1 Aquatecture: Water-Based Architecture in the Netherlands

Aquatecture: Water-based Architecture in the Netherlands

Rebecca Pasternack Architecture 590 May 8, 2009

Table of Contents

Introduction...... 3 Psychology of Living on the Water ...... 3 Folklore...... 4 Psychology...... 5 Climate Change and Water ...... 7 Rising Sea Levels...... 8 Land Reclamation ...... 13 The Netherlands...... 14 Geography...... 14 Land Reclamation – the Netherlands...... 15 Dutch urban planning...... 17 Dutch Architecture...... 18 Water-based architecture typology...... 21 Category 1: Stationary Projects ...... 23 Category 2: Floating Projects...... 24 Category 3: Floating Mobile Projects...... 27 New Orleans ...... 29 History...... 31 Suggestions for the future ...... 32 Conclusions...... 35 Works Cited...... 36 Appendix A - Glossary ...... 38 Appendix B – Master list of Dutch projects ...... 40

2 Introduction

The term “Aquatecture” refers to architecture associated with the element of water. It implies an awareness of the architectonic qualities that water can provide, as well as, an appreciation of the water element in its architectural context.1 Whether or not the project is constructed is irrelevant. Aquatecture can refer to projects that currently in the conceptual phase, (like the Floating Mosque off the coast of Dubai) or to ones that are already well-established prototypes, like houseboats.2 This paper is an exploration of the concept of Aquatecture using the Netherlands as a case study. It begins with a section on the psychology of living on the water, and then transitions to an explanation about how climate change is related to the need for water- based architecture. Next, the paper will provide background information on Dutch urban planning and Dutch vernacular architecture. This will lay the foundation for the next section, which describes my own typology for classifying water-based architecture world-wide, but with a focus on specific contemporary projects in the Netherlands. Finally, the paper will conclude with an exploration of how these ideas can be used in flood-prone areas of the United States, such as, New Orleans.

Figure 1: Floating Mosque off the coast of Dubai by Dutch architecture firm Waterstudio (http://inhabitat.com/wp-content/uploads/waterstudiomosque.jpg)

Psychology of Living on the Water

This section explores our fascination with the mysteries of the ocean. Both the desire to explore the depths of the sea and the fear of the ravages of the sea (flooding), have always

1 The term Aquatecture is originally from Anthony Wylson’s book Aquatecture, written in 1986. 2 The Floating Mosque is an in-progress project by Dutch architecture firm Waterstudio. I will be meeting with architect Koen Olthuis of Waterstudio this July 2009 at his firm in Rijswijk, Amsterdam.

3 captivated people. Like space exploration, the desire to explore and colonize the ocean’s depths stems from the human desire to explore the unknown.3 In addition, for many, living on the water represents a type of utopia, a place untroubled by problems found in civilizations on land.

Folklore

Water plays a central role in the mythology, religion, and rituals of all cultures. Many cultures world-wide have folklore which shows that water can be both a creator and destroyer of life. Creation stories, for example, have generated a wealth of water-related myths.4 These myths often share the same contradictory attitudes of fear and fascination with the water, a dichotomy which is an important part of folklore all around the world. For example, in the Ancient Greek epic poem The Odyssey, water creatures are sharply divided into good (i.e. mermaids) and evil (i.e. sea monsters).5 In addition, in many creation stories, there are repeated descriptions of the destruction of life by a catastrophic flood.6 The obvious example of course, is the biblical story of Noah’s ark, in which Noah builds a houseboat large enough to accommodate a farmyard, an aquarium, an aviary, and a zoo.7 (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Noah’s ark in a woodcarving by Jost Ammann, 1567 (Flesche, 10)

3 Waterhouse coins the term “aquanaut,” which is similar to the idea of an “astronaut.” (Flesche, 12) 4 In Indian mythology, for example, the Hindu divinity Vishnu descends into the water and raises up the earth. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, G-d creates the world by separating the heavens and the earth. In Ancient Greek tales of the gods, the sea god, Pontos, is born at the same time as the heavens. (Flesche, 11) 5 The Sirens in The Odyssey sing beautiful songs, which, combined with their magical beauty, lure sailors into the waves. Another example of this dichotomy of fear and fascination with the water is Hans Christian Andersen’s story, The Little Mermaid in which a young mermaid gives up her life in the sea and her identity as a mermaid to gain a human soul and the love of a human prince. The love proves fatal, however, and she dissolves into sea foam. 6 Our fear of flooding is still very real today, as scientists warn us about the consequences of global warming. The fear of a potential apocalypse has been envisioned in recent films like the 2004 apocalyptic science-fiction film The Day After Tomorrow, which depicts the catastrophic effects of global warming and global cooling. The 1995 film Waterworld “went a step further with its representation of life in a distant future when water covers the whole earth and memories of civilizations on dry land are dismissed as fairytales. The survivors build primitive floating islands from flotsam left behind by the great catastrophe. The people live as water nomads and adapt to their new habitat, developing webbed feet and gills through mutation. The future seems to be a replay of the past.” (Flesche, 11) 7 See section on houseboats, in Typology section.

4 Psychology

Throughout history, living on the water has symbolized the dream of living in a symbiotic relationship with nature, much closer than would ever be possible on dry land.8 Historically, the vastness of the ocean has been a source of fascination for many as it represents, among other things, the desire to “live life in accordance with nature and cosmic constellations.”9 Perhaps the earliest example of this fantasy is the legendary island of Atlantis.10 (Figure 3) Despite what scientists and scholars tell us, our collective desire to believe in the existence of this supposed prehistoric lost civilization never goes away. This is evidenced by the fact that Atlantis was the name given to the first U.S. vessel dedicated to oceanographic research. It is also the name of an American space shuttle currently in assembly, as well as, a series of resort hotels in Dubai and in the Bahamas.11

Figure 3: Vision of Atlantis based on Plato’s description. Plato described Atlantis as alternating rings of sea and land with a palace in the center. (Flesche, 8)

Atlantis is important because it is perhaps the most famous example of a water utopia. Sir Thomas More first coined the term utopia (which is derived from the Greek “utopie” which literally means “no place”) in 1516 in his book Utopia, which defined a utopia as an ideal,

8 Flesche, 8 9 Flesche, 8 10 Our only historical source on Atlantis is Plato’s Timaeus dialogue, in which he states that Atlantis was a naval power lying in front of the Pillars of Hercules [phrase that was applied in Antiquity to the promontories that flank the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar] that conquered many parts of Western Europe and around 9600 BC. After a failed attempt to invade Athens, Atlantis sank into the ocean in a single day and night of misfortune. (http://www.theoi.com/Phylos/Atlantes.html) 11 See http://www.atlantis.com/ and http://www.examiner.com/x-504-Space-News-Examiner~y2009m3d25-Space- Shuttle-Atlantis-prepped-for-launch-Discovery-heads-home for more information.

5 imaginary island nation with exemplary community life.12 In 1623, English philosopher Francis Bacon imitated this concept in his utopian novel, The New Atlantis, in which he describes an ideal social state on an island called New Atlantis situated nowhere in the known world. Like the stories by More and Bacon, all utopia fantasies share the underlying assumption that life in a self-sufficient miniature state will bring with it greater personal and political freedom. In this way, it seems that people on land project their longing for greater independence onto the wide- open spaces of the sea and its islands. Part of the appeal might be the idea of living in a no man’s land without any form of legal jurisdiction, or at least, the idea of creating a new society which will abide by a new set of rules.13 Today too, many water-based projects have a social and political message. One prominent example is the utopian project The Venus Project, which operates out of a 21-acre property in Venus, Florida.14 (Figure 4) The Venus Project was started around 1975 by self- described futurist Jacque Fresco and former portrait artist Roxanne Meadows.15 The project was founded on the idea that poverty is caused by the stifling of technological advancements, which itself is caused by the present world's profit-driven economic system. Fresco theorizes that if our economic system allowed technology to progress, more resources would be available to more people. This new-found abundance of resources would reduce the human tendency toward independence and greed, and would instead make people more likely to help each other.16

12 Flesche, 9 13 Historically, utopian colonies tend to fail. The Transcendentalists in 19th century America inspired the founding of several utopian colonies, al of which failed. In the late 19th century, while Victorian social critic John Ruskin was still alive, several utopian socialists colonies sprouted in the U.S. with the goal of realizing Ruskin’s vision of perfect egalitarian and communalist societies. These colonies all failed however, because they didn’t actually concern themselves with the manner in which the societies could be created or sustained. 14 There are many other examples of utopian projects that are currently in the conceptual design phase. Another fascinating project is Lilypad, a floating ecopolis for climate refugees by Belgian architect Vincent Callebaut. Lilypad is a prototype of self-sufficient amphibious city. It is intended to be an amphibian half-aquatic and half- terrestrial city able to accommodate 50,000 inhabitants. This floating Ecopolis is expected to house future climatic refugees (people from low-lying countries that will be sub-merged in the near future). (http://www.vincent.callebaut.org/page1-img-lilypad.html) 15 Jacque Fresco is an industrial designer, “social engineer,” author, lecturer, futurist, and inventor. He has worked as both designer and inventor in a wide range of fields spanning from biomedical innovations to totally integrated social systems. He believes his ideas would benefit the greatest number of people with minimal waste. Some of his ideas stem from his formative years during the Great Depression. To this day, he writes and lectures extensively on subjects ranging from the holistic design of sustainable cities, energy efficiency, natural resource management and advanced automation, and focuses primarily on the benefits it will bring to society. (http://www.heralddeparis.com/the-zeitgeist-movement-practical-advices-to-build-a-better-future/27800) 16 The website for The Venus Project reads like a manifesto. Here is one section: “The Venus Project advocates an alternative vision for a sustainable new world civilization unlike any social system that has gone before. Although this description is highly condensed, it is based upon years of study and experimental research by many, many

a) b) Figure 4: (a) Renderings of The Venus Project (b) same (http://www.thevenusproject.com/introAbout.php)

