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Imagining the Celts: the Celtic Image As Known from Historical, Linguistic

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Imagining the Celts: the Celtic Image As Known from Historical, Linguistic Imagining the Celts: The Celtic image as known from historical, linguistic and archaeological sources, compared to the view on the Celts in the British (popular) media of the last five years (2010-2015) F.L. Vleeshouwer (s0919934) Master Thesis Supervisors: Prof. Dr. H. Fokkens; Dr. M.H. van den Dries Prehistory of North-western Europe / Heritage Management University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Amsterdam, December 2015 Table of contents a. List of figures and appendices 7 1. Theoretical background and research questions 10 1.1. The Celts: European heritage 10 1.2. Research questions and methodology 10 2. The Celtic image 13 2.1. Introduction 13 2.2. The Classical authors 13 2.3. Medieval sources 16 2.4. The first antiquaries and linguists of the Renaissance and Enlightenment era 18 2.4.1. Historical background 18 2.4.2. The first linguists and a growing conception of Insular Celticness 19 2.5. Romanticism and nationalism 20 2.5.1. Romantic Celtomania 20 2.5.2. Celtic nationalism of the nineteenth and early twentieth century 23 2.6. Archaeology and art 26 2.6.1. The first archaeologists: finding Hallstatt and La Tène 26 2.6.2. Celtic art: art history and links with archaeology 27 2.6.3. Archaeological theories of the later nineteenth century 28 2.7. Modern developments 29 2.7.1. The modern world 29 2.7.2. Modern Celticism 29 2.7.3. New theories and Celtoscepticism 33 3. Who were the Celts? History, mythology, linguistics, and archaeology 34 3.1. Introduction 34 3.2. Historical accounts: the Classical image 34 3.3. Mythological cycles of Ireland and Britain 38 3.4. Linguistics and philology 40 3.4.1. The origins of the Celtic languages 41 3.4.2. Modern Celtic languages 43 3.5. Archaeology and art 45 3.5.1. Some general remarks 45 3.5.2. Hallstatt: “Kings and princes” 46 3.5.2.1. Burial ritual 48 3.5.2.2. Settlements and structures 51 3.5.2.3. Ritual practices 51 3.5.2.4. Art style 52 3.5.3. La Tène: “Warriors and migrations” 52 3.5.3.1. Art and symbolism 54 3.5.3.2. Ritual practices 56 3.5.3.3. Burial ritual 56 3.5.3.4. Migrations 57 3.5.3.5. The second and first century BC 58 3.5.4. Survivals of “La Tène” art 60 4. Problems regarding the interpretation of the sources 62 4.1. Introduction 62 4.2. Problems regarding the Classical accounts 62 4.2.1. A one-sided view 62 4.2.2. The origin and meaning of the name “Keltoi” 62 4.2.3. Identity 63 4.2.4. Outsider’s view: misinterpretations, embellishments, and propaganda 64 4.2.5. Other problems 64 4.3. Problems regarding the medieval literature 65 4.4. Problems combining the historical, archaeological and linguistic sources 66 4.4.1. Some general remarks 67 4.4.2. The problem of circular argumentation 67 4.4.3. Ethnicity and genetics 69 4.5. Who were and are the Celts? 70 5. The popular image of the Celts 72 5.1. Introduction 72 5.2. Methodology: textual content analysis of the sources 72 5.3. Used data, codes, and categories 72 5.4. Results 73 5.4.1. General observations 74 5.4.2. General: Time period 75 5.4.3. General: Academics and Classical historians 76 5.4.4. Celtic regions: Cultures, countries, and language 77 5.4.5. Celtic society: Tribal and local 78 5.4.6. Celtic society: Material culture and settlement 79 5.4.7. Celtic society: Elite culture, feasting, and trade 80 5.4.8. Celtic warriors and warfare 81 5.4.9. Celtic religion and ritual 81 5.4.10. Celtic art, artists, and craftsmen 83 5.4.11. Celtic society: Common people 84 5.4.12. Celtic society: Migrations 84 5.4.13. Celtic society: Women 85 5.5. Analysis and discussion of the results 86 6. Discussion: Do we have to abandon the term “Celtic”? 89 7. Concluding remarks: evaluation of methodology and results 92 8. Abstract 95 9. Bibliography 96 10. Appendix 106 6 a. List of figures and appendices Figures 1. The Dying Gaul (Farley and Hunter 2015, 20) 15 2. Ogham stone (wikipedia.org) 17 3. The Druids: Bringing in the Mistletoe (Farley and Hunter 2015, 236) 21 4. A Breton gorsedd (Green 1997, 154) 22 5. Boadicea and her daughters (Farley and Hunter 2015, 259) 25 6. Multi-language traffic sign (thejournal.ie) 30 7. Modern Druids at Stonehenge (Green 1997, 173) 32 8. A modern “Celtic” motif (Farley and Hunter 2015, 23) 32 9. “Celtic” areas according to the Classical authors (Collis 2008, 23) 34 10. The wicker man (Green 1997, 75) 37 11. Cú Chulainn in battle (wikipedia.org) 40 12. Diagram of “Celtic” languages (Cunliffe 1997, 23) 41 13. Distribution of place-names ending in -briga and -dunum (Collis 2003, 130) 