazers” (Sebeok 2001: 145). Before these four scholars, he presents a fifth, the English mother of signs who lived in the century before theirs, our Victoria Lady Welby. He describes her as “the legendary foremother and prime mover of ‘significs’ and ‘sensifics’ species of turn-of-the-century (and subsequent) semiotics” (2001: 145). In all five cases, convergences can be traced under different aspects with Sebeok's own work on problems of language and communication. I believe that Mary Everest Boole (1832–1916) can now be added to the pantheon of great women thinkers, as another “trailblazer” among “women in semiotics.” The expression “women in semiotics” was also the name of a roundtable organized by myself as part of the Ninth World Congress held by the International Association for Semiotic Studies (June 2007, Helsinki-Imatra, Finland); it was thus named as a homage to Sebeok as a great twentieth-century master of the sign and a sensitive interpreter of women in semiotics, whose work he had always promoted. My research on women in semiotics has continued with special reference to Welby, Boole, and Langer, culminating in the publication of an essay on the topic in the journal Semiotica (in 2010). Boole and Welby confronted each other with their ideas, leaving a fascinating corpus of epistolary exchanges (Petrilli 2009a: 167–173). They can be associated

xxix Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs with Langer ideally, though they could never have met her in real-life circumstances for obvious chronological reasons. As the nineteenth century gradually turned into the twentieth, Welby's significs found official recognition in the spheres of semiotic and philosophical research with a series of editorial initiatives, which included publication of significs-related dictionary and encyclopedia entries. Moreover, Welby's research resonated in the signific movement in the Netherlands, which it influenced at its very origins. Subsequently, the signific movement found substantial development at an international level, independently of Welby, during the first half of the twentieth century. Beyond the limits of the logic of identity, significs is open to the other and contributes to the development of what, following the philosopher Emmanuel Levinas (1906–1995), has been described as “the humanism of otherness” (Levinas 1972). Welby's approach to signs and language evidences the connection with values and responsibility. Developed in the direction of semioethics, her work provides a method for the critical discussion of human relations and communication in today's globalized world. A significal/semioethical approach to communication means denouncing the present phase of capitalism as alienated from the logic of otherness and recovering the properly human as an antidote to this alienation, which as Rossi-Landi teaches us, is not only social alienation but specifically linguistic alienation (Rossi-Landi 1992: 253–270). From 1863 until her death in 1912, Welby was a friend and source of inspiration to leading personalities from the world of science and literature. She wrote regularly to over 450 correspondents from various countries, including Great Britain, the United States of America, France, Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands. She began writing to politicians, representatives of the Church, aristocrats, and intellectuals in the early 1870s, creating an epistolary network that expanded rapidly from 1880 onward, both locally and internationally. It was largely through this network that Welby developed her theories. She used it not only for her own enlightenment, as a sounding board for her own theories, but also to circulate ideas, her own and those of others. Thanks to her social position and court appointment as maid of honor to Queen Victoria, she had friends and acquaintances among the aristocracy and government officials. And because of her interest in religious and theological questions, she corresponded with leading churchmen of her day. Subsequently, she entered into contact with eminent scientists, philosophers, and professional educators, all of whom she regularly welcomed into her home for discussions and confrontations. xxx Introduction

Welby's remaining scientific works are now deposited mainly in two archives: the Welby Collection at the York University Archives (Downsview, Ontario, Canada) and the Lady Welby Library at the University of London Library (London, UK; see Schmitz 1985; Petrilli 1998a, 2009a). The latter includes approximately one thousand volumes from Victoria Welby's personal library and twenty-five boxes containing pamphlets, reprints and newspaper cuttings, diagrams and photographs, translations, proofs, unpublished essays, and a collection of poems by Welby. Also included are religious tracts, speeches, sermons, lessons, and published lectures by other authors. Four boxes without numbers contain duplicates of most of Welby's own publications. The main part of her scientific and literary production is to be found at the York archives, distributed in forty-two boxes. Boxes 1–21, that is, half of the collection, consists of Welby's correspondence covering the years 1861–1912, still today mostly unpublished; a large part of the remainder, Boxes 22–42, are subject files (titles established by Welby) comprising notes, extracts, and commentaries on a variety of subjects—biology, education, ethics, eugenics, imagery, language and significance, logic and significance, matter and motion, numbers theory, philosophy and significance, significs (nine files), and time. Suffering from partial aphasia and paralysis of the right hand due to bad blood circulation caused by flu caught at the end of January 1912, Welby died on 29 March 1912 at Duneaves, Mount Park, Harrow; she was buried in Grantham, Lincolnshire (England, UK). *** I am profoundly grateful to Mary E. Curtis for having welcomed this book to Transaction. I’m proud to continue my relations with such a prestigious publisher, ongoing since initial contact some years ago with the unforgettable Irving Horowitz. Many thanks, also, to Jennifer Nippins and all those on the editorial board who have collaborated in fine-tuning the manuscript for publication. I am especially grateful to Frank Nuessel (University of Louis- ville) and Augusto Ponzio (University of Bari Aldo Moro) for their comments and precious suggestions regarding the first draft of this book.

xxxi Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Notes 1. Victoria Welby (later Welby-Gregory; née Stuart-Wortley): Victoria Alexandrina Maria Louisa, Lady Welby (1837–1912), philosopher, was born in England, UK, on 27 April 1837, the last of three children of Charles James Stuart-Wortley (1802–1844) and his wife, Lady Emmeline Charlotte Elizabeth Stuart-Wortley, née Manners (1806–1855), poet and traveler. James Archibald Stuart-Wortley (1776–1845) was her grandfather. 2. Victoria Stuart-Wortley's matrimony took place at St. George's Church, Hanover Square, London, on 4 July 1863; she married William Earle Welby (1829–1898), military official, member of Parliament, and high sheriff, who with his father's death in 1875 became fourth baronet and assumed the additional surname Gregory. Consequently, Victoria Welby's surname became Welby-Gregory. Welby’s children were Victor Albert William (1864–1876), Charles Glynne Earle Welby (1865–1938), assistant undersecretary of state at the War Office and member of Parliament, and Emmeline Mary Elizabeth (Nina; 1867–1955), painter, sculptor, and writer. Emmeline wrote Welby's biography and edited her correspondence in two volumes, under her married name, Mrs. H. Cust. During the first years of her marriage, in 1872, Lady Victoria Welby founded the School of Art Needlework. 3. Another important initiative includes publication of the volume Essays on Significs, edited by Schmitz (1990), to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Welby's birth. This was followed bySignifics, Mathematics and Semiotics: The Signific Movement in the Netherlands, the proceedings of an international conference held in November 1986 under that title (Heijerman-Schmitz 1991). Essays on historical and theoretical aspects of Welby's significs and the signific movement by various authors have also appeared in journals or as chapters in volumes over the years, continuing on from the work of the early significians (see Petrilli 2009a: 958–998). In Italy, three anthologies of writings by Welby have appeared, translated and presented by myself: Significato, metafora, interpretazione, 1985; Senso, significato, significatività, 2007; and Interpretare, comprendere, comunicare, 2010. My first monograph on Welby was a development on my doctoral thesis of 1993, Su Victoria Welby: Significs e filosofia del linguaggio, published in 1998 thanks to eminent Peirce expert Massimo A. Bonfantini, who welcomed it into his book series “Semiosis Su,” published with Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane (Naples). 4. The volume Charles S. Peirce's Letters to Lady Welby appeared in 1953, edited by Irwin Lieb; subsequently, in 1977, Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between Charles S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby was published, edited by Charles Hardwick. This volume also included Welby's letters to Peirce, which had been excluded from the earlier volume. 5. Rossi-Landi was working on his book Metodica filosofica e scienza dei segni, which appeared in March 1985, just a few months before his untimely death in May of that same year. My own encounter with Welby can in fact be traced back to Rossi-Landi. At the time, the early 1980s, Welby was hardly known, though her monographs had been reedited in 1983 and in xxxii Introduction

1985. Rossi-Landi had never studied Welby himself, but he had promoted the work of the Italian philosopher and mathematician Giovanni Vailati (1863–1909), a student of Giuseppe Peano. Vailati was connected to Welby and her significs. This is why Schmitz invited Rossi-Landi to contribute an essay to Essays on Significs. At the time, the early 1980s, Rossi-Landi had already written a series of essays on Vailati and collected a selection of his works under the title Il metodo della filosofia: Saggi di critica del linguaggio, published in 1967 (now available in a new edition published in 2000, edited by Augusto Ponzio). 6. I included chapters on Welby in my first monograph, Significs, semiotica, significazione, 1988, published in Bari, Italy, and for the occasion of this publication Sebeok honored me by writing the introduction (now in Deely and Danesi 2012: 150–152). 7. Though originally written in English, Ponzio's essay appeared in Italian translation first, in 1985, in the first of three Italian anthologies of Welby's writings, entitled Significato, metafora, interpretazione (see Welby 1985, 2007, 2010).

xxxiii

Part I On Signs in the Direction of Significs

1 Significs: A New Approach to Signs and Language

A philosophical distinction emerges gradually into consciousness; there is no moment in history before which it is altogether unrecognized, and after which it is perfectly luminous. (Charles S. Peirce, CP 2.392)

1.1. The Scope of Significs, or “Semioethics” The term “significs” was coined by Victoria Lady Welby toward the end of the nineteenth century to designate her theory of sign and meaning and its special orientation in the direction of the connection between signs and values. Significs transcends pure descriptivism and emerges as a method for the analysis of signs beyond logical- epistemological limitations. Welby evidenced the relation of signs to values with a particular focus on language—in addition to strictly semantic, syntactical, and linguistic value, she inquired into the ethical, aesthetic and pragmatic dimensions of signifying behavior. Consequently, she focused on the relation of signs to sense, significance, and behavior, and therefore on the practical consequences for human behavior of such interrelation. The notion that significs should be concerned with the problem of significance beyond the study of meaning understood in gnoseological terms leads to addressing such issues as the problems of responsibility, freedom, dialectic-dialogic answerability, and the human capacity for creativity and innovation. Welby analyzed meaning in terms of the triad “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance,” where the distinction between “meaning” and “significance” clearly evidences the axiological implications of her research. Moreover, with the term “significs” she differentiated her own approach from such others as “semantics,” “semiotics,” “sematology,” and “semasiology.” Welby described her significs as a

3 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

“philosophy of interpretation,” “translation,” and “significance.” Today, the term “semioethics”—which has its origins in the early 1980s with “ethosemiotics”—has also been introduced in relation to significs (Petrilli and Ponzio 2003, 2010). Semioethics is intended to convey the broad scope of Welby’s particular perspective and focus on the relation between sign theory and value theory. Welby distanced herself from the traditional terms of philological- historical semantics as developed by Michel Bréal (Petrilli 2009a: 253–300). Nor did she limit her attention to what today is known as speech act theory or text linguistics. She was interested in the generation of signifying behaviors, in the processes that produce them, in their dynamical capacity for development and transformation. Such processes are thematized by Welby as a condition for the evolution of mankind’s experiential, cognitive, and expressive capacities, where the relation to values is no less than structural. She characteristically described the development of values as inherent in the development of signifying processes. The “significal method,” or “methodics,” to use Ferruccio Rossi-Landi’s terminology (1985), arises from the special focus achieved by joining the study of sign and meaning to the study of values. This connection is not merely the object of study of significs, but rather it constitutes its very point of view. Significs concerns problems of language, meaning, and communication, of sign activity in general, and as such it is relevant to all spheres of life. Even more, Welby’s specific focus on significance is connected with her ultimate concern for the relation of sign and meaning to the quality of life in all its aspects. Welby investigated the signifying universe in its entirety, though her special interest was expression in the human world, particu- larly verbal language. However, she also knew that to deal with her special interest adequately, it was necessary to contextualize in ever larger signifying totalities—her gaze was capable of detotalization as it extended beyond the verbal to the nonverbal, beyond the human to the nonhuman, beyond the organic to the inorganic, thereby evidencing the interconnection between one sign system and another (Petrilli 2013a: 22–25). Welby’s approach is a prefiguration of present-day semiotics as conceived by Thomas A. Sebeok and his “global semiotics” (Sebeok 2001), the maximum expression of his “biosemiotics”) which inquires into the connection between semiosis and evolution, semiosis and life, and which asks the question, “Semiosis and Semiotics: What Lies in Their Future?” (Sebeok 1991b: 97–99). Moreover, given its special

4 Significs focus on sense, significance, and human behavior, Welby’s significs may be read as working toward a new form of humanism, what with Emmanuel Levinas in more recent times has been denominated the “humanism of otherness,” in contrast to semiotic analyses conducted exclusively in gnoseological terms (Petrilli 2010a: ch. 7). 1.2. Problems of Language and Terminology To carry out research adequately, verbal language, the main working instrument at our disposal, must be in good order. Consequently, for Welby, the problem of reflecting on language and meaning in general immediately took on a dual orientation. It concerned not only the object of research but also the very possibility of articulating discourse. Welby was faced with the problem of constructing a language in which to formulate her ideas adequately—she had quickly realized that a fundamental problem in reflection on language and meaning concerns the language itself, the medium through which such reflection takes place. She considered the linguistic apparatus at her disposal to be antiquated and rhetorical, subject to those same limits she wished to overcome and to those same defects she aimed to correct. In her commitment to logical, expressive, behavioral, ethical, and aesthetic regeneration, she advocated the need to develop a “linguistic conscience” against a “bad use of language,” which inevitably involved poor reasoning, bad use of logic, or incoherent argumentation. The very need to coin the term “significs”—difficult to translate into other languages, as discussed in her correspondence, for example with Michel Bréal or André Lalande regarding French and Giovanni Vailati regarding Italian—was a clear indication in itself of the existence of terminological obstacles to development in philosophical-linguistic analysis. Her condition was typical of a thinker living in a revolutionary era of transformation and of innovation in knowledge: she was faced with the task of communicating new ideas, which involved renewing the language through which she was communicating. Welby was sensitive to problems of everyday language, and in proposing the term “significs” she in fact kept account of the everyday expression “what does it signify?,” given its focus on the sign’s ultimate value and significance beyond semantic meaning. Yet Welby’s commitment to the term “significs” risked appearing as the expression of a whimsical desire for novelty, given that such terms as “semiotics” and “semantics” were already available. Charles Peirce and Giovanni Vailati were among those who did not initially understand her proposal,

5 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs believing that the introduction of a new term could be avoided. Yet she quickly converted them to her view by demonstrating that terminological availability was in fact only apparent, for none of the words in use adequately accounted for her own special approach to sign and meaning. Despite having proposed a neologism for the study of language, she did not fall into the trap of technicalism, just as her aim—her constant efforts to render expression as precise as possible notwithstanding—was not to (fallaciously) eliminate the ambiguity of words, that is, their polysemy, whose fundamental role in language and communication she theorized and constantly underlined. Welby intended to describe aspects of the problem of language, expression, and signifying processes at large, which had not yet been contemplated or which had largely been left aside by traditional approaches. More precisely, she was proposing to reconsider the same problems in a completely different light, from a different perspective: the significal. In her effort to invent a new terminological apparatus, Welby offered alternatives to terms sanctioned by usage. She introduced the term “sensal” as a qualifier for sense in its prevalently instinctive aspect (though it also recalls the concept of signifying value), as opposed to the term “verbal,” which is connected to specifically linguistic or verbal signs, graphic and phonic. The term “interpretation” appears in the title of her 1896 essay and was initially proposed to designate a particular phase in the signifying process. Subsequently, upon realizing that it designated an activity present throughout all phases of signifying processes, she replaced the term “interpretation” in her meaning triad with “significance”; this gives an example of how Welby’s terminological quest was motivated by concrete problems of expression and understanding. Unlike “semantics,” “semasiology,” and “semiotics,” the word “significs” was completely free from technical associations (see below, 5.5). As such, it appeared suitable to Welby as the name of a new science that intended to focus on the connection between sign and sense, meaning and value (pragmatic, social, aesthetic, and ethical), as she explains in a letter to the German philosopher and sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies, winner of the “Welby Prize” of 1896 for the best essay on significal questions. Other neologisms related to “significs” included the noun “significian” for one who practices significs, and “significal” is the qualifier. The verbs “to signify” and “to signalize” are used more specifically to indicate, respectively, maximum signifying value and the act of

6 Significs investing a sign with meaning. In her 1896 essay, “Sense, Meaning and Interpretation,” Welby had proposed the term “sensifics” along with the corresponding verb “to sensify.” These were subsequently abandoned as being too closely related to the world of the senses. But even when Welby used terms that were readily available, including those forming her meaning triad, “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance,” she did so in the context of an impressively articulate theoretical apparatus that clarified the sense of her special use of these terms. 1.3. Significs and Theory of Meaning In Welby’s terminology “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance” indicate different aspects of signifying processes characteristic of human experience, which largely interact in the development of our expressive, interpretative and operative-ethical capacities. As she explains in her monograph of 1903, What Is Meaning?, her main theoretical work on sign and meaning published during her lifetime:

There is, strictly speaking, no such thing as the Sense of a word, but only the sense in which it is used—the circumstances, state of mind, reference, “universe of discourse” belonging to it. The Meaning of a word is the intent which it is desired to convey—the intention of the user. The Significance is always manifold, and intensifies its sense as well as its meaning, by expressing its importance, its appeal to us, its moment for us, its emotional force, its ideal value, its moral aspects, its universal or at least social range. (Welby 1983 [1903]: 5–6)

In addition to this terminology, and in the effort to evidence different aspects of meaning in live communication, Welby translates her meaning triad into the terms of other triads including “signification,” “intention,” and “ideal value,” which correspond respectively to “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance.” Furthermore, as Welby says, the reference of sense is prevalently instinctive or “sensal,” that of meaning is “volitional, intentional,” and that of significance is “moral.” The term “sense” is also used to indicate the overall import of an expression, its signifying value. But within the context of her meaning triad, “sense” denotes prerational life, the initial stages of perception, undifferentiated immediate response to the environment and practical use of signs. As such, “sense” indicates a necessary condition for all experience; “meaning” concerns rational life, the intentional, volitional aspects of signification; and “significance” implies sense, though not necessarily meaning, and concerns the import and ultimate value that signs have

7 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs for each one of us, their overall bearing, relevance, import (for which we may also use the term “sense”). Adjectives corresponding to her meaning triad are used by Welby to formulate her conception of language:

Language, like conduct and thought, ought to be Sensal: (a) expressive of sense-experience; (b) expressive of “what makes sense” and is ultimately “good sense,” or seen to be purposely “funny.” Intentional: (expressive of a coherent, orderly, rational, logical meaning). Sig- nificant: expressive of the implicative, the indirectly indicative; or suggestive of further or larger issues. (Welby 1983 [1903]: 12)

Immediately after the passage above, Welby continues as follows: “Recognising the fact that meaning is first of all intention, we ought to be able to say of an utterance or an action that it is sensal, or intentional, or significant, or all three”. She then goes on to explain further her meaning of the word “sensal” (see also 3.4 below for Welby’s 1902 dictionary entry, “Sensal,” co-authored with George Stout): The word “sensal” is here used in preference to “sensible” because in ordinary usage when a man does a sensible thing or takes a sensible view or course, the idea of intention is always present. None of the other current derivatives of sense, such as sensuous, sensual, sensitive, etc. would meet the case. This, therefore, is another reason for adopt- ing the terms “sensal,” which would ensure the required neutrality. (Welby 1983 [1903]: 12) In the preface to her book of 1911, Significs and Language, Welby describes significs as “the study of the nature of Significance in all its forms and relations, and thus of its workings in every possible sphere of human interest and purpose” (1985a [1911]: vii) and the interpretative function as “that which naturally precedes and is the very condition of human intercourse, as of man’s mastery of his world” (1985a [1911]: vii). In Significs and Language, as in all her writings, Welby is concerned with the production of values as a part of the production of meaning. The link between sign and values fosters and orients the human capacity for establishing relations with the real world, with oneself and with others, as well as the ability to translate our interpretations from one sphere of knowledge into another, and on the level of praxis, from one action into another. “Significance” denotes the disposition toward evaluation, the value of meaning, the condition of being significant, the capacity for maximum involvement or implication in signifying processes. This notion may be associated with Charles Morris’s conception of “significance” as developed in his book Signification and Significance (1964).

