N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road And County Extension

Contract 1 – Final Report

Report on the Archaeological Excavation of Neolithic, Iron Age and Post Medieval Pits SLIGO at CORPORATION Area 1C, Caltragh, Sligo

Licence Number: 03E0544 Licensee: Sue McCabe ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSULTANCY February 2005 SERVICES PROJECT DETAILS

Project Archaeological Excavation Archaeologist Sue McCabe Client Sligo Borough and County Council, Town Hall, Co Sligo

Road Scheme N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road and County Extension Site Area 1C Townland Caltragh Parish St John’s Nat Grid Ref 168790, 333800

RMP No N/A

Licence No 03E0544 Planning Ref N/A

Project Date 28th July 2003 Report Date February 2005

Archaeological Consultancy Services Ltd N4 SIRR, Caltragh 1C

NON-TECHNICAL SUMMARY The N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road and County Extension (N4 SIRR) development involves the construction of a new dual carriageway extending north from the Carrowroe Roundabout on the existing N4 in Tonafortes Townland. This will run through a rural environment at first, then continue through the Sligo urban area and terminate at the Michael Hughes Bridge, at the junction of Custom House Quay and Ballast Quay in Rathedmond Townland. The development covers a distance of 4.2 km.

An extensive programme of archaeological investigation associated with the development commenced in 2001 with test excavations being carried out by Mary Henry Ltd. These test excavations took the form primarily of a series of 2m-wide trenches excavated along the length of the route. They were aimed at assessing the archaeological potential of the route and a number of definite and potential archaeological features already identified there. This testing identified eleven areas of archaeological potential and included testing on the henge enclosure in Tonafortes Townland (RMP SL014-224). Full archaeological excavation of these eleven areas commenced in April 2003 and was carried out by Archaeological Consultancy Services (ACS) Ltd.

As part of numerous sites excavated along the route of the N4 SIRR, Area 1C was located to the east of the Newtownholmes Road and had been under pasture prior to excavation. The area had been identified as having possible archaeological significance during archaeological testing of the route (Licence No 01E0942) by Mary Henry Ltd. During the current excavation, two small Neolithic pits were identified in the southwest of the area and a further pit, yielding an Iron Age date, was identified to the extreme north of the area. In addition, the remains of post-medieval pits, relict field boundaries and land drains were also evident.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are extended to all involved in the planning and execution of the archaeological elements of the N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road project.

Thanks to the supervisors and staff who undertook the work in the field and in the preliminary post-excavation analysis: Rachel Sloane, Aiden Kenny, Jon Stirland, Jose Casaban, Martin Halpin, Lydia Cagney and Andrew Dicken.

Thanks also to all members of Sligo Borough and County Council and the National Roads Authority who were involved in the project and who were invariably helpful with information and advice when requested: Paul Canning, Paul Cunningham, and Michael MacDonagh.

This project was funded by the Irish Government and part-funded by the European Union under the National Development Plan 2000–2006. The total archaeological cost was administered by the National Roads Authority through Sligo Borough and County Councils, as part of the Authority’s commitment to protecting our cultural heritage.

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CONTENTS

1. Introduction Page 1 2. The Site in the Landscape 2.1 The Geography, Geology and Land Use Page 2 2.2 The Prehistoric and Early Medieval Landscape Page 4 2.2.1 The Mesolithic Landscape Page 4 2.2.2 The Neolithic Landscape Page 6 2.2.3 The Bronze Age Landscape Page 8 2.2.4 The Iron Age and Early Medieval Landscape Page 10 3. Historical Background Page 11 4. Archaeological Excavation 4.1 Background to Archaeological Resolution Page 15 4.2 Excavation Methodology Page 16 4.3 Context Register Page 18 4.4 Stratigraphical Report Summary Page 22 4.5 Interpretation and Discussion Page 23 5. Archive Contents 5.1 Stratigraphical Report Page 27 5.2 Drawing Register Page 35 5.3 Sample Register Page 35 5.4 Soil Sample Flotation Results Page 36 5.5 Finds Register Page 36 5.6 Film Register Page 37 5.7 Animal Bone Register Page 37 6. Bibliography Page 38

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List of Figures Figure 1 Extract from Discovery Series Map No. 25 showing location of Site 1C. Figure 2 Proposed route of the N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road showing location of Site 1C. Figure 3 Site 1C, showing extent of site and test trenches. Figure 4 Plan of extensive agricultural works, northern end of site 1C. Scale as shown. Figure 5 Post-excavation plan of features C.207, C.213 & C.226 and Sections of C207 & C213. Figure 6 Plano-convex knife

List of Plates Plate 1 Site 1C showing area stripped of topsoil and location of pits C.207 and C.213 (marked in red) & pit C126 (marked in blue), facing west. Plate 2 C.190, C.191, C.192; natural peat formation. Facing east. Plate 3 Natural lime deposits C.104, facing west. Plate 4 Selection of post-medieval artefacts found during excavation of Site 1C. Plate 5. Plough furrows identified to the north of Site 1C, facing south. Plate 6 Field clearance feature containing post-medieval artefacts, facing southwest. Plate 7 Land drain C.166 located to the north of Site 1C, facing southwest. Plate 8 Neolithic pits C.207 and C.213, truncated by post-medieval linear feature C.226, facing south. Plate 9 Possible Iron Age pits C.124 and C.126, facing north.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The proposed N4 Sligo Inner Relief Road and County Extension (N4 SIRR) extends north from the Carrowroe Roundabout on the existing N4 at Tonafortes Townland. It will run through a rural environment at first, then continue through the Sligo urban area and terminate at the Michael Hughes Bridge, at the junction of Custom House Quay and Ballast Quay in Rathedmond Townland. The total length of the scheme is 4.2km. Construction commenced works in May 2004, following the completion of archaeological excavations.