Climate Change and Water

As the previous section explained, our desire to live on the water is related to our search for utopia. Though the sense of adventure is still with us, today there is a more urgent reason to explore the possibility of living the water: the problem of rising sea levels is threatening to inundate the coastal areas of many low-lying areas of the world. (Figure 5) Because increased flooding is destroying waterfront properties in these areas, many architects are designing buildings intended to float with the sea in the event of high tide.17 In addition, the problem of the ever-increasing global population means that it is increasingly difficult to build enough housing for everyone.18 This is why many progressive thinkers are trying to exploit the water as a viable location for human life.

people from many scientific disciplines. The Venus Project proposes a fresh approach--one that is dedicated to human and environmental concerns. It is an attainable vision of a bright and better future, one that is appropriate to the times in which we live, and both practical and feasible for a positive future for all the world's people.” (http://www.thevenusproject.com/introAbout.php) 17 The issue of rising sea levels raises another question: how is climate change affecting the actual quality of the ocean water or life in the ocean? Water covers almost two-thirds of the earth. The number of species living in the water vastly exceeds those on land. In fact, “it is estimated that 90% of all organisms live in the oceans.” (Waterhouse, 10) The Extreme Engineering: Holland’s’ Barriers episode explained that massive dykes was decimating the coastal fish population the Netherlands. Therefore, when the Oosterscheldekering barrier was built (one the largest and most ambitious storm surge barriers ever) the engineers designed a flexible dyke with doors (sluices) that lower in the event of high tide. This is just one example of the human response to rising sea levels is affecting the natural ocean habitat. There is an image of this barrier in the New Orleans section. 18 Japan is an island with no room to expand. Tokyo is one of the most crowded cities in the world, and also one of the shortest on available land area. In an effort to relieve the stress of alarming overpopulation, Tokyo’s construction industry is currently developing a project called the Shimizu Mega-City Pyramid, which if approved, will be a massive pyramid over the Tokyo Bay, with skyscrapers suspended like peapods within its enormous frame. It would stand a kilometer tall and provide housing for up to 750,000 people. For more information see Extreme Engineering: City in a Pyramid.

7 a) b)

c) Figure 5: (a) This topographic map illustrates coastal regions that are vulnerable to rising sea levels. Highlighted regions include the eastern USA, Florida, Louisiana, Southeast Asia, Bangladesh, the Middle East, and the North Sea (b) This highlighted region is Louisiana (c) These highlighted regions include parks of the UK and the Netherlands (http://www.globalwarmingart.com/wiki/Sea_Level_Rise_Maps_Gallery)

Rising Sea Levels

Sea level varies as a result of processes operating on a wide range of time-scales, from seconds to millions of years. My concern is with climate-related processes that have an effect on the time-scale of decades to centuries.19 Since the end of the Ice Age some 18,000 years ago, sea level has risen by over 120 m. On average, sea levels may have risen at a rate of 0.1-0.2 mm per year over the past 3000 years globally, but in the 20th century this increased to 1-2 mm per year. In addition, “as the world warms, it is predicted that global average sea levels may rise by

19 Since this paper is about water-based architecture, my focus in this section is on the human response to rising sea levels. This section is intended to be an executive summary of the issue, not a detailed explanation of the more scientific aspects of rising sea levels. For more technical information, such as, an explanation of the instruments used to infer sea levels or the statistical methods in which this information is obtained, see Chapter 11: Changes in Sea Level, of the IPCC Third Assessment Report, published by GRID-Arendal, a collaborating center of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

8 between 7 and 36 cm by the 2050s, by between 9 and 69 cm by the 2080s and 30-80 cm by 2100.20” (Figure 6)

b) Figure 6: computer models of what (a) Europe and (b) North America may look like if the global ice reserves melted raising the sea levels by 100 meters. Notice the portions of Northern Europe and the southern United States that are completely flooded. (Roaf, 191)

In 1995, 2.2 billion people lived within 100 km of a coastline, a figure which is equals nearly 39% of the world’s population.21 Many of these people will be directly affected by

20 Roaf, 190 21 Roaf, 190

9 increasingly severe and frequent storms and floods caused by rising sea levels. As a result, shoreline retreat will be accelerated. The issue, of course, of how much a low-lying shoreline retreats with increased in sea levels is “a complex one and depends very much on the behavior of incoming currents, wave patterns, the structure, materials and form of the shoreline, and wave heights in that area and the care with which the coastline is managed.22” The longest running sea- level measurements are recorded in Amsterdam, which has records from 1700 onwards. Since 1850, a rise of approx 1.5 mm/year is shown in the Netherlands.23 (Figure 7)

Figure 7: Notice the dramatic acceleration of rate of sea level increase in recent years. (http://www.cutco2.org/)

Though sea level is predicted to rise almost everywhere, there is considerable regional variation. In some regions the rise is close to zero, while others experience as much as twice the global average value.24 What accounts for the differences? There are three main factors that cause disparate sea level changes: the thermal expansion of the oceans, the melting of glaciers, and changes to the major Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets.25 In the context of climate change, thermal expansion of the world's oceans in response to global warming is considered the predominant driver of current and future sea-level rise.26 As the

22 Roaf, 190 23 http://www.pol.ac.uk/psmsl/longrecords/longrecords.html 24 Rising sea levels will threaten many island nations around the world as well as many low-lying countries. One example is the sad story of Tuvalu, a Polynesian island nation located in the Pacific Ocean midway between Hawaii and Australia. This may be the first large inhabited island to be lost forever. The country is comprised of 9 atolls (islands of coral that encircle lagoons). The highest point is 15’ above sea level. As sea levels have risen, Tuvalu has experienced lowland flooding. The country’s leaders predict that the nation will be submerged in 50 years “but this may be very optimistic as much of the island is already covered by water at regular intervals during the year.” (Roaf, 200) 25 Roaf, 196 26 Pew Center on global climate change

10 temperature of the water in the oceans rises, and as the ocean becomes less dense, the water will expand and spread, causing inundation of low lying areas. Increased temperature will accelerate the rate of sea level rise. Temperature changes are already causing 90% of the world’s glaciers to retreat and some to disappear completely, with potentially catastrophic consequences for “communities that rely on melt water for irrigation, hydroelectric power and drinking water, and also communities affected by sea level rises.27” (Figure 8) The last reason sea levels are rising is related to the melting of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets.28 These two ice sheets have been losing mass recently as losses by melting and outlet glaciers are exceeding the accumulation of snowfall.29 (Figure 9) In addition to causing sea levels to rise, the melting ice sheets are increasing global warming. Sea and glacier ice is necessary because it cools the earth, “reflecting back into space about 80% of the spring time and 40-50% of summer time sunshine. The winter sea ice cover is extremely important to the global climate as it slows heat loss from the relatively warm ocean to the cold atmosphere and without the large sea ice masses at the poles to moderate the energy balance, global warming will escalate.30”

(http://www.pewclimate.org/global-warming-basics/full_glossary/terms_s.cfm) 27 Glaciers on 5 major continents are melting at an alarming rate. The ice capital on Mount Kilimanjaro, the famous volcano in northeastern Tanzania, may be gone in 20 years. Also, the summer of 2003 saw melting of the permafrost levels in many parts of the Pennine Alps (located between Switzerland and Italy), destabilizing mountain slopes and closing off the Matterhorn (one of the mountains) to visitors for the first time in its history. The glaciers in Central Asia, too, are disappearing at a rapid rate, threatening future drinking water deficits in countries like Kazakhstan, which subsist off the river run-off. In the longer term, many glaciers will only survive at the highest altitudes. Only Scandanavian and Alaskan glaciers are not receding, and in some cases, are actually increasing due to increased snowfall locally, another side effect of climate change. (Roaf, 196) 28 An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 20,000 square miles.28 Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves (thick, floating platforms of ice) and glaciers (large slow-moving mass of ice), but smaller than ice caps (ice mass that covers less than 20,000 square miles). Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In some places, melting occurs and the melted water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet, which are called ice streams. 29 The maximum melting of the Greenland ice sheet has increased “on average by 16% from 1979-2002. The melting in the winter of 2002 to 2003 was unprecedented, in a year when the sea ice in the Arctic was at its lowest level ever recorded.” The warming of Greenland and the Arctic is already increasing the rate of sea level rises, mainly due to the dynamic response of the large ice sheet rather than just the melting of the ice. “For every degree increase in mean annual temperature near Greenland, the rate of sea level rises increases by about 10%.” (Roaf, 198) 30 Roaf, 198

11 a) b) Figure 8: (a) This is a photo from 1980 of a fan-shaped glacier in the Jacabamba valley in Peru taken by the Bryan Lynas, the father of the famous British environmental activist Mark Lynas (b) this is a photo taken by Mark Lynas 20 years later. Notice that the glacier has all but complete disappeared. Also, note the severe thinning of the ice field on the skyline above the lake. (Roaf, 197)

a) b) Figure 9: Arctic perennial sea ice has been decreasing at a rate of 9% per decade. The first image (a) shows the minimum sea ice concentration for the year 1979, and the second image (b) shows the minimum sea ice concentration in 2003. The data used to create these images were collected by the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSMII) (Roaf, 199)

12 Land Reclamation

Because sea levels are rising rapidly, land reclamation will need to occur more frequently and intensely than ever before. To clarify, land reclamation can refer to either of two distinct practices: one involves creating new land from the sea or riverbeds, and the other refers to restoring an area to a more natural state (which might be necessary after pollution or desertification have made it unusable).31 In either case, land is generally created for one of three functions: habitation, agriculture, or beach restoration. For the purpose of habitation, it is often necessary to create new land where there was once water. Artificial islands are a prime example. Though they are expensive and difficult to engineer, they are often considered in densely populated areas where empty land is scarce. Two recently constructed examples include the Burj-al-Arab hotel and the Palm Islands development off the coast of Dubai. (Figure 10) In addition to creating new land for habitation, it is also sometimes necessary to create new land for agriculture. This usually involves draining swamps or seasonally submerged wetlands, thereby converting them to farmlands. This results in the creation of commercially productive land that would otherwise be restricted to wildlife habitat. And finally, the third category involves beach rebuilding, which is the process of using materials like or sand to repair beaches suffering from beach starvation.

a) b) Figure 10: (a) The Palm Jebel Ali development, a man-made island in the Arabian gulf. (Flesche, 40) (b) The Burj- Al-Arab Hotel, on its own artificial island (http://www.focusmag.gr/id/files/68743/Burj%20Al%20Arab.jpg)

The next section will describe the importance of land reclamation as it relates to the development and maintenance of the Netherlands in particular. Though water-based projects exist world-wide, my research has shown that architects and planners in the Netherlands are at the forefront of this field, largely due to the country’s flood-prone nature. The Dutch have long had a heightened consciousness of their proximity to water. In fact, the country’s very existence

31 Terms like land reclamation are defined in the glossary at the end of this paper.

13 depends on holding the sea in check. Half of the country lies below sea level and about 60% of its 16 million inhabitants live in these low-lying areas. The land is sinking a little bit lower every year. The country is small, the population is dense, and there is increasing pressure to build. Traditionally, the Dutch have protected themselves from flooding through a network of canals, pumps, dikes, and dams. More recently however, they have developed advanced technologies that allow buildings to float with the water when sea levels rise.