8 Significs

The cognitive, pragmatic, and ethical perspectives of sign activity emerge, according to Welby, in the unconsciously philosophical questions of the man in the street when he asks, “What do you mean by . . . ?,” “What does it signify?,” etc. Indeed, in the face of accumulating knowledge and experience, the significian, from whatever walk of life, is urged to ask such questions as, “What is the sense of . . . ?,” “What do we intend by . . . ?,” “What is the meaning of . . . ?,” “Why do we take an interest in such things as beauty, truth, goodness?,” “Why do we give value to experience?,” and “What is the expression value of a certain experience?” Such questions and their responses, with their focus on the sense, meaning, and significance of sign processes, induce the significian to reflect upon the value of all experience. Upon such questions rest all cognitive, aesthetic, ethical, and religious controversies. The significal method applies to all aspects of life and knowledge not because of some claim to semiotic omniscience, but simply because it turns its attention upon meaning in all its signifying complexity. It ensues that the value of this method rests in the fact that it can be shared by all practical and speculative experience. In particular, the significal theory of meaning theorizes the dimension of signifying otherness and therefore the capacity for signifying excess with respect to meaning as understood in the strict sense as related to intentionality. The logical and ethical, or semioethical, capacity for signifying, interpreting, and distinguishing among signs differentiates human beings from the rest of the animal world, while also favoring maximum development of animal instincts, sensations, and feelings through continuous accumulation of experience and knowledge and their qualitative transformations. In a letter to Welby of 14 March 1909 (in Hardwick 1977: 108–130), Peirce himself established a correspondence between Welby’s tri- chotomy of sense, meaning, and significance and his own tripartite division of the interpretant into “immediate interpretant,” “dynamical interpretant,” and “final interpretant,” identifying the main discrepancy between his “dynamical interpretant” and Welby’s “meaning.” Peirce’s “immediate interpretant” concerns meaning as it is used ordinarily and habitually by the interpreter; therefore, as Welby says in relation to sense, it concerns the interpreter’s immediate response to signs. The “dynamical interpretant” concerns the sign’s signification in a specific context; therefore, similarly to Welby’s meaning, it concerns the effect of the sign on the interpreter. But whereas for Peirce reference is to the actual effect produced by the sign, Welby underlinesintended effect, the utterer’s specific intentionality. Even more interesting is the connection

9 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs established by Peirce between his concept of “final interpretant” and Welby’s “significance” (see below, ch. 5). According to Peirce, the final interpretant concerns the sign at the extreme limits of its interpretative possibilities. In other words, it concerns all possible responses provoked by a sign in a potentially unlimited sequence of interpretants; it alludes to the infinitely creative potential of signs. Furthermore, as attested by the correspondence that he establishes between his “final interpretant” and Welby’s “significance,” for Peirce, too, signifying potential is also related to evaluational attitudes:

I now find that my division nearly coincides with yours, as it ought to do exactly, if both are correct. Let us see how well we do agree. The greatest discrepancy appears to lie in my Dynamical Interpretant as compared with your “Mean- ing”. If I understand the latter, it consists in the effect upon the mind of the Interpreter that the utterer (whether vocally or by writing) of the sign intends to produce. My Dynamical Interpretant consists in direct effect actually produced by a Sign upon an Interpreter of it. They agree in being effects of the Sign upon an individual mind, I think, or upon a number of actual individual minds by independent action upon each. My Final Interpretant is, I believe, exactly the same as your Significance; namely, the effect the Signwould produce upon any mind upon which circumstances should permit it to work out its full effect. My Immediate Interpretant is, I think, very nearly, if not quite, the same as your “sense”; for I understand the former to be the total unanalyzed effect that the Sign is calculated to produce; and I have been accustomed to identify this with the effect the sign first produces or may produce upon a mind, without any reflection upon it. I am not aware that you have ever attempted to define your term “sense”; but I gather from reading over what you say that it is the first effect that a sign would have upon a mind well-qualified to comprehend it. Since you say that it is Sensal and has no Volitional element, I suppose it is of the nature of an “impression”. It is thus, as far as I can see, exactly my Immediate Interpretant. (Peirce to Welby 14 March 1909, in Hardwick 1977: 109–110)

1.4. Iconicity and Translative Processes in Language and Knowledge Welby describes the human signifying capacity in terms of “translative thinking,” an automatic process “in which everything suggests or reminds us of something else” (Welby 1983 [1903]: 34). In semiotic terms, we could say that translative thinking is a semiosic process in which something stands for something else, in which different

10 Significs sign systems are related, in which one sign is more fully developed, enriched, criticized, put at a distance, placed between inverted com- mas, parodied or simply imitated, and, in any case, interpreted in terms of another sign. As such, translation is a method of investigation and discovery, says Welby, for the verification and acquisition of new knowledge and the development of critical awareness (see below, 4.1):

As language involves both unity and distinction (the one actually and the other implicitly), language must itself be recognised as a means of discovering contrasts together with the links which constitute these elements of unity, or at least completely exclude the idea of final disparateness. . . . For a thing is significant, both in the lower and in the higher sense, in proportion as it is expressible through bare sign or pictorial symbol or representative action. In the higher sense (that of vital or moral or rational import) it is significant in proportion as it is capable of expressing itself in, or being translated into, more and more phases of thought or branches of science. The more varied and rich our employment of signs. . . , the greater our power of inter-relating, inter-translating, various phases of thought, and thus of coming closer and closer to the nature of things in the sense of starting-points for the acquisition of fresh knowledge, new truth. (1983 [1903]: 150)

Such intuitions can be developed in the light of more recent studies in language and sign theory to state that semiosis, that is, the situation in which something functions as a sign, cannot subsist without translation, for semiosis is a translative-interpretative process. Translation plays a structural role in the constitution of the sign, both verbal and nonverbal, and hence to the very determination of meaning. The unbreakable connection between signs and translation is obvious when we use the category of replaceability as a necessary condition of signness, when the sign is considered not only as something that replaces something else but also as something that may in turn be replaced (see Ponzio 1981: 15–42). Meaning may be defined as a class of verbal and nonverbal sign materials that may replace each other reciprocally in a process where the interpretant is the actualization of a possible alternative to a less developed interpreted sign. In other words, as Peirce teaches us, a sign subsists thanks to another sign acting as its interpretant, so that meaning is engendered in the sign’s translation into some further sign. Meaning only flourishes in relations of mutual translation and substitu- tion among signs, in a process whereby the original sign is never given autonomously or antecedently with respect to the interpretant sign.

11 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Welby states that “while language itself is a symbolic system its method is mainly pictorial” (1983 [1903]: 38). Through recourse to Peirce’s most famous tripartition of signs into those of symbolicity (or conventionality), indexicality, and iconicity (CP 2.247–2.249; also in Hardwick 1977: 22–25), we could “translate” or “reword” this sentence by saying that if verbal language may be described as a predominantly conventional or symbolic sign system, its method is mainly iconic. This statement gives full recognition to the role of iconicity in the engendering of signifying processes, to the relation of hypothetical similarity in the development of experience. Reference to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus logico-philosophicus is helpful here (see Ponzio 1991: 185–201). Wittgenstein distinguishes between names and propositions. A conventional relation obtains between names or “simple signs” (Welby’s “bare signs”), which are used in propositions, and their objects or meanings. In fact, the rule or code relating the sign to the object to which it refers is arbitrary and cannot be discovered simply by guessing. Sign arbitrariness is also a category proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure (1916) to characterize certain types of signs, verbal signs in the form of isolated words (mots), and nonverbal signals. On the other hand, the relation between whole propositions or “propositional signs,” Welby’s “pictorial symbol” and “representative action,” and what they signify, that is, their interpreted sign, is a relation of similarity, that is, of iconicity. Wittgenstein’s “proposition,” like Welby’s “pictorial symbol” and “representative action,” are signifying units with great semiotic potential. Wittgenstein conceives situational context as a function of the proposition’s representative and signifying capacity. Even though propositions are no doubt conventional-symbolic as well, they are predominantly the expression of the relation of representation, that is, the iconic relation. Similar to Peirce’s “existential graphs,” this relation is of the proportional or structural order. In Wittgenstein’s view, the proposition is a logical picture. To know a proposition, says Wittgenstein in his Tractatus, means to know the situation it represents; furthermore, comprehension of a proposition does not require that its sense be explained, for “a proposition shows its sense” (4.022). Consequently, while “the meanings of simple signs (words) must be explained,” “with propositions . . . we make ourselves understood” (4.026). The importance of Wittgenstein’s picture theory for a better understanding of the dynamics of language production and signifying processes is obvious, and it may be applied to Welby’s own approach to 12 Significs the study of meaning. As a logical picture, representation underlines the role of iconicity in regulating the development of propositions and explains how language, through propositional signs, can escape the pure and simple conventionality of names, which would otherwise render expression altogether repetitive. The issue regards the signifying processes involved in the production and development of thought, given that a logical picture of the facts is the thought and that a thought is a proposition endowed with sense (cf. propositions 3 and 4 of the Tractatus). Thus conceptualized, the “proposition” is analogous to the “utterance” as understood by Mikhail Bakhtin, who thoroughly analyzed this category with reference to the Russian word vyskazyvanie (Bakhtin 1986; Voloshinov 1927, 1929). In the utterance, the iconic relation between the interpretant sign and the interpreted sign pre- dominates, and it is a dialogic relation of “answering comprehension” at lesser or higher degrees of alterity. Accordingly, Bakhtin’s “utterance,” Wittgenstein’s “proposition” or “propositional signs,” Welby’s “pictorial symbol” or “representative action”—all of these are endowed with the capacity for criticism, translation, cognitive innovation, and creativity. For both Welby and Wittgenstein, analysis must not limit itself to a surface description of thought, language, and expression generally, but rather it must account for and explain the processes of production of such phenomena. From this point of view, an ideal connection may also be established with Ferruccio Rossi-Landi (1921–1985), in particular his notions of “common speech,” “linguistic work,” and, in a later phase of his research, “social reproduction.” Welby’s theory of meaning, similarly to Wittgenstein’s, helps to account for the more complex levels of interpretative processes, without referring reductively to the model of information and message exchange. Welby emphasizes the importance of iconic representation in language, the otherness of signifying processes, the role of continual translative processes among signs, and the capacity to transcend systemic boundaries. The dialectical and dialogical nature of signs clearly emerges when they are described in terms of interrelatedness, interactivity, and interdependency, and, furthermore, of interconnection between “unity and disparateness,” as Welby says in the citation above (1983 [1903]: 150). With respect to language, Bakhtin would describe these processes as taking place between “centripetal forces” and “centrifugal forces” operating in language, between processes of “centralization” and “decentralization,” between “monolingualism” and “plurilingualism,” “monologism” and “polylogism,” “identity” and

13 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

“alterity” (Bakhtin 1981, 1986). In such a theoretical framework, unfinalizability, incompleteness, indeterminacy, and vagueness emerge as characteristic traits of semiosis and therefore of knowledge and truth, which are never given once and for all but, on the contrary, are open to continual interrogation and modification, in processes of constant renewal and of adaptation to ever new communicative contexts. 1.5. Geosemiosis, Heliosemiosis, Cosmosemiosis Welby’s evolutionary perspective on meaning, expression, and knowledge is largely the expression of her interest not only in the planetary and biological dimensions of existence but also in the heliological and cosmological dimensions, and in the sciences that study them. As we have already observed, her concept of “sense” is organismic. But she also described “sense in all ‘senses’ of the word” as an appropriate term for the signifying value of sign activity from the lowest levels of perception in the different realms of life, human and nonhuman, to the highest levels of significance in the properly human world. In fact, she associated her definition of the link between sign and sense to an organism’s immediate, spontaneous reaction to environmental stimuli. In the course of evolution through to the more complex living systems, this process leads to the engendering of signs endowed with significance in the human world, with a capacity for implication and reference beyond foreseen and preestablished boundaries. Organic analogies highlight such values as plasticity, adaptability, and transformation, which enhance the expressive potential of signs. In particular, Welby aimed at recovering such qualities in relation to verbal signs where she believed they had been largely lost as a consequence of the bad use of language and logic, and which had been neglected by theories of language. Words and their contexts adapt to each other reciprocally, similarly to the interaction between organisms and their environment during the processes of evolutionary development. Welby takes a critical stand against anthropocentrism and an even stronger one against shortsighted glottocentrism. Looking beyond the planetary, organismic, and biological dimension of existence, her gaze extended to cosmological signifying processes throughout the whole universe. For it was her conviction that the human expressive capacity could only be understood in the light of this greater context of cosmological forces, of which this capacity is a part and to which, in turn, it contributes. To convey the idea of the expansion of signifying

14 Significs forces throughout the universe in processes of evolution, paralleled by an increase in expressive value and psychical development in the human being, Welby identified “three levels of consciousness,” three levels of increasing sign complexity and signifying power, which she denoted with terms borrowed from the language of cosmology and astronomy: “planetary consciousness,” “solar consciousness,” and “cosmic consciousness.” As related to her meaning triad, these terms correspond respectively to “sense,” “meaning,” and “significance” (see Welby 1983, 1985a). The universe develops and is amplified through the generation/interpretation of signs and senses, in a continuously expanding cosmosemiosphere that includes both the geosemiosphere and the heliosemiosphere. In this context, evolutionary development is fostered not only by interpreting so-called objective facts, actual occurrences in the real world, but also by hypothesizing future developments, by envisioning possible or imaginative worlds, and, therefore, by accepting the challenge of the “play of musement” as the various planes of existence, sign activity, and discourse interweave. The expression “play of musement” was introduced by Peirce (CP 6.460–6.465, 6.486) and developed by Sebeok, who adapted it as the title of a 1981 monograph to evidence the importance of play and fantasy, of the imagination, for creativity and innovation. The play of musement involves the capacity for translation, abduction, and simula- tion. Sebeok associates it with John Locke’s “humane understanding” (see also Sebeok 1991: 97; Petrilli 2014: 15.4). In the following excerpt from the archives, entitled “Play and Work” (text dated 11 November 1906, now in Petrilli 2009), Welby, too, evidences the importance of play for the development of human expression and understanding:

Among the many negligences and ignorances due to our calamitous failure to draw out, educe, develop, organise—in short educate—the human possibilities, and thus to understand the supreme importance of expression and its various grades and modes of value; is our neg- ligence to define truly, and our ignorance of the real nature and relations of, Play and Work. We suppose work to be the business of life: play its afterthought, its relaxation: we give, indeed, the name of Play to one of the vilest parodies of Work, that of the Gambler, just as we give the name of sport to the antithesis of the true sporting instinct, the pleasure of killing for its own sake under certain conditions of “fair play.” In this last case, the fact that we stipulate for some fairness of “play,” that we reprobate as “no sportsman” the man who gives the “game” no “chance,” is so far a gain.

15 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

But the blot of enjoying the infliction of death upon an animal reared to give us this “sport” or carefully sought for in its native wilds, is a black one; and so is our degradation into use for idle, random, or even vicious riot and waste, of the word for Nature’s most august form of work; for the cosmical Play of the highest and most complex energies. Now of course it is true that Play is thus Work; again, the working of natural “law” means the play of natural “forces.” But we do need the distinction between the purposive, disciplined, trained toil of the “worker,” his strenuous weaving of “text,” the web, or the delv- ing, carrying, hewing and hauling, &c. which we call “labour,” and the spontaneous and apparently haphazard organic efflorescence of activity which we see in the child’s Play and organise later into orderly Games. (Welby in Petrilli 2009: 496)

1.6. Mother-Sense, Love, and Subjectivity In a series of unpublished manuscripts written at the beginning of the twentieth century, Welby elaborated her original concept of “mother-sense,” subsequently replaced by the term “primal sense” and its variant “primary sense” (Box 28, subject file 24, in Petrilli 2009a: 670–715). In Welby’s view, this concept plays a central role in signifying and interpretative processes, and in the modeling of worldviews. Welby distinguishes between “sense” or “mother-sense,” on the one hand, and “intellect” or “father-reason,” on the other. With this distinction, she intended to indicate a general difference between two predominant modalities in the engendering of sense, which can only be separated by abstraction and which cut across barriers of sexual differences. Mother-sense, or “racial sense,” as Welby also calls it, refers to the generating source of sense, which determines our capacity for criticism and creativity. This kind of sense is orientated by the logic of otherness and as such determines the capacity for knowing in far- reaching and creative ways, through sentiment, perception, intuition, and cognitive leaps. In Peirce’s terms, we might say that it is the idea intuited, before it is possessed or before it possesses us. As the capacity for knowledge, which may also be understood in the Peircean sense of agapic or sympathetic comprehension and recognition, or in the Bakhtinian sense of answering comprehension, mother-sense is specific to the human race. It is “an inheritance common to humanity,” says Welby, without limitations in terms of gender, even though women have, for sociocultural reasons, generally emerged as its main guardians and disseminators.

16 Significs

The implications of the concept of mother-sense (or primal sense) become clearer when it is associated with the concept of “language” or “modeling device,” as theorized by Sebeok (1986, 1991a, 1991b). Like mother-sense, the primary modeling device is a necessary condition in the world of anthroposemiosis for the acquisition and generation of knowledge through the various sign systems of human behavior, both verbal and nonverbal. Verbal semiosis, which arises from and is rooted in this primary modeling device, arises specifically as a response to the need for communication, though it too takes on a secondary modeling function in the course of evolution. Another term proposed for “language” or “modeling device” is “writing,” that is, writing ante litteram, writing that precedes the letter (Petrilli and Ponzio 2005: ch. 9). What then may be described as secondary or derived signifying behavior, including “speech,” or verbal semiosis, and “intellectual work” generally, is generated by primal matter, mother-sense, the human modeling device that is also called language. As a modeling procedure, mother- sense is the condition that makes the generation of infinite new worlds or worldviews possible in potentially unending interpretative processes. The term “intellect” as understood by Welby is related to inferential processes of the predominantly inductive and deductive type, that is, to relations among signs where the logic of identity dominates over alterity. In contrast, “mother-sense” is related to signifying processes that are dominated by alterity. With reference to Peirce’s classification of signs into symbol, index, and icon, mother-sense is related to the iconic dimension of signs. It alludes to the creative and generative forces of sense, which are enhanced by the capacity to associate things that might seem distant from each other but which in reality are attracted to each other. Therefore, it alludes also to the capacity for identifying analogical and homological relations among signs. From the viewpoint of argumentation, “mother- sense” is on the side of logical procedures of the abductive type, regulated by the logic of otherness, creativity, dialogism, freedom, and desire. Fur- thermore, “mother-sense” includes “father-sense” (even if latently), while the converse is not true. For this reason, both mother-sense and intellect need to be recovered in their original condition of dialectic and dialogic interrelation, from both a phylogenetic and an ontogenetic perspective. Logic, as understood by Welby, must be grounded in the broader and generative dimension of sense—the original level, the primal level, mother-sense, racial sense, the “matrix”—in a relation of dialectic interdependency and mutual empowering with the forces of the intellect, father-reason. Indeed, one of the major goals of significs is

17 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs to recover the relation of “answering comprehension” among signs, as Bakhtin would put it, or of “agapic or sympathetic comprehension,” as Peirce would say, which is only possible, in Welby’s view, through the development of logical procedure in terms of the relation between primal sense and rational life. Such a relation is the necessary condition for the full development of critical sense, of the maximum value, meaning, and purport of all experience. Welby’s conception of logic may be associated with Peirce’s, when he describes the great principle of logic in terms of “self-surrender”: “the great principle of logic is self-surrender, which does not mean that the self is to lay low for the sake of an ultimate triumph. It may turn out so; but that must not be the governing purpose” (CP 5.402, note 2). In a letter to Peirce of 21 January 1909, Welby agrees with his observation that logic is the “ethics of the intellect”; this supports our description of what we may call her “ethics of criticism.” Scientific rigor in reasoning, to be worthy of such a description, must rise from agapastic logical procedures, from “primal sense,” and, therefore, from the courage of admitting to the structural necessity—for the evolution of sign, subject, and consciousness—of imprecision, instability, and crisis (see Welby to Peirce 21 January 1909, in Hardwick 1977: 91). The term “mother-sense” was formulated around 1890 and was subsequently replaced with the term “primal sense” and its variant “primary sense.” However, the concept referred to with such expressions was only more thoroughly developed by Welby in later years, around 1904, after her contributions to reflections on two papers delivered by Francis Galton, the founder of eugenics, in May 1904 and February 1905 at the Sociological Society (Welby 1905, 1906c). Welby distinguishes between “mother-sense” and “father-sense.” These are transgender specifications: mother-sense is not exclusive to women just as father-sense is not exclusive to men. Mother-sense denotes the capacity for knowledge through feeling and perception, a characteristic of the human race. Though not exclusive to women, it is usually handed down by women, its main custodians, for historical- social reasons. Father-sense is associated with the intellect and implies the acquisition of knowledge through assertion, argumentation, the capacity for generalization, and experimentation in science and logic. Though commonly associated with men, it is not at all exclusive to them. Mother-sense is double: it may be understood as sapio and scio. Mother- sense knows what life is like; not only: it savors of life, so to speak. Infact it knows and savors of what instead the intellect must work for.