An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for the development was carried out in 1999. An additional field walkover of the route was undertaken in April 2001. These studies confirmed the presence of a number of potential archaeological features along the route. Following the field studies, archaeological test excavations were carried out in order to determine the extent and nature of any archaeological remains present; these included excavating those known or potential sites identified during the earlier studies as well as all other areas along the route where no archaeological remains were visible. These test excavations were carried out by Mary Henry Ltd between September and December 2001 under licences issued by the authorities. Further testing was carried out in June 2003 by Steve Linnane (Licence No 03E0903) of ACS Ltd within the urban area of the development. A list of test excavation licences issued in connection with the N4 SIRR can be found in Appendix 7.5.

The test excavations were carried out in the townlands of Tonafortes, Carrowroe, Cornageeha, Caltragh, Magheraboy, Knappagh Beg and Rathedmond: Ordnance Survey (OS) six-inch sheet 14 (692, 7) to Sheet 14 (595, 257); National Grid Co-ordinates (NGC) 168781, 332918 (south end) to 168160, 336090 (north end). Ten areas of archaeological potential were confirmed by the testing, in addition to the already known henge enclosure in Tonafortes (RMP SL014-224).

Full excavation of these areas and sites began in April 2003; these were carried out by ACS Ltd. For tendering purposes, the client had divided the required excavations into two separate contracts: Contracts 1 and 2. The areas of archaeological potential or significance that required resolution as part of these contracts were:

• Contract 1: Areas 1A–1G

• Contract 2: Areas 2A–2D

This report details the results of the excavation of several large pasture fields located in the townland of Caltragh, east of the Newtownholmes Road (NGC 168790 333800; refer Figure 1). Site 1C is L-shaped. It includes the road itself, oriented north–south, and a larger area adjoining to the west which will form the site compound. The excavation was carried out on behalf of the

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Sligo Borough and County Councils. Licence No 03E0544 was issued by Dúchas, The Heritage Service to Susan McCabe and excavation was carried out between July 23rd and August 5th 2003.

Two small areas of archaeological interest were identified. The first area consisted of two small pits which were excavated in the southwest corner of the site (refer Plate 1); radiocarbon dating has confirmed a Neolithic date for these (refer Appendix 7.2). The second area was an undiagnostic pit identified and excavated in the extreme northeast of the site; this has returned an Iron Age date from C14 analysis (refer Appendix 7.2). In addition, numerous modern agricultural features, land drains, field boundaries and post-medieval pits were also identified throughout the site.

2. THE SITE IN THE LANDSCAPE by Ed Danaher & Lydia Cagney

2.1 The Geography, Geology and Land Use

Area 1C is located west of the current N4 Dublin to Sligo Road, and east of the Newtownholmes Road, southwest of Sligo Town (refer Figure 1). Two large pasture fields have been further divided by fencing and no hedgerows were evident above ground on the site with the exception of the northern and western site boundary. The land sloped gently from north to south. Knocknarea is visible to the west and mountains are also visible to the south and north.

Circular depressions in the ground had been identified during field walking and were believed initially to be of archaeological significance (Mary Henry Archaeological Services Ltd 2001, Field Survey Ref 020). These were confirmed as either natural features or clay/limestone extraction pits.

The town of Sligo is situated at the mouth of the Garvoge (Garavogue) River. It is the second town of Connacht. Sligo is a prosperous market town, sea port and borough. The often turbulent Garvoge River extends from the picturesque Lough Gill, located to the southeast of the town, to Sligo Bay towards the west. The limestone massifs of Ben Bulben (1730ft) dominate the views to the north while the Ballygawley Hills extend this mountainous spectacle along the northeastern horizon. To the west are Knocknarea, Sligo Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Knocknarea, a protruding limestone block, stands to a height of 1083ft. The smooth-sloped hills of the Ox Mountains, composed of gneiss and schists, dominate to the south and southeast. The N4 SIRR, which runs in a roughly north–south direction, is situated in a diverse topography of undulating terrain interspersed with rolling valleys and hills. Placing this area within its broader biogeographical region on the Atlantic fringe, we see a landscape that is characterized by upland

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and mountainous ground, which is mainly underlain by acid rocks. Good land-use potential is restricted, particularly within the study area (Cooney 2000a).