The Netherlands

Geography

The Netherlands is bordered by the North Sea, Germany, and Belgium. The southern part of the coast (between the Belgian border and Hoek van Holland, near Rotterdam) consists of the estuary of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt rivers. The coast-line between Hoek van Holland and Den Helder is continuous, except for the mouth of the old river Rhine and the artificial sea defense structure “Hondsbossche Zeeweering.” Between Den Helder and the German border lies the Dutch part of the Wadden Sea. The Dutch coast is part of a larger coastal system, stretching out from the north coast of France to the Danish coast at Jut Land. (Figure 11)

Figure 11: Map of the Netherlands (http://www.destination360.com/europe/netherlands/map.php)

14 Land Reclamation – the Netherlands

Reclaiming land from the sea has always been one of the great dreams of humankind.32 For the Dutch in particular, this has been a national mission. More than 60% of the country is below sea level. Since the Middle Ages, the country has been plagued by periodic flooding, killer sea swells, and massive loss of crops and life.33 As a result, the Dutch have a long history of developing advanced technologies to fight flooding.34 They are famous for their ability to route water and reshape dirt into an impeccably engineered and constantly maintained landscape of canals and building parcels.35 (Figure 12)

Figure 12: Diagram illustrating areas above and below sea level. The area with the barriers (red lines) in the north is where the Zuiderzee works are. The area with the barriers to the south, near Zeeland, is where the Deltaworks barriers are. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4607452.stm#graphic)

32 Goethe’s Faust tried to reclaim land from the sea. (Flesche, 12) 33 In 1287 there was a disastrous flood from the North Sea that killed hundreds of people. This was one of the first floods documented in history. The most significant flood in the Netherlands, however, was the Great Flood of 1953, which killed 2,000 people. Hurricane Katrina only killed 1,836. The Great Flood of 1953 was the flood that set in motion the entire Deltaworks project. 34 Their relationship with the water is a huge part of their identity. In fact, a windmill (used to pump water from reached the land) is often seen a symbol of the Netherlands. 35 Flanagan, 38

15 Two of the most significant reclamation projects of the 20th century are the Zuiderzee works project from the 1920s and the Deltaworks project from 1950-1997.36 (Figure 13) Both these projects consist of dams, sluices, locks, dikes, and storm surge barriers intended to protect the coast from the tide.37 Without these “engineering marvels [Zuiderzee and Deltaworks projects] the sea would reclaim half of Holland.38” These incredible feats of engineering have also both been named the 7th Wonder of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers.

a) b) c) d)

e) Figure 13: (a) Diagram illustrating location of these two reclamation projects (b) Zuiderzee works (c) Deltaworks (d) Satellite perspective image of Zuiderzee works (e) Satellite image of Deltaworks. See Figure 22 for images of Oosterscheldekering barrier, the largest Deltaworks barrier.

36 The Zuiderzee (“Southern Sea” in Dutch) was a shallow inlet of the North Sea in the northwest of the Netherlands.36 In the 1920s, the majority of the Zuiderzee was closed off from the North Sea which made the inlet into a fresh water lake called the Ijseelmeer (Ijseel-lake). After damming off the sea, the next step involved creating new land (polders) to be used for agriculture and the construction of new towns. This was achieved by damming off portions of the Ijsselmeer, and then pumping all the water out. Likewise, the Deltaworks are a series of similar constructions built between 1950 and 1997 in the southwest of the Netherlands, built in response to the Great Flood of 1953. The system is composed of thirteen barriers. The largest and most ambitious one is the Oosterscheldekering (in English: “Eastern Scheldt” storm surge barrier), which was the biggest, most difficult to build, and most expensive part of the Deltaworks. Work on the dam itself started in April 1976 and was completed in June 1986, though the road over the dam was completed only in November 1987. This particular barrier is made of sluice gates that raise to allow water to flow under them but shut in high tide. This type of flexible system was necessary because Dutch fishermen were complaining that dikes were killing the local fishing industry. (Extreme Engineering: Holland’s’ Barriers) 37 See Appendix A-Glossary for definitions of these terms. 38 Extreme Engineering: Holland’s’ Barriers

Though these two projects are successful at stopping the North Sea from flooding the country, the water levels of rivers that run through the country, like the Rhine, are also rising and breaking the dykes along the river edge. As a result, the Dutch have recently made a fateful decision. For the first time in 2000 years, they have decided to surrender to the forces of nature and relinquish some of the land. Instead of trying to fight the flood, they try to manage it. They divert the river from the most densely populated areas to allow the river to spill into farmland. Dutch engineers have designated these areas as potential flood plains. “In the war on water, it’s a tactical retreat but not a defeat, because for the Dutch, the water is both foe and friend and they owe their history to the struggle for balance between the two.39” In areas designed as flood plains, the Dutch are building housing intended to float in the event of a flood. Today, the Dutch government “is exploring, and actually mandating creative construction – floating on water or held in pilings.40” There are numerous examples of these types of projects in the Netherlands, which will be discussed later in more detail. Examples include the Watervillas in Ijburg by Herman Hertzberger, and the 36 amphibious houses in Maasbommel by Factor Architecten. This counter-movement is not unique to the Netherlands. Today, town planners, architects, technicians, scientists, visionaries, inventors, and individualists all around the world have stated to explore the utopian realms of water as a place to live. Dwellings, settlements, and cities for hundreds of thousands of inhabitants are already on the drawings board.41 Though most of these water projects are still in the experimental phase, today’s global warming and overpopulation problems are definitely creating a strong incentive to developing floating projects.42

Dutch urban planning

Many cities in the Netherlands (and other low countries) were founded in such a way that the canal systems provided a structure for town growth by defining zones for commercial and

39 Extreme Engineering: Holland’s’ Barriers 40 Flanagan, 38 41 Flesche, 8 42 The Architecture Bienniale in 2004 in Venice for example, is a forum for technological innovation and architectural experimentation that showcased many proposals in which water was a key aspect of the design. Examples include a proposal for the development of the Barcelona waterfront as well as a project for the reclamation of abandoned airfields along the coast near Athens. (Flesche, 16)

17 residential areas.43 As in other low countries, urban planning in the Netherlands was the result of a communal approach required to reclaim land from the sea. The rivers that run through Holland have always been the primary means of transportation throughout the country. And because trade and commerce have historically been important to the Dutch, the waterways have played a significant role in the development of the Dutch urban infrastructure. Therefore, the development of trade gave importance to settlements along the coast, which were accessible to rivers. The main reason for dyking the rivers (and constructing canals to protect the dykes) was to improve trade and communications. The dykes were constructed wide enough for a road to be formed along the top and buildings erected on the dyke bank. This is why Dutch cities are so homogenous. Because “the waterway was the trade route and principal interested of the town, the houses faced towards it, creating the Dutch lineal pattern of canal, road, houses.44” Originally, early Dutch grachtenstadt (“canal cities”) were established above high-tide level on secure ground located at the confluence of rivers. In the western lowlands, sites for settlements had to be drained, consolidated, and raised above sea level. Since the 16th century, town planning was an accepted discipline necessary for the comprehensive technical operations involved in securing land suitable for urban development. These operations included “a confrontation with the water element, the capacity to overcome the problems of land reclamation and flood control, and the need to take advantage of trading opportunities.45” To this end, moats and drainage canals were constructed. The land was raised and consolidated for building atop it. Sluices and windmill pumps were used for water control. Land reclamation was, and still is, necessary to maintain the essential polders, canals, moats, dykes, and bridges.46

Dutch Architecture

As explained above, the growth plan for Dutch cities required careful preparation and control. Therefore, it is not surprising that Dutch cities have a strong architectural homogeneity

43 Low-lying cities in Northern Europe include Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Antwerp, Middleburg, Utrecht, Delft, and Amsterdam. (Wylson, 41) 44 Wylson, 42 45 Wylson, 48 46 See Appendix A-Glossary for definitions of these terms.

18 even though the buildings were built by different people at different times.47 As explained above, historically, “town extensions not only consisted of additional buildings, but the new areas were tightly integrated into the existing pattern by skillful rerouting of major drainage canals, the provision of new compacted land, the building of bridges and the extended security of moat and wall.48” The communal effort involved in land reclamation has given the Dutch pride in their community, which is reflected in the “civilized urban environment of the Dutch towns, in which elegant domestic architecture accommodated commercial and trading activities and community pride was expressed in impressive public buildings.49” The prioritization of trade and commerce over other institutions like religion is the reason why “the character of Dutch towns does not have the Renaissance monumentality introduced to many European cities. Since the eleventh century, the Dutch, an industrious and independent people, were concerned with the harsh conditions imposed by nature. The power of government passed early into the hands of merchant citizens. The rulers were shrewd administrators and their towns were the centers of commercial and industrial activity, not monuments to an autocratic power.50” (Figure 15)

a) b) Figure 15: (a) Typical canal-front architecture in Amsterdam (b) same (http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=574830&page=5)

47 The architectural cohesion of cities like Amsterdam was directly achieved by “bold, competent, and effectively administered urban development.” (Wylson, 48) 48 Wylson, 48 49 Wylson, 42 50 (Wylson, 42) This reinforces something I learned in art history classes, which is that the Italian Renaissance painters were commissioned by the church, while Northern Renaissance painters were commissioned by the very powerful merchant class. As a result, Italian Renaissance paintings tend to be large and important paintings of Christ whereas Dutch ones tend to illustrate still0lifes and domestic interiors.