18 Significs

What the intellect must strive to discover, the body already knows. Moreover, for its full development, the intellect must be nourished by mother-sense. Mother-sense subtends the capacity for argumentation and criticism as its foundation and very condition. Welby does not establish a net separation between the sexes on the basis of the concept of sense. “Motherhood,” “mother-sense,” should not be confused with “female” or “feminine,” with “woman.” Motherhood does not necessarily imply pre-mental and physiological maternity, though these are among its possible expressions. On the contrary, understood as the capacity for sense, significance, and critique, the concept of motherhood is a priori with respect to sexual identity, indicating a condition that potentially invests both sexes and, indeed, implies the masculine in a way that “fatherhood” does not involve the feminine. In the light of evolutionary theories prevailing at the time—of which she does not fail to be critical—Welby rereads the Bible story placing woman at the centre of creation. In fact, she represents the power of reproduction and the principle of continuity and, as such, best sym- bolizes the human race. Mother-sense finds maximum expression in the woman, without being exclusive to her. Both the masculine, intellect, and the feminine, sense (mother-sense), from which the intellect derives, coexist in each individual, at least potentially. The human being, whether male or female, as a human being cannot be denied the maternal element, “mother-sense”. In a paper entitled “Motherhood of Man,” Welby maintains that the woman in the mother is passive and anabolic, while the fe-male in her is katabolic, an active source of nourishment. As a mother, the woman incorporates man, and the male and female components in her are actively interrelated. “Man is the whole term; it means human.” Mother-sense is both analytical and synthetic, it is endowed with the capacity for cognitive development in both quantitative and qualitative terms, which entails the capacity to change attitude and perspective, to accomplish cognitive leaps. “Calculation gives useful results but without sense and judgment of quality it can only give the description of the fact.” In such a framework, the male and female principia are not considered as divided and separate elements but, on the contrary, are recovered in their original dialectic interrelationship. Both have potential for development in a spiral sense characterized by openness and continuity, rather than by circularity and uncreative repetition. Furthermore, sense is defined by Welby as “instinctively religious,” where “religious” is understood as “feeling awareness of the solar

19 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs relation.” Her reference is to a universal sense of dependence, particu- larly developed in the woman, upon something greater, a universal tendency toward a vaster world, a more elevated world, a world made of other origins and other relations. Mother-sense implies a sense of the transcendent, of the properly human beyond limitations of the official der.or Thus described, sense is clearly orientated by the logic of otherness. As Welby specifies in her papers, mother-sense does not imply anthropomorphism, but far more vastly organomorphism on the one hand and cosmomorphism on the other. The implications of the concept of mother-sense (or “primal sense,” as Welby subsequently preferred) emerge clearly in the light of the concept of “language” or “modeling device,” theorized by Thomas A. Sebeok (1986, 1991a, 1991b). Like mother-sense, language understood as modeling (and not as communication) is a condition for the acquisition of knowledge through different sign systems, verbal and nonverbal, constitutive of human behavior, all of which in turn are grafted onto language thus described. As anticipated above, another term proposed for “language” or “modeling” is “writing,” that is, writing ante litteram, writing that precedes the letter (Petrilli and Ponzio 2005: ch. 9). Second- ary or derived signifying behavior, including “speech” and intellectual work generally, is engendered by primal matter, as its possible expressions or manifestations, as possible worldviews. To repeat then, mother-sense or modeling is the condition for the generation of infinite, new worlds in a potentially unending variety of possible articulations and signifying processes. As such, it is grounded in the logic of otherness and creativity. In a letter of 2 October 1907 to Welby, Ferdinand C. S. Schiller suggests that she replace “mother-sense” with “common sense” to avoid oversimplified readings of her position. He feared that the expression “mother-sense” could be mistakenly interpreted as intending to exclude the male sex. In Schiller’s own words:

But why should you not identify your Mother-sense with Common- sense and call it (mainly) that? It is what at bottom you mean—the wisdom of the “tout le monde” which is wiser than the sages, which pervades Society and its history and is rarely formulated and never adequately expressed in set logical terms. It is truly “common” in that it can be fathered upon no one, and in that it is at the basis of our “common” life in society; it is also “mother,” in that the logical acumen grows out of it. I am also willing to believe that women in general, when one gets beneath the surface of their frivolities and follies have retained a closer contact with this force and that e.g. the “maternal

20 Significs

instinct” will (despite all appearances to the contrary) triumph over “race-suicide” temptations, if only women are given a free hand in the regulation of things. So you would have ample reason for calling this “common-sense” a “Mother-sense,” but the more you emphasised the former phrase the more intelligible you would become to the mere male! (Schiller to Welby 2 October 1907, now in Petrilli 2009a: 632)

In any case, Schiller misunderstands Welby when he believes he is stating something different from her own position and observes that to analyze intuition is not so much to deny logic as to reformulate it. As much as “mother-sense” coincides with “common sense,” to the point that the statement seems a truism, Welby chose to avoid the term “common” because of its negative and oversimplifying associations. However, she did agree that the term “mother” risked being interpreted reductively, as when it is identified, for example, with mere organic or biological sense. On the contrary, “mother-sense” or “primal sense” refers to primal signifying material, primordial and presexual, ante- cedent to division among the sexes, where the female and the male principia are united. With the concept of “primal sense,” Welby invites us to reflect on the maternal component present in human beings generally, matrix and condition of the logical capacity which is derivative and which primal sense engenders. In Welby’s own words from a text of 30 June 1908:

My own transition (as a matter of precaution) from “mother” to “primal” (with, as variant, “primary”) Sense, is an illustration of the difficulties created by our neglect of Significs. For it ought to be understood at once, that in such a context as mine I cannot possibly mean by Mother-sense, mainly, still less only, the shrewd or practical insight of the typical “mother” in the actual or organic sense. Naturally I mean a primordial, inceptive, inborn, need-fertilised, danger-prompted, interest-stimulated, Sense. “Mother” is indeed or ought to be, the wide and general, “Father” the specialised, term. The pre-sexual organism was the maternal, and included the paternal element. We already recognise this in our philosophical and scientific use of the term Matrix. We never, in this connection, use the term Patrix; and we are quite right. The “mother” is enabled by stimulus to conceive, develop, nourish new life. (Welby 1908, in Petrilli 2009a: 710)

Racial sense, primal sense, or mother-sense (Welby also proposes the term “matrical” sense, from matrix) is a necessary condition for the development of the human race, both on the ontological level and the phylogenetic, and subsequently for the historical practices of

21 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs socialization. In an unpublished contribution to the debate on Galton’s eugenics, which “studies the influences that improve and develop to a maximum the innate qualities of the human race,” read on 16 May 1904 at a meeting organized by the Sociological Society, Welby reflects upon a woman’s responsibilities in the social sphere as a consequence of the racial sense she is endowed with and is held to transmit to future generations. In this paper, “racial sense” or “racial motherhood,” evoked through a series of stereotypes such as “intuition,” “judgment,” “wisdom,” is described as a form of sense common to men and women, “a heritage common to humanity,” though mainly handed down from a historical-social perspective to oncoming generations by the woman through the social practices she is called to carry out daily—for example, as mother and wife, caring and nurturing, caring for one’s offspring and the future generations they represent. Such practices are grounded in the logic of giving and responsiveness to the other. Welby sets herself the task of illustrating “the specialized mental activities of women as distinguished from those of men.” However, “mother-sense” or “racial sense,” whose rudimental forms are trace- able in what Welby calls “in-sense” or “pre-sense,” is largely obstacled by artificial social conditions characteristic of our civilization: so the mother figure often ends up being somehow overpowered by the vio- lence of her sons. All the same, given that in historical-social terms it is especially the woman who is responsive to racial sense, the sense of racial motherhood, Welby evidences the responsibility of women, who should be committed to recovering ancient wisdom and with it the capacity for critique and creativity. In addition to indicating the social practices and functions carried out by women daily (orientated by the logic of self-giving, by responsiveness to the other, by care for the other), Welby also underlines the fundamental role they carry out in the acquisition of verbal language and consequently in sign and social activity generally. Paradoxically, however, womankind is customarily inhibited by public roles. According to Welby this is the cause in the history of the human race of continuous deviations in social development, of loss of the sense of discernment and critique. The latter is the most serious consequence of all given that it induces one to be satisfied with the world as-it-is. On the contrary, what is needed in pursuit of the end of developing and perfecting the human race is a condition of eternal dissatisfaction. In other words, according to Welby, men and women should not be satisfied with things as they are, becausedissatisf action, instead, is the necessary condition for change.

22 Significs

With the concept of mother-sense, racial motherhood, Welby expresses the need to recover the creative and critical capacity of the human intellect, the propensity for transformation, interpretation, translation, prediction, innovation, etc. Mother-sense underlines the need for developing critical social consciousness beyond the conven- tions of any order whatsoever such as the social, moral, and religious for the sake of future generations. As she states in her undated reply to Schiller’s letter of 2 October 1907:

(A) Well, the mother-sense never “sets its heart” on any “pet hypothesis”: if it had done this in the original days of its reign, you and I would never have been here. The race would have been snuffed out. No: it takes one hypothesis after the other, treating the one it “cares” for with a more uncompromising scrutiny and severity than the others. The very life of its owner and her children once hung upon this instinct of suspicion and of test. It is sheer mother-sense—instinct of intellectual danger—which in you, as in Dewey, Peirce and James, calls out the pragmatic reaction! It is the direct descendent of the keen awareness of the signs of primitive danger to the babes of the pair or the tribe, left in relatively weak hands. But let the pragmatists beware of exchanging one fallacy or one overworked method for another perhaps its opposite. (B) Yes, all half-words (and some spuriously used whole ones) are handicaps. They settle your involuntary dualisms from the first. As to the “majority of women,” the dominant Man with his imperious intellect has for uncounted ages stamped down their original gift: all their activities beyond the nursery (and, alas, there also now) are masculinised: language, originally the woman’s as custodian of the camp, creator of its industries and first trainer of the next generation, is now wholly “male”: the whole social order is laid down, prescribed for the woman on masculine lines only. Who ever, for instance, thought of consulting her about changes in marriage law? Well, it would after all have been useless: you have crushed out all but her illogical prejudices and her emotional insistencies, which urge her to set her heart on pet hypotheses or to cling to doctrinal mummies as though they were living. These are really the last refuge of a balked prerogative of mind. Frivolities and follies! What else is left to one for whom “strong- minded” has become an epithet of dislike and contempt? And when the suppressed energies of the race do, in spite of all, “spurt up” in us women, what can their fruit be, as things are, but abortive and defective? The present mode of “College” or “technical” training can at best but make the woman a second- or third-rate Man: she further loses thereby what little she has of the racial gifts—her natural and complementary

23 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

powers of interpretation and problem-solution, of suggestion and correction. Again look at her inventive complexities, e.g. of weaving. Woman was of course the original weaver. Look at her logic and mathematics of the knitting-pin, the hook, the shuttle, the needle. Look at old lace and embroidery. I myself have “invented” elaborate figures produced by a mere hook, and “stitches” by a mere needle. No man has ever, apparently, seen the significance of woman’s ingenuities here and applied them to his inventions, or in his training of students. Practically only the sailor and the fisherman understand even knot- and net-work. That the Mother-sense is “common” seems to me a truism. Of course it is common. Only, the word common is used in several senses. In one it means despicable and is coupled with “unclean”. On another side, Loeb’s tropisms are common! And my Originating, Birth-giving, Reproductive, Interpretative—my Mother-sense, is common to the whole range of life and extends beyond it and beneath it. (Welby 1907, in Petrilli 2009a: 634)

In a paper dated 15 April 1907, “Primal Sense and Significs” (originally entitled “Mother-Sense and Significs,” now in Petrilli 2009a: 704–706), mother-sense, primal sense, or racial sense is described as the generating source of sense and meaning; of the interpretative and inventive capacity, the capacity of solving problems, of discerning between the multiple meanings of signs and human life; and ultimately of the capacity for critique. Welby does not refuse dominant logic, the established symbolic order, cognitive methods, whose incalculable value she recognizes, but in the spirit of significs she encourages critical consciousness. Welby appeals for constructive criticism with respect to our use of logic itself, of cognitive instruments and interpretative models. In “Primal Sense and Significs,” “primal sense” is described as the “mother of senses”; it indicates a comprehensive and homoge- neous faculty, a psychic-physical power of response and adjustment, an organic form of knowledge necessary to the survival of the human race in history. To repeat then, mother-sense is the generating source of the rationalizing intellect and, therefore, of the human capacity for critique, creativity, and construction. The task of significs is

not only to criticise, but also to reason out and construct from the données of Primal Sense, its warnings, its insights and farsights, its revelations, its swift readings of worth, its penetrative recognition of reality. It is just here, then, that the place and work of Significs is to be found, as the necessary link—rather, the medium of interpretative communication—between the constant “givings” of Mother-sense

24 Significs

and the constant “constructions” (in all senses) of the intellect. (Welby 1907, in Petrilli 2009a: 704)

Under certain aspects, Peirce and Welby adopt approaches to the problem of mind and subjectivity that, though elaborated independently of each other, are similar. This emerges, for example, from their observations on the so-called “obscure part” of the mind, or on behavior governed by intuition, sense, “mother-wit”—the expression is Peirce’s. Consider the following excerpt from his “Logic and Spiritualism” (CP 6.557–6.587) in the light of Welby’s work:

Swarming facts positively leave no doubt that vivid consciousness, subject to attention and control, embraces at any one moment a mere scrap of our psychical activity. Without attempting accuracy of statement demanding long explanations, and irrelevant to present purposes, three propositions may be laid down. (1) The obscure part of the mind is the principal part. (2) It acts with far more unerring accuracy than the rest. (3) It is almost infinitely more delicate in its sensibilities. Man’s fully conscious inferences have no quantitative delicacy, except where they repose on arithmetic and measurement, which are mechanical processes; and they are almost as likely as not to be downright blunders. But unconscious or semi-conscious irreflective judgments of mother-wit, like instinctive inferences of brutes, answer questions of “how much” with curious accuracy; and are seldom totally mistaken. (CP 6.569)

Recovery of the connection between the rational dimension of the intellect and primal sense is a sure way to enhance the value, meaning, and import of all experience. In fact, one of the main tasks assigned to significs by Welby is that of recovering the relation of mutual interpret- ability between the constant données of mother-sense on the one hand and the constant constructions of the intellect on the other. Primal sense provides us with the material of “immediate awareness, conscious and interpretative”; from an evolutionary viewpoint, it represents “a further stage in value, of the animal’s instinct.” Therefore primal sense is together “primordial and universal” and is present at all stages of human development in varying degrees (Welby 1985d: ccxxxviii); as such, it is the condition for the development of significance. Primal sense concerns the real insofar as it is part of all human practices and the ideal insofar as it is the condition itself of the human person’s aspiration toward ongoing perfection and progress (on the concept of wit and ingenuity in Peirce and in Welby, see Colapietro 2013a, b).

25 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

By reconnecting primal sense and rational behavior, it is possible to recover the sense of symbolic pertinence active in the child, whose propensity for investigation is described by Welby as a cognitive model for the adult. Critical work is inevitably mediated by language, here understood in the strict sense of verbal language. Welby’s critique of language is central to significs. Language and consciousness are inseparable and together are grounded in primal sense. Welby underlines the importance of developing a “critical linguistic consciousness” and of using language in such a way as to enhance the exquisitely human capacity for “answering comprehension,” that is, “dialogical and critical comprehension,” to say it with Mikhail Bakhtin. Welby responds to Peirce’s observation that logic is the “ethics of the intellect” with her conception of primal sense as the way to the ethical dimension beyond the strictly epistemological. On this aspect, of some interest are Welby’s considerations in a letter to Peirce of 21 January 1909 in which she reflects once again on her preference for the term “significs,” rather than “semeiotic,” as the name for her theory of sign and meaning:

Of course I am fully aware that Semeiotic may be considered the scientific and philosophic form of that study which I hope may become generally known as Significs. Though I don’t think you need despair of the acceptance of your own more abstract, logically abstruse, philosophically profound conception of Semeiotic. Of course I assent to your definition of a logical inference, and agree that Logic is in fact an application of orality in the largest and highest sense of the word. That is entirely consonant with the witness of Primal Sense. Alas, there is no word (except religion) more danger- ously taken in vain than morality. (Hardwick 1977: 91)

One of the main goals of the project of significs is to fully recover the connection between logic and primal sense, the matrix of sense, in a relation of reciprocal interdependency and enhancement. This implies recovering common sense in all its signifying valency from the instinctive-biological level to the level of significance. By recovering the relation between logic and sense and between sense and value, significs furthers the quest for the properly human and theorizes the possibility of extending logic beyond its strictly gnoseological boundaries. Significs aims to reconnect logic to bio-logic on the one hand and to the ethical and aesthetic spheres of signifying processes on the other, wherewith it prefigures what today we propose to call the “semioethic” turn in studies on sign and meaning (see Petrilli 2014b). 26 Significs

In Welby’s view, similar to that of Peirce, the human being is a community of parts that are distinct but not separate. Far from excluding each other, these parts, or selves, are reciprocally dependent on each other; in other words, they are founded on the logic of dialogic otherness and of non-indifference among differences. This excludes the possibility of undifferentiated confusion among the parts, of flattening out the differences—otherness—down to the level of the monologic self. Also, as says Welby, to confound is to sacrifice distinction. In other words, interrelation among the parts does not mean the sacrifice of uniqueness, and uniqueness does not call for sacrificing the possibility of dialogical interrelation, of communication. As says Welby (see her paper “I and Self,” dated June 1907, now in Petrilli 2009a: 647–648), the I or “Ident” (another neologism introduced in her unpublished manuscripts) represents an excess with respect to the sum of its parts. The I is not the “individual” considered as separate from the other, but rather it indicates that which is “unique.” Welby’s conception of “uniqueness”—which has no connection with the monadic separatism of Stirner’s conception of the unique and the singular—may be related to what Emmanuel Levinas thematizes as “nonrelative otherness” or “absolute otherness.” Love is directed to the concrete, and not to abstractions; it is directed toward persons, toward one’s neighbor, not necessarily in a spatial sense, locally, but in the sense of affinity, a person “we live near . . . in life and feeling.” Love is a driving force in logical procedures dominated by abduction, iconicity, and creativity. In accord with Peirce’s interpretation of St. John, the development of mind, understood in an extended sense, occurs largely through the power of love understood as orientation toward the absolute other, as care for the other. As Peirce says in his 1892 essay entitled “The Law of Mind,” the type of evolution foreseen by synechism, the principle of continuity, is evolution through the agency of love, whose prime characteristic consists in recognizing the germs of loveliness in the hateful and making the latter lovely (CP 6.287–6.289). Peirce polemically contrasts the “Gospel of Christ,” according to which progress is achieved through a relation of sympathy among neighbors, with the “Gospel of greed,” which reflects the dominant ideology of his day and encourages the individual to assert one’s own rights and interests, one’s own individuality or egotistic identity, over the other (CP 6.294). A parallel may be drawn between Peirce’s critique of the supremacy of the individual and Welby’s as she analyzes the

