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Yogico-Tantric Traditions in the Hawd Al-Hayat

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Yogico-Tantric Traditions in the Hawd Al-Hayat 135 ■ Article ■ Yogico-tantric Traditions in the Hawd al-Hayat ● Kazuyo Sakaki Introduction When we study the mutual interactions of religions in multi-religious societies, it is important to consider how indigenous thoughts and practices have impact upon or are affected by those which have been later introduced into those societies. We see an example of these interactions in the case of transmission of one yogico-tantric text to the Islamic world. In the context of the spiritual journey for realizing the Supreme Being or the process of self-realization, the visualization of the universe, both phenomenal and spiritual, in the adept's mind is the key concept of Tantra-Yoga and Sufism. The body and soul of the adept is the epitome of the universe. The adept should first observe the functional correspondences of the phenomenal world as an outer world and his mind as an inner world. Then he should transform his inner world into a sacred space and experience the divine in this inner sacred space. As allied disciplines, Yoga and Tantra are con- cerned with the body, mind and universe in this common meeting space. In their ap- proaches and disciplines, Indian Sufism and yogico-tantric traditions can share the same concept of spiritual transformation. The yogins use prana or the breath as an intermediary for this transformation pro- cess. As long as prana exists, life continues. If it departs, life ceases. The prana exists in the human organism as a vital principle. This is the basic concept particularly of the Natha yogins. The realization of correspondence between the psychic force in the hu- 榊 和良 Kazuyo Sakaki, Hokkaido Musashi Women's Junior College, Indian Philosophy. Articles: Yogaväsistha and the Medieval Islamic Intellectuals in India, in Manjula Sandev (ed.), Yogavaisistha Maharamayana•\A Perspective, Patiala: Punjabi University, 2004, pp. 282-297. Divine Names •\The Manifestations of the Divine Essence in Sufism and Bhakti (in Japa- nese), Journal of the National Research Institute, 106-3,2005, pp. 35-47. 136 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies, 17, 2005 man body and the energy in the world as a derivative of the ultimate reality is acquired in the inner transformative experience through ritualistic disciplines and meditation by controlling the prana. The Sufistic exercise of spiritual concentration for the recollection of God (dhikr) is carried out by the retention of the breath (habs-i dam), attentive meditation (muraqaba) and concentration (tawajjuh) in fixed postures. These methods are usually understood to have been derived from the yogic traditions through Buddhist channels in the early stages of contact with Indian religions [Husain 1959: 305; Ahmad, Aziz 1964: 135- 136]. Of course, there is a danger that exaggerating the adaptation of yogic practices in Sufism may lead to a misinterpretation of its historical evolution [Schimmel 1980: 24]. However, as suggested in previous studies by Louis Gardet and others [Gardet 1952: 670; Goldziher 1963: 176-177;McGregor 1984: 11,21; Trimingham 1971: 58], yogico- tantric elements have infiltrated into the practices of individual Sufis. This study focuses on the yogico-tantric elements in translation works in the context of religious interaction between Indian Sufis and yogis. It deals in particular with the renowned Persian and Arabic translations of the Amrtakunda (AK) and other related literature. As early as 1753, De Guignes noticed this translation preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale (former Bibliotheque du Roi in Paris), characterized it as a "book of philosophical contemplation" and compa red its contents with Greek philoso- phy [De Guignes 1753: 791-792]. As I outlined in a previous essay [Sakaki 2000], the translator of the AK tells us in the introduction that the first informant was a yogin from Kamarapa (Kamak, Kandkhya, Kamru_, now called Guwahati in Assam) and the knowl- edge was transmitted to an immigrant Islamic judge Rukn al-Din Amili Samarqandi (d.1218) who was in Lakhnawati during the reign of •eAli Mardan Khalji (d.1206). Although the exact date of translation is not mentioned in the text, the probable date of transmission is around the beginning of the thirteenth century . The diffusion of the translated texts opened up Muslims to a new world of transformation . The translation is entitled Hawd al-Hayat (HH). The text was first translated into Persian (HHP)1)and then into Arabic (HHA).2)Its long-term cultural influences have been proved by the wide circulation of related works. Within the Sufi circle, a direct paraphrase of the HH was made in the middle of the sixteenth century by the Shattari saint, Muhammad Ghawth Gwaliyari. His rendering entitled Bahr al-Hayat (BH) con- tained much more formulae and occult ways of meditation, and became