43 14. Location of Hallstatt (Cunliffe 1997, 28) 47 15. Hallstatt western and eastern zone (after Megaw and Megaw 1989, 31) 49 16. Reconstruction of Hochdorf grave (in Cunliffe 1997, 59) 49 17. The La Tène type site (Cunliffe 1997, 31) 53 18. Torc and bracelets from Waldalgesheim (Farley and Hunter 2015, 69) 55 19. La Tène art styles (after Farley and Hunter 2015, 55-56) 55 20. Migrations (Farley and Hunter 2015, 27) 58 21. Gold coins from Brittany (after Farley and Hunter 2015, 115) 59 22. Decoration from the Book of Kells (Farley and Hunter 2015, 22) 60 23. “The Celts”, a game on the BBC website (bbc.co.uk) 75 24. Website header of the British Museum (britishmuseum.org) 76 25. Headline in the Daily Mail (dailymail.co.uk) 83 7 26. Boudicca: still from documentary (bbc.co.uk) 85 Tables 1. Table 1. Hallstatt phases 48 2. Table 2. La Tène phases 52 Appendices: tables and lists 1. Table 3. Classical authors mentioning the Celts and the British 106 Isles 2. List 1. Documentaries and TV programmes 109 3. List 2. Articles and information published on newswebsites 110 and in magazines 4. List 3. Museum exhibitions 114 5. List 4. Books 115 6. Table 4. Time period 116 7. Table 5. Academics and Classical historians 117 8. Table 6. Regions, areas, languages, and cultures 118 9. Table 7. Modern Celticity 120 10. Table 8. General terms used in association with “Celtic” 121 society 11. Table 9. Material culture 122 12. Table 10. Settlement and structure(s) 124 13. Table 11. Elite culture, feasting, trade 125 14. Table 12. Warriors, warfare, and freedom fighters 126 15. Table 13. Religion and ritual 129 16. Table 14. Art, artists, and craftsmen 132 17. Table 15. Common life 134 18. Table 16. Migrations 135 19. Table 17. Women 136 20. Table 18. Words associated with “Celtic” 137 21. Table 19. Words associated with “Roman” 138 8 9 1. Theoretical background and research questions 1.1. The “Celts”: European heritage The “Celts” must be the most well-known prehistoric European people. Say “Celt”, and many people will at least have one or two images coming to mind. These images might feature a blue-painted warrior, fighting the Romans; a cloaked Druid, cutting mistletoe; a bard, singing songs in a mystical language; a monk, decorating his manuscripts with elaborate, Jugendstil-like patterns; or an Irish fiddler, playing an upbeat reel. Needless to say, this picture of the “Celt” is very diverse, containing both ancient and more modern elements. It is clear that the “Celtic” culture, whatever is understood by it, is immensely popular. “Celtic” music is played throughout the world (Chapman 1992). “Celtic” language and history courses can be followed at universities and schools, from Australia to the USA (Haywood 2004). The presumed “Celtic” religion, Druidism, is still practiced, and many countries have their own chief Druid (druidry.org; Green 1997). Moreover, a huge amount of (popular-)scientific books and articles is written on the subject every year; documentaries and museum exhibits on “the Celts” are guaranteed to draw a lot of attention (Collis 1997). The label “Celtic” is applied to almost everything to come out of the modern “Celtic” countries, or countries with a presumed “Celtic” heritage (James 1999). This interest in the “Celts” is not something new. Greek and Roman writers already described the “Celtic” people they encountered as far back as the sixth century BC. During the Renaissance and Romantic era, too, the “Celts” were intensively studied, which resulted in the eighteenth century Celtomania. Scholars and scientists have also contributed to the picture. The “Celts” have had a long history, not only during their own day, but also long after that. The image of them has been formed and reformed, and has been used and reused for multiple purposes (Chapman 1992; Collis 2003). But, the question remains: who exactly were the “Celts”? This question is much harder to answer than it seems. Of course, there is a traditional view on who the “Celts” were: a prehistoric European people of the Iron Age, speaking a “Celtic” language and leaving a specific material culture behind, of which the art style is most well-known. These ancient people originated in Central Europe, and were eventually pushed into the fringes of the European continent, surviving only in the outer Western regions such as Ireland, Wales, and Brittany (Filip 1962; Piggott 1968; Powell 1958). However, it seems that this 10 traditional view is not at all as simple as it is sometimes presented; it has proven difficult to give an exact definition of the “Celt”, a definition valuable and true for every area where and every period during which the “Celts” are encountered (Chapman 1992).
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