Carboniferous Limestone, more specifically Dartry Limestone (massive cherty calcarenite wackestone), underlies this area. The Dartry Formation derives its name from its type area in the Dartry Mountains where it typically occurs in cliffs and slopes. The oldest rocks in Sligo are those forming the Ox Mountains and Rosses Point Inliers (inliers are areas of older rock surrounded by younger rocks). These are metamorphic rocks and date to 1700–700 million years ago. Carboniferous rocks which underlie most of Sligo date to about 355–310 million years ago (MacDermot, Long and Harney 1996). Carboniferous Limestone is the most abundant rock type in Ireland. It varies in texture, colour and components: from fine calcite mud to calcite ooliths or coarse corals and shells, and from compact calcareous blue limestone to the hard blue-grey siliceous variety, to black softer shaly beds of the ‘Calp’ formation. The majority of Irish limestone originated in the Carboniferous period of the Palaeozoic era 360–286 million years ago.

Much of western Sligo contains a similar arrangement of rock layers to that present on Ben Bulben “limestone-capped mountains and plateaux are separated by the Glencar and Glenade valleys which are floored by soft shales” (MacDermot, Long and Harney 1996). Situated along the coast are Dartry and Glencar limestones forming rocky shorelines from Streedagh Point westwards to Serpent Rock, at Aughris Point, and along the north of Dromore West and Easky. Moving inland from the coast there is an irregular blanket of glacial deposits, predominantly till.

Whereas the various mountains such as the Ox and Ben Bulben etc. dominate the landscape, glacial deposition has shaped the lowlands of Sligo with extensive drumlin beds, morainic and esker ridges. A number of broad bays and estuaries are the dominant features of the coastline, such as at Drumcliff, Sligo and Ballysadare. The Garvoge, Ballysadare and Moy Rivers are the three principal rivers of the county while the lakes of Lough Gill, Arrow and Gara are the main inland waters. It is the combination of all these elements that provides “a wide variety of ecological zones which attracted intense prehistoric settlements to the region” (Condit and Gibbons 1991).

The main soil type found in County Sligo is Brown Earths, a soil mainly found on glacial drift where the parent material is limestone. It is a moderate-to-well-drained soil that is a good all- purpose agricultural soil suitable for pasture, while also moderately suitable for tillage. Due to the topography of the area, however, tillage farming is somewhat restricted. The boggy marshy soils that are present within confined areas of the townlands impacted by the development, such as parts of Caltragh, Tonafortes and Magheraboy, have a very limited use potential and the widespread presence of fulachta fiadh within the townland of Caltragh would suggest that this

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might have also been the case in prehistory. However, this may not be true of the other townlands along the development route. A climatic change that occurred at around 1000 BC with a subsequent growth of blanket bog rendered much of the West of Ireland uninhabitable and concealed many earlier habitation sites (Thorn 1985).

2.2 The Prehistoric and Early Medieval Landscape Pollen diagrams and linear developments, such as the N4 SIRR, can be useful sources in revealing the archaeological landscape.

Compared to northern and other parts of western Ireland, very little is known about the vegetational history of Sligo. Pollen diagrams can be used to reconstruct an area’s vegetational history, but only a few exist for the Sligo region. These include studies at Cloverhill, Carrowkeel and Ballygawley (Goransson 1980, 1981); and at Slish Lake and Union Wood (Thorn 1985). A picture of the prehistoric landscape in this region can be gleaned from a combination of the pollen diagrams produced from these sites and a study of the archaeological sites excavated in the area.

Linear developments such as the N4 SIRR provide a transect through the archaeological landscape of a region. The overall context of the sites encountered along this road development is primarily prehistoric, with a Neolithic and Bronze Age bias. In relation to the landscape of the study area, the N4 SIRR provides only a small transect, with just 3.5km of the overall 4.2km extending through a rural setting; the remainder runs through the urban part of Sligo Town. The development is contained in an area known as Cúil Irra, which translates as the remote angle (Wood-Martin 1882). The district of Cúil Irra takes in the parish of St John’s; the N4 SIRR is confined within this parish.

2.2.1 The Mesolithic Landscape To date, no Mesolithic settlement site has been identified in County Sligo, though the hinterland of Lough Gara near the Roscommon border provides the most significant evidence for Mesolithic activity in the county. A number of chert ‘Bann’ flakes and other chert artefacts suggest the presence of hunter-gatherer communities exploiting the hinterland of Lough Gara. Most of the datable material from this area can be assigned to within the latest phases of the later Mesolithic (Woodman 1978).

Following various excavations on the Carrowmore Peninsula between 1977 and 1981 by Burenhult, it was proposed that the Carrowmore megalithic cemetery had been built by an indigenous Mesolithic population c.5000–4200 BC. Burenhult’s theory was mainly based on early radiocarbon dates and paleobotanical investigation which showed that coppiced woods had been

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created in the Knocknarea area at the time that Tomb No. 4 was created (c.4600 BC). Burenhult also suggested that the clearance had most likely been for big game and possibly for the domestication of deer as there was no evidence for domesticated cattle (Thorn 1985). However, many archaeologists who have disagreed with this argument feel that the early dates obtained for the construction of some of the tombs (Tombs 4, 7 and 27) were retrieved from unsecured contexts and possibly relate to pre-tomb activity. Furthermore, investigation of the lithics assemblage associated with Carrowmore did not reveal any material that was associated with the Irish Mesolithic. Burenhult expressed the view that his “investigation highlighted the complicated, and artificial, boundary between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic periods, suggesting a slow, local, successive transformation rather than a migration of farmers. The archaeological results were strongly supported by the palaeoecological studies in the area” (Burenhult http://excavations.ie/Pages/Details.php?Year=&County=Sligo&id=1495).

