Compliance Engineering Journal ISSN NO: 0898-3577

A study on Gender Gap in Higher Education in ().

RAHIN CHANDRA DAS; Assistant Professor; Dept. of Economics; College, Bongaigaon; Assam; Email id: [email protected]

Abstract

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, belief, values and habits. It improves quality of life such that, attaining education one becomes more aware about socio-economic obstacles. Higher education is a most powerful tool to upgrade one’s efficiency to handle social, economic, moral and cultural issues. Education empowers women to overcome social, mental and economic barriers faced by them. In India, the “Right to Education” is for free and compulsory education to the children of the age group 6 to 14 years. But higher education is yet to achieve such a governmental facility. Gender Gap or Gender Inequality in education is being considered as an obstacle to Human Development. Absence of gender gap in education enhances legal, social and economic security for the women. This study is an attempt to investigate the nature of gender gape in higher education on the basis of secondary information collected for Assam.

Assam is a state of North-East India where people of different castes and tribes are considered as aborigines. Gender gape in higher education in Assam is found in different kinds. Percentage of women enrolment, Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) and Gender Parity Index (GPI) are found different not only at courses levels but also found different at cast and community basis. However, gender gap in higher education is found as gradually as narrowing in Assam compared to some other states of India.

Keywords: Higher education, socio-economic obstacles, women empowerment, Right to Education, Gender Gap, Human Development, Gross Enrolment Ratio and Gender Parity Index.

1. INTRODUCTION

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, belief, values and habits. It improves quality of life such that, attaining education one becomes more aware about socio-economic obstacles. Higher education is a most powerful tool to upgrade one’s efficiency to handle social, economic, moral and cultural issues. It discourages discrimination based on gender, beliefs, religion and social class and encourages democratic governance (Isani & Virk, 2000, Kramarae, 2000; McClelland & Evans, 1992). Education empowers women to overcome social, mental and economic barriers faced by them. Education enhances legal, social and economic security for the women. In India, the “Right to Education” is for free and compulsory education to the children of the age group 6 to 14 years. But higher education is yet to achieve such a governmental facility.

According to census 2011, female literacy rate in India is 65.46% which is far behind male literacy rate 82.14%. Female literacy rate 65.46% of India is too lower than world’s female literacy rate 79.7% and China’s female literacy rate of 82.7%. Even disparity is found in women education among the states in India. Highest female literacy rate is 92.07

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% for Kerala and lowest is 51.5% for Bihar. In Assam, female literacy rate is 66.27% and male literacy rate is 77.85%.

Regarding higher , Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is 25.8% which is calculated for 18-23 years of age group. GER for female is 25.4% and it is less than GER for male 26.3% (AISHE Report-2017-18). Although India aims at attain a GER of 30% by 2020, it’s still much behind countries like China, which, currently, boasts an enrolment ratio of 43.39%. USA’s GER is 85.8%.

According to All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) report 2017-18, student enrolment at Under Graduate level has 51.9% male and 48.1% female. Diploma has a skewed distribution with 68% males and 32% females. Ph.D. level has 57.4% male and 42.6% female. Integrated levels have 58.4% male and 41.6% female. PG Diploma student enrolment is 54% for male students and 46% for female students. It is confirmed that there is gender gap in higher education in India.

Particularly, Assam’s GER 18.2% in the year 2017-18 is extremely lower than the highest state level GER 56.4% achieved by . In Assam, GER for male is 18.6% and that is for female is 17.8%. Highest male GER is 49.1% (Tamil Nadu) and highest female GER is 67.7% (Chandigarh) in India. It proves that Assam’s GER is lower compared to other states of India. Similar to the most of the states of India, state of Assam also has gender gap in higher education.

Objectives: Two objectives have been taken in this study,

a. To study the enrolment trend in higher education in Assam. b. To study the nature of gender gap in higher education in Assam.

Hypothesis: Considering the above two objectives this study has taken two hypothesis,

a. Status of higher education in Assam is poor. b. There is gender gap in higher education in Assam.