widely popu- lar. Since the middle of the seventeenth century, adaptations of the HH were also found among the Muslim Yogic literature called puthi sahitya (originally means a handwritten manuscript in Bengali), such as the Yoga Qalandar of Saiyid Murtada,3) the Jnana Sagara and the jnana Pradipa of Saiyid Suitan.4)Thus the Sufis incorpo- rated yogico-tantric culture in their own religio-philosophical system through the trans- lations and paraphrases of the HH and the BH.5) In a recent study, Carl W. Ernst emphatically states after "examining the Islamic Yogico-tantric Traditions in the Hawd al-Hayat 137 terms, names or even whole chunks of texts" that the HH shows "the Islamizing ten- dency" of the original text. Furthermore, he assumes that it "cannot be identified with any particular surviving text on hatha yoga" and "no trace of it can be found today in any Indological literature" [Ernst 2003: 205-206]. However, in spite of the clearly Islamic remaking of the original text that can be observed in the two additional intro- ductory stories borrowed from the fragmentary Arabic version of the Gnostic Hymn of the Soul and an Arabic translation of Suhrawardi's allegorical work entitled On the Reality of Love (FT Haqiqat al-'Ishq), and the peripheral Islamic framework which may have been adopted in the process of transmission, we need not go astray in deter- mining the source texts. The HH clearly displays yogico-tantric influence in terms of religio-philosophical content and terminology. A translation may manifest cultural differences based on the translator's background knowledge and intention. However, it should be an authentic and well-informed repre- sentation of the source text. On the other hand, readers may understand the translated text as a part of their own culture pervaded with concepts familiar to them. Islamication, if it may be so called, may have occurred in most works translated into Islamic lan- guages. The Muslim translators always kept in mind that the translation should not be treated as heretic. They often included references to Qur'anic passages, pious phrases and the Hadiths, and terminology relevant to the literary competence of the readers. We find many examples of this kind in the translations of the Bhagavadgita, the fifty Upanisads, the Yogavasistha and the Mahabharata. Ernst points out in the last part of his article that "conclusion would be left to foreign scholars who alone had the resources and the motivation to re-Indianize the text". His remarks call for critical examination in several respects. First of all, the HH is not a "single historical document on hatha yoga" [Ernst 2003: 226]. We can trace several references to Hatha Yoga6)among the translation works of Sanskrit classics and com- pendium in Islamic languages. By a critical scrutiny of existent unpublished manu- scripts and prevailing sources, we will present some textual evidences to show that the subjects of these Persian and Arabic translations are closely related with those of the Indian yogico-tantric texts and suggest their anonymous Sanskrit origin. The presentation of subjects in the HH is repetitive and not systematic as in the digests of the literature of Hindu tantrism, which it assumedly follows. However, an analysis of the contents and passages of the Arabic and Persian translations of the AK reveals that they follow the yogico-tantric doctrines and disciplines of the Natha tradi- tion. After examining the passages which are verbatim translations or largely modified passages, references can be traced to Sanskrit Natha literature. In particular, they pay serious attention to the body and the prana as a means to realize the notion of micro- cosm-macrocosm correspondence. In order to support our argument, we also refer to several other Persian translations of Sanskrit Natha literature. 138 Journal of the Japanese Association for South Asian Studies , 17, 2005 1 Two main subjects of the HH 1.1 The source translation of the HH The HH may be a compilation of several yogico-tantric texts. As is shown in Ernst's putative chart of literary transmission, one Persian manuscript preserved in the Vatican library [Persian No.20, Rossi 1948: 47-49] may give us useful information on the earliest stage of transmission of the AK. The AK was brought from India by a Roman nobleman Pietro della Valle. The manuscript was given by his friend Mulla Zayn al- Din and copied in 1622 in Lar by Mulla Jamal b. Muhammad Bahram Tabrizi [Ernst 2003: 223; Gurney 1986: 113]. As the cataloguer noticed, the title of the text is given slightly varying forms in this manuscript. In spite of the three strokes for two conso- nants without diacritical marks (nuqta) in the latter half, he reads Damerdbigaska (2a) or Kamardbigaska (14b) or Kamardbigaska (28a, 56a) [Rossi 1948: 48]. At the beginning of the Vatican manuscript, it is declared that the text is a transla- tion (mutarjama) (lb) of the renowned work entitled D.M.R.D.-.-.J.A.S.K.A.
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