Wylson is arguing that by virtue of their proximity to the ocean, the Dutch have not just engineered impressive feats of urban planning, but have also designed buildings that tend to be more modest in scale than those of other neighboring European countries. In the Netherlands, dams were central nodes that became settings for public buildings while in Southern Europe (i.e. Italy) churches and piazzas surrounding those churches became central public areas. Because the Netherlands is a low-lying country, in Dutch cities, there was no chance of the casual urban patterns associated with other European medieval cities. In the Netherlands, land for urban development was provided at great cost. Canal-side frontages were tightly planned and public open spaces were rare.51 The importance of the commerce also explains why the location buildings by program. For example, “the expansion of sea traffic increased the demand for harbor space and harbor frontage was reserved for trade-associated activities, merchant offices, warehouses, shipbuilders, repair yards, and weighing halls. Under these circumstances civic buildings such as church, town hall, shops, and houses occupied the lower ground behind the dykes.” Programmatically, Dutch waterfront buildings often contained both a business warehouse and a private residence in the same building.52 Traditionally, shops and offices were on the ground floor, residential areas on the first and second, and a warehouse on the third. Though adjacent houses along the canal differed in detail because they were seldom the work of the same architect, they were controlled by building ordinances to achieve architectural cohesion.53 In this way, the architecture in a typical Dutch city represents the Dutch emphasis on community. Even today, Dutch towns are distinguished by civic design qualities like contrasting spaces created by canal and street, cohesive street facades, lines of trees along the water’s edge, and the distinct separation between town and countryside, rather than singular monuments. The next section will explain how Dutch contemporary water-based projects fit into this context.

51 The Golden Age of Holland created a steady need for town development and saw high standards achieved in the urban environment. At this time, streets were cobbled and some were widened for coach traffic. Wood bridges were replaced by arched brick and stone structures. Harbors were extended and attention was given to public buildings. (Wylson, 48) 52 (Wylson, 45) This is the equivalent of a contemporary mixed-use project. 53 Wylson, 45

20 Water-based architecture typology

Since the term Aquatecture can refer to a wide-range of projects, different scholars have their own definitions of the concept.54 For the purpose of this paper, I am defining Aquatecture as a type of water-based architecture which can be divided into 3 categories: stationary projects, floating projects, and floating mobile projects. Again, I will cite examples around the world but will focus on the Netherlands in particular. (Figure 15)

54 Felix Flesche and Christian Burchard, the authors of Waterhouse, have divided water-based architecture into their own typology of four categories, which is reflected in the names of the corresponding four chapters: Standing Tall, Floating Homes, Submerging Architecture, and Frozen Hard. Standing Tall refers to buildings such as skyscrapers that rise high over the water. It includes artificial islands, most of which are still in the experimental phase, and massive drilling platforms, many of which are already built. These structures sit on stable construction that is firmly attached to the ground below the sea. An example is the Silodam apartment complex by MVRDV. The second category is Floating Homes, which refers to houseboats as well as floating towns with thousands of inhabitants. This includes projects such as famous as the Freedom Ship, by Norman Nixon as well as a project like the City Hostel, by Marlies Rohmer. The third category, Submerging Architecture refers to projects in which the architectural experience exists mostly underwater. Naturally, most of these projects are still in the experimental phase. Ones that exist include the underwater restaurant at the Red Sea Star Hotel in Eilat, Israel, which is accessed from the hotel on land. And finally, Frozen Hard refers to projects which make use of water in its solid form (ice) is used as a building material. The obvious example is an igloo. A more extravagant example is the Ice hotel in Sweden, by Ake Larsson, which has been built every year in the winter since 1989. (Flesche, 7)

21 Stationary Projects Floating Projects Floating Mobile Projects

Stationary water-projects include constructions Floating projects move vertically (rise with the tide) and Floating mobile projects must move horizontally ranging from artificial islands to offshore drilling not horizontally (across the sea). They are stationary in across the sea. These projects differ from the platforms. Projects can be residential, commercial, that their location is fixed except in the event of high other two categories in that they are intended to industrial, institutional, or a combination of uses. tide. Usually they are built like boats (not connected to be mobile, they are intended to float on the sea. These projects can be made of traditional building the ground under the sea). However, sometimes they The term can refer to a houseboat, a small materials, in which case they exist either under or are connected to the ground under the sea, in which settlement or a large floating town. Many of these over the water, or they can be made of water (ice), case they are connected with pillars whose height varies projects are sustainable because they are adaptive Definition in which case they exist on land. Buildings must depending on the tide. In both cases, the buildings rise reuse projects (i.e. workboat to houseboat have a permanently fixed location (but the up when sea levels rise and then sink when the water conversion). location can be on land or on water). Projects built levels return to normal. In addition, these projects are on the sea must be firmly attached (built on stilts always connected to the coast in some way, whether it is and piles) to the ground below the sea. Projects through a bridge connected to the land, or whether the built on land must be made of ice. project itself is partially built on land. Projects can be residential or institutional.

Categorized by relationship to water Categorized by program Categorized by function 1) Underwater: 1) Residential: 1) Emergency Egress: Jules' Undersea Lodge , Key Largo, Florida, 1985 Maasbommel project , by Factor Architecten, 36 Throw-over life raft , by Zodiac Internationa l, life - originally a deep-sea marine research laboratory amphibious houses intended to rise up with the tide, raft opens as soon as it hits the water, can fit into off the coast of Puerto Rico that was converted these are waterfront projects built halfway on the land a suitcase into a miniature underwater hotel and halfway on the water. They stay put in dry weather 2) Mixed Use: 2) Above water but connected to land: but rise with the tide when flooding occurs. Ship-ping , Belgium, by Walter Bettens and Silodam Apartment Complex , Amsterdam, 2) Commercial: Siegrid Demyttenaere, conversion of 1957 Netherlands, by MVRDV - residential apt City Hostel, Houthaven, Amsterdam, by Marlies shipping barge in long open space for working Representative Projects complex, also has artist studios, commercial Rohmer, this building is intended to permanently sit on and living, adaptive reuse project offices, promenades, public balconies, restaurant, the water, like a boat, program is unique because it is a 3) Mobility: small marinas. Built above River Ij on concrete youth hostel Anthenea Aquasphere , Jean-Michel Ducanelle, piers but accessed from the land. fully-fitted spherical floating island capable of 3) On Land: deployment on the high seas, self-contained unit Ice hotel, Sweden, by Ake Larsson, 1989 - hotel with its own solarr energy and rainwater made out of ice, rebuilt every year for 16 years, purification located on land. 4) Institutional: Aquapolis , open sea, near Japan, floating exhibition pavilion 1) Red Sea Star Hotel Restaurant , Eilat, Israel, by 1) Spaceframe and floating platform by N55, 1) Lehigh Valley Railroad Barge #79 , Red Hook, Sefi Kiryaty and Ayala Serfaty Copenhagen, Denmark, 1999 Brooklyn, NY 2) Igloos 2) Floating Homes, Berlin, Germany, by Gruntuch 2) Otter Inn , Lake Malaren, Sweden, by Mikael Similar projects - built 3) Ice experiments, Switzerland, by Heinz Isler Ernst Architects Genberg 4) The Snow Show, Finland, Steven Holl and Jene 3) Floating Homes H20 , Berlin, Germany, by Forster 3) Eco-tech loftboat , Ghent, Belgium, by Highstein and Trabitzsch Architects Cuypers & Q Architecten 4) Floating Homes, British Columbia, Canada 1) Arche Saya , Indian ocean, by Wolf Hilbertz none 1) Atoll, Waki Zollner, Germany 2) Ice Domes , by Vienna University of 2) Jelly-fish 45 , by Giancarlo Zema, no fixed Technology location 3) Seven Oceans One , by Annette Lippmann et al, 3) AZ Island , by Jean Phillippe Zoppini 4) Kamar, Drik Schumann, no fixed location, 4) Freedom Ship , by Norman Nixon 5) Palinurus, Dirk Schumann 6) Buckminster Fuller projects for undersea Similar projects - unbuilt islands and floating cities 7) Hydropolis , Dubai, by Joachim Hauser, 8) Marine city , open sea, near Japan, by Kiyonori Kikutake 9) Floating Retreat , by Softroom, 10) Underwater Retreat, by Tools off Architecture 11) Underwater projects by Jacques Rougerie Built Built I don’t have any specific Dutch projects in this 1) Silodam apartment complex , MVRDV, 1) Maasbommel, Factor Architecten, Maasbommel category, however the canals in the Netherlands Amsterdam 3) Watervilla , Herman Hertzberger, Middleburg are filled with all sorts of houseboats which I am 2) Aluminum Forest , Abbink de Haas, Houten 4) Semi-Wate rhouses , Herman Hertzberger, sure I will visit this July 2009. 3) Plan Tij, Klunder Architecten, Dordrecht Middelburg Dutch projects - built and Unbuilt 5) Woonark , Jord den Hollander, Amsterdam unbuilt 1) Hybrid-Highrise , Hoogstad Architecten, 6) Six Water houses , by Art Zaaijer, Ijburg, Amsterdam unbuilt project Unbuilt 1) Water Dwellings , Amsterdam, by Marlies Rohmer 2) Wo29 Lounger, Waterstudio, Ijburg 3) City Hostel , Marlies Rohmer, Amsterdam

Figure 15: Chart showing my Aquatecture typology.