Methodology: Basis of the investigation is on secondary sources of information taken from AISHE Report-2017-18, Statistical Hand Book of Assam, Economic Survey of India and Global Data Lab (https://globaldatalab.org). At the time of analysis of finding, different tables of numerical information and graphical presentations are done.

The study area Assam is one of the eight states of Northeast India. She is situated south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of 78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi). This state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; and to the east; , Tripura, Mizoram and Bangladesh to the south; and West Bengal to the west. Assam is connected to the rest of India via the Siliguri Corridor, a 22 kilometres (14 mi) strip of land. According to Census 2011, population of Assam is 31205576 with 51.08 % male population and 48.92% female population. The percentage of rural population is 85.90% and that of urban population is 14.10% only. Literacy rate for Assam is 72.19% out of which Urban literacy rate is 88.47% and rural literacy rate is 69.34%.

2. Review of Literature

Several studies have been carried out by the researchers on existing gender gaps in the higher education in international, national or local level. Singh (2008) found that the

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overall gender distribution of academic staff above senior lecturer level, 25.3% were women compared to 74.7% men in 2006 in the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU). Even in higher posts, only 9.8% of executive heads were women in Commonwealth Higher Education Institutions in the same year 2006. Morley (2006) found that women face gender bias and discrimination treatment at their workplaces as per personal narratives and experiences conveyed by many women academics. Stiver, Barnes and Harding (1994), found the gender gap in the university were two dimensions status and power differentials among faculties and administrators. Women face biasness in choosing subject and career during their student life due to which there is an under representation of women at high level positions. The proportions of women are largely dependent on their enrolment and completion of higher education to secure academic positions. Assié-Lumumba (2007), Gaidzanwa (2007), Meena (2007) and Odora-Hoppers (2007) viewed that the cause of not adoption of any policies on gender equity in the older institutions and the some of the recent ones in Africa until recently. According to them, the causes may be due to the Europeans who were instrumental to the establishment of the institutions at that time had not adopted any gender-equality policies in access, output, and outcome in their own countries. Mlama (1998) identified indicators of the unwelcoming atmosphere for female students in the higher education. This unwelcoming atmosphere is characterized by its 'maleness', sexual harassment and some shortcomings of the lecturers in hitherto male-dominated subjects make practically impossible for female students to benefit fully from their learning experience. In such atmosphere, the few enrolled female students bound to feel loneliness due to lack of support from fellow female students. In Indian studies, Tilak (2015) observed that during the post- independence period, there was a significant improvement in women’s participation in higher education in India. Ghara (2016) found that the women participation in higher education was increasing in almost all states in India since 1970-71 till 2015-16. The women enrolment in higher education was also increasing. The rate of increase was slow in almost all the states of India. According to him, female enrolment in higher education is dependent on women teachers. The expectation is still to achieve. Thus, establishment of higher educational institutes for women especially in rural areas were still in dearth and women enrolment was still low as compared men enrolment.

3. Higher Education in Assam

Assam is a backward state with poor educational infrastructure. In case of higher education, Assam has limited number of educational institutions. According to the All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) Report 2017-18, AISHE portal registered number of higher education institution is 604, out of which universities are 21, degree colleges are 512 and state-alone institutions (not affiliated universities) are 71. Out of the total 21 universities, general universities are 12, agricultural university is 1, cultural studies is 1, law university is 1, medical university is 1 and technical universities are 4.

Number of colleges per lake population (18-23 years age group) is 14 only in Assam but this figure for all over India is 28. Average enrolment per college in Assam is 983 and it is higher than national average of 698 for all over India. Thus, number of higher education institutions is lower and students have limited options for higher education in Assam.

After completion of secondary level, majority of the students in Assam get admitted in under graduate courses. After completion of graduation, students go either for post graduation or for post graduate diploma courses. And after post graduation students go either for M Phil or for PhD. Diploma and certificate courses may be done at under graduate level also.