The palaeoecological studies associated with Burenhult’s work were undertaken by Goransson who took pollen cores from a number of locations throughout Sligo such as Carrowkeel and Ballygawley (Goransson 1984). The time span under investigation was from the later part of the Atlantic period up to the first part of the Subboreal period, i.e. 4700–3340 BC. Pollen diagrams have demonstrated disturbances relating to the Mesolithic period. Forests of predominantly elm and hazel were prevalent during this time and these were gradually transformed by a process known as coppicing. This involved the girdling of trees and transformed the high forest into “low many stemmed coppice woods” (Goransson 1984). Girdling involved peeling a ring of bark from the tree; this resulted in the death of the tree above the girdle. The increased light caused by the death of the tree crown created conditions which enabled forest-floor plants to flourish such as grasses, raspberries, cereals and smaller trees. Some time later the tree would start to produce basal sprouts and rootsuckers; this was known as the ‘manuring effect’. Increased light and the subsequent ‘manuring effect’ would have resulted in more favourable conditions for grazing animals and for small-scale cereal cultivation. This, according to Goransson, made the criteria for a farming economy available to the Mesolithic occupants of the country at the time. He argued that “No ‘invasions’ of migrating farming communities are necessary to explain the economic and technological innovations of the Early Neolithic in Ireland. It was the indigenous Mesolithic population which gradually created the Irish Neolithic” (Goransson 1984).

Burenhult also used other excavations in the area to support his theory that hunters and foragers constructed simple megalithic monuments. Excavations by Bergh on the summit of Croaghaun Mountain, south of Ballysadare Bay, Co Sligo revealed a small sub-rectangular megalithic tomb within a small oval cairn (Bergh 1995). A number of small deposits of cremated bone were unearthed; one of these contained a fragment of an antler pin and some sherds of coarse pottery.

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Charcoal from this deposit was dated to 5640–5490 BC while another similar sample was dated to 4675–4460 BC.

2.2.2 The Neolithic Landscape The numerous megalithic tombs located throughout much of County Sligo stand as a constant reminder of the social organisation, ritual duties and engineering abilities of prehistoric communities. Sligo is home to a large number of megalithic tomb types with c.40 passage tombs, 60 court tombs, 11 portal tombs, 38 wedge tombs and 53 unclassified examples, while there are also 78 megalithic structures which could be tombs (Condit and Gibbons 1991).

The cemetery at Carrowmore is amongst the finest examples of its kind in Europe and is one of the two major passage tomb cemeteries found in County Sligo. Over thirty individual tombs now survive compared to more than one hundred recorded in the 19th century. Many of the tombs at Carrowmore consist of a boulder circle with a polygonal chamber covered by a capstone at the centre of the circle. Some have short passages.

Around 25% of all Irish passage tombs are in County Sligo. Many of these dominate the local landscape with their typical hilltop setting such as at Carrowkeel, Knocknarea, Knocknashee, Cairns Hill, Kesh, and several on the Ox Mountains extending into Slieve Deane and Slish Wood (Thorn 1985). At the summit of Knocknarea, a huge flat-topped cairn known as Maeve’s Grave, which is believed to contain a passage tomb, overlooks the Carrowmore cemetery to the east. In the vicinity of this tomb are the remains of four or five satellite monuments. It is felt that this tomb represents the west coast extremity of the great passage tomb cemeteries which extend from the Boyne Valley in the east of the country across to County Sligo in the west. Much debate surrounds whether these passage tomb cemeteries originated on the east or west coast, particularly in the wake of Burenhult’s arguments regarding Carrowmore (see Subsection 2.2.1).

Carrowkeel is the second of the two major passage tomb cemeteries found in Sligo. Together with Carrowmore it forms half of the four major megalithic cemeteries in Ireland; the other two are in the Boyne Valley at Newgrange and Lough Crew, County Meath. At Carrowkeel over a dozen round cairns are sited on several high limestone ridges of the Bricklieve Mountains.

Of the approximately 390 court tombs in Ireland, 60 are present in Sligo. These are located across much of the county such as at Creeveykeel, Treanmore, Bunduff, Moneylahan, Deerpark, Gortnaleck, Carrowgillpatrick and Carrowreagh. The classic trapezoidal full court tomb at Creeveykeel is one of the finest examples in the country. Excavation of this site produced a large number of grave goods such as Early Neolithic (Carinated Bowl) pottery, leaf-shaped arrowheads, hollow scrapers, and polished stone axe heads (Henken 1939).

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It is generally believed that portal tombs are related to court tombs; in particular, this applies to the subsidiary chambers, or galleries, inserted in the cairns of court tombs, possibly to provide additional space for burials therefore reducing the need to build additional court tombs (Flanagan 2000). Of the approximately 174 Irish portal tombs, 11 occur in Sligo. One example is Tawnatruffaun, which is not only a classic example but its name translates to grassy mound by the stream, the typical setting of these tombs.