27 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs dynamics between I and self, where she criticizes the self’s tendency to transform “selfness” into “selfishness” and “selfism.” According to Peirce, Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859), with his concepts of natural selection, survival of the fittest, struggle for existence, is a significant example of the translation of such a conception of the individual from political economy to the sciences of life, from economic development to the development of the living organism. Peirce himself chose the agapastic theory of evolution, and in fact he considered his own strong attraction to this doctrine as possible proof of its validity (CP 6.295). Recalling Henry James, Peirce distinguishes between self-love, which is directed at another insofar as that other is identical to self, and creative love, which is directed at what is completely different, even “hostile and negative” with respect to oneself; this latter type of love is directed at the other insofar as this other is absolutely other, as Levinas would say. On this basis, one might propose a typology of love measured in terms of otherness on a scale that moves from high degrees of identity to high degrees of alterity. But truly creative love, as both Welby and Peirce argue, is love regulated by the logic of otherness, love for the other, directed to the other insofar as that other is absolutely other. The logic of otherness is an agapastic logic. And absolute, nonrelative otherness, iconicity, love, dialogism, and abduction together constitute the generative nucleus of signs and senses as they translate across worlds that are real, possible, or only imaginary. 1.7. Interpretative Itineraries in the Relation between Religion, Philosophy, and Science All that part of Victoria Welby’s research that led into her general theory of meaning and interpretation—that which she named “significs” and which matured into her two monographs What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance (1903) and Significs and Language: The Articulate Form of Our Expressive and Interpretative Resources (1911)—had its starting point in her encounter with the Sacred Scriptures. As demonstrated by the volume Links and Clues (1881), a collection of her thoughts on the Holy Scriptures, Welby’s early work of the 1880s—with her quest for an updated interpretation of Christian doctrine and its critical reinterpretation beyond conventional schemes; with her critique of dogmatism, orthodoxy, universalism; and with her related concern for pedagogical matters—was already focused on the relation between the practices of

28 Significs signification and interpretation, of signifying and understanding. This particular itinerary in her research was at the basis of her future work on the problems of sign, meaning, and interpretation. Welby was con- vinced that conceptual problems relating to exegesis were largely due to their inadequate formulation, caused by a general unawareness of the polysemic nature of words, that is, of their essential ambiguity, as well as by the tendency to isolate religious discourse from dialogue with more advanced trends in knowledge and from progress in science—a tendency which impeded renewal and regeneration. Ignorance, even denial of the ambiguous nature of meaning, produces monological interpretative practices. These are imposed on the text, which means subjecting it to the tyranny of dogma and orthodoxy. Instead, the ambiguity of words and expressions, that is, their signifying or semantic plasticity, as Welby says, enhances their potential for expression and understanding. Welby theorizes dialogic plurilingualism and changeability in signifying value in both verbal signs and nonverbal signs. As the condition for the development of signifying and interpretative practices, for progress in knowledge and understanding, she postulates the need to develop a good “linguistic conscience,” the power of critical discernment, the ability to avoid “linguistic traps” and to recognize, instead, the signifying multiplicity of language and expression. In What Is Meaning?, she describes what we may call the “diagnostic” task of significs as follows:

It is unfortunate that custom decrees the limitation of the term diagnosis to the pathological field. It would be difficult to find a better one for that power of “knowing through,” which a training in Signif- ics would carry. We must be brought up to take for granted that we are diagnosts, that we are to cultivate to the utmost the power to see real distinctions and to read the signs, however faint, which reveal sense and meaning. Diagnostic may be called the typical process of Significs as Translation is its typical form; and the combination of these must make for the detection of lurking confusion or specious assertion in directions where the discipline of formal logic would help less directly and simply. But this form of study, so far from superseding or displacing or even distracting attention from the disciplines already recognised, would rather render them more effectual because more vitally significant: more obviously related to ordinary experience and interests. It would also bring out the moral value of a greater respect both for the traditions and the future of language, and would, in fact, while preparing the ground for an expansion of the limits of articulate expression as yet scarcely imagined, tend to

29 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

create a linguistic conscience which must beneficially react upon thought; thus bringing about gradually and naturally a spontaneous consensus in definition, which shall provide in orderly freedom for all contingencies of growing need and widening knowledge. (Welby 1983 [1903]: 51–52)

Welby invented the expression “significs” to name her theory of sign and meaning; more specifically, significs is a philosophy of significance, of translation and interpretation (Welby 1983 [1903]: 161). In Links and Clues, she had already identified four issues essential to the question of interpretation: the problem of literal meaning; the risk of homologating sense; the importance of context and dialectics as a condition for unity; and the essential role of contradiction and complementarity among the different levels of sense in the configuration of a thought system (see Welby 1881: 31–36). Welby thematized the polysemy and plasticity of meaning and critiqued the concept of “plain common sense meaning,” that is, the tendency to reduce meaning to “plain and obvious meaning,” to what she also calls “mythical meaning.” In other writings, the expression “common sense” is also thematized in positive terms by Welby as the a priori of language, but this is another concept. When, instead, she writes of “plain common sense meaning,” she understands the expression in a negative sense as designating the tendency toward signifying reductionism. She believed it was necessary to free the text, including the Sacred Scriptures, from the prejudice of interpretation that reduces the text to a single meaning. She rejected the fallacy that the meaning of a text is fixed and static, that a text can be identified with a single, absolute, definitive reading considered valid for all times; her critique of the “plain meaning” fallacy is a leitmotif in all her research. As she says in her book of 1903, “For one thing meaning is not, and that is ‘plain’ in the sense of being the same at all times, in all places, and to all” (1983 [1903]: 143). A single text can generate different readings, requiring experimentation in alternative meanings and progress in discernment. At the same time, however, this does not imply that textual meaning is arbitrarily determined by subsequent interpretations superimposed upon the interpreted text by the interpreting text; from this point of view, Welby contributes to evidencing what in our terminology is the “signifying” or “semiotic materiality” of the text, that is, its otherness with respect to any given interpretation (Petrilli 2010a: ch. 5). In a paragraph of Links and Clues entitled “The Living Word,” for example, Welby criticizes the

30 Significs tendency to interpret parables according to “what our natural hearts . . . would mean if we had written them” (Welby 1881: 54). Her analysis of the construction of textual sense in terms of the dialectic between the text’s meaning before a given interpretation (i.e., its “semiotic otherness”), on the one hand, and the meaning generated through new and different interpretative processes operating upon that text, on the other hand, connects her reflections to current debate on the question of “the limits of interpretation”—as the title of a book by Umberto Eco (1990) recites. The need to interpret and update religious discourse in relation to all other spheres of human life and research, and therefore in relation to progress in science and philosophy is an important focus in Welby’s reflections. By contrast with the tendency toward ideologi- cal monism, unconditional and unquestioning acceptance of dogma and received truths, she conceived religion as a system of ideas that interacts dialogically with other systems of ideas in a continuously changing world. Insistence on the need for a critical reinterpretation of religious discourse, and therefore on the problem of dogma as imposed by the Church—in the Anglican Church, ecclesiastical and state authority coincided—is a constant in her letter exchanges with her numerous correspondents (see Welby to Rev. F. G. M. Powell 1885–1886, in Cust 1929: 134; Welby to Dr. J. W. Farquhar 1888–1890, in Cust 1929: 218). Welby gave expression to her critical thinking in her correspondence with many personalities of the time. A significant part of this corpus of materials has been collected in two volumes: Echoes of Larger Life: A Selection from the Early Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby, which covers the years from 1879 to 1891, and Other Dimensions: A Selection from the Later Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby, which covers the years from 1898 to 1911; both were edited by her daughter Mrs. Henry Cust, and they were published posthumously in 1929 and 1931, respectively. Links and Clues is a frequent object of discussion in the first collection of letters. Welby promoted critical reinterpretation of the Holy Scriptures, a task and a challenge she discussed in exchanges between the years 1879 and 1882 with the anti-Christian theist Charles Voysey: You say that you “do not envy me the task” (1) of reversing the prevailing interpretations of the New Testament and (2) of reconciling the spirit and meaning of the whole with our reason and conscience. But if we both live, I pray that I may yet see you helping not merely

31 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

to reverse but rather to raise and expand the prevailing interpretations. . . . That it is hard to rise above, or to purify and deepen, popular or surface notions of truth is of course a truism; it is surely hard even for you also to enforce that truth which you do not see on those whose level of thought and life is one of content with the visible, the present, the easy. . . . The condition of receiving progressive, ever-enlarging perceptions of truth is that of intellectual and moral patience, not with falsehood or with evil, but with incompleteness; a faithful waiting for the fulness of time. . . . Remember that the raising, the expanding (what you call reversing and in a certain sense you are right) of thought is no less necessary, with advancing light, in natural things than in spiritual. (Welby to Charles Voysey, in Cust 1929: 39–40)

Welby develops such issues in an early essay of 1888 entitled “Truth- fulness in Science and Religion,” where she analyzes the concept of “truthfulness” auspicating a relation of collaboration between science and religion. In fact, she believes that neither science nor religion can advance separately from each other. This is so (obviously) not because the two spheres can in some way identify with each other, nor because they share common objects of research or common research methods. Rather, it is precisely because of their mutual diversity, their mutual alterity that they require each other. Religion without science becomes dogma, science without religion becomes unhuman. This is Welby’s convinction. The relationship uniting science and religion is one of interpretative extension and mutual enrichment (see Welby 1888: 103–104). Welby wrote at a time of cultural revolution, the “age of science and criticism,” largely brought about by the theory of evolution and the consequent overturning of our conception of the human being and of the living world at large (see Cust 1929: 202–207). She criticized social institutions in general, which she accused of willfully maintaining a condition of widespread ignorance relative to emerging new truths by resisting progress in science, art, philosophical thought, and history. Instead, as emerges from the title of her 1881 volume, Welby evidenced the need to work through “links and clues” in the relation between different fields of knowledge and research, in pursuit of the end of regenerating all forms of discourse, including religious. She denounced the responsibility of ecclesiastical authority for obscuring scientific knowledge and understanding and proposed a rereading of Christian values in a critical and innovative framework. As she says in a letter to Reverend W. H. Simcox:

I only wish I had more letters like yours! The Church’s spokesmen so often seem to put her in a false position. She is even sometimes

32 Significs

made to represent blind and obstinate resistance to that Will which has given us and is giving us, through science and criticism, such wonderfully increasing light on the method, spirit and aim of her teaching, as herself a living, breathing, growing “organism” in the fullest sense of the word. The question must always be, what attitude would the Apostles, Prophets and Fathers take now? They are ever pioneers and leaders—the first to absorb, assimilate and interpret fact. We diligently scrutinise what they said in those days. But that, except in its eternal nucleus, is just what they would be the first to transcend now, with the light of a fresh and widening glory—not destroying, but fulfilling the word of old. We know now what we never knew before, that, beyond all we see as “fixed” or “stationary,” there is Motion—in every molecule as in every solar-system. Thus we see that all our thought of the spiritual has been riddled through as by dry-rot, with a world of metaphor which does not square with the world of God’s creation, and therefore cannot truly represent His will for us. (Welby to W. H. Simcox, in Cust 1929: 202) Welby denounced the mechanisms of “alienation” and “estrange- ment” set in motion against the “pioneer” and “revolutionary mind” (see Welby to R. H. Hutton 1886–1888, in Cust 1929: 203–204). She praised the courage of knowing, even if eccentric and imperfect, because of its investigative orientation toward new horizons. She criticized censorship as practiced by the official organs of the Church—by the clergy and the representatives of ecclesiastic institutions—and their shortsighted tendency to assert orthodoxy, dogma, and conventional canons of non-illuminated thought, through which “rebel” thinkers were silenced. Indeed, she even believed that appropriate solutions to specific theological and doctrinal problems would only ever be reached through ongoing dialogue with avant-garde trends in all fields of research. Welby also discussed such issues in her correspondence with Mary Everest Boole (wife of the famous mathematician George Boole and author of the volumes Logic Taught by Love, Symbolic Methods of Study, and The Forging of Passion into Power; she was described as the precursor of psychoanalysis, see Cust 1929: 86, note 1). Boole was interested in science and, like Welby, challenged interference from ecclesiastic authorities (Welby’s friend and correspondent Frederick Pollock, a jurist, spoke critically of “ecclesiasticism”). Boole joined Welby in the appeal for mutual understanding, fusion of interests, criticism of prejudice, and reflection at a community level in response to the monologic dogmatism of Christianity at large, with special reference to the official Anglican Church (see their exchanges during the years 1882–1885, in Cust 1929: 86–87, 90).

33 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs

Welby maintained the need to free the Sacred Scriptures from the misunderstandings, distortions and prejudices to which they have been subjected in the course of history, and to establish live analogical relations with the present in all its aspects, thereby allowing these texts to breathe more extensively with new life. The interpretative potential of the Bible was yet to be explored and updated in order to enhance its sense, meaning and significance. On a methodological level, Welby selected scientific reasoning as her model, therefore the capacity to exceed the limits of vision through the power of inference of the abductive order. Evoking her brief essay of 1886 entitled “Light,” in a letter from the years 1886–1888 to Lynn Linton (author of The Autobiography of Christopher Kirkland), Welby thematizes the relation between light and knowledge as opposed to mystification and spiritualism in the name of faith. Her critique of mysticism beginning from religious discourse is taken up and developed by Christo Lombaard, from the University of South Africa, in an essay of 2013 entitled “Mysticism and Mind in Welby’s Significs,” in which he maintains that Welby can be seen as “a forerunner of our times,” “an alternative figure: a proponent of seeking with integrity to find fruitful interrelations between the spheres of religion and science; or: between spirituality and nature” (Lombaard 2013: 375). But let us read a passage, among the many on the topic, directly from Welby:

I also dread mysticism and spiritualism, for I believe that “mystery,” in the sense of what “mystifies” and baffles—of what seems a mere inscrutable puzzle to us—is exactly what God is revealed as Light in order to make clear. God being Light, does it not follow that every intelligible question implies an intelligible answer, and that we are intended not to rest content until we find it? If we were incapable of receiving an answer, we should be incapable of conceiving the corresponding question. Each seeking “why?” is put into our hearts by the very Light whereby we are at least to learn the answer. Our measure of what Light can do for us, morally, intellectually, spiritually, is too often poor and contracted; and thus the advancing growth of men’s awakening faculties, the increasing area of scientific, historical and general knowledge, tends to deprive us of what little light we have; we tremble and we dare not look God’s own facts in the face; we shiver in a darkness miscalled faith. Yet even what we are not able yet to see we may sometimes, if we will use God’s gifts, infer. Uranus and Neptune were discovered not directly but by inference. Whole worlds of truth are surely hidden in the depths of the Living Word, ready for the patient and faithful inquirer, who uses fearlessly the instruments which God Himself has given him, and as Light shall enable him to apply. (Welby to L. Linton, in Cust 1929: 175)

34 Significs

References to light and to the relation between light and life, light and love, light and truth, knowledge and justice abound in Welby’s writings. Indeed, from this point of view her philosophy can be described as a “philosophy of light,” or to use her own categories, a “solar philosophy” (see below). In a section of Links and Clues entitled “The Light of Love,” Welby develops what she considered as one of the most significant of all religious analogies, the metaphor of God as light: the presence of God coincides with the kingdom of light and of love. Therefore, any- thing that is not supported by such values belongs to the kingdom of darkness and thus of sin, evil, anger, wrath, scorn, indignation, hatred, malice, curse, bitterness, and destruction. Where there is a situation of incompatibility with light, the problem is not with light, that is, with God, but with whomever can stand it no longer, as with a man who has an eye inflammation and consequently is banished from the sunlight by his own illness. Welby closely references the Sacred Scriptures for her considerations on the metaphor of God as light, love, goodness, and life in various sections of Links and Clues (now in Petrilli 2009a: 81–98). At this point it is perhaps in place to specify that Welby’s conception is not dualistic, made of theses and antitheses, of dual oppositions, and even less so is it Manichean. Her conception is not even well defined as dialectic if we invest dialectics with the meaning of a process destined to a synthesis of some sort. All Welby’s arguments on thinking, signifying, speaking, interpreting, translating, and on metaphorizing testify to how open her thought is to plurivocality, dialogism, and–we could even say with a Bakhtinian term—to polyphony. Simplifying, we could claim that Welby would accept the adage, and we are sure with a smile, which recites that “the world is beautiful because it is varied.” An anthology of writings by Welby on religious issues and the relation to language, philosophy, and science is now available in the volume Signifying and Understanding (see Petrilli 2009a, in particular ch. 1 and 2). As emerges from these texts, Welby’s early work is closely connected to her later work on meaning, knowledge, and understanding, dealt with in more strictly linguistic and philosophical terms beyond the religious and theological. As evidenced above and specifically in Links and Clues, Welby thematizes the link between light and shade, a metaphor for the relation between truth and understanding, on the one hand, and fallacy, false consciousness, and mystification, on the other. The action of metaphor is a constant in her writing as she makes use of different discourse genres, including parables, short stories, brief essays, and dialogue. Welby criticizes the tendency to 35 Victoria Welby and the Science of Signs raise any one conception to the status of general truth, as opposed to recognizing its partiality. Light is knowledge and truth, and truth in its unity is polyhedral and plurivocal—it “involves the diversity and thus apparent contradiction of converging paths to it” (1881: 245). As she underlined in her later writings, this multiform conception of truth, which is related to her critique of the centripetal forces of the self, of the logic of identity, is supported by findings in the domains of scientific knowledge. Welby continues addressing similar issues in her brief essays of 1886 entitled “Light” and “Light and Its Meaning” and in the parable “The Evolution of Heliology” (in Welby 1897; now in Petrilli 2009a). She directed her critique indiscriminately at all forms of obscurantism, with particular reference to the official arbiters of “truth,” “religious” power, and its abuse in the Christian environment. Her critical attitude was often considered unacceptable—not only because institutional interpretative authority was questioned but also because she was a woman, and furthermore because of her social standing (among the highest ranks of the English nobility). Welby uses the image “God is Light” to criticize authoritarianism, the imposition of dogma, and institutionalized knowledge. These lead to ignorance and obscurity regarding truth and the conditions that make truth possible—plurivocality, dialogism, critique. Welby evidenced the hypothetical and dynamical character of truth, knowledge, and belief, qualities that must characterize the very method of reasoning employed in the search for truth. The metaphor of light as truth and knowledge tells of the possibility of knowing beyond knowledge, that is, knowledge of the institutional, official, conventional order, of seeing beyond vision, of inferring beyond the description of the immediately tangible datum. As Welby says in several places in her writings (see “Zadig” in Welby 1881: 251–252), the search for truth involves a backward movement, reasoning backward from the evidence of traces, on the basis of hypotheses (the movement of abductive reasoning, as theorized by Peirce); the existence of planets like Uranus and Neptune was intuited on the basis of the power of inference. The progress of knowledge cannot be led by the principle of authority but rather consists in open and unprejudiced interpretative procedure; knowledge acquisition is unfinalizable, processual. Consequently, knowledge and truth are never fixed and defined once and for all. Grains of Sense is the title of an 1897 volume by Welby, a collection of reflections often presented in the form of aphorisms, stories, and parables focused on problems relating to language, communication,

36 Significs and education (a substantial collection of excerpts from this book is now included in Petrilli 2009a: 98–111). Welby discusses the problem of terminological precision, considered essential for conceptualization. In this framework, she continues to evidence different meanings of the term “light,” keeping account of developments in science and of inevitable implications for philosophical discourse. “Light and Its Meaning” was published privately as a brief essay in 1886 and was subsequently included in Grains of Sense. The parable entitled “The Evolution of Heliology,” originally published in The Spectator in that same year, is also included in the same volume. Owing to her reelabora- tion of the metaphor of light as knowledge and her critique of the sun myth, this parable was received with controversy by some of Welby’s contemporaries, as testified by her correspondence inEchoes of Larger Life (Cust 1928). In What Is Meaning? (1903), Welby associates light with “solar knowledge” and therefore with “solar consciousness” and “solar experience,” where “solar” is described as “binocular” and “indirect.” She translates her considerations on the meaning of light from the religious sphere, with reference to man’s intellectual, rational, and moral needs, to the sphere of philosophy and theory of knowledge. “Solar knowledge” is the second term of a triad, the other two being “planetary knowledge” and “cosmic knowledge.” Welby correlates this triad with her meaning triad, which is central to her theory of meaning, or significs. Welby’s discourse on light is a practical application of her translative method, with which she postulated an increase in the signifying and expressive capacity of the sign through its transmigrations from one text to another—in this case, from the texts of the Sacred Scriptures to those of philosophical and scientific discourse. The practice of translation is described “as including transformation, transmutation, and transfiguration, making translucent and transparent, recognising as the medium of all mediums that Expression which, alas! we have been too content to leave opaque and dense in a sense which might almost be said to confine us within pre-visual limits” (Welby 1983 [1903]: 153). From a significal perspective, the theory of meaning is a theory of interpretation, translation, and significance.