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PhD Others 2017-18 Others 2016-17 Integrat 1% 3% 5% PhD PG 0% PG ed 13% Integrat 1% ed 12% 1%

UG UG 82% 82%

PhD Others Integrat PhD Integrat 2014-15 2015-16 1% 3% ed 1%Others ed PG PG 1% 3% 1% 14% 12%

UG UG 81% 83%

Others 2013-14 PhD 7% Others= M Phil, PG Diploma, 1% PG Diploma and Certificate courses 10% Integrat ed 0% UG 82%

Source: Own calculation from data source AISHE Report 2017-18 Figure 1. Percentage of Students’ Enrolment in Different Course Levels Since 2013-14 to 2017-18

Figure 1 shows the percentage of students’ enrolment in different levels of courses. Where we have seen that the percentage of under graduate enrolled students are about 82% to 83% of the gross enrolment since 2013-14 to 2017-18. Percentage of Post Graduate level enrolment to gross enrolment varies 12% to 13% since 2014-15 to 2017- 18. PhD students as well as Integrated courses students are hardy 1% of the gross enrolment. Students of M Phil, PG Diploma, Diploma and Certificate courses are 3% to 5% since year 204-15. Thus, highest number of students is enrolled at Under Graduate level in Assam as well as across all over India.

4. Growth of Enrolment in Various Courses of Higher Education in Assam for last five years since 2013-14

Courses provided by the higher education institutions in Assam may be classified in different levels like, Under Graduate Courses (UG), Post Graduate Diploma, Diploma, PhD, MPhil, Post Graduate Courses (PG), Certificate Courses and Integrated Courses.

a. Enrolment and Compound Annual Growth Rate

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In Assam, students’ enrolment in the higher education has been increasing gradually since 2013-14. According to Table 1, enrolment of year 2013-14 has increased to the year 2017-18 in Under Graduate Courses from 473863 to 556344 (CAGR 3.3), in PG Diploma from 2866 to 3362 (CAGR 3.2), in PhD from 3453 to 4337 (CAGR 4.7), in MPhil from 167 to 353 (CAGR 16.1), in PG level from 59201 to 88299 (CAGR 8.3), in Certificate courses from 2136 to 2435 (CAGR 2.7) and in Integrated courses from 3339 to 5281 (CAGR 9.6). The number of enrolment in all higher education courses of the year 2013- 14 was 579027 and it has increased up to 678344 in the year 2017-18 with the rate of growth of 34.8%. Growth of enrolment in Diploma courses is not uniform in last five years since 2013-14 to 2017-18. There are ups and downs in total enrolment for Diploma courses. Enrolment in Diploma courses was 34002 in year 2013-14 and it was decreased to 10836 in year 2014-15, but, was increased to 11608 in year 2015-16 and to 26460 in year 2016-17. Again, enrolment in Diploma course decreases to 17932 in year 2017-18. If we calculate CAGR of enrolment in Diploma courses for last four years (from 2014-15 to 2017-18) than we get it is 10.6. For all higher education courses in Assam, the Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) is 3.2 for last five years and it is higher than all India CAGR 2.5. It means that enrolment in higher education is growing in Assam.

Compound annual growths of enrolments in all courses accept PhD in Assam are higher compared to the all India averages. Enrolment Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) in Assam for UG courses is 3.3, for PG Diploma is 3.2, for Diploma is 10.6, for MPhil is 16.1, for PG is 8.3, for Certificate courses is 2.7 and for Integrated courses is 9.6. As we see in Table 1, all of these figures are greater than the all India rates. But enrolment CAGR for PhD is 4.7 in Assam which is too lower than all India rate of 8.4.