Megalithic tombs are the traditional indicators for Neolithic settlement. Neolithic hut sites appear to be associated with a number of the hilltop tombs of Sligo. At Knocknarea, Bergh excavated a number of hut sites which he concluded were sites of specialised activity (1995). The excavation of these lightweight timber-built huts revealed an exceptionally large number of concave scrapers. It is suggested that the upland location might indicate seasonal hunting or grazing while the hollow scrapers imply some sort of cutting or paring. The huts may also be associated with the nearby tombs. At Mullaghfarna to the east of the Carrowkeel cemetery, Bergh has surveyed in excess of 130 hut sites which are possibly associated with the cemetery and are likely to be seasonal in nature. At Knocknashee, Burenhult investigated a number of hut sites possibly associated with the tombs at this location (1984). Additional evidence of seasonal activity is also visible around the coastline of the Knocknarea Peninsula in the form of shell middens. The shell midden at Culleenamore comprised mainly oyster with some cockles, mussels, periwinkle, scallop and limpet. A hearth associated with this midden produced a fourth millennium radiocarbon date.

No rectangular houses of the Early Neolithic are known from Co Sligo. Although a rectangular structure was excavated in association with the causewayed enclosure at Magheraboy, this is unlikely to have been a permanent dwelling (Licence No 03E0538, Danaher forthcoming). A number of pre-bog and habitation sites have been identified in the county. At Carrownagloch, Bunniconlon on the Sligo/Mayo border, an oval stone enclosure surrounds extensive cultivation ridges, which have been dated to the second millennium BC (Herity 1971–76). Field systems composed of stone walls have been identified at Drommore West/Easkey and, during the course of archaeological works associated with the N4 SIRR, Neolithic stone walls were investigated at Caltragh (McCabe pers comm).

The pollen diagrams from Carrowkeel and Ballygawley (Goransson 1980, 1981 and 1984) provide an environmental backdrop to the prehistoric landscape in these areas of Sligo. The elm decline, which many archaeologists and vegetational historians have attributed to major forest clearance by Neolithic farmers, was recorded in pollen diagrams as having occurred sometime around 5150 BP. Goransson (1984) contested this assertion in favour of the weakening of the forest ecosystem; this would have resulted in the annihilation of the elm forests due to disease which may have been precipitated by human interference, i.e. coppicing. Climatic changes may

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also have occurred, activating the Scolytus beetle and thus spreading Dutch elm disease. Therefore the elm decline, in Goransson’s view, was not contemporary with the Early Neolithic either in Ireland or in northwest Europe. Waddell also refuted the human causes for the elm decline by arguing that “elm also declines in various localities where it was clearly a minor component in the wooded landscape, and was thus unlikely to be targeted by farmers or their cattle” (Waddell 1998).

Another conclusion arrived at by Goransson was that ‘garden’ cereal cultivation was taking place in the Sligo area as early as in the southwest and north of Ireland. This was substantiated by the discovery of cereal pollen grains at the Ballygawley Lake and the Strand Hill area; these dated to 5800 BP and also pre-dated the elm decline. Regeneration of the elm forests 500–600 radiocarbon years later resulted in the re-institution and intensive use of coppicing once more. This conclusion is also supported by evidence from turves from the mound at Newgrange which yielded evidence of Ulmus reflecting the possible vegetation of a coppice wood in that locality. The pollen diagram from the Cloverhill Lough area demonstrated that “the area during the time span covered by the diagram was primarily used as pasture land” (Goransson 1984). Cultivation of cereals within County Sligo was of minor importance during the whole prehistoric and historic times from the Early Neolithic up to the 19th century.

2.2.3 The Bronze Age Landscape While some megalithic tombs continued to be the focus of ritual activity into late Neolithic and succeeding periods, other forms of ritual expressions emerged. So did a major technological breakthrough – metalworking. This technology had a tremendous effect not just on society and economy but also on the ritual practices of Bronze Age people.

In terms of monuments dating from this period, wedge tombs, henges, barrows and stone circles are the most visible, while fulachta fiadh are the most numerous with over four thousand examples having been recorded throughout the country. However, these cannot all be ascribed to the Bronze Age.

Wedge tombs are the most numerous megalithic tombs in Ireland. Of the 500 recorded examples, 38 are located in Co Sligo. These tombs derive their name from a narrow wedge-shaped or trapezoidal chamber which decreases both in height and in width from front to rear. This main chamber is constructed of orthostats and roofed with one or more capstones. Some tombs have an antechamber at the front, while some have a small closed chamber at the rear. Excavation of a wedge tomb at Moytirra, Co Sligo, yielded the unburnt bones of six individuals as well as

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fragments of Beaker pottery. At Breeoge, Co Sligo, both cremated and unburnt human remains were retrieved from the site of a destroyed wedge tomb (Waddell 1998).

Henge monuments or earthen-banked enclosures are generally believed to date to the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age and are associated with ritual/ceremonial activity. A characteristic feature of most Irish henges is a bank composed of material scarped up from the interior of the enclosed area to create a domed interior (Condit and Simpson 1998). A small number of enclosures in Ireland are defined by an internal ditch and external bank thus conforming to the type of henge found in most areas of Britain.

A marked concentration of henges has been recorded in the Boyne Valley, some in association with the passage tombs. However, only three have been recorded in Sligo. Two of these conform to the classic Irish henge type (embanked enclosure). The smaller of the two is situated at Knockatober, south of Lough Gill, and consists of a circular earthen enclosure, 60m in diameter. The second Irish-type henge is at Lisnalurg, just north of Sligo Town, and comprises a large circular enclosure, 150m in diameter, formed by an earthen bank 25m wide and up to 5m high on the interior; a second earthen enclosure is placed centrally within this one and has a diameter of 75m.