37 References Aristotle 1984 The Complete Works of Aristotle, Volumes I and II. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Baker, Pam M. 1990 The Lady Welby Library at the University of London. In H. W. Schmitz 1990, 279â287. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1929 Problemy tvorchestva Dostoevskogo [Problems of Dostoevskyâs work]. Leningrad: Priboj; and Kiev: Next; 2nd revised and enlarged edition, 1963. Problemi dellâopera di Dostoevskij. It. trans. of the original 1929 edition by M. De Michiel , intro. by M. De Michiel and A. Ponzio . Bari: Edizioni dal Sud, 1997. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1963 Problemy poetiki Dostoevskogo. Moscow: Sovetskij pisatelâ; Problems of Dostoevskyâs Poetics. Eng . trans. and ed. by C. Emerson . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1965 Tvorchestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaja kulâtura srednevekovâja i Renessansa. Moscow: ChudozËevennaja Literature; Rabelais and His World. Eng. trans. by H. Iswolsky . Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1968. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1975 Voprosy literatury i estetiki [Problems of literature and of aesthetics]. Moscow: ChudozËestvennaja Literatura; It. trans. Estetica e romanzo. Turin: Einaudi, 1979. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1979 Estetika slovesnogo tvorchestva [Aesthetics of verbal art]. Moscow: Iskusstvo; It. trans. Lâautore e lâeroe: Teoria letteraria e scienze umana. Turin: Einaudi, 1988. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1981 The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Eng. trans. by C. Emerson and M. Holquist , ed. by M. Holquist . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1984a Problems of Dostoevskyâs Poetics. Eng. trans. and ed. by C. Emerson . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. (Russian orig. Problemy poetiki Dostoevskogo. Moscow: Sovetskij pisatelâ, 1963). Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1984b Rabelais and His World. Eng. trans. by H. Iswolsky . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. (Russian orig. Tvorchestvo Fransua Rable i narodnaja kulâtura srednevekovâja i Renessansa. Moscow: Chudozevennaa Literature, 1965). Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1986 Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Ed. by C. Emerson and M. Holquist , Eng. trans. by V. W. McGee . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.288 Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1990 Art and Answerability: Early Philosophical Essays by M. M. Bakhtin. Ed. by M. Holquist and V. Liapunov , Eng. trans. and notes by V. Liapunov, supplementary translation by K. Brostrom. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1992 Valore, visione estetica, responsabilitÃ . Il valore. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, 3, 7â9; now in P. Jachia and A. Ponzio 1993, 187â191. Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 1993 [1920â1924] Towards a Philosophy of the Act. Eng. trans. by V. Liapunov , ed. by M. Holquist . Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1993. [Critical Italian edition Per una filosofia dellâatto responsabile. Ed. by A. and L. Ponzio. Lecce: Pensa Multimedia, 2009.] Bakhtin, Mikhail M. 2008 In dialogo: Conversazioni del 2003 con V. Duvakin. It. trans. by R. S. Cassotti (from the 2nd Russian edition, Moscow, 2002), ed. by A. Ponzio . Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. Baldwin, James Mark 1901 Editorâs preface. In J. M. Baldwin 1901â1905, vol. I, viiâxvi. Baldwin, James Mark 1901â1905 (ed.) Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology in Three Volumes. New York and London: Macmillan. Bendegem, Jean Paul van 2013 Significs and Mathematics: Creative and Other Subjects. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 307â323. Berthoff, Ann E. 1991 See I. A. Richards 1991. Berthoff, Ann E. 1992 I. A. Richards: Critic, instructional engineer, semioticist. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies 90(3/4), 357â369. Berthoff, Ann E. 1999a The Mysterious Barricades: Language and Its Limits. Toronto: Toronto University Press. Berthoff, Ann E. 1999b Susanne K. Langer and the process of feeling. In A. E. Berthoff 1999a, 112â124. Berthoff, Ann E. 2000 Susanne K. Langer and âthe odyssey of the mind.â Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 128(1/2), 1â34. Bertocci, Peter A. 1969â1970 Susanne K. Langerâs theory of feeling and mind. Review of Metaphysics, 23, 527â551. Blum, Fred 1954 Susanne Langerâs Music Aesthetics. Iowa City: University of Iowa. Bonfantini, Massimo A. 1981 Le tre tendenze semiotiche del novecento. Versus, 30, 273â294. Now in M. A. Bonfantini 2004. Bonfantini, Massimo A. 1987 La semiosi e lâabduzione. Milan: Bompiani.289 Bonfantini, Massimo A. 2003 (ed.) Charles S. Peirce: Opere. Milan: Bompiani. Bonfantini, Massimo A. 2004 Semiotica ai media. Bari: Graphis. Bonfantini, Massimo A. ; Proni, Giampaolo 1980 To guess or not to guess? Scienze Umane, 4, 249â266. Boole, Mary Everest 1931a Collected Works. Ed. by E. M. Cobham , pref. by E. S. Dummer , 4 vols. London: C. W. Daniel Company. Boole, Mary Everest 1931b [1883] The Message of Psychic Sciences to Mothers and Nurses (1868). In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. I, 81â239. Boole, Mary Everest 1931c [1897] The Mathematical Psychology of Gratry and Boole. In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. II, 693â742. Boole, Mary Everest 1931d [1903] Lectures on the Logic of Arithmetic. In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. III, 803â874. Boole, Mary Everest 1931e [1904] The Preparation of the Child for Science. In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. III, 875â946. Boole, Mary Everest 1931f [1905] Logic Taught by Love: Rhythm in Nature and in Education (1890). In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. II, 399â515. Boole, Mary Everest 1931g [1909] Symbolic Methods of Study (1884). In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. I, 239â333. Boole, Mary Everest 1931h [1909] Suggestions for Increasing Ethical Stability (1902). In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. III, 969â1006. Boole, Mary Everest 1931i [1909] Philosophy and Fun of Algebra (1907â1908). In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. IV, 1229â1262. Boole, Mary Everest 1931j [1910] The Forging of Passion into Power. In M. E. Boole 1931a, vol. IV, 1337â1413. Borges, Priscila 2103 Tracing signs of a developing science: On the correspondence between Victoria Lady Welby and Charles S. Peirce. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 163â184. Borrelli, Giorgio 2013 Money and metaphor in Welby Prize winner F. TÃ¶nniesâ âPhilosophical terminology.â In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 391â422. Bowsfield, Hartwell 1990 A note on the papers of Victoria Lady Welby. In H. W. Schmitz 1990, 275â278. BrÃ©al, Michel 1897 Essai de sÃ©mantique: Science des significations. Paris: Hachette. Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan ; Eeden, Frederik van ; Ginneken, Jacques van 1937 Signifiese dialogen: Synthese II, 168â174, 261â268, 316â324. 1939 Signifische dialogen. Utrecht: Bijleveld.290 Brower, Reuben 1991 Beginnings and transitions: I. A. Richards interviewed by Reuben Brower. In I. A. Richards 1991, 3â22. Cabak RÃ©dei, Anna 2013 Signs, senses and cognition: Lady Welby and contemporary semiotics. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 185â195. Campbell, James 1997 Langerâs understanding of philosophy. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 33 (1997), 132â147. Camuri, G. 2006 Langer, Susanne Katherine Knauth. In Enciclopedia filosofica, vol. VII, 6219â6220. Milan: Bompiani. Caputo, Cosimo ; Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 1998 (eds.) Basi: Significare, inventare, dialogare. Lecce: Piero Manni. Cassirer, Ernst 1946 Language and Myth. New York: Harper and Brothers. Chapdeleine-Feliciati, Clara 2013 The sense, meaning, and significance of the Twin International Covenants on Political and Economic Rights. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 325â352. Chatwin, Bruce 1987 The Songlines. London: Picador. Chiodo, Simona 2004a LâespressivitÃ logica della musica: Uno studio su Susanne Langer. Materiali di estetica (Milan), I, 29â40. Chiodo, Simona 2004b Susanne Langer sul drama. Materiali di estetica (Milan), I, 75â82. Clark, Katerina ; Holquist, Michael 1984 Mikhail Bakhtin. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Clifford, William Kingdon 1879 Lectures and Essays (1845â1879). Ed. by Leslie Stephen and Frederick Pollock . London and New York: Macmillan, 1886, 1901; now Charleston, South Carolina: Nabu Press, 2010. Cobley, Paul 2001 (ed.) The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics. Intro., 3â13. London and New York: Routledge. (See also P. Cobley 2010a). Cobley, Paul 2006a A brief note on dialogue. In S. Petrilli 2007d (ed.), 13â20. Bari: Edizioni dal Sud.291 Cobley, Paul 2006b (ed.) Communication Theories: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies, vol. 4. London: Routledge. Cobley, Paul 2007 Semioethics, voluntarism and anti-humanism. New Formations, 62, 44â59. Cobley, Paul 2008 Signifiers and subjects. In S. Petrilli (ed.), Approaches to Communication: Trends in Global Communication Studies, 197â220. Madison: Atwood Press. Cobley, Paul 2010a The Routledge Companion to Semiotics. Intro., 3â12. London: Routledge. Cobley, Paul 2010b Communication. In P. Cobley 2010a, 192â194. Cobley, Paul 2011 Sebeokâs panopticon. In P. Cobley , J. Deely , K. Kull , and S. Petrilli 2011 (eds.), 85â114. Cobley, Paul ; Deely, John ; Kull, Kalevi ; Petrilli, Susan 2011 (eds.) Semiotics Continues to Astonish: Thomas A. Sebeok and the Doctrine of Signs. Berlin: Mouton. Colapietro, Vincent M. 1989 Peirceâs Approach to the Self: A Semiotic Perspective on Human Subjectivity. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Colapietro, Vincent M. 1993 Glossary of Semiotics. New York: Paragon House. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2003 Translating signs otherwise. In S. Petrilli 2003a, 189â216. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2004a Conjectures concerning an uncertain faculty claimed for humans. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 153(1/4), 413â430. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2004b Signs and their vicissitudes: Meanings in excess of consciousness and functionality. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semi- otic Studies, 148(1/4), 229â243. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2006 Toward a pragmatic conception of practical identity. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 42(2), 173â205. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2007 In the name of what we have desecrated. In S. Petrilli 2007d (ed.), 43â58. Bari: Edizioni dal Sud. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2010 C. S. Peirce . In Dean Moyar (ed.), The Routledge Companion to 19th Century Philosophy. London and New York: Routledge. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2013a Peircean reflections on the innate ingenuity of the human animal. In Vinicius Romanini (ed.), Peirce and Biosemiotics. Heidelberg, Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg: Springer. Colapietro, Vincent M. 2013b The life of significance: Cultivating ingenuity no less than signs. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 35â56. Colapietro, Vincent M. ; Olshewsky, Thomas M. 1996 (eds.) Peirceâs Doctrine of Signs: Theory, Applications and Connections. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Creese, Mary R. S. 2004 Boole, Mary (1832â1916). First published September 2004. In Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/38817.292 Cust, Mrs. Henry (Elizabeth) 1928 (ed.) Wanderers: Episodes from the Travels of Lady Emmeline Stuart-Wortley and Her Daughter Victoria, 1849â1955. Pref. by Sir R. Storrs. London: Jonathan Cape. Cust, Mrs. Henry (Elizabeth) 1929 (ed. and intro.) Echoes of Larger Life: A Selection from the Early Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby. London: Jonathan Cape. [The date of each letter included in this collection has not been reported. Instead, letters are grouped according to the following time brackets: 1879â1882, 1882â1885, 1885â1886, 1886â1888, 1888â1890, 1889â1891.] Cust, Mrs. Henry (Elizabeth) 1931 (ed.) Other Dimensions: A Selection from the Later Correspondence of Victoria Lady Welby. Intro. by L. P. Jacks . London: Jonathan Cape. [The date of each letter included in this collection has not been reported. Instead, letters are grouped according to the following time brackets: 1898â1902, 1902â1904, 1903â1905, 1904â1907, 1907â1910, 1908â1911.] Danesi, Marcel 1993 Vico, Metaphor, and the Origin of Language. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Danesi, Marcel 1995 (ed.) Giambattista Vico and Anglo-American Science. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Danesi, Marcel 2000 Lingua, metafora, concetto: Vico e la linguistica cognitiva. Bari: Edizioni dal Sud. Danesi, Marcel 2005 (ed.) Giambattista Vico and Anglo-American Science: Philosophy and Writing. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Danto, Arthur C. 1984 Mind as feeling; form as presence; Langer as philosopher. Journal of Philosophy, 89, 641â647. Darwin, Charles 1859 The Origin of Species. Ed., notes, and intro. by G. Beer . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Deely, John 1994 The Human Use of Signs, or Elements of Anthroposemiosis. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield. Deely, John 2005 Thomas Albert Sebeok (1920â2001), Biologist ManquÃ©. In Thoemmes Dictionary of Biography. London: Thoemmes Press. Also http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/sebeok.html. Deely, John 2007 The Primary Modeling System in Animals. In Susan Petrilli (ed. and intro.), La filosofia del linguaggio come arte dellâascolto: Sulla ricerca scientifica di Augusto Ponzio [Philosophy of language as the art of listening: On Augusto Ponzioâs scientific research], 161â179. Bari: Edizioni dal Sud Deely, John 2009 Purely Objective Reality (= Semiotics, Communication and Cognition 4, ed. by Paul Cobley). Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.293 Deely, John 2010a Semiotics Seen Synchronically: The View as of 2010. Ottawa: Legas. Deely, John 2010b Semiotic Animal: A Postmodern Definition of âHuman Beingâ Transcending Patriarchy and Feminism. South Bend, IN: St. Augustineâs Press. Deely, John 2011 Thomas A. Sebeok and semiotics of the 21st century. In P. Cobley , J. Deely , K. Kull , and S. Petrilli (eds.), 123â160. Deely, John 2013 Lady Welby and Lady Petrilli . In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 13â20. Deely, John ; Danesi, Marcel 2012 (ed. and intro.) Semiotic Prologues. Toronto and New York: Legas. Deely, John ; Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2005 The Semiotic Animal. Ottawa: Legas. Deledalle, GÃ©rard 1987 Charles Peirce: PhÃ©nomenologue et sÃ©mioticien. Amsterdam: John Benjamins; Charles Peirce: An Intellectual Biography. Eng. trans. and intro. by S. Petrilli . Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1990. Deledalle, GÃ©rard 1990 Victoria Lady Welby and Charles Sanders Peirce: Meaning and signification. In H. W. Schmitz 1990, 133â150. Deleuze, Gilles ; Guattari, Felix 1976 Rhizome. Paris: Minuit. Deleuze, Gilles ; Guattari, Felix 1999 A Thousand Plateaus. London: Athlone. Demartis, Lucia 2004 Lâestetica simbolica di Susanne Katherina Langer. Aesthetica Preprint, 70 (April 2004), Centro Internazionale Studi di Estetica. Demers, Richard A. 1988 Linguistics and animal communication. In F. J. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey, vol. 3, 314â325. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Devine, Elizabeth et al. 1983 (eds.) Thinkers of the Twentieth Century: A Biographical, Bibliographical and Critical Dictionary. London: Glove Book Services-Macmillan. Dickie, George 1971 Aesthetics: An Introduction. New York: Pegasus. Dryden, James 1997 Susanne K. Langer and American philosophic naturalism in the 20th century. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 33 (1997), 161â182.294 Eco, Umberto 1962 Opera aperta. Milan: Bompiani. (4th revised edition, 1976); The Open Work. Eng. trans. by A. Cancogni , intro. by D. Robey . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989. Eco, Umberto 1968 La struttura assente [The absent structure]. Milan: Bompiani. (Revised, 1980). Eco, Umberto 1976 Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. (It. orig. Trattato di semiotica generale. Milan: Bompiani, 1975). Eco, Umberto 1981 Guessing: From Aristotle to Sherlock Holmes. Versus, 30, 3â19. Eco, Umberto 1984 Semiotica e filosofia del linguaggio. Turin: Einaudi; Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. London: Macmillan Press, 1984. Eco, Umberto 1989 Introduction: The meaning of the meaning of meaning. In C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards 1923 (1989), vâxi. Eco, Umberto 1990 I limiti dellâinterpretazione. Milan: Bompiani; The Limits of Interpretation. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Eco, Umberto 1995 The Search for the Perfect Language. Eng. trans. by J. Fentress . Oxford: Blackwell. Eco, Umberto 1997 Kant e lâornitorinco. Milan: Bompiani; Kant and the Platypus: Essays on Language and Cognition. Eng. trans. by McEwen Alastair . New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999. Eco, Umberto 2001 Experiences in Translation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Eco, Umberto 2003 Dire quasi la stessa cosa. Milan: Bompiani. Eco, Umberto ; Rorty, Richard ; Culler, Jonathan ; Brook-Rose, Christine 1992 Interpretation and Overinterpretation. Ed. by Stefan Collini . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eeden, Frederik van 1897 Redekunstige grondslag van Verstandhouding. In F. van Eeden , Studies: Derde reeks, 5â84. Amsterdam: Versluys; Utrecht-Anversa: Spectrum, 1975. Eeden, Frederik van 1908 Is communisme een droombeeld? (Rede, gehouden te New York in Carnegie Hall op 8 Maart, 1908). In F. van Eeden , Studies: Vijfde reeks, 222â248. Amsterdam: W. Versluys. Eeden, Frederik van 1971â1972 Dagboek 1878â1923. Voor het Frederik van Eeden- Genootschap uitgegeven en toegelicht door H. W. van Tricht. Met een register door Hans van Eeden, vol. I/1878â1900, vol. I/1901â1910, vol. III/1911â1918 (1971), vol. IV/1919â1923 (1972). Culemborg: Tjeenk Willink-Noorduijn N. V. Eisenberg, J. F. ; Dillon, Wilton 1971 (eds.) Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. European Commission 1995 Green Book on Innovation. http://europa.eu/documents/comm/green_papers/pdf/com95_688_en.pdf 295 Fano, Giorgio 1972 Origini e natura del linguaggio. Turin: Einaudi. Eng. trans. and intro. by S. Petrilli , The Origins and Nature of Language. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1992. Fisch, Max H. 1986 Peirce, Semeiotic, and Pragmatism. Ed. by K. L. Ketner and C. J. W. Kloesel . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Foucault, Michel 1988 Technologies of the Self: A Seminar. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Foucault, Michel et al. 1996 Biopolitica e territorio: Millepiani. Milan: Mimesis. Ghosh, R. K. 1979 Aesthetic Theory and Art: A Study in Susanne K. Langer. Delhi, India: Ajanta Publications. Gordon, Terrence W. 1982 A History of Semantics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Gordon, Terrence W. 1990a Significs and C. K. Ogden: The influence of Lady Welby. In H. W. Schmitz 1990, 179â196. Gordon, Terrence W. 1990b C. K. Ogden: A Bio-Bibliographic Study. Metuchen, NJ, and London: Scarecrow. Gordon, Terrence W. 1991 The semiotics of C. K. Ogden. In T. A. Sebeok and J. Umiker- Sebeok (eds.), Recent Developments in Theory and History: The Semiotic Web 1990, 111â177. The Hague and Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gordon, Terrence W. 1994 (ed.) see Charles K. Ogden 1994a . Hagberg, G. L. 1995 Art as Language: Wittgenstein, Meaning, and Aesthetic Theory. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Hardwick, Charles 1971 Lady Victoria Welby: Her life, works, and contributions to philosophy. Year Book of the American Philosophical Society, 35, 601â602. Hardwick, Charles 1977 (ed. with the assistance of J. Cook ) Semiotic and Significs: The Correspondence between Charles S. Peirce and Victoria Lady Welby. Pref., ixâxiv, and intro., xvâxxxiv, by C. S. Hardwick. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Hart, Richard E. 1997 Langerâs aesthetic of poetry. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 33 (1997), 183â199.296 Hayakawa, Samuel IchiyÃ© 1954 Semantics, general semantics, and related disciplines. In S. I. Hayakawa (ed.), Language, Meaning and Maturity (selections from ETC: A Review of General Semantics 1943â1953), 19â37. New York: Harper and Brothers. Hegel, Georg Wilhem Friedrich 1932 [1819â1820] Grundlinien der filosofie des Rech. Ed. by G. Lasson . Leipzig, Germany: Meiner. Heijerman, Eric ; Schmitz, Walter H. 1991 (eds.) Significs, Mathematics and Semiotics: The Signific Movement in the Netherlands. Proceedings of the International Conference, Bonn, 19â21 November 1986. Munster, Germany: Nodus Publikationen. Henault, Anne 2013 Significs and semiotics: Chronicle of an encounter foretold. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 215â228. Husserl, Edmund 1948 Erfarung und urteil. Ed. by L. Landgrebe . Prague, Czech Republic: Akademia; new edition, Hamburg, Germany: Felix Meiner, 1990. Eng. trans. by J. S. Churchill and K. Ameriks , Experience and Judgment: Investigations in a Genealogy of Logic. Revised and ed. by L. Landgrebe , intro. by J. S. Churchill , afterword by Lothar Eley . Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1973. Innis, Robert E. 1985 Semiotics: An Introductory Anthology. Indianapolis, IN, and Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Innis, Robert E. 2007 The making of the literary symbol: Taking note of Langer. Semiotics, 165(1/4). Jakobson, Roman 1959 On linguistic aspects of translation. In R. Jakobson , Selected Writings, vol. II, 260â266. The Hague: Mouton, 1971. Jakobson, Roman 1963 Essais de linguistique gÃ©nÃ©rale. Paris: Editions de Minuits. Klaus, Georg 1964 Die Macht des Wortes. Berlin: Veb Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, 1969. Korzybski, Alfred 1950 Manhood of Humanity. Lakeville, CT: The International Non- Aristotelian Library Publishing Company. KÃ¶sters, Barbara 1993 GefÃ¼hl, Abstraktion, Symbolische Trasformation: Zu Susanne Langers Philosophie des Lebendigen. Frankfurt am Main-Berlin: Peter Lang.297 Krois, John Michael 1987 Cassirer: Symbolic Forms and History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Kristeva, Julia 1969 SemeiotikÃ¨: Recerche pour une sÃ©manalyse. Paris: Seuil. Kukkonen, Pirjo 2013 The translating and signifying subject as homo interpres and homo significans: Victoria Welbyâs concept of translationâa polyfunctional tool. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 261â281. Lachmann, Rolf 1993 Susanne K. Langer: PrimÃ¤r- und sekundÃ¤r-bibliographie. Studia culturologica, 2, 91â114. Lachmann, Rolf 2000 Susanne K. Langer: Die lebendige Form des menschlichen FÃ¼hlens und Verstehens. Munich, Germany: Fink. Langer, Susanne K. 1924 The Cruise of the Little Dipper, and Other Fairy Tales. Illus. by Helen Sewall . Georgia: Norcross; reissued by New York Graphic Society, 1963. Langer, Susanne K. 1926 Form and content: A study in paradox. Journal of Philosophy, 23, 435â438. Langer, Susanne K. 1930 The Practice of Philosophy. New York: Henry Holt. Langer, Susanne K. 1937 An Introduction to Symbolic Logic. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Langer, Susanne K. 1942 Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite, and Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. It. trans. by G. Pettenati , Filosofia in una nuova chiave: Linguaggio, rito, mito e arte. Rome: Armando, 1972. Langer, Susanne K. 1946 Translatorâs preface. In Ernst Cassirer, Language and Myth, her translation of the work of German philosopher Ernst Cassirer. New York: Harper and Brothers. Langer, Susanne K. 1946â1947 Response to Henry Aiken. Journal of Philosophical and Phenomenological Research, 7, 672. Langer, Susanne K. 1949 On Cassirerâs theory of language and myth. In The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer, 381â400. Evanston, IL: Library of Living Philosophers. Langer, Susanne K. 1953 Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art. New York: Charles Scribnerâs Sons. Langer, Susanne K. 1957 Problems of Art: Ten Philosophical Lectures. New York: Charles Scribnerâs Sons. Langer, Susanne K. 1958 Reflections on Art: A Source Book of Writings by Artists, Critics and Philosophers. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Langer, Susanne K. 1960 The origins of speech and its communication function. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 46 (April 1960), 121â134. Langer, Susanne K. 1962a Philosophical Sketches. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Langer, Susanne K. 1962b A footnote to Professor Tejeraâs paper. Journal of Philosophical and Phenomenological Research, 23, 432.298 Langer, Susanne K. 1967, 1972, 1982 Mind: An Essay on Human Feeling, 3 vols. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Lassner, Phyllis 1991 Bridging composition and womenâs studies: The work of Ann E. Berthoff and Susanne K. Langer. Journal of Teaching Writing, 10(1) (Spring/ Summer 1991), 21â37. Levi, Alessandro 1912 La crisi della democrazia. Inaugural speech delivered on 5 November 1911 at the University of Ferrara. Ferrara: Taddei-Soati. Levinas, Emmanuel 1936 De lâÃ©vasion. Recherches philosophiques, V (1935â1936), 373â392. This paper was excluded in accordance with the wishes of the author from Levinas 1987b . (Also published in French as an independent book, see Levinas 1982). Levinas, Emmanuel 1948 La rÃ©alitÃ© et son ombre. Les temps modernes, 4(38), 771â789. Now in Levinas 1994. Eng. trans. Reality and Its Shadow, in E. Levinas 1987a, 1â14. Levinas, Emmanuel 1961 TotalitÃ© et infini. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff; Totality and Infinity. Eng. trans. by A. Lingis , intro. by J. Wild . Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 1969; Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1991. Levinas, Emmanuel 1972 Humanisme de lâautre homme. Montpellier: Fata Morgana; Humanism of the Other. Eng. trans. by N. Poller . Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2003. Levinas, Emmanuel 1974a [1949, 1967] En dÃ©couvrant lâexistence avec Husserl et Heidegger. Paris: Vrin. Eng. trans. by R. A. Cohen and M. B. Smith , Discovering Existence with Husserl. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1998. Levinas, Emmanuel 1974b [1967] Langage et proximitÃ©. In E. Levinas 1974a, 217â236. Eng. trans. Language and Proximity. In E. Levinas 1987b, 109â127. Levinas, Emmanuel 1974c Autrement quâÃªtre ou au-delÃ de lâessence. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1978; Otherwise Than Being or Beyond Essence. Eng. trans. by A. Lingis . Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1981; Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press, 2000. Levinas, Emmanuel 1982 [1936] De lâÃ©vasion. Montpellier: Fata Morgana. Levinas, Emmanuel 1987a Collected Philosophical Papers. Eng. trans. and ed. by A. Lingis . Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff. Levinas, Emmanuel 1987b Hors sujet. Montpellier: Fata Morgana; Outside the Subject, Eng. trans. by M. B. Smith . London: Athlone Press, 1993. Levinas, Emmanuel 1989 The LÃ©vinas Reader. Ed. by Sean Hand . Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Levinas, Emmanuel 1994 Les imprÃ©vus de lâhistoire. Montpellier: Fata Morgana. Liddy, Richard M. 1997 Susanne K. Langerâs philosophy of mind. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 33 (1997), 150â159.299 Lieb, Irwin 1953 (ed.) Charles S. Peirceâs Letters to Lady Welby. New Haven, CT: Whitlockâs. Lieberman, Philip 1988 Voice in the wilderness: How humans acquired the power of speech. Sciences, 28(4), 23â29. Lombaard, Christo 2013 Mysticism and mind in Welbyâs significs. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 365â380. Luisi, Maria 2013 Space and time: Continuity in the correspondence between Charles Peirce and Victoria Welby. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 197â214. Mannoury, Gerrit 1939a Nu en Morgen: Signifische Varia. Manuscript. Mannoury, Gerrit 1939b Nu en morgen: Signifische varia. Synthese, 4(8), 388â394, 4(9), 434â449, 4(12), 563â570. Mannoury, Gerrit 1949 Signifika: Een Inleiding (Servireâs Encyclopedie, Afd.: Logica, D 2/4). Den Haag: N. K. Servire. Mannoury, Gerrit 1969 A concise history of significs. Methodology and Science, 2, 171â180 (= trans. of G. Mannoury 1949, 6â20). Reprinted in V. Welby 1983, xxxiiiâxlii. Mannoury, Gerrit 1973 [1939] Today and tomorrow. Methodology and Science, 6(4), 129â133 (= trans. of G. Mannoury 1939a, 434â437). Mannoury, Gerrit 1983 = G. Mannoury 1969. Marx, Karl 1857â1858 Grundisse, vol. 28 of The Collected Works of Marx and Engels. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1975. McAlister, L. L. 1996 (ed.) Hypatiaâs Daughters: Fifteen Hundred Years of Women Philosophers. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Medvedev, Pavel N. 1978 [1928] The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship: A Critical Introduction to Sociological Poetics. Eng. trans. by A. J. Wehrle . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 1966 [1948] Sens et non-sens. Paris: Nagel. Merrell, Floyd 1992 Sign, Textuality, World. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. 300 Mind 1920 The meaning of âmeaningâ: A symposium with B. Russell and H. H. Joachim . Mind, 29(116), 387â397. Mind 1921a The meaning of âmeaning.â Mind, 30(118), 185â190. Mind 1921b The meaning of âmeaning.â Mind, 30(120), 444â447. Monthly Review: An Independent Socialist Magazine, 46(4) (September 1994). Morris, Charles 1938 Foundations of the Theory of Signs. In International Encyclopedia of Unified Science I (2). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Morris, Charles 1942 Paths of Life: Preface to a World Religion. New York: Harper and Brothers. Morris, Charles 1946 Signs, Language and Behavior. New York: Prentice Hall. Morris, Charles 1948 The Open Self. New York: Prentice Hall. Morris, Charles 1956 Varieties of Human Value. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Morris, Charles 1964 Signification and Significance: A Study of the Relations of Signs and Values. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Morris, Charles 1970 The Pragmatic Movement in American Philosophy. New York: George Braziller. Morris, Charles 1971 Writings on the General Theory of Signs. Ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok . The Hague and Paris: Mouton. (Includes Morris 1938, 1946, ch. I of 1964, 1948b, and other essays). Morris, Charles 1988 Segni e valori: Significazione e significativitÃ e altri scritti di semiotica, etica ed estetica. Texts selected, ed., and trans., with intro., 5â28, by S. Petrilli . Bari: Adriatica. Morris, Charles 1993 Symbolism and Reality: A Study in the Nature of Mind. Ed. and pref. by A. Eschbach . Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (= Morrisâs dissertation of 1925, originally published in German translation in 1981). Morris, Charles 2000 Significazione e significativitÃ . It. trans., ed., and intro., vâxxxv, by S. Petrilli . Bari: Graphis. Morris, Charles 2012 Scritti di semiotica, etica e estetica. It. trans., ed., and intro., Una scienza globale dei segni e del loro imprescindibile e articolato rapporto con i valori, 9â15, by S. Petrilli . Lecce: Pensa Multimedia. Nagel, Ernst 1943 Philosophy in a new key. Journal of Philosophy, 40. Nerlich, Brigitte ; Clark, David D. 1996 Language, Action, and Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Nolan, Rita 1990 Anticipatory themes in the writings of Lady Welby. In W. H. Schmitz (ed.), Essays on Significs: Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Victoria Lady Welby, 83â101. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Novaes Pinto, Rosana 2013 The aphasic utterance: A significal perspective. In Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 457â472.301 Nuessel, Frank 1996 The symbolic nature of Esperanto. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 109, 369â385. Nuessel, Frank 2000 The Esperanto Language. Ottawa and Toronto: Legas. Nuessel, Frank 2008a Interpretive semiotics. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 169(1/4), 343â360. Nuessel, Frank 2008b Susan Petrilli named seventh Thomas A. Sebeok Fellow of the Semiotic Society of North America. Sign System Studies, 36(2), 521â525. Nuessel, Frank 2011 Victoria Welby and the signific movement. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 184(1/4), 279â299. Nuessel, Frank 2012 The semiotics of communication. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 189(1/4), 271â285. Nuessel, Frank 2013 Susan Petrilliâs archival research on Victoria Welby and its implications for future scholarly inquiry. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 111â124. Nuessel, Frank ; Colapietro, Vincent ; Petrilli, Susan 2013 (eds.) On and Beyond Significs: Centennial Issue for Victoria Lady Welby (1837â1912). Semiotica: Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 196(1/4), 2013. Special issue: guest eds. Frank Nuessel , Vincent Colapietro , and Susan Petrilli ; intro. by F. Nuessel and V. Colapietro , 1â12; Appendix I, 513â550, and Appendix II, 551â570, by S. Petrilli; Editor- in-Chief, Marcel Danesi. Ogden, Charles K. 1994a C. K. Ogden and Linguistics, 5 vols. Ed. by T. W. Gordon . London: Routledge-Thoemmes Press. Ogden, Charles K. 1994b The progress of linguistics. In C. K. Ogden 1994a, vol. 1, 1â47. Ogden, Charles K. ; Richards, Ivor A. 1923 The Meaning of Meaning: A Study of the Influence of Language upon Thought and of the Science of Symbolism, with supplementary essays by B. Malinowski and F. G. Crookshank . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; new edition, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989. Palmer, Frank 1976 Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1869â1908 Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to âThe Nationâ in 4 volumes. Ed. by Kenneth L. Ketner and James Edward Cook : Part 1 (1869â1893), 208 pages; Part 2 (1894â1900), 281 pages; Part 3 (1901â1908), 306 pages; Part 4, index to the whole, 208 pages. Lubbock, TX: Texas Technological University Press, 1975, 1975, 1979, 1987. (Sometimes abbreviated as CN, with volume and page numbers separated by a period). Peirce, Charles Sanders 1890 A guess at the riddle. In CP 1.354â1.414. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1892 The law of mind. The Monist, 2, 533â559, in CP 6.102â6.163.302 Peirce, Charles Sanders 1902 Pragmatic and pragmatism. In J. M. Baldwin (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, vol. 2, 321â322. New York: Macmillan Co. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1909 Essays on meaning: By a half-centuryâs student of the same. Manuscript 634, 16â17, September 1909. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1923 Chance, Love and Logic. Ed. and intro. by Morris R. Cohen . New York: Harcourt. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1931â1958 Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols. IâVI, ed. by C. Hartshorne and P. Weiss , 1931â1935; vols. VIIâVIII ed. by A. W. Burks , 1958. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press. (In the text referred to as CP followed by volume and paragraph number). Peirce, Charles Sanders 1982â1993 Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, 5 vols. Ed. by M. H. Fisch et al. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Peirce, Charles Sanders 1992â1998 The Essential Peirce: Selected Philosophical Writings, 2 vols. Ed. by N. Houser and C. J. W. Kloesel . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Peirce, Charles Sanders 2003 Charles S. Peirce, Opere. Ed. by Massimo A. Bonfantini . Milan: Bompiani. CN Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to âThe Nation,â vols. IâIV, see Peirce 1869â1908. CP Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, see Peirce 1931â1958. MS Annotated Catalogue of the Papers of Charles S. Peirce. Manuscripts in the Houghton Library of Harvard University as identified by Richard S. Robin. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1967; and in The Peirce papers: A supplementary catalogue. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 7 (1971), 37â57. Peter of Spain (Petrus Hispanus) 1972 [1230?] Tractatus, called afterward Summule logicales. First critical edition from the manuscripts with an intro. by L. M. De Rijk . Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum. It. trans. from Latin, intro., and ed. by Augusto Ponzio , Tractatus: Summule logicale. Bari: Adriatica, 1985; new and revised bilingual edition, Milan: Bompiani, 2003, now 2010. Petrilli, Susan 1985 Introduzione. In Victoria Welby 1985b, 7â50. Petrilli, Susan 1986 On the materiality of signs. Semiotica: Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 62(3/4) (1986), 223â245. Petrilli, Susan 1987 (ed. and intro., 7â9) Per Ferruccio Rossi-Landi. Il Protagora, year XXVII, series 4, 11/12,. Petrilli, Susan 1988a Significs, semiotica, significazione. Intro. by Thomas A. Sebeok . Bari: Adriatica. Petrilli, Susan 1988b Victoria Lady Welby and Significs: An interview with H. W. Schmitz. In The Semiotic Web 1987 (= Approaches to Semiotics 81), T. A. Sebeok and J. Umiker- Sebeok (eds.), 79â92. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Petrilli, Susan 1990a Introduction. In A. Ponzio 1990b, 1â13. Petrilli, Susan 1990b The problem of signifying in Welby, Peirce, Vailati, Bakhtin. In A. Ponzio 1990a, 315â363. Petrilli, Susan 1990c On the materiality of signs. In A. Ponzio 1990a, 365â401.303 Petrilli, Susan 1990d Dialogue and chronotopic otherness: Bakhtin and Welby. Discours social / Social Discourse, 3(1/2), 339â350. Petrilli, Susan 1990e Sign and meaning in Victoria Lady Welby and Mikhail Bakhtin: A confrontation. In H. Walter Schmitz (ed. and intro.), Essays on Significs, 197â1215. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, 1990. Petrilli, Susan 1992a (ed.) Social practice, semiotics and the sciences of man: The correspondence between Morris and Rossi-Landi. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, 88(1/2), intro. by S. Petrilli , 1â36. Petrilli, Susan 1992b Translation, semiotics and ideology. Traduction, terminologie, rÃ©daction: La pÃ©dagogie de la traduction: Questions actuelles V, 1, 233â264. Petrilli, Susan 1993 Signs and values: For a critique of cognitive semiotics. Journal of Pragmatics, 20(3), 239â251. Petrilli, Susan 1993â1994 Segno e valore: La significs di Welby e la semiotica novecentesca. Doctoral dissertation. University of Bari. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Vittorio Emanuele II, Rome; Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, Florence. Petrilli, Susan 1994a Categorias Bajtinianas de la literatura para una nueva filosofia del lenguaje. In A. Ponzio , S. Petrilli , and M. Arriaga , Tres miradas sobre Bajtin. EutopÃ¬as 2a epoca, documentos de trabajo, Centro de semiÃ²tica y teorÃ¬a del espectÃ culo, Universitat de Valencia & AsociaciÃ²n Vasca de semiÃ²tica, vol. 64, 1994, 21â33. Petrilli, Susan 1994b Linguaggio e metafora. In A. Ponzio , P. Calefato , and S. Petrilli 1994, 71â73. Petrilli, Susan 1995a Materia segnica e interpretazione. Lecce: Milella. Petrilli, Susan 1995b Between semiotics and significs: C. K. Ogden and V. Welby. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 105(3/4), 277â309. Petrilli, Susan 1996a Che cosa significa significare? Bari: Edizioni dal Sud. Petrilli, Susan 1996b Bakhtin read in Italy (1980â1994). Le bulletin Bachtin / The Bakhtin Newsletter, 5, 55â66. Petrilli, Susan 1997a Subject, Body and Agape: Towards Teleosemiotics with Peirce and Welby. Working Papers and Pre-Publications, 261â262 (serie A), 1â39. Urbino: Centro internazionale di semiotica e di linguistica, UniversitÃ di Urbino. Petrilli, Susan 1997b Towards interpretation semiotics. In Rocco Capozzi (ed.), Reading Eco: An Anthology, 121â136. Bloomington, IN, and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997. Petrilli, Susan 1997c La luce del testo fra sacralitÃ e profanazione: Victoria Welby dallâesegesi biblica alla significs. Luce. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, 8, 1997, 26â33. Petrilli, Susan 1998a Su Victoria Welby: Significs e filosofia del linguaggio. Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane. Petrilli, Susan 1998b Teoria dei segni e del linguaggio. Bari: Graphis, 2001. Petrilli, Susan 1999a (ed.) Semiotic Studies in Bari. S-European Journal for Semiotic Studies, XI, 4 (1999) [general editor Jeff Bernard], Introduction: Trajectories in semiotic studies, 513â514.304 Petrilli, Susan 1999b The biological basis of Victoria Welbyâs significs. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 127(1/4) (1999), 23â66. Petrilli, Susan 1999c About and beyond Peirce. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 124(3/4), 299â376. Petrilli, Susan 1999d Charles Morrisâs biosemiotics. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 127(1/4), 67â102. Petrilli, Susan 1999â2000 (ed.) La traduzione. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, X, 2. Intro. by S. Petrilli , Traduzione e semiosi: Considerazioni introduttive, 9â22. Petrilli, Susan 2000a (ed.) Tra segni. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XI, ns. 3. Intro., 7â9. Petrilli, Susan 2000b Charles Morris . In Handbook of Pragmatics 6, 2002. Jef Verschueren , Jan-Ola Ãstaman , Jan Blommaert , and Chris Bulcaen (eds.), 1â26. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. (2000 Installment. Loose-leaf). Petrilli, Susan 2000c Introduzione. In Charles Morris 2000, vâxxxv. Petrilli, Susan 2001a Welby Victoria Lady Welby . In P. Cobley (ed.), The Routledge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics, 285â286. London: Routledge; now in P. Cobley 2010, 353â354. Petrilli, Susan 2001b (ed.) Signs and Light: Illuminating Paths in the Semiotic Web. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, 136(1/4), 2001. Petrilli, Susan 2001c Light between sacred and profane: Victoria Welby from biblical exegesis to significs. Signs and Light: Illuminating Paths in the Semiotic Web. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, 136(1/4), 2001, 173â200. Petrilli, Susan 2001d (ed.) Lo stesso altro. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XII, ns. 4. Petrilli, Susan 2003a (ed.) Translation Translation, Translation and semiosis, intro., 17â37, by S. Petrilli . Amsterdam: Rodopi. Petrilli, Susan 2003b The intersemiotic character of translation. In S. Petrilli (ed. and intro.), Translation Translation, 41â53. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003. Petrilli, Susan 2004a (ed.) Ideology, logic and dialogue in semioethic perspective. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, 148(1/4), intro. by S. Petrilli , 1â9. Petrilli, Susan 2004b Human responsibility in the universe of âglobal semiotics.â Identity and Locality in the World of Global Communication. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, ed. by Eero Tarasti , 150(1/4) (2004), 23â38. Petrilli, Susan 2004c From pragmatic philosophy to behavioral semiotics: Charles W. Morris after Charles S. Peirce. In Petrilli 2004a, 277â316. Petrilli, Susan 2004d Semioethics, subjectivity and communication: For the humanism of otherness. In Petrilli 2004a, 69â92. Petrilli, Susan 2004e The responsibility of power and the power of responsibility: From the âsemioticâ to the âsemioethicâ animal. In Gloria Withalm and Josef Wallmannsberger (hg./eds.), Macht der zeichen, zeichen der macht / Signs of Power, Power of Signs. Essays in Honor of Jeff Bernard, 103â119. Wien: INST.305 Petrilli, Susan 2004f Welby, Victoria Alexandrina , Lady Welby (1837â1912). In Matthew Colin (ed.), Oxford New Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Petrilli, Susan 2004g Gift-giving, mother-sense and subjectivity in Victoria Welby: A study in semioethics. Il dono / The Gift: A Feminist Analysis. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XV, ns. 8, 2004, 179â198. Ed. by Genevieve Vaughan . Petrilli, Susan 2005a Percorsi della semiotica. Bari: Graphis, 2007. Petrilli, Susan 2005b Crossing out boundaries with global communication: The problem of the subject. Subject Matters: A Journal of Communication and the Self, 2(2), London Metropolitan University, 33â48. Petrilli, Susan 2005c Translation as the doctrine of inter-genre and trans-genre communication: A semioethic perspective. TTR. Etudes sur le texte et ses transformations, XVIII, 1, 221â250. Petrilli, Susan 2006a Meaning, metaphor and interpretation: Modelling new worlds. Perspectives on metaphor. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, guest ed. Frank Nuessel , 161(1/4), 75â119. Petrilli, Susan 2006b (ed.) Comunicazione, interpretazione, traduzione. Intro., Comunicare, interpretare, tradurre, 11â20, by S. Petrilli . Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan 2007a Significs and semioethics: Places of the gift in communication today. In G. Vaughan (ed.), Women and the Gift Economy: A Radically Different Worldview Is Possible, 108â120. Toronto: Inanna Publications and Education. Petrilli, Susan 2007b Translation, interpretation and common meaning: Victoria Welbyâs significal perspective. TTR. Etudes sur le texte et ses transformations, XX, 1, 13â98, 1er semestre 2007. TTR a 20 ans I / TTR Turns 20 I, dir. Annick Chapdelaine. Petrilli, Susan 2007c Interpretive trajectories in translation semiotics. Les emotions: Figures et configurations dynamiques, guest ed. Jacques Fontanille ; Vital signs of semio-translation, guest ed. Dinda L. GorlÃ©e , Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 163(1/4) (2007), 311â345. Petrilli, Susan 2007d Sign, interpretation, translation in Victoria Welby. In S. Petrilli (ed.), Comunicazione, traduzione, interpretazione. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan 2009a Signifying and Understanding: Reading the Works of Victoria Welby and the Signific Movement. Foreword by P. Cobley , viiâx (= Semiotics, communication and cognition 2, ed. Paul Cobley). Berlin: Mouton. Petrilli, Susan 2009b La metafora del fuori e del dentro in Gaston Bachelard e Victoria Welby. Symbolon. Rivista annuale del centro interuniversitario per lo studio del tema simbolo letteratura scienze umane, V, 2, 2009, 113â132. Lecce: Milella, ed. Carlo Augieri . Petrilli, Susan 2010a Sign Crossroads in Global Perspective: Semioethics and Responsibility. Pref., viiâix, and intro., xiâxiii, by John Deely . New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Publishers. Petrilli, Susan 2010b Le risorse del significare. In V. Welby 2010, 11â96. Petrilli, Susan 2010c Three women in semiotics: Welby, Boole, Langer. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 182(1/4) (2010), 327â374.306 Petrilli, Susan 2012a Expression and Interpretation in Language. Pref. by Vincent Colapietro . New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Publishers. Petrilli, Susan 2012b Un mondo di segni: Lâavere senso e significare qualcosa. Bari: Laterza. Petrilli, Susan 2012c Altrove e altrimenti: Filosofia del linguaggio, critica letteraria e teoria della traduzione in, con e a partire da Bachtin. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan 2012d Semantics and critique of political economy in Adam Schaff. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 189(1/4) (2012), 133â168. Petrilli, Susan 2013a The Self as a Sign, the World, and the Other: Living Semiotics. Foreword by Augusto Ponzio . New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Publishers. Petrilli, Susan 2013b Translation as listening to the other: A semioethic approach. ATH. Acta translatologica helsingiensia, vol. 2, INTER, 2013, eds. Ritva HartamaHeinonem and Pirjo Kukkonen , 116â145. University of Helsinki, Finland (Department of Finnish, Finno-Ugrian, and Scandinavian Studies and the authors). Petrilli, Susan 2013c Early recognitions of Welbyâs significs and the movement it inspired in the Netherlands. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (ed.), 551â570. Petrilli, Susan 2014a Riflessioni sulla teoria del linguaggio e dei segni. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan 2014b Sign Studies and Semioethics: Communication, Translation, and Values. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Petrilli, Susan 2014c Nella vita dei segni. Percorsi della semiotica. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 1993a Peirce and medieval semiotics. In Peirce, Doctrine of Signs: Theory, Applications, and Connections, V. Colapietro and Th. Olshewsky (eds.), 392â405. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 1993b Exchange in Aliceâs world. In R. Fordyce and C. Morello (eds.), Semi-otica and Linguistics in Aliceâs Worlds, 1â5. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 1999 Fuori campo: I segni del corpo tra rappresentazione ed eccedenza. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2000a Philosophy of Language, Art and Answerability in Mikhail Bakhtin. New York, Ottawa, and Toronto: Legas. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2000b Il sentire della comunicazione globale. Rome: Meltemi. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2001 Thomas Sebeok and the Signs of Life. London: Icon Books. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2002a I segni e la vita: La semiotica globale di Thomas Sebeok. Milan: Spirali. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2002b Sign vehicles for semiotic travels: Two new handbooks. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 141(1/4), 203â350. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2003a Semioetica. Rome: Meltemi. (Now revised, updated, and enlarged for a forthcoming edition in English translation). Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2003b Views in Literary Semiotics. Eng. trans. and ed. by S. Petrilli . New York, Ottawa, and Toronto: Legas. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2003c Modeling, dialogue, and globality: Biosemiotics and semiotics of self. 1. Semiosis, modeling, and dialogism, by A. Ponzio, 4â63; 2. Biosemiotics, semiotics of self, and semioethics, by S. Petrilli, 65â107. Sign Systems Studies, 31(1), 4â107.307 Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2003â2004 The concept of language: Ferruccio Rossi-Landi and Thomas A. Sebeok. Lavoro immateriale. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XIV, 7, 2003â2004, 207â222. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2005 Semiotics Unbounded: Interpretive Routes in the Open Network of Signs. Toronto: Toronto University Press. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2007 Semiotics Today: From Global Semiotics to Semioethics, a Dialogic Response. Ottawa: Legas. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2008 Lineamenti di semiotica e di filosofia del linguaggio. Bari: Graphis. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2008â2009 (eds.) La trappola mortale dellâidentitÃ . Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XVIII, N. S., 11. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2010 Semioethics. In Paul Cobley 2010a, 150â162. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2011 Jakob von UexkÃ¼ll: A master of the sign. Paradigmi. Rivista di critica filosofica. Evoluzione, filosofia, ideologia. Ed. by Sergio Bucchi , n. 2-2011, 153â167. Milan: Franco Angeli. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2012a Semantics and critique of political economy in Adam Schaff. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 189(1/4) (2012), 133â168. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2012b Fuori luogo. Milan: Mimesis. Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2013 Biosemiotic scenarios. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 195 (2013), 1â36. Petrilli, Susan ; Sebeok, Thomas A. 1999e Women in semiotics. In G. F. Carr , W. Harbert , and L. Zhang (eds.), Interdigitations: Essays for Irmengard Rauch, 469â478. New York: Peter Lang, 1999; also in T. A. Sebeok , Global Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 145â153. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2001. Pietarinen, Ahti-Veikko 2013 Christine Ladd-Franklinâs and Victoria Welbyâs correspondence with Charles Peirce. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 139â162. Plato 1892 The Dialogues of Plato, translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A. in Five Volumes, 3rd edition revised and corrected. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Plato 2005 The Collected Dialogues of Plato: Including the Letters (Bollingen Series LXXI). Ed. by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Ponzio, Augusto 1973 Produzione linguistica e ideologia sociale. Bari: De Donato. New edition 2006. New expanded edition in French, Production linguistique et idÃ©ologie sociale. Candiac, QuÃ©bec: Les Editions Balzac, 1992. Ponzio, Augusto 1977 Marxismo, scienza e problema dellâuomo. Verona: Bertani. Ponzio, Augusto 1980 Michail Bachtin: Alle origini della semiotica sovietica. Bari: Dedalo. Ponzio, Augusto 1981 Segni e contraddizioni: Fra Marx e Bachtin. Verona: Bertani.308 Ponzio, Augusto 1985 Significs e semantica: Victoria Lady Welby e Giovanni Vailati. In V. Welby , Significato, metafora, interpretazione. Ed. by Susan Petrilli , 51â71. Bari: Adriatica. Ponzio, Augusto 1986 Economics. In T. A. Sebeok (ed.), Encyclopedic Dictionary of Semiotics, 215â217. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ponzio, Augusto 1988 Rossi-Landi e la filosofia del linguaggio. Bari: Adriatica. Ponzio, Augusto 1990a Man as a Sign: Essays on the Philosophy of Language. Eng. trans., ed., intro., 1â13, and Appendix I and II by S. Petrilli , 313â392. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Ponzio, Augusto 1990b Theory of meaning and theory of knowledge: Giovanni Vailati and Lady Welby. In H. Walter Schmitz (ed. and intro.), Essays on Significs, 165â178. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins, 1990. Ponzio, Augusto 1990c Rossi-Landi tra ideologie e scienze umane. Paper delivered at the International Conference, âRefractions: Literary Criticism, Philosophy and the Human Sciences in Contemporary Italy in the 1970s and the 1980s,â held at the Department of Comparative Literature della Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, 19â27 September 1990; published in Lavoro immateriale. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, 7, 2003â2004, ed. by S. Petrilli , 73â86. Rome: Meltemi. Ponzio, Augusto 1991 Filosofia del linguaggio 2: Segni, valori e ideologie. Bari: Adriatica. Ponzio, Augusto 1992 Fra semiotica e letteratura: Introduzione a Michail Bachtin. Milan: Bompiani. Revised edition 2003. Ponzio, Augusto 1993 Signs, Dialogue and Ideology. Eng. trans. and ed. by S. Petrilli . Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Ponzio, Augusto 1994 Scrittura, dialogo, alteritÃ : Tra Bachtin e Levinas. Florence: La Nuova Italia. Ponzio, Augusto 1995 ResponsabilitÃ e alteritÃ in Emmanuel Levinas. Milan: Jaca Book. Ponzio, Augusto 1996 Sujet et altÃ©ritÃ©: Sur Emmanuel Levinas, suivi de Deux dialogues avec Emmanuel Levinas. Paris: lâHarmattan. Ponzio, Augusto 1997a Metodologia della formazione linguistica. Rome and Bari: Laterza. Ponzio, Augusto 1997b Elogio dellâinfunzionale: Critica dellâideologia della produttivitÃ . Rome: Castelvecchi. Ponzio, Augusto 1997c From moral philosophy to philosophy of literature: Directions in Mikhail Bakhtinâs research from 1919 to 1929. Symbolon, 1(1/2), 57â83. Ponzio, Augusto 1997d La rivoluzione bachtiniana: Il pensiero di Bachtin e lâideologia contemporanea. Bari: Levante. Enlarged and revised for translation into Spanish, La revoluciÃ³n bajtiniana: El pensamiento de Bajtin y la ideologia contemporanea. Madrid: Cattedra, 1998. Ponzio, Augusto 1997e Luce. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, 8, 1997. Ed. by Augusto Ponzio . Ravenna: Bertani. Ponzio, Augusto 1999 La comunicazione. Bari: Graphis. Ponzio, Augusto 2001 Enunciazione e testo letterario nellâinsegnamento dellâitaliano come LS. Perugia: Guerra. Ponzio, Augusto 2002 Individuo umano, linguaggio e globalizzazione nella filosofia di Adam Schaff. Milan: Mimesis. Ponzio, Augusto 2003 Tra semiotica e letteratura: Introduzione a Michail Bachtin (revised and enlarged edition of the 1st 1992 edition, with a new introductory essay). Milan: Bompiani.309 Ponzio, Augusto 2004a Linguistica generale, scrittura letteraria e traduzione. Perugia: Guerra. Ponzio, Augusto 2004b Semiotica e dialettica. Bari. Graphis. Ponzio, Augusto 2006a The Dialogic Nature of Sign. Ottawa: Legas. Ponzio, Augusto 2006b The I questioned: Emmanuel LÃ©vinas and the critique of occidental reason. Subject Matters, special issue, 3(1) (2006), 1â42. (This issue includes contributions commenting on A. Ponzioâs essay by A. Z. Newton , M. B. Smith , R. Bernasconi , G. Ward , R. Burggraeve , B. Bergo , W. P. Simmons , and A. Aronowicz , 43â127). Ponzio, Augusto 2006c Metaphor and poetic logic in Vico. Perspectives on metaphor. Semiotica: Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, special issue, guest ed. Frank Nuessel , 161(1/4) (2006), 231â249. Ponzio, Augusto 2007a Fuori luogo. Milan: Mimesis. Ponzio, Augusto 2007b A mente: Processi cognitivi e apprendimento linguistico. Perugia: Guerra. Ponzio, Augusto 2008a Tra Bachtin e LÃ©vinas: Scrittura, dialogo, alteritÃ . Bari: Palomar, 2008. Ponzio, Augusto 2008b A revolusÃ£o bakhtiniana. SÃ£o Paulo, Brazil: Contexto. Ponzio, Augusto 2008c Linguaggio, lavoro e mercato globale: Rileggendo Rossi-Landi. Milan: Mimesis. Ponzio, Augusto 2008d Introduzione: La filosofia dellâaltra parola e la scrittura letteraria in Bachtin e nel suo circolo. In Mikhail M. Bakhtin 2008, 5â91. Ponzio, Augusto 2008e A revolusÃ£o bakhtiniana. SÃ£o Paulo, Brazil: Contexto. Ponzio, Augusto 2009a Da dove verso dove: La parola altra nella comunicazione globale. Perugia: Edizioni Guerra. Ponzio, Augusto 2009b Emmanuel Levinas, Globalisation, and Preventive Peace. Ottawa: Legas. Ponzio, Augusto 2010 Rencontres de paroles. Paris: Alain Baudry and Cie. Ponzio, Augusto 2011a Interpretazione e scrittura: Scienza dei testi ed eccedenza letteraria. Lecce: Pensa Multimedia. Ponzio, Augusto 2011b La filosofia del linguaggio. Bari: Edizioni Laterza. Ponzio, Augusto 2014 (ed.) Michail Bachtin e il suo circolo, with the assistance of Luciano Ponzio for the translation into Italian. Bilingual Russian-Italian edition. âIl pensiero occidentaleâ. Milan: Bompiani. Ponzio, Augusto ; Calabrese, Omar ; Petrilli, Susan 1993 La ricerca semiotica. Bologna: Esculapio. Ponzio, Augusto ; Calefato, Patrizia ; Petrilli, Susan 1994 Fondamenti di filosofia del linguaggio. Bari: Laterza; new edition, 1999. Posner, Roland ; Robering, Klaus ; Sebeok, Thomas A. 1997â2004 (eds.) Semiotik/Semiotics: A Handbook on the Sign-Theoretic Foundations of Nature and Culture, 4 vols. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter. Prodi, Giorgio 1977 Le basi materiali della significazione. Milan: Bompiani. Radford, Michael ; Troisi, Massimo 1994 Il postino. Penta Films. Cecchi Gori Group.310 Rauch, Irmengard 2013 Hic et nunc: Evidence from canine zoosemiotics. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 229â242. Richards, Ivor A. 1936 The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford: Oxford University Press; new edition, 1998. Richards, Ivor A. 1976 Complementarities: Uncollected Essays. Ed. by J. P. Russo . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Manchester, UK: Carcanet New Press, 1977. Richards, Ivor A. 1991 Richards on Rhetoric: Selected Essays 1929â1974. Ed. by A. E. Berthoff . New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ricoeur, Paul 1994 Filosofia e linguaggio. Ed. by D. Jervolino . Milan: Guerini. Ross, Gibson 1992 South of the West: Postcolonialism and the Narrative Construction of Australia. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1953 Charles Morris. Milan: Feltrinelli; new revised and enlarged edition, F. Rossi-Landi 1975b. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1961 Significato, comunicazione e parlare comune. Padua: Marsilio, 1980; new edition ed. by A. Ponzio , 2006. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1968 Il linguaggio come lavoro e come mercato. Milan: Bompiani; Language as Work and Trade. Eng. trans. by M. Adams et al. South Hadley, MA: Bergin and Garvey, 1983. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1970 Linguistic alienation problems. In S. Petrilli 1992a, 158â191. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1972 Semiotica e ideologia. Milan: Bompiani; 5th edition ed. by A. Ponzio , 2011. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1973 Ideologies of Linguistic Relativity. The Hague: Mouton. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1975a Linguistics and Economics. The Hague and Paris: Mouton; 2nd edition, 1977. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1975b Charles Morris e la semiotica novecentesca. Milan: Feltrinelli Bocca; revised and enlarged edition 1953. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1978 Ideologia. Milan: ISEDI; new expanded edition, Milan: Mondadori, 1982; new edition ed. by A. Ponzio , Rome: Meltemi, 2005. Marxism and Ideology. Eng. trans. from the 1982 edition by R. Griffin . Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1985 Metodica filosofica e scienza dei segni. Milan: Bompiani; new edition by A. Ponzio , 2006. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1992 Between Signs and Non-Signs. Ed. and intro., ixâxxix, by S. Petrilli . Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Russell, Bertrand 1903 The Principles of Mathemathics, vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.311 Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1905 On denoting. Mind, 14(56), 479â493. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1914 Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy. Chicago and London: Open Court. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1920 The meaning of âmeaningâ: A symposium by F. C. S. Schiller , H. H. Joachim. Mind, 29(116), 398â404. Rossi-Landi, Ferruccio 1959 My Philosophical Development. New York: Simon and Schuster. Russo, John P. 1989 I. A. Richards: His Life and Work. London: Routledge. Sandelands, Lloyd E. 1998 Feeling and Form in Social Life. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman and Littlefield. Saussure, Ferdinand de 1916 Cours de linguistique gÃ©nÃ©rale. Ed. by C. Bally and A. Sechehaye . Paris: Payot, 1922. Critical edition ed. by R. Engler . Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 4 vols., 1968â1974; Course in General Linguistics. Eng. trans. by W. Baskin , intro. by J. Culler . London: Peter Owen, 1959, 1974; and Eng. trans. by R. Harris . London: Duckworth, 1983; Corso di linguistica generale. Intro., It. trans., and comments by Tullio De Mauro . Rome: Laterza, 1967; 24th edition, 2011. Schaff, Adam 1960 Wstep do semantyki. Warsaw: PaÅstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe; Introduction to Semantics. Eng. trans. by O. Wojyasiewics . Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1962. Schaff, Adam 1964 Jezyk a poznanie. Warsaw: PaÅstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe; Sprache und Erkenntnis. German trans. Vienna: Europaverlag, 1966; Linguaggio e conoscenza. It. trans. by Maria Sinatra . Rome: Editori Riuniti, 1973; Language and Cognition. Eng. trans. by O. Wojtasiewicz , ed. by R. S. Cohen , intro. by Noam Chomsky . New York: McGraw Hill, 1973. Schaff, Adam 1965 Marksizm a jednostka ludzka. Warsaw: PaÅstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe; Il marxismo e la persona umana. It. trans. by L. Tulli . Milan: Feltrinelli, 1966; German trans. Marxismus und das menschliche individuum [Marxism and the human individual]. Vienna: Europaverlag, 1965; Eng. trans. Marxism and the Human Individual. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970. Schaff, Adam 1967 La dÃ©finition fonctionel de lâidÃ©ologie e le problÃ¨me de la âfin du siÃ¨cle de lâidÃ©ologie.â Lâhomme et la sociÃ©tÃ©, 4, 49â59. Schaff, Adam 1973 Language and Cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill. Schaff, Adam 1975 Marxismo e umanesimo: Per unâanalisi semantica delle âTesi su Feuer- bachâ di K. Marx. It. trans. from French and intro. by A. Ponzio . Bari: Dedalo. (Collects the texts of the debate between Adam Schaff and Lucien SÃ¨ve for the first time in a volume). Schaff, Adam 1977 Teoria della conoscenza, logica e semantica: Saggi filosofici, vol. I. It. trans. from German by M. Sinatra , intro. by A. Ponzio . Bari: Dedalo.312 Schaff, Adam 1978a Che cosa significa essere marxista: Saggi filosofici, vol. II. It. trans. from French and German by G. Mininni and A. Ponzio , intro. by A. Ponzio . Bari: Dedalo. Schaff, Adam 1978b La questione dellâumanesimo marxista: Saggi filosofici, vol. III. It. trans. from German by G. Mininni and M. Regina , intro. by A. Ponzio . Bari: Dedalo. Schaff, Adam 1980 Stereotypen und das menschliche Handeln. Vienna, Munich, Zurich: Europaverlag. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1901 The Welby Prize. In F. C. S. Schiller (ed.), Mind! A unique review of ancient and modern philosophy. Edited by a troglodyte with the co-operation of The Absolute and others. New series, special illustrated Christmas number: 128. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1902 Axioms as postulates. In H. Sturt (ed.), Personal Idealism, 47â133. London: Macmillan. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1907 Studies in Humanism. London: Macmillan. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1908 Plato or Protagoras. London: Blackwell. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1912 Formal Logic: A Scientific and Social Problem. London: Macmillan. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1920 The meaning of âmeaningâ: A symposium by B. Russell and H. H. Joachim . Mind, 29(116), 387â397. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1921a The meaning of âmeaning.â Mind, 30(118), 185â190. Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott 1921b The meaning of âmeaning.â Mind, 30(120), 444â447. Schmitz, Walter H. 1985 Victoria Lady Welbyâs Significs: The origin of the signific movement. In V. Welby 1985a, ixâccxxxv. Schmitz, Walter H. 1990a (ed.) Essays on Significs: Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Victoria Lady Welby. Pref. by H. W. Schmitz , iâix. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Schmitz, Walter H. 1990b Frederik van Eeden and the introduction of significs into the Netherlands: From Lady Welby to Mannoury. In H. W. Schmitz 1990a, 219â246. Schultz, William 2000 Cassirer and Langer on Myth: An Introduction. London: Routledge. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1979 The Sign and Its Masters. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press; 2nd ed., Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1989; Il segno e i suoi maestri. It. trans., ed., and intro. by S. Petrilli and A. Ponzio . Bari: Adriatica, 1985. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1981 The Play of Musement. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1986 I Think I Am a Verb: More Contributions to the Doctrine of Signs. New York and London: Plenum Press; Penso di essere un verbo. It. trans., ed., and intro., 11â18, by S. Petrilli . Palermo: Sellerio, 1990.313 Sebeok, Thomas A. 1991a Semiotics in the United States. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; Sguardo sulla semiotica Americana. It. trans., ed., and intro., 1â11, by S. Petrilli . Milan: Bompiani, 1992. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1991b A Sign Is Just a Sign. Bloomington, IN, and Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press; A sign is just a sign: La semiotica globale. It. trans. and intro., 7â19, by S. Petrilli . Milan: Spirali, 1998. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1991c American Signatures: Semiotic Inquiry and Method. Ed. and intro. by I. Smith . Norman, OK, and London: Oklahoma Press. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1994 Signs: An Introduction to Semiotics. Toronto: Toronto University Press; new edition, 2001; Segni: Introduzione alla semiotica. It. trans. and intro., 11â44, by S. Petrilli . Rome: Carrocci, 2004. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1995 From Vico to Cassirer to Langer. In M. Danesi (ed.), Giambattista Vico and Anglo-American Science, 159â170. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sebeok, Thomas A. 2000 Some reflections of Vico in semiotics. In D. G. Lockwood , P. H. Fries , and J. E. Copeland (eds.), Functional Approaches to Language, Culture and Cognition, 555â568. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Sebeok, Thomas A. 2001 Global Semiotics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Sebeok, Thomas A. 2010 Biosemiotics. In P. Cobley 2010a, 179â181. Sebeok, Thomas A. ; Danesi, Marcel 2000 The Forms of Meanings: Modeling Systems Theory and Semiotic Analysis. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sebeok, Thomas A. ; Petrilli, Susan ; Ponzio, Augusto 2001 Semiotica dellâio. Rome: Meltemi. Sebeok, Thomas A. ; Petrilli, Susan 1999 Women in Semiotics. In G. F. Carr , W. Harbert , L. Zhang (eds.), Inter-digitations: Essays for Irmengard Rauch, 469â478. New York: Peter Lang, 1999; now in T. A. Sebeok 2001, 145â153. Seymour-Smith, Martin ; Kimmens, Andrew C. 1996 (eds.) World Authors 1900â1950, vol. 2. New York: Wilson Co. Simons, Luke 2004 Regaining Victoria Welby. Editorial. The Semiotic Review of Books, 14(1) (2004), 1â4. http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/srb. Slattery, Sister Mary Francis 1987 Looking at Susanne Langerâs expressionism. British Journal of Aesthetics, 27 (Summer 1987), 247â258. Song, Wen 2013 In search of the other: Reading Victoria Welbyâs significs. In F. Nuessel et al. (eds.), 443â455.314 Stevenson, Charles S. 1958 Symbolism in the nonrepresentative arts. In P. Henle (ed.), Language, Thought, and Culture, ch. 8, 196â225. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Stirner, Max 1972 [1844] Der einzige und sein eigentum. Ed. by Ahlrich Meyer . Stuttgart: Reclam. Stoddard, Hope 1970 Famous American Women. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. Szasz, Thomas S. 2001 Pharmacracy: Medicine and Politics in America. Westport, CT: Praeger; new edition, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003. Tarasti, Eero 2003 (ed.) Understanding/Misunderstanding: Contributions to the Study of the Hermeneutics of Signs, Acta Semiotica Fennica XVI. International Semiotics Institute at Imatra, Semiotic Society of Finland. Helsinki: Hakapaino, 2003. Tarasti, Eero 2013 Victoria Lady Welby: A pioneer of semiotic thought rediscovered by Susan Petrilli. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 21â34. TÃ¶nnies, Ferdinand 1899â1900 Philosophical terminology (I-III). (âWelby Prize Essay,â trans. by Mrs. B. Bosanquet ). Mind, 8(31â32), 286â332, 467â491, 9(33), 46â61. TÃ¶nnies, Ferdinand 1901 Note. Mind, 10(38), 204â209. TÃ¶nnies, Ferdinand 1906 Philosophische terminologie in psychologisch-soziologischer ansicht (= âWelby Prize Essay,â 1906). Leipzig, Germany: Thomas. TÃ¶nnies, Ferdinand 1988 Terminologie philosophique du point de vue psycho-sociologique (= extract in French trans. of F. TÃ¶nnies 1906; see also TÃ¶nnies 1899â1900). Intro. by H. W. Schmitz , 215â217. In B. Nerlich 1988, 219â228. Vailati, Giovanni 1898 Il metodo deduttivo come strumento di ricerca. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. II, 18â48. Vailati, Giovanni 1899 Alcune osservazioni sulle questioni di parole nella storia della scienza e della cultura. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. II, 49â74. Vailati, Giovanni 1905a Le rÃ´le des paradoxes dans la philosophie. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 15â20. Vailati, Giovanni 1905b I tropi della logica. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 21â28. Vailati, Giovanni 1905c La caccia alla antitesi. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 29â36. Vailati, Giovanni 1905d La ricerca dellâimpossibile. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 59â66. Vailati, Giovanni 1905e Sullâarte dâinterrogare. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. III, 279â293. Vailati, Giovanni 1906 Pragmatismo e logica matematica. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 67â72. Vailati, Giovanni 1908a La grammatica dellâalgebra. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 92â110. Vailati, Giovanni 1908b Il linguaggio come ostacolo alla eliminazione di contrasti illusori. In G. Vailati 1987, vol. I, 111â115.315 Vailati, Giovanni 1967 Il metodo della filosofia: Saggi di critica del linguaggio. Ed. and intro. by F. Rossi-Landi . Bari: Laterza; new edition, Il metodo della filosofia: Scritti scelti. Ed. by A. Ponzio . Bari: Adriatica, 2000. Vailati, Giovanni 1971 Epistolario 1891â1909. Ed. by G. Lanaro , intro. by M. Dal Pra . Turin: Einaudi. Vailati, Giovanni 1987 Scritti, 3 vols. Ed. by M. Quaranta . Sala Bolognese: Arnaldo Forni Editore. Vailati, Giovanni 2000 Il metodo della filosofia: Saggi di critica del linguaggio. Ed. by F. Rossi- Landi , ried. A. Ponzio . Bari: Graphis. Vaughan, Genevieve 1978 Saussure and Vygotsky via Marx. Ars Semiotica, 2, 57â83. Vaughan, Genevieve 1980 Communication and exchange. Semiotica. Journal of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, 29(1/2), 113â143. Vaughan, Genevieve 1997 For-Giving: A Feminist Criticism of Exchange. Austin, TX: Plain View Press. Vaughan, Genevieve 2004 Il Dono / The Gift: A Feminist Analysis. Athanor. Semiotica, filosofia, arte, letteratura, XV, ns. 8, 2004. Roma: Meltemi Editore. Vaughan, Genevieve 2007 (ed.) Women and the Gift Economy: A Radically Different Worldview Is Possible. Toronto: Inanna. Vaughan, Genevieve 2013 Mother sense and the image schema of the gift. In F. Nuessel et al. 2013 (eds.), 57â78. Vico, Giambattista 1999 (1725, 1730, 1744) Scienza nuova. In A. Battistini (ed.), Opere, vol. 1, 2. Milan: Mondadori. Voloshinov, Valentin N. 1926 Slovo v zhizni i slovo v poezii. Zvezda, 6 (1926). Eng. trans. by J. Richmond , Discourse in life and discourse in poetry: Questions of sociological poetics. In A. Shukman (ed.), Bakhtin School Papers, 5â30. Somerton, UK, and Oxford: RPT Publications; Colchester, UK: Department of Literature, University of Essex, 1988. Voloshinov, Valentin N. 1927 Frejdizm. Moscow and Leningrad: Gosizdat; Freudianism: A Critical Sketch. Eng. trans. by I. R. Titunik , ed. by I. R. Titunik with N. H. Bruss . Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987. (Freudianism : A Marxian Critique. Eng. trans. London: Seminar Press, 1973). Voloshinov, Valentin N. 1929 Marksizm i filosofija jazyca. Moscow and Leningrad: Priboj; 2nd edition, 1930; Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Eng. trans. by L. Matejka and I. R. Titunik . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973; new edition, 1986. Vuysje, David 1953 Significs: Its tendency, methodology, and applications. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 80(3), 223â270. Warnock, Mary 1996 (ed.) Women Philosophers. London: J. M. Dent.316 Weinrich, Harald 1976 Metafora e menzogna: La serenitÃ dellâarte. Essays collected in It. trans. by L. R. Santini . Bologna: Il Mulino. Weitz, Morris 1954 Symbolism and Art. Review of Metaphysics, 7. Welby, Victoria 1852 A Young Travellerâs Journal of a Tour in North and South America during the Year 1850. With numerous illustrations by the authoress engraved by T. Bolton . London: T. Bosworth. Welby, Victoria 1881 Links and Clues. London: Macmillan and Co., 1883 (2e.). A selection of passages is now available in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1885 The unity of creation. Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886a Death and life. Grantham: W. Clarke (Late L. Ridge). Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886b Light. Grantham: W. Clarke. (Reprinted in The Expositor, third series, 4(2), 148â150, 1886. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886c The evolution of heliology. The Spectator, (April 24), 545. Reprinted as a private publication from The Spectator. Grantham: W. Clarke. Subsequently included in V. Welby 1897a, 129â136. Also in C. Ladiesâ College Magazine (Spring 1889), 1â5. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886d The living test. Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886e The ministry of women: A suggested eirenicon. Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1886f Threefold laws / Law of the three stages / The triad / The tendency to triads. Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1887 The secret of life. Grantham: W. Clarke. Welby, Victoria 1888 Truthfulness in science and religion. The Church Quarterly Review, 27 (53) (October), 101â120. Welby, Victoria 1890a Is there a break in mental evolution? Paper read at the Leeds Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Leeds, 5 September 1890. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 60, 972â973. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1890b Abstract of an apparent paradox in mental evolution. A paper (based on one called âIs there a break in mental evolution?,â read before the British Association at Leeds, 5 September 1890) by V. W. to be read at the Anthropological Institute on 9 December 1890. [3 pages]. Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1890c New wine in old bottles. The Open Court, 4(137), 2193â2194. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1891a An apparent paradox in mental evolution. Paper read by the secretary at the Anthropological Institute, 9 December 1890). The Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 21(May 1891), 304â329. Includes âDiscussion.â Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1891b Breath and the name of the soul. The Open Court, 5, 2893â2895. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a.317 Welby, Victoria 1891c Witnesses to Ambiguity: A Collection. Grantham: W. Clarke (Late L. Ridge). Welby, Victoria 1892a The significance of folk-lore. In J. Jacobs and A. Nutt (eds.), The International Folk-Lore Congress, 1891. Papers and Transactions, 394â407. London: David Nutt. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1892b The Use of the âInnerâ and âOuterâ in Psychology: Does the Metaphor Help or Hinder? A small collection of extracts bearing on this question respectfully submitted to the International Congress of Experimental Psychology, August 1892. For private circulation. Grantham: W. Clarke (Late L. Ridge). Welby, Victoria 1893a A Selection of Passages from âMindâ (January 1876 to July 1892), âNatureâ (1870 and 1888 to 1892), âNatural Scienceâ (1892), bearing on changes and defects in the significance of terms and in the theory and practice of logic. For private circulation only. August 1893. Grantham: W. Clarke (Late L. Ridge) Welby, Victoria 1893b Meaning and metaphor. The Monist, 3(4), 510â525. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a, 421â430. Welby, Victoria 1896 Sense, meaning and interpretation. Mind, N. S., 5(17), 24â37, 5(18), 186â202. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a, 430â449. Welby, Victoria 1897 Grains of Sense. London: J. M. Dent and Co. A selection of passages is now available in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1898 The Witness of Science to Linguistic Anarchy. A collection of extracts, chiefly from Nature, Science, and Natural Science. Grantham: W. Clarke. Welby, Victoria 1901 Notes on the âWelby Prize Essay.â Mind, N. S., 10(38), 188â204, 209. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1902a (with G. F. Stout ) Sensal. In J. M. Baldwin 1901â1905, vol. 2, 515. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1902b (with G. F. Stout and J. M. Baldwin ) Significs. In J. M. Baldwin 1901â1905, vol. 2, 529. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1902c Translation. In J. M. Baldwin 1901â1905, vol. 2, 712. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1903 What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance. London: Macmillan; new edition, with the addition of writings by others, see Welby 1983. Welby, Victoria 1904a Comment on C. F. Salmondâs review of âWhat Is Meaning?,â 9â10. In Reprinted review of âWhat Is Meaning?,â 1â10. (Originally published in The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand, 30 November 1903). Privately printed, Grantham: W. Clarke. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1904b Significs. To the editor of the âFortnightly Review.â The Fortnightly Review, N. S., 76(455), 947. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1905 Eugenics. From V. Lady Welby. (Written communication on eugenics: Its definition, scope and aims. By Mr. Francis Galton). Sociological Papers, 1 (1904), 76â78. London: Macmillan. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1906a A confession in doggerel. The University Review, 2(10), 440â444. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1906b The kingâs English. The University Review, 3(14) (August), 448â453. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a.318 Welby, Victoria 1906c From the Hon. Lady Welby. (Written communication on eugenics. By Mr. Francis Galton). Sociological Papers, 2 (1905), 43â45. London: Macmillan. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a. Welby, Victoria 1908 The social value of expression. Typescript. Now in V. Welby 1985a , ccliiâcclxvii; and in S. Petrilli 2009a, 260â263. Welby, Victoria 1910 Jesus or Christ? The Hibbert Journal, 8(2), 430â433. Welby, Victoria 1911a Significs and Language: The Articulate Form of Our Expressive and Interpretative Resources. London: Macmillan and Co. Now included with some of her other writings in Welby 1985a . Welby, Victoria 1911b Significs. In Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, vol. XXV, 78â81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In C. Hardwick 1977, 167â175. Now in S. Petrilli 2009a, 345â350. Welby, Victoria 1983 [1903] What Is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance. Ed. and pref. by A. Eschbach , ixâxxxii, intro. by G. Mannoury , xxxivâxlii (= Foundations of Semiotics 2). Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Welby, Victoria 1985a Significs and Language. Ed. and intro. by H. W. Schmitz (= Foundations of Semiotics 5). Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. (Includes Welbyâs monograph of 1911, Significs and Language, and a selection of other writings by her). Welby, Victoria 1985b Significato, metafora, interpretazione. It. trans., ed., and intro. by S. Petrilli . Bari: Adriatica. Welby, Victoria 2007 Senso, significato, significativitÃ . It. trans., intro., Il senso e il valore del significare, viiâlx, and ed. by S. Petrilli . Bari: Graphis. Welby, Victoria 2009 Signifying and Understanding: Reading the Works of Victoria Welby and the Signific Movement. Pref. by P. Cobley. Berlin: Mouton. (This monograph by S. Petrilli includes a vast selection of published and unpublished writings by Victoria Welby). Welby, Victoria 2010 Interpretare, comprendere, comunicare. It. trans., ed., and intro., Le risorse del significare, 11â96, by S. Petrilli. Rome: Carocci. Welby Collection at the York University Archives and Special Collections, Scott Library, York University, Downsview, Toronto, Ontario, Canada . The Welby Collection presents forty-two boxes divided into two main sections: Box 1â21: correspondence, 1861â1912; Box 22â42: subject files. Welby, Victoria ; Van Eeden , Frederik 1954 Biefwisseling met Lady Welby [includes correspondence exchanged between F. van Eeden and V. Welby from 13 Augut 1892 to 11 February 1912]. Mededelingen van het Frederik van Eeden-Genootschap, 14 Jan. 1954. Wells, Herbert George 2005 [1905] A Modern Utopia. With an intro. by Francis Wheen. London: Penguin Books. Whitehead, Alfred North ; Russell, Bertrand 1910 Principia Mathematica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.319 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1922 Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Eng. trans. by C. K. Ogden . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (= First Eng. translation. German orig. Logisch- Philosophische Abhandlung. Ed. by Wilhelm Ostwald. Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14, 1921. Parallel edition including the German text on the facing page to the English text, 1981, Eng. trans. by David Pears and Brian McGuinness , with an intro. by Bertrand Russell. London: Routledge, 1961). Wittgenstein, Ludwig 1953 Philosophical Investigations, Eng. trans. by G. E. M. Anscombe . Oxford: Blackwell. (German orig. Philosophische Untersuchungen). Yerkes, Robert M. 1943 Chimpanzees: A Laboratory Colony. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.