Table 1. Enrolment in Different Courses in Assam Since 2010-11 up to 2017-18

Year UG PG Diplo PhD MPhil PG Certific Integr Total Diploma ma ate ated Course 2013-14 473863 2866 34002 3453 167 59201 2136 3339 579027 2014-15 455056 3046 10836 3504 211 66774 2992 3846 546265 2015-16 464621 2957 11608 3874 214 79553 3654 4474 570955 2016-17 522888 3067 26460 4118 228 76267 2294 4948 640270 2017-18 556344 3362 17932 4337 353 88299 2435 5281 678344 CAGR 3.3 3.2 10.6* 4.7 16.1 8.3 2.7 9.6 3.2 India 2.6 -3.2 3.4 8.4 1.7 1.5 -1.1 9.4 2.5 CAGR Source: AISHE Report 2017-18 N.B. UD= Under Graduate, PG= Post Graduate, PhD= Doctor of Philosophy, MPhil= Master of Philosophy, CAGR= Compound Annual Growth Rate and * indicates calculation done for four years from 2014-15 to 2017-18

Gender-wise enrolment CAGRs for various courses are presented in Figure 2. It is seen that growth of female enrolment in Under Graduate courses (CAGR 3.6), Post Graduate courses (CAGR 9), and Diploma courses (CAGR 14) are higher compared to growth of male enrolment. On the other hand, growth of male enrolment in M Phil (CAGR 19.5), PG Diploma (CAGR 3.4), Certificate courses (CAGR 2.9) and Integrated courses (CAGR 12.8) are higher than growth of female enrolment. Growths of male and female enrolment in PhD are same with CAGR 4.7 in each. However, as a whole for all courses, growth of female enrolment (CAGR 3.8) is higher than the growth of male enrolment (CAGR 2.7) in Assam. That means female enrolment is growing faster than male enrolment in higher education in Assam.

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Male Female 6.9 2.4 9 3.1 14.5 4.7 3.6 3.8 14 12.8 2.9 3.4 19.5 4.7 7.5 2.9 2.7 8.4

Under Post Ph D. M Phil PG Diploma* Certificate Integrated All Graduate Graduate Diploma Courses Courses Courses

Source: Own calculation from data source AISHE Report 2017-18 N.B.: * indicates calculation done for the period of four years from 2014-5 to 2017-18. Figure 2. Gender based Compound Annual Growth Rate of Enrolment in Various Courses in Assam since 2013-14 to 2017-18.

Though the female enrolment is growing faster than male enrolment, female enrolments in total number are higher than male enrolment only in few courses. We see in Figure 3 that, numbers of female enrolment in Post Graduate, MPhil, Certificate and Integrated courses become higher than male enrolment numbers. But numbers of female enrolment in Under Graduate, PhD, PG Diploma and Diploma are lesser than male enrolment numbers since 2010-11 up to 2017-18. And so, gender parity is seen in Assam in case of enrolment in some courses.

Under Graduate PG Diploma Male Female 384 1323 1312 1317 1287 1627 1246 1397 2211 223576 232178 223024 225872 257856 216792 277744 243737 1901 1755 1729 1670 1735 1305 1469 241045 241685 232032 232042 265032 278600 216273 233643

Diploma Courses Post Graduate 9254 4003 4530 7709 7814 14457 3497 3162 12176 21661 31404 24371 42770 36357 48393 42433 6833 7078 17206 8686 19545 10223 3059 21156 1888 19158 27797 21183 36783 30417 39907 33834

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PhD Certificate Courses 933 187 846 715 1573 1350 1356 1704 860 1556 510 1580 1939 1353 1199 1324 291 1614 789 1350 2154 2545 436 2097 2633 1092 2318 937 970 1412 1715 1082

MPhil Integrated Course 971 2476 2651 1001 2292 2023 1896 1600 50 35 71 127 224 152 114 149 972 888 2472 2630 2182 1823 1443 1066 39 84 18 35 76 53 65 129

Source: Own calculation from data source AISHE Report 2017-18 Figure 3. Enrolments in various courses in Assam in Gender based year wise.

b. Trend in Gender Parity

Gender parity in enrolment is the ratio between male and female enrolments. Gender parity index for higher education in Assam has decreased from 1.01 in 2010-11 to 0.96 in 2017-18. It indicates that gender gap has increased in Assam. A comparison of trend in gender parity index in Assam with that in India is done in Figure 4. It is observed that gender parity index has been increasing since 2010-11 at national level. But in case of Assam, falling trend in gender parity index starts since 2011-12 and is goes down to 0.9 in 2015-16 and again it starts rising. Still, gender parity index in Assam lies below national average since 2015-16. At present gender parity index in Assam is lower than national level indicating more gender gap.

Assam India 1.01 1.01 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.9 0.89 0.88 0.86

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Source: Data source AISHE Report 2017-18 Figure 4. Gender Parity Index in Assam and India.

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Trends in gender parity for different course level of higher education in Assam are presented in Figure 5, where a trend line is located along with horizontal line equal to 1 or above it shows no gender gap, otherwise indicates presence of gender gap.

2.5

2 Mphil Integrated 1.5 Cerficate PG 1 UG Diploma 0.5 PG Diploma PhD 0 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Source: Own calculation from data source AISHE Report 2017-18 Figure 5. Trend in Gender Parity in Higher Education in Assam

According to the Figure 5, trend lines for MPhil, Integrated, Certificate and PG courses lie along with or above the equal line 1 showing no gender parity. Trend lines for Diploma, PG Diploma and PhD courses lie below the equal line 1 and they represent severe gender parity in these courses. Trend line for UG course lies more or less identically with the equal line 1. It means that there is lesser gender parity in case of enrolment in Under Graduate courses in Assam.

c. Gross Enrolment Ratio

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in Higher education in India is calculated for 18-23 years of age group. It is the ratio of total enrolment in higher education to population of 18-23 years age group. GER in higher education in Assam has increased in last four years from 14.8 in 2014-15 to 18.2 in 2017-18(Table 2). Similarly, GER for male in higher education has increased from 15.4 in 2014-15 to 18.6 in 2017-18. GER for female in higher education has increased from 14.3 in 2014-15 to 17.8 in 2017-18 (Figure 6). In comparison to male, GER for female is lower in Assam. That is, gender gap is exist in case of gross enrolment too.

Table 2. Gross Enrolment Ratio In Higher Education. Assam India Years Male Female Both Male Female Both 2013-14 16.5 15.2 15.8 23.9 22.0 23.0 2014-15 15.4 14.3 14.8 25.3 23.2 24.3 2015-16 16.2 14.7 15.4 25.4 23.5 24.5 2016-17 17.9 16.6 17.2 26.0 24.5 25.2 2017-18 18.6 17.8 18.2 26.3 25.4 25.8 Source: AISHE Report 2017-18

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19 18.6 18.2 18 17.9 17.8 Male 17 17.2 16.5 16.6 Female 16.2 16 15.8 15.4 15.4 Both 15 15.2 14.8 14.7 14.3 14 13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2017-18

Source: Data source AISHE Report 2017-18 Figure 6. Showing trend in Gross Enrolment Ratio in Higher Education in Assam.

Comparing GER of Assam with all over India, we find GER of Assam is lower in all respect. GER for male or female or both in Assam is always lower the all India level (Table 2). Reason behind this may be some of the students go for higher education to other states of India, some other don’t enrolled in higher education and some other dropped out at secondary level of education. What ever may be reason, regarding GER, position of Assam is not satisfactory compared to all India level.

Conclusion

In this study we have found that Assam has limited educational infrastructure in higher education. It is one of the reasons of lower GER in higher education in Assam. Gross enrolment is growing up gradually year after year which is a good sign for Assam. Compared to male enrolment in higher education, female enrolment is growing up faster. Still, there is gender gap in gross enrolment as because of GER for female is lower than male. There is gender parity at some levels of courses in Higher Education in Assam. Thus, we can not ignore totally the existence of gender gap in higher education in Assam; those are found in various forms as we have seen in this study.

References

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