The third Sligo henge conforms to the British type of henge and is located in the townland of Tonafortes in a low-lying drumlin valley 2km east of Carrowmore (Condit and Gibbons 1991). This enclosure has an overall diameter of approximately 85m. It consists of a circular central area, 45m in diameter, and is enclosed by two banks with an intervening ditch. Less than 10% of this monument was excavated in association with the N4 SIRR. The excavation predominantly concentrated on the sections of the ditch present to the north and south of the eastern entrance feature.

A large number of barrows have been recorded in Sligo. In their article on Sligo’s prehistory, Condit and Gibbons (1991) stated that over 110 such sites had been identified and showed a wide variety of types and locations. Some may be associated with the Bronze Age settlement sites such as Lough Gara. In the vicinity of Ballymote, a portion of a Bronze Age landscape has been identified consisting of Bronze Age barrows, field walls, enclosures, cliff-edge forts and a circular house site. Condit and Gibbon’s article also affirmed that, in contrast to the large number of barrows, other Bronze Age ritual monuments such as standing stones, stone alignments and stone circles are comparatively few.

In a distribution map of fulachta fiadh in Ireland, Victor Buckley (1990) entered 12 examples for Co Sligo, a number which has more than doubled as a result of subsequent development within the county. As the N4 archaeological investigations passed through some tracts of marshy ground,

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fulachta fiadh emerged as the most common site encountered. Within the townland of Magheraboy, a cluster comprising three sites that have been interpreted as fulachta fiadh were investigated by Sue McCabe (Licence No 03E0547, pers comm) as part of the N4 excavations. A possible fulacht fiadh was uncovered in the course of monitoring ground disturbance on the Caltragh Sewerage Scheme (Henry 2002). Some clusters of burnt mound spreads were excavated in the townland of Caltragh over the course of the 2001 & 2003 N4 SIRR excavations; most of these were interpreted as fulachta fiadh (Linnane and McCabe pers comm; Joubert 2002). These fulachta fiadh appear to form part of a wider Bronze Age settlement pattern in the Caltragh area and are broadly contemporary to the three circular timber-built roundhouses that were sited in close proximity to them. Two other fulachta fiadh were situated within the townland of Tonafortes (Danaher forthcoming) along the route of the proposed N4 SIRR. During excavations associated with an unrelated development, Sue McCabe excavated the remains of one possible and one definite fulacht fiadh in Carrowroe Townland c.500m north of the N4 SIRR route (McCabe, pers comm). Further Bronze Age activity in the form of pits was unearthed along the N4 SIRR route in the townlands of Magheraboy and Caltragh. Pollen evidence, which can be used to reconstruct the vegetational history of the Bronze Age, is extremely limited within this area. Goransson (1984) suggested that the inclusion of sorbus in the pollen diagram for the Treanscrabbagh Bog at Carrowkeel may be indicative of a decline in grazing and a slight forest regeneration which took place at circa 4500 BP. However, he believed grazing continued to take place up until 4000 BP after which the growth of blanket bog began. An example of a fulacht fiadh which was cut into the Treanscrabbagh Bog at this level provided information supporting Goransson’s hypothesis of coppicing in this area from 4500 BP.

2.2.4 The Iron Age and Early Medieval Landscape Evidence from the pollen record from around the country suggests that there was a significant decrease in agricultural activity during the Iron Age. However, the opposite was true of the early medieval period which saw an intensification of agriculture.

As with the Bronze Age, pollen diagrams pertaining to the Iron Age period are rare for County Sligo. However, although Goransson’s work predominantly focused on the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods of prehistory, any changes in the pollen diagrams throughout the prehistoric and historic periods were duly noted. Conclusions drawn about the pastoral nature of the Cloverhill Lough and the minor role of cereals in this area throughout the whole of prehistory right through to the 19th century imply that no change occurred during the Iron Age. A brief reference to this period is made in relation to the Treanscrabbagh Bog at Carrowkeel; here, the “destruction phase” was characterised by high values of herbs (plantago lanceolata, Cerealea and Rumex

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acetosella) and the low values of trees were followed by the regeneration of forest during the Iron Age (Goransson 1984). This would appear to support the country-wide trend of a decrease in agricultural activity during the Iron Age.

The Iron Age is possibly the most obscure period in Irish prehistoric archaeology. At present, many counties show little evidence of a significant Iron Age presence. Settlement sites are few and far between as well as being difficult to identify (Woodman 2000). At least seven hillforts have been identified in Sligo from a national total of fewer than eighty (Raftery 2000). Twenty promontory forts, mainly coastal, have been recorded in the county from the two hundred and fifty known coastal sites in the country. The univallate hillfort at Knocknashee is the largest example of its class in the country, covering 22ha, and possibly dates to the Late Bronze Age/Iron Age period. Other hillforts are located at Muckelty Hill, near Tobercurry, and Carrownrush, near Easky. Promontory forts are known from Aughris Head and the island of Inishmurray.