22 Category 1: Stationary Projects

Stationary projects are water-based projects that are either built on the water or on land. If they are on the water, they are rigidly connected to the ground below the sea and are not intended to float. An example is an artificial island. If they are built on land, then they are made of ice. An example is an igloo. One prominent example of Dutch stationary project is the Silodam Apartment complex by MVRDV Architects in Amsterdam, built from 1995-2002. (Figure 16) The building is composed of 157 units (apartments, office spaces, and commercial spaces) that float “like a huge cargo ship on a matrix of concrete piers in the River Ij.55” The building is approximately 300 m long, 20 m deep, 10 stories high, and is located at the end of a dam in a neighborhood that was being gentrified at the time.56 According to Felix Flesche and Christian Burchard, authors of Waterhouse, the choice of varied façade material (brick alternates with metal, glass, and wood) indicates that “the building is intended to be neither elitist nor permanent.57”

a) b) Figure 16: (a) image of concrete piers supporting the Silodam Apartment Complex (b) Perspective (http://www.panoramio.com/photo/3480975)

Another important project is the Aluminum Forest in Houten, by Micha de Haas, built from 1997-2001. (Figure 17) The building, built entirely of aluminum, is a showroom and

55 Flesche, 24 56 (www.mvrdv.nl) MVRDV has designed many other water-based projects including the Kampen Flood Plaines project, the Almere Pampus water housing project, the Boijmans van Beuningen Depot, and the H2O exhibit in Berlin. 57 Flesche, 24

23 promotional center for the Dutch aluminum industry’s umbrella organization. This building appears to hover weightlessly above 368 aluminum rods of differing diameters. These 6 m high tubes “not only have a load-bearing function, but also house the plumbing and sewage systems, the electrical cabling, and the heating pump.58” In addition to housing the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing infrastructure inside the tubes, the building structure is also innovative. “The trusses of the roof frame are not bolted together but linked by a sleeve system used in modern aviation manufacture. The extraordinary precision of the extruded profiles used here allowed quick and simple installation of the windows and interior fittings. In theory, at least, the building could easily be dismantled and moved to another site; or if demolished the elements of the building can be entirely recycled – an impressive ecological achievement.59”

a) b) Figure 17: (a) Aluminum Forest (b) same (Flesche, 27)

Category 2: Floating Projects

Floating projects are stationary in that their location is fixed except in the event of high tide. These projects move vertically (rise with the tide) but not horizontally (across the sea). They are rarely connected to the ground under the sea. But when they are, they are connected with piers that increase or decrease in height depending on the tide. In 2007, Factor Architecten (a design firm based in Amsterdam) and Dura Vermeer (construction firm) designed and constructed 36 amphibious houses in the town of Maasbommel. (Figure 18) This site is located along the river Maas outside the dikes in a recreational area that

58 Flesche, 26 59 (Flesche, 26) This building was awarded the Special Prize of the Architecture and Technology Award in 2003.

24 was intentionally chosen for its regularly high water levels. When the river swells, the new design will allow a house to lift off the ground and float up as much 18 feet, a difference in water level which is expected to occur once every five years. When floodwaters subside, the house returns to its normal position. Flexible pipes house the building services and utilities.60 This project is attracting the attention of project developers, architects and public administrators around the world.61

a) b)

c) d) Figure 18: (a) Perspective view of Maasbommel proejct (b) Example of the Duravermeer homes (c) Image of poles that help steady the houses as the structures rise with the river. (d) Diagram illustrating how the houses rise in high tide. (http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,377050,00.html)

60 At this point, these Maasbommel houses cost approximately €250,000 to €300,000 ($334,300- $401,160) for a 120 square meter home. The high cost is due in part to the flexible nature of the construction which also plays a role in creating feed lines for gas, electricity, drinking water and drainage. Like the foundation, they too, have to be able to adapt to the changes in height of the premises. (http://www.escapeartist.com/OREQ14/Architects_Of_The_Floating_World.html) 61 Currently, Dura Vermeer is developing a ‘floating city’ for 12,000 people near Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam. It will include floating schools, hospitals and shops. The start of construction is planned in 2010.

Architect Herman Hertzberger too, has designed a serious of Watervillas and Semi- Waterhouses in Middleburg.62 (Figure 19) The Watervilla stands on a hexagonal pontoon of ballast-filled steel tubes that also provide walk-in storage space. Based on the same principle as offshore drilling platforms, the weighted substructure supports up to 135 tons and stabilizes the superstructure in high winds and rough water. The project was designed as a densely populated settlement. This complex floats on a concrete island, not on the actual water. The island stands on the ground below the water and can be used as an underground garage. In this the way this project could also belong in the stationary category.

Figure 19: Herman Hertzberger Watervilla (http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/1_TechBriefs/0310Watervilla.asp)

62 Like oil rigs, the Watervilla floats on a hexagonal frame of six 10-millimeter-thick hollow steel tubes roughly 2 meters in diameter. The D-shaped pipes create enough buoyancy to support 135 tons and are engineered to keep the aquatic houses stable even in choppy waters or high winds. The floating base supports a three-story steel structural frame with steel-plate and concrete floors. The cladding is a prefabricated, low-maintenance skin of made of lightweight steel plates over the 60-centimeter-deep steel frame with foam insulation. The interior can be finished in a number of materials; Hertzberger's studio clad the interior walls in 18 centimeter-thick plywood. Prefab materials allow the house to be built on a quick four-month construction schedule. (http://archrecord.construction.com/innovation/1_TechBriefs/0310Watervilla.asp)

Category 3: Floating Mobile Projects

Floating mobile projects, by definition, are intended to float along the sea.63 The term can refer to both a houseboat and a large floating town. In either case, and regardless of whether the project is conceptual or realized, the intention is that the project is continuously moving along the water.64 The definition of the term houseboat is vague because the term has different connotations to different people.65 Yet regardless of the various definitions, most houseboats designers and residents do agree on one thing: a houseboat is simply any home that floats on purpose. Some argue that the term houseboat is synonymous with raft house, floating home, family cruiser, or coastal cruiser, whereas others strongly disagree. The distinction between houseboat and boat is particularly ambiguous because people live aboard boats of all kinds.66 Nevertheless, a houseboat is registered and taxed as a boat, not as real estate. Compared to other types of vessels, the contemporary houseboat is a wide and slow moving power boat designed more for comfort, not speed, on protected waters. This is a “distinction that distances it from ocean-going cruisers and sailboats.67” Houseboats are different from floating projects. Houseboats move across the sea whereas floating projects are only rise and fall with the tide. Houseboats propel themselves whereas floating projects don’t have motors. Though floating projects are movable, they are not

63 In my research, I found a lot of Do-It-Yourself guides to making your own houseboat which explained technical things like how to trap air inside the raft, or hull, of the houseboat. (i.e., use Styrofoam, sealed air, barrels, etc.) For more information, see Handmade Houseboats: Independent living afloat by Russell Condor. 64 Examples of conceptual projects include, for example, the Freedom Ship by Norman Nixon and the Hydropolis in Dubai designed by Joachim Hauser. 65 The connotations of living on a houseboat differ by time period and location. Living on a houseboat can imply a bohemian lifestyle (U.S. soldiers returning from WWII suffering post-traumatic stress disorder), or an ostentatious display of wealth (early 20th century regattas in England), or a salutary retreat (British in India trying to escape heat of India). Also, it can suggest an efficient or sustainable mode of living because houseboats are often adaptive reuse projects. For more information see Handmade Houseboats: Independent living afloat by Russell Condor and The Houseboat Book by Barbara Flanagan. 66 The distinction between houseboat and boat relates to the concept of stability. A boat will turn over only when its center of gravity (determined by weight distribution) overcomes its center of buoyancy (determined by hull shape). In a regular boat (not a houseboat), the Center of Gravity (CG) is below the Center of Buoyancy (CB). The position of the centers is supposed to make the boat right itself automatically if tossed over by waves. In a houseboat, the centers are the other way around because there is “more of the boat out of the water than there is in it. (condor 56)” 67 Flanagan, 20

27 intended to be moved great distances.68 Today, in the U.S. the term houseboat often implies a Bohemian lifestyle, whereas the term floating home suggests a richer more conservative one.69 This category of my typology is probably the most accessible, as evidenced by the large quantity of Do-It-Yourself guides to building your own houseboat. Floating mobile projects are also perhaps the most sustainable category because they lend themselves easily to adaptive reuse projects.70 In Amsterdam, houseboats have been a familiar part of the tourist scenery for decades. After World War II, when housing was scare and retired tjalk were plentiful, Amsterdam officials encouraged the renovation of barges and allowed them to moor along the canals. The barges share the water with two other types of floating houses: “ a ‘house vessel’ is a hybrid – basically a dwelling using an old boat hull as flotation. An ‘ark’ is a long, shoebox-shaped house sitting on a rectangular floating foundation, concrete or steel, shaped to fit. In Amsterdam’s greater metropolitan area there are over 2,000 floating dwellings.71” (Figure 21)

Figure 21: In Amsterdam, the demand for houseboat living exceeds supply although a couple thousand vessels line many miles of canals in the old city and beyond. This canal is the scenic Prinsengracht, one of the main canals that was dug in the 17th century during the Dutch Golden Age. (www.travelblog.org/Photos/51506.html)

The next section will explore the history and geography of New Orleans, a prominent city

in the U.S. that has the potential to incorporate water-based architecture.

68 In the U.S. today, the difference between houseboats and floating homes is visible. Houseboats look like boats and floating homes look like houses. This is because in the 1960s and 1970s, when houseboating as a vacation became popular, the term houseboat came to refer specifically to factory-made vessels. Around this time, “real estate brokers and homeowners associations began using the term floating home to refer to house-like water dwellings that were gaining in popularity and value as moorage spaces became rare.” (Flanagan, 20) 69 Flanagan, 18 70 Many structures can be converted to houseboats: cabooses, guard’s vans, and surplus freight containers. Railway cars too, are particularly effective because they are already pre-plumbed for water. (Condor, 57) 71 Flanagan, 38

28 New Orleans Like many Dutch cities, New Orleans sits on land reclaimed from the water and has been sinking for centuries.72 The next section will include an exploration of the urban design strategies currently proposed for this flood-prone city.

Background New Orleans is situated between the imposing Lake Pontchartrain to the North and a curve in the mighty Mississippi River to the South. (Figure 21) Compared to the surrounding area, New Orleans is located on higher ground. Only giant levees (similar to Holland’s dykes) keep the city from being drowned. Unlike the Netherlands, however, New Orleans experiences hurricanes in addition to floods. This poses a more significant challenge for city planners and engineers because “a hurricane is equivalent to hundreds of nuclear bombs in terms of energy released,” says Louisiana State University professor and coastal oceanographer Dr. Joseph Suhayda. To protect themselves from flooding, the Dutch have massive dykes and movable barriers. However, these types of constructions are not viable in New Orleans because there are simply too many places for the water to force itself in when driven by a massive hurricane. In addition, the New Orleans levees were only built to withstand a Category 3 storm, something projections suggested would only happen once every 2 or 3 centuries. However, in August 2005, Hurricane Katrina was already a Category 4 storm by the time it crossed Southern Florida and destroyed New Orleans. The levees, built in the 1920s-30s, were simply not strong enough to protect the city against a storm of this magnitude. In the Netherlands too, floods are stronger and more frequent that ever before. One of the most impressive Dutch storm-surge barriers is the Oosterscheldekering (“Eastern Scheldt”) barrier. During a storm, computers monitor the surging seas. When the waves rise to a certain point above sea level, an alarm goes out to an emergency control team. The team gives a command to lower the sluice doors of this barrier. Since 2002, the dam has had to shut 22 times. This is 10 times more than planners predicted would be necessary. (Figure 22)

72 This section will address aspects of Hurricane Katrina that relate to climate change and urban planning agendas. It will focus not address political issues related to the flood. Many people at the time were angry that were not enough Louisiana National Guardsmen to help with rescue efforts or to patrol against looting because they were at war in Iraq. There were not enough helicopters to repair the breached levees or to rescue people trapped by the rising water. In any event, the question is: What is an effective approach to city planning in this is flood-prone and hurricane- prone region?

a) b) Figure 21: (a) Satellite image that shows Lake Pontchartrain is to the north and the Mississippi River to the south of New Orleans. (http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/neworleans/map/images/html_map_1920.jpg) (b) detail image of New Orleans (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/images/new-orleans-landsat7-before.jpg)

Figure 22: Diagram explaining the Oosterscheldekering barrier. This is the largest of the 13 ambitious Delta works series of dams, designed to protect the Netherlands from flooding. It has sluice gates that raise to allow water to flow underneath them.

30 History

New Orleans was founded by the French in 1718, under the direction of Jean Baptiste Le Moyne Sieur de Bienville. Originally, the city was named La Nouvelle Orleans, after the Regent of France, Philip II Duke of Orleans. This site was selected because it was a rare piece of natural high ground above the flood-prone banks of the Lower Mississippi. Since its inception, the city has been undeniably linked to its geographical surroundings. Developing the city was always a struggle. In fact, sites as far away as present day Natchez, Mississippi were attempted before New Orleans took root in its permanent location. Early European settlers had to struggle against malarial mosquitoes and hostile swampland as they sought to develop New Orleans as a commercial post near the mouth of the Mississippi. New Orleans not only had to conform to its topographical constrictions, but also had to rely on the river for basic supplies – including those needed for erecting buildings. This is similar to the experience of the Dutch settlers, who founded their cities based on proximity to the canals for trading purposes.73 The Mississippi River is the premier geographical circumstance that defines the city. While other big cities like Baton Rouge, Louisiana and Memphis, Tennessee line the river, New Orleans is unique, because it is nearest the river’s mouth, and therefore closest to the Gulf of Mexico and other water bodies that communicate with the rest of the world.74 Also, New Orleans differs from other American ports, which generally serve as an ocean/gulf/sea/lake, but not as all four.75 As New Orleans expanded, developers were forced to reclaim usable land from both the river and the swamp. The city’s high water table and below sea-level situation resulted not only

73 Traditional histories generally identify the Colonial era, the Louisiana Purchase, and the Civil War as major milestones in the history of New Orleans. However, the book Time and Place in New Orleans: Past Geographies in the Present Day is a ‘historical geography,” which views the subdivision of rural plantation, construction of the drainage system, and excavation of the Industrial Canal as watershed events in the city’s past. This book analyzes New Orleans through the contours of its geography, “because a geographical understand imparts a spatial perspective in deciphering history of a city or human endeavor.”(Campanella, 13) 74 New Orleans is located “between millions of people in the American heartland and the global market that both supplies their economic demands and consumes their fruits of productivity. New Orleans’ situation makes it both a river port and a seaport, inwardly impressionable via the river and the vast hinterland [backwoods] it drains and outwardly influenced via the sea and the scores of nations it touches.” (Campanella, 16) 75 In his book, New Orleans: the Making of an Urban Landscape, Pierce Lewis states “All ports of course, enjoy a certain worldly quality that come from the constant mingling of products and people from far-off places, but again, New Orleans is not even ordinary as a port. First of all, the port of New Orleans is big – ranking second only to New York City in volume and value of cargo handles, [but unlike New York], which does a good many things besides handling cargo, New Orleans embraces marine commerce with the same single-minded enthusiasm as Detroit makes automobiles…thoroughly relishing her bigamous marriage to the river and Ocean.” (Lewis, 8)

31 in basement-less homes but also in the great levees and complex drainage systems. Though the Zuiderzee works and the Deltaworks in the Netherlands were built more recently, the New Orleans levees, which are from the 1920s-1930s, are also considered examples of engineering genius.76 They have indirectly shaped the structure of the city. The radiating street patterns characteristic of much of New Orleans were formed gradually, as “wedge-shaped long-lot plantations were subdivided independently by their owners, passing on the geography of the rural arpent [French land measurement] land-division system to urban subdivisions.77” In other words, the levees provided dry ground for the city, and this ground was then sub-divided into long lot plantations, which then provided the basis for New Orleans’s fan-shaped street network.78

Suggestions for the future

In the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, New Orleans has been strategizing on an optimal urban planning solution.79 Since then, there have been numerous consultations between city officials from New Orleans and Dutch architects, landscape architects, and urban planners.80 In October 2008, twenty Dutch experts on planning and landscaping met with American officials at Tulane University in New Orleans to discuss their suggestions for water management and

76 Chapter 2 of Richard Campanella’s book Time and Place in New Orleans: Past Geographies in the Present Day discusses episodes of topographic change in the city designed do the following: 1) Keep water out (The Mississippi River System from 1722-present, The Lakefront from 1926-present, The Hurricane-Protection levees from 1965- present) 2) Remove water (the drainage system from 1893-present) 3) Create new land (The Batture from 1790s- 1830s) and 4) Improve navigation (Old Canal from 1794-1938, New Basin Canal from 1832-1950, Inner Harbor Navigational Canal from 1918-present, and the Mississippi River gulf from 1958-present). 77 Campanella, 13 78 This is an oversimplification. The French Quarter, for example, is nearly laid out in a regular grid pattern. 79 While reading about the different suggestions for how to rebuild New Orleans, I was reminded of similar articles I have read about design proposals for the area formerly occupied by the World Trade Center towers in Lower Manhattan. It seems like, collectively, as a country, we insist on rebuilding things as they were before they were destroyed. In fact, Daniel Libeskind’s Freedom Tower will be even taller than the original World Trade Center towers. 80 After large portions of the Netherlands were inundated in the Great Flood of 1953, the Dutch spent $14.7 billion over several decades modernizing their dykes and adding new high-tech barriers. This flood killed 2,000 people while Katrina killed 1,836. While the likelihood of a Katrina-like disaster for New Orleans is expected every 200 or 300 years, the Deltaworks project was designed to push the envelope and withstand flood conditions that are only supposed to occur once every 10,000 years. In the Netherlands, funding for the Deltaworks project came mostly from taxes “under a series of centuries old rulings that had make dyke maintenance a ‘common cause’ for the whole community and not just those in flood-risk areas.” In the U.S., we pay taxes but our government has not chosen to spend the tax money on building a new storm surge system. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4607452.stm#graphic)

32 dispersal.81 The first thing the Dutch experts noticed was that the strategy in New Orleans has been to simply block the water instead of working with it. Even though the Netherlands storm surge barriers that can protect areas as much as 20 feet below sea level, Dutch planners purposely do not build in certain flood-prone areas. Instead, they either build houses that are intended to float or they do not build at all. Therefore, the Dutch experts suggested that New Orleans integrate the water into the city by incorporating more canals and retention pools within the city limits, as well as to restore more wetlands.82 They also suggested demolishing the walls that currently line the drainage canals so that people can view the canals. At another meeting in 2008, Frank de Graaf, one of the planners participating in Dutch Dialogue II, made a suggestion that exemplified the kind of innovative thinking that must prevail for New Orleans to survive.83 He suggested that the golf course in Pontchartrain Park be restored, but lowered by several feet. When a flood occurs, water will be gathered here in and the course will become a temporary pond. From this pond, the water could be pumped into the industrial canal. A few days later, the golf course would be restored to normal.84 MVRDV architects, in Rotterdam, have also proposed a new residential prototype for New Orleans. (Figure 23) The image below is a design from 2007 for the Make It Right Foundation in New Orleans. It reinterprets the classic shotgun house in the Lower 9th Ward, which is one place the levies broke in hurricane Katrina. The MVRDV proposal calls for 150 homes total of 5 different types. Each type is lifted in a different way when the water rises.

81 This panel included Dutch landscape architect Steven Slabbers, American architect David Waggonner, and Netherlands embassy representative Dale Morris, amongst others. (http://www.wwltv.com/topstories/stories/wwl101208cbdutch.106d51608.html) 82 In his book, The Control of Nature, John McPhee describes the strategies and tactics that people have used to control nature world-wide. In Louisiana, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has declared war on the lower Mississippi River, which threatens to follow a new route to the sea and separate New Orleans and Baton Rouge from the rest of U.S. In Los Angeles, basins are built to catch the devastating debris that flows from the San Gabriel Mountains. 83 Dutch Dialogues is a series of interactions and workshops between a knowledge network in the Netherlands and interested parties in New Orleans. (http://www.dutchdialogues.com/) 84 Elie, Lolis. "Creative thinking about safety - NOLA.com." New Orleans, LA Local News,Breaking News, Sports & Weather - NOLA.com. 15 Oct. 2008. 08 May 2009 .

33 a) b)

c) d)

Figure 23: (a) In the Bent House, shown here, the bending creates a carport on one side and a garden at the rear (b) The 5 types of houses (c) Bent House rendering (d) Bent House section (www.mvrdv.nl)

Likewise, German architect Peter Bringt is proposing a new design for New Orleans. (Figure 24) His idea basically calls for two different forms of living: ‘swimming neighborhoods’ for areas that are very vulnerable to flooding, and ‘amphibian quarters’ for areas subject to seasonable flooding.85 In the U.S., architect Tim Culvahouse of Berkeley, CA thinks New Orleans has the potential to set a new standard in transportation design. He believes New Orleans has the potential to become an incubator for the U.S. light-rail system. If New Orleans is built as essentially a linear city, it could “become one of the few cities in North America where light-rail transit actually works…A light rail route along the existing railroad right-of-way at the river could merge seamlessly into a regional storm evacuation network.86”

85 For more info see "Rpb - SAVE NEW ORLEANS - USA." Rpb. 08 May 2009 . 86 Culvahouse, Tim. "Which Way, New Orleans? | CulvaHOUSE." CulvaHOUSE | a resource for design and architecture communication. 08 May 2009 .

Figure 24: Diagram showing the implementation of amphibian structures (http://www.bringt.de/ENGLISH/)

Conclusions

Architects and planners today must accept rising sea levels and rapid population increase as fact. As a result, flood-prone cities in the Netherlands and Southern Louisiana must adapt to the threats inherent to living in a sinking delta as well as the problem of housing an ever- increasing population. Coastal regions are facing a paradigm shift in terms of the precedent they set for architecture and urban planning. It is imperative that we design buildings intended to adapt to the inevitable future. Designing amphibious housing in these regions prevent waterfront property from being destroyed during a flood, and of course, it gives us an opportunity to exploit the water’s magic and to pursue the utopian dream of living on the sea.

35 Works Cited

Andrews, Kate. "Amphibious Houses For Rising Water Levels." Www.inhabitat.com. 29 Aug. 2007. Inhabitat. 9 Dec. 2008 .

Barreneche, Raul. "Hertzberger's Watervilla prototype pushes Dutch houseboat design to new levels." Architecture Design for Architects | Architectural Record. 07 May 2009 .

Campanella, Richard. Time and place in New Orleans past geographies in the present day. Gretna, La: Pelican Pub. Co., 2002.

"CNN.com - Senate OKs $10.5 billion disaster bill." CNN.com - Breaking News, U.S., World, Weather, Entertainment & Video News. 1 Sept. 2005. 08 May 2009 .

Conder, Russell. Handmade houseboats: Independent living afloat. Camden, Maine: International Marine, McGraw-Hill, 1992.

Culvahouse, Tim. "Which Way, New Orleans? | CulvaHOUSE." CulvaHOUSE | a resource for design and architecture communication. 08 May 2009 .

De Jong, Perro. "BBC NEWS | Europe | Louisiana studies Dutch dams." BBC NEWS | News Front Page. 13 Jan. 2006. 08 May 2009 .

De Muynck, Bert. "City Under The City: An Interview with Professor Moshe Zwarts, director Zwarts + Jansma." www.movingcities.org. 11 Mar. 2008. 7 Dec. 2008 .

Elie, Lolis. "Creative thinking about safety - NOLA.com." New Orleans, LA Local News, Breaking News, Sports & Weather - NOLA.com. 15 Oct. 2008. 08 May 2009 .

"Extreme Engineering: Holland's Barriers to the Sea DVD." Extreme Engineering. The Discovery Channel. Season 1. 2004.

"Extreme Engineering: City in a Pyramid." Extreme Engineering. The Discovery Channel. Season 1. 2004.

Flanagan, Barbara. The Houseboat Book. New York: Universe, 2004.

Flesche, Felix, and Christian Burchard. Water House. Grand Rapids: Prestel Publishing, 2005.

Floating Homes. Forster+ Trabitzsch Architects. 8 Dec. 2008 .

International Marine Floatation waterfront development. 08 May 2009 .

Lee, Evelyn. "Dutch Floating Homes By DuraVermeer." Www.inhabitat.com. 2 Apr. 2007. 8 Dec. 2008 .

Lewis, Peirce F. New Orleans the making of an urban landscape. 2nd ed. Sante Fe, N.M: Center for American Places in association with the University of Virginia Press, Distributed by the University of Virginia Press, 2003.

Lootsma, Bart. Superdutch: New Architecture in the Netherlands. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2000.

"Pictured: The Floating Cities That Could One Day House Climate Change Refugees." www.commondreams.org. 04 July 2008. The Daily Mail/UK. 7 Dec. 2009 .

Roaf, Susan. Adapting buildings and cities for climate change a 21st century survival guide. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Architectural Press, 2005.

Rodriguez, Maya. "Dutch experts offer flood protection advice, wwltv.com." News, Weather and Sports for New Orleans | News and Weather for New Orleans | wwltv.com. 12 Oct. 2008. 08 May 2009 .

"Rpb - SAVE NEW ORLEANS - USA." Rpb. 08 May 2009 .

Sussman, Paul. "Buoyant market: Are floating homes the future of housing?" CNN. 20 Aug. 2007. cnn.com/technology. 8 Dec. 2008 .

"To protect New Orleans, go Dutch | csmonitor.com." The Christian Science Monitor, csmonitor.com. 17 Nov. 2005. 08 May 2009 .

Waterstudio. 2007-2008. 03 Dec. 2008 .

Wylson, Anthony. Aquatecture architecture and water. London: Architectural Press, 1986.

37 Appendix A - Glossary

Aqueduct An aqueduct is a bridge built specifically to bring water from one location to another. A viaduct is a bridge that is built to carry traffic (pedestrian and/or motorized).

Batture A batture is the land between the river and the manmade levees that border it. In Louisiana, the term refers to portions of the bed of the Mississippi River that are exposed in low water and covered in high water.

Boat Dwelling According to Barbara Flanagan, author of the The Houseboat Book, a boat dwelling is a structure that began as a boat but has been recruited, or redesigned, to serve as a dwelling. Some move and some don’t. All have hulls. It can refer to a boat converted to a home or a factory made houseboat (designed for vacation living and light cruising).

Dam A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as dikes are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

Dock A dock is a man-made feature involved in the handling of boats or ships that is intended for people to be on. It is synonymous with pier, or wharf. There are many types of docking configurations. They can be single-loaded or double-loaded. According to The Houseboat Book, docks are “the best way to organize houseboats into a neighborhood equipped with municipal services.”

Dyke (aka dike, levee, embankment, floodbank, or stopbank) A dyke is a natural or artificial slope or wall built to regulate water levels. It is usually earthen and often parallel to the course of a river or the coast.

Floating Homes Floating homes are non-motorized dwellings, built on flotation bases, designed to remain in slips (a slip is a term for the water area between piers) where they will be connected to water, electrical, and sewer services. They can look like cabins, cottages, suburban houses, or townhouses.

Hull A hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. It is a central concept in floating vessels as it provides the buoyancy that keeps the vessel from sinking.

38 Land reclamation Land reclamation is a concept which refers to either of two distinct practices. One involves creating new land from the sea or riverbeds and the other refers to restoring an area to a more natural state (such as after pollution or desertification have made it unusable).

Levee see dyke

Marina A marina is a sheltered harbor where boats and yachts are kept in the water. In addition, it provides services geared to the needs of recreational boating (re-fueling, washing and repair facilities, stores, and restaurants). Boats are moored either or on buoys or on fixed or floating walkways that are tied to an anchoring piling by a roller or ring mechanism.

Polder A polder is a low-lying tract of land enclosed by embankments known as dikes. It is an artificial hydrological entity, meaning that the land has no connection with outside water other than through manually-operated devices. There are three types of polders: 1) Land reclaimed from a body of water, such as a lake or the sea bed 2) Flood plains separated from the sea or river by a dike and 3) Marshes separated from the surrounding water by a dike and consequently drained.

Pontoon A pontoon is a floating structure (i.e. a flat-bottomed boat) that serves to support a structure above it, such as a dock, a bridge, or a seaplane. It is simply a float used to support a structure on the water. It may be simply constructed from closed cylinders such as pipes or barrels or fabricated as boxes from metal or concrete. Modern floating houses are built on pontoons, as in the case of Herman Hertzberger’s Watervillas, which recall the practice of constructing dwellings on top of rafts.

Sluice A sluice gate is traditionally a wooden or metal plate which slides in grooves in the sides of the channel. Sluice gates are commonly used to control water levels and flow rates in rivers and canals. They are also used in wastewater treatment plants and to recover minerals in mining operations.

39 Appendix B – Master list of Dutch projects

Office Web Contact Address Projects visiting address: Huys Gibraltar Jollemanhof 22 1019 GW Amsterdam mailing address: 1) Aluminum Forest, Houten, The Abbink x De Haas http://www.abbinkdehaas.nl/ Postbus 1486 Netherlands, 1997-2001 (from Architectures [email protected] Micha de Haas 1000 BL Amsterdam Waterhouse) Steve Scamihorn, AIA, http://aiaeurope.org/members/Netherl President, (referral from ands/ Mary Felber of AAFand AIACE Netherlands [email protected] AIA)

William J. Sebring, AIA (from AIACE Netherlands website and [email protected] referral from Kenneth www.altoonporter.com/ Long of A+P LA office Altoon + Porter *other email addresses on AIACE from USC Career Fair on Keizersgracht 62/64 1015 CS Architects B.V. webpage Fri 2/20/09) Amsterdam none-referral

Architect Anne Holtrop, who currently works on the ‘Floating Gardens' resort for Studio Noach received the 2008 Charlotte Köhler Prize for Architecture on www.anneholtrop.nl (architecture firm behalf of the Prince Bernhard that works on Studio Noach Projects) Cultural Foundation of the Anne Holtrop [email protected] Anne Holtrop (male) Amsterdam Netherlands on July the 4th 2008. 1) 6 Waterhouses, Amsterdam, Architectecten Bureau http://www.zaaijer.nl/ KNSM-LAAN 79 1019 LB 2001, Ijburg (from waterhouse Art Zaaijer [email protected] Art Zaaijer Amsterdam, The Netherlands and lots of articles online)

1) City Hostel, Amsterdam, visiting address: project, 2001-2004, Cruquiusweg 111 G Waterdwellings (from 1019 AG Amsterdam, NL Waterhouse), Houthavens mailing address: 2) Waterdwellings, Ijburg, project Architectural Office Marlies Rohmer or in progress?, 2001-2008 Architectenbureau www.rohmer.nl PO Box 2935 3) Watervillas, Nieuw Sloten, Marlies Rohmer [email protected] Marlies Rohmer 1000 CX Amsterdam, NL competition, unbuilt, 1993 Architectenbureau Bloemgracht 86 1) Aqua Domus and Aqua Villa, Sytze Visser [email protected] (no website) Sytze Visser 1015TM Amsterdam 2001 http://www.schrauwenarchitecten.nl/w ww.abkenschrauwen.nl Abken Schrauwen Architecten Architectenburo C. [email protected] Floridalaan 6 1) Borneo House, Amsterdam, Schrauwen [email protected] Corinne Schrauwen 3404 WV IJsselstein 1999 http://www.archi-tectonics.com Archi-Tectonics: [email protected] Winka Dubbeldam 111 MERCER STREET #2 , NEW Archi-Tectonics [email protected] (female) YORK, NY 10012, www.asymptote.net 1) Floriade Pavilion, Asymptote NY [email protected] Hani Rashid Haarlemmermeer, 2002 1) Student units in the water, Den Haag, 2002, project Atelier PRO Architekten Hans van Beek, Dorte 2) Car Park Laakhaven, The b.v. www.atelierpro.nl [email protected] Kristensen Hague, 1995, built? 1) Attika water housing catalogue, 1999 2) www.attika.nl IJburg Visitor Centre, Amsterdam, Attika Architekten [email protected] 1999-2000 1) Watertuinen Groote Wielen, Den Bosch, 2004, project? www.bear.nl 2) Water villas and apartments, BEAR Architecten [email protected] Gouda Roosendaal, 2002, built visiting: Heijendaalseweg 121 6525 AJ Nijmegen, Nederland mailing: Croonen architecten http://www.croonenarchitecten.nl/ Postbus 1384 1) The Wheel Houses, Druten, b.v. [email protected] Henk van Eldijk 6501 Nijmegen 1998 1) Water dwelling, anywhere on the water, 2001 (competition), Simone Drost, Evelien Archimedes house van Veen, Ylva 2) WaterNet pontoons, Drost + Van Veen [email protected] Haberlandt Rotterdam, 1998-2001

visiting address: Dura Vermeer Groep NV Orfeoschouw 30 2726 JE Zoetermeer 1) Masbommel floating housing, Chris Zevenburgen? mailing address: 37 houses along banks of River (from Architects of the Postbus 7119 Maas (from online article Dura Vermeer [email protected] Floating World Article) 2701 AC Zoetermeer Architects of the Floating World)

visiting address: 1) Masbommel floating housing, Geograaf 40 NL-6921 EW Duiven 37 houses along banks of River http://www.factorarchitecten.nl/ mailing address: Maas (from online article Factor Architecten [email protected] Postbus 223 NL-6920 AE Duiven Architects of the Floating World) www.archineer.com 1) Floating fluid pavilion, [email protected] Rotterdam, 2003, project, Freelance Archineer [email protected] Sieb S. Wichers (h2olland.nl) 1) Palmboom masterplan for Ijburg H+N+S http://www.hnsland.nl 2) Waterrijke Deltametropool Landschapsarchitecten [email protected] (Delta metropolis), 2000 Gerard Doustraat 220 1073 XB Amsterdam 1) semi-waterhouses, watervillas, PO Box 74665 and waterhoeves in Ypenburg, http://hertzberger.nl/index_intro.html 1070 BR Amsterdam since 1998 2) Herman Hertzberger [email protected] The Netherlands Watervilla in Middleburg www.hetconsort.nl 1) Amphibious Home - Het Architecten Consort [email protected] Hans Lucas Permafrost, 232, anycity, 2000

visiting address: Ector Hoogstad ArchitectenWesterkade 31, 3016 CM Rotterdam, NL mailing address: P.O. Box 818, 3000 AV Rotterdam, 1) Hybrid high rise, project, 2002 Hoogstad Architecten [email protected] the Netherlands (from Waterhouse) Eerste Nassaustraat 5 http://www.insideoutside.nl/ 1052 BD Amsterdam Inside Outside [email protected] Petra Blaisse NL

David Sheldon (referral from Janice Jerde, [email protected], and Tammy McKerrow, tammy.mckerrow@jerde. com, email Janice for Jerde Partnership in contact info of Alexander Amsterdam [email protected] in LA office) none - referral 1) Woonark (Houseboat), Amsterdam (waterhouse) Jord den Hollander 2) Stokkenbridge, Purmerend, Lange Muiderweg 603 2001 (h2olland.nl) 1398 PA Muiden 3) Meditation Dome Floriade, Jord den Hollander [email protected] Jord den Hollander The Netherlands Haarlemmermeer, 2002 mailing address: Postbus 4150 3006 AD Rotterdam K.P. van der Mandelelaan 100 KvK 1) Plan Tij, Dordrecht, The http://klunderarchitecten.nl/ Rien de Ruiter and 24118935 Rotterdam (address Netherlands, project, 2004 (from Klunder Architecten [email protected] Sjoerd Berghius unsure) Waterhouse)

1) Silodam Apartment Complex, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1995-2002 2) floodproof homes for the Lower 9th ward in New Orleans 3) visiting address: Kampen Flood plaines project 4) Dunanstraat 10, Almere Pampus water housing 3024 BC Rotterdam, NL mailing project, this was a feasibility study http://www.mvrdv.nl/#/news Winy Maas, principal Jan address: 3002 5) Boijmans van Beuningen Depot MVRDV [email protected] Knikker JC Rotterdam NL 6) H2O exhibit 1) ZEEKRACHT, NETHERLANDS, THE NORTH OMA*AMO HQ Rotterdam SEA, 2008 Heer Bokelweg 149 2) DELTA METROPOOL, 3032 AD Rotterdam NETHERLANDS, RANDSTAD, OMA [email protected] The Netherlands 2002

www.oxus.nl 1) Water Pavilion, Floriade, OXUS [email protected] J. Olthuis Haarlemmermeer, 2002 Dipl. Ing. P. Bringt Architekt (made presentation about new www.atelier-rpb.com Karl - Marx Allee 111 orleans that inhabitat link doesn’t RPB (in Germany) [email protected] Peter Bringt D 10243 Berlin link to) Studio Noach founder Michel Kreuger developed ‘Green Floating'. A full concept for living on water on a foundation of recycled waste (Polystyreen/RexwallTM), in combination with a high tech Studio Noach sustainable climate system and http://www.studionoach.com/ ’s Gravenhekje 6 II an ecological and botanical Studio Noach [email protected] Michael Kreuger 1011TG Amsterdam coating of plants and flowers. Tangram 1) 18 waterdwellings in [email protected] Cronenburg 150 Schillingdijk, Amsterdam-Osdorp, Tangram Architekten [email protected] 1081 GN Amsterda, NL 1999 1) 53 dwellings Noorderplassen, Almere, 2002-4, project? Theo Verburg www.theoverburg.nl Theo Verburg Architecten 2) 22 waterhouses,Zuiderburen Architecten [email protected] Bettekamp 11 6712 EG EDE Leeuwarden, project,

1) Dec 47 dwellings, Almere, 2001 2) 21 pierhouses Verheijen Verkoren www.vvkh.nl Fons Verheijen, Angie 3) 10 do it yourself houses Knappers de Haan [email protected] Abbink, Sjoerd Betten 4) 16 boathoouses Victor Veldhuijzen van floating Prostitution facility, Zanten Amsterdam competition

1) Wo2 Lounger, project, Ijburg, The Netherlands 2) houseboats 3) projects in progress: floating mosque in Dubai, blvd in Antwerp, Gen. Berenschotlaan 211 Health village in Aruba 4) tubes in www.Waterstudio.NL 2283 JM Rijswijk haarlemmermeer (in progress?) Waterstudio [email protected] Koen Olthius The Netherlands 5) Watervilla, ijburg West 8 urban design & Schiehaven 13M landscape architecture [email protected] 3024 EC Rotterdam b.v. [email protected] Adriaan Geuze The Netherlands 1) Floating Pavilion, Sonsbeek, Wiek Rolling Arnhem, 1986

www.xxarchitecten.nl 1) The Floating Road, various XX architects [email protected] locations, 2002, competition, built 1) Naviduct, Enkhuizen, 1995- 2002, built? 2) AMFORA (alternative multifunctional underground space), 2008, unbuilt www.zwarts.jansma.nl Moshé Zwarts, Rein 3) Ramspol surge barrier, Ens, Zwarts & Jansma [email protected] Jansma 1997-2001