A possible Iron Age linear ditch, extending a length of three kilometres, is situated in the southern Ox Mountains near the Sligo-Mayo border; it is known as the Black Ditch. This ditch may be the remains of an ancient ‘droveway’ but may have also functioned as a property division or a frontier boundary.

The N4 SIRR excavations revealed very few traces of Iron Age activity. At Magheraboy a small circular structure of Iron Age date was unearthed adjacent to the early Neolithic causewayed enclosure while at Cornageeha a pit of similar date was excavated by Sue McCabe (pers comm) On the other hand, evidence for early medieval settlement is commonplace within the locale. Ringforts are the most common monument type in the parish of St John’s with over thirty examples being known. A large percentage of a ringfort (Licence No 03E0536, O’Neill pers comm) was excavated at Magheraboy within the confines of the much earlier Neolithic causewayed enclosure, and in 1995 a ringfort was excavated at Carrowgobbadagh as part of the Collooney–Ballysadare Bypass (Opie 1996).

3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND by Jon Stirland

Very little historical information has been written regarding the townlands surrounding the modern town of Sligo. However, a great wealth of historic information has been written about the town itself. The following historical background firstly gives an overview of the origins of the names of the townlands associated with this project, and then gives a detailed overview of the historical development of the town of Sligo itself.

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Tonafortes The significance or meaning of Tonafortes is not established in any historical record. In Larkin’s and the Barony map, it is spelled Townafort; in the Barony Cess Book, it is spelled Towny Fortes. O’Donovan (1840) stated that the townland comprised 87 acres of cultivated land. The Downs survey maps of 1655–1658 show nothing of archaeological or historical note.

Carrowroe The townland known as Carrowroe derives its name from Ceatram ruad, which mean the Red Quarter according to the Ordnance Survey Name Books written by O’Donovan in 1840. In the past, the townland has also been known as Carrowruagh. O’Donovan also recorded that an “old fort” was located in the northeastern limits of the townland.

Cornageeha Cornageeha translates as Cor na gaoithe which means the round hill of wind. In the past, the townland has also been spelled Cornageah according to the Barony Cess Book and it is spelled Cornagree in the Deed of Partition of the Sligo Estate dated July 1687.

Caltragh Caltragh translates as Ceall Trach, which means the burial ground or graveyard; it appears to have been anglicised into Caltragh. Petrie in 1837 and Elcock in 1883–1884 refer to a large pagan burial that was called or referred to as the Calteagh. However, it would appear that it was not located within the townland of Caltragh but quarter of a mile east of the nearby Carrowmore megalithic complex. Both writers described the site as being a large circular mound enclosed by a circle of large stones.

Magheraboy Magheraboy derives it names from Macaire Buide, which is said to mean the yellow plain. Over the years it would appear that it has been called many other variations of this name including Magherbuoy, Magheraboy and Magherboy.

Sligo Town Sligo is the second largest town in Connacht and the largest in the county. It is sited on the Garvoge River. Its strategic location between Lough Gill and the sea made it important from early times. Little is known of Sligo prior to the twelfth century and attempts by various writers to

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identify it with Ptolemy’s Nagtata have not met with any general support (Bradley 1987). It is evident, nonetheless, that people of the Neolithic and Bronze Age knew the site of the town. The megalithic tomb in Abbey Quarter North is similar to those at Carrowmore and indicates the presence of people during the Neolithic. Also, the “Sligo Stones,” recorded on the top of a ridge at the junction of Church Street and the Lungy, were described as having been a similar megalithic tomb. The discovery of stray finds, such as a bronze axe head recorded in the Topographical Files of the National Museum, show the continued presence of people in the area of Sligo Town in the Bronze Age. To date, however, no evidence for human activity from 1000 BC until the twelfth century AD has been found within the urban area (Bradley 1987).

The origins of the name Sligo appear to come from the Irish name Sligeach. Over the years, however, there have been many varying views relating to the derivation of the word Sligeach. The Annals of the Four Masters suggested that the appellation of Sligo appears to derive from Sligeach, meaning shelly river when translated from the word slig which means a shell (Wood- Martin 1882; O’Donovan 1840).

Alternative suggestions for the origins of the name suggest it may have been named after the river that runs through the town. The name of the River Sligeach appears in the Annals of the Four Masters and in the Life of St Patrick written by Tirechan; these two sources seem to suggest that Sligeach was the ancient name of the river. The river itself appears to have had a number of names: Sligeach, Sligigh and Slichney of Cambrensis (Wood-Martin 1882).

It is generally suggested that the modern town of Sligo developed from a crossing point across the River Garvoge. The first reference of a river crossing or bridge dates to 1188 (Wood-Martin 1882). It is generally believed that a settlement located on the southwest side of the river had developed by 1188.

Like other Anglo-Norman towns in Ireland, Sligo’s importance was economic rather than defensive. It was the principal market place for the produce of the newly conquered lands of Carbury and its early prosperity is indicated in surviving accounts of the 1290s. The first settlement was burned in 1236 when Sligo first came to prominence with the de Burgo invasion of Connacht.

Then, together with extensive territories, it was granted to Maurice Fitzgerald, Lord of Naas and Baron of Offaly, ancestor of the Earls of Kildare. By the mid-thirteenth century, Maurice Fitzgerald had taken control of the settlement at Sligo. He constructed a hospital in 1242, built a castle there in 1245, and founded the Dominican friary close by in 1253.

Maurice Fitzgerald may be regarded as the founder of the town. He was the Second Baron of Offaly, grandson of the first Maurice Fitzgerald who landed in Ireland with Raymond Le Gros in

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1169, and grandfather of the first Earl of Kildare. As mentioned above, Maurice founded the Dominican friary of Sligo generally known as Sligo Abbey in 1252 or 1253. As Justiciary of Ireland from 1232–1245, he played a leading part in Richard de Burgo’s annexation of Connaught (1235); as a reward, he gained an extensive feudal lordship in North Connaught. Sligo was convenient both as an administrative centre for the Geraldine Lordship and as a springboard for the claims over Tyrconnell and Fermanagh which had been conveyed to Maurice Fitzgerald by Hugh de Lacy as Earl of Ulster.

After Maurice’s death in 1257, however, the projected English conquest of Western Ulster was abandoned and the King of Tyrconnell, Goffraidh O’Donnell, burned Sligo after defeating the English at Credran. Between 1245 and 1295, the castle of Sligo was destroyed four times by either O’Connor or O’Donnell. In 1299, the Crown compelled Maurice’s grandson John Fitzthomas, the Fifth Baron of Offaly and later First Earl of Kildare, to surrender Sligo, his lands in Connaught, and his claims on Tyrconnell to Richard III de Burgo, Earl of Ulster, known as the Red Earl. In 1310, a new castle was built and a new town laid out by Richard III de Burgo. In 1315, O’Donnell demolished this castle. Thereafter the control of Sligo passed to the Carbury branch (later known as O’Connor Sligo) of the ancient royal house of Connacht. This branch usually acknowledged the overlordship of O’Donnell, who always endeavoured to keep Sligo out of menacing hands. The friary seems to have survived the political changes of the 13th and early 14th centuries more or less unscathed, but it was accidentally burned together with the town in 1414. It was soon restored, however, by Friar Bryan McDonagh, son of the Tanist of Tirerrill and Collooney.

In 1595, the friary was severely damaged by English besiegers of the castle under George Bingham. In 1641, the Parliamentarian, Sir Frederick Hamilton, sacked both the town and the friary. In 1645, the notorious Sir Charles Coote captured the town. In 1689, it was seized by Williamite rebels under Lord Kingston, but was retaken by Patrick Sarsfield for King James (Killanin and Duignan 1989, 281). Nothing now remains of the castle, but the major portion of the friary survives.

Sligo friary furnished four provincials of the Irish Province of the Dominican Order. It was the burial place of a number of the chief families of North Connaught including that of O’Connor Sligo. This was used as an argument in 1568 to support O’Connor Sligo’s petition to Queen Elizabeth. This petition resulted in the exemption of the friary from dissolution on condition that the friars became secular priests. In 1595 during the Tyrone war, George Bingham, brother of the President of Connaught, removed much of the woodwork from the friary. In a letter of 1599 it was stated that “the abbey will receive 1000 men which is not a musket shot from the castle and in 24 hours will be made strong enough to defend themselves against all Ireland”. In 1641, the

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Parliamentarian, Sir Fredrick Hamilton who gave his name to Manorhamilton, sacked both town and friary. The friars were apparently all killed but their successors were back again later in the century. They were expelled in 1698 when the site was granted to Sir William Taaffe. Even then they returned, repaired the roof of the choir and built a temporary shelter near the rood screen.

Despite their partial occupation by the friars, the buildings were used as a quarry during the 18th century, but Fr Laurence Connellan stopped the work of demolition. He decided, however, in 1760 that it was necessary to move the community elsewhere. Lord Palmerston who caused the erection of the railings and the removal of several houses in 1849–50 carried out some repairs to the ruins in the middle of the 19th century. A later owner, the Hon Evelyn Ashley, undertook a restoration in 1883 and placed part of the buildings in the care of the Commissioners of Public Works in 1893. The remainder was similarly entrusted to the Commissioners by Mr Alfred W Ashley in 1913.

4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION

4.1 Background to Archaeological Resolution The initial advance archaeological testing programme for the N4 SIRR development was carried out along the rural section of the route between September and December 2001 by Mary Henry Ltd (Licence No 01E1095) and in the urban section of the route by ACS Ltd in June 2003 (Licence No 03E0903). Following the completion of the main testing programme in December 2001, resolution of sites identified during this testing and earlier walkover surveys commenced in April 2003.

Archaeological testing of Site 1C recognised several features of potential including three circular depressions (Sites 019, 020 and 021) which were of interest mainly due to the presence of the Ballyfree Barrow Site (SL014-222) located to the southwest at a distance of less than 100m away. Testing of the route did not include the proposed compound area which contained one of these depressions (Site 020). This area was included in the current phase of work however.

The testing of the circular depressions (Sites 019 and 021) revealed geological features of no archaeological significance as did excavation of the depression in the compound area. Two field boundaries were identified, one a former townland boundary as noted from the 1st edition Ordnance Survey map. Several lime pits were noted and burnt pits were also recorded during the testing programme. None of these pits recorded were of archaeological importance when excavated during the current phase of works. To the extreme south of the site, a wall and post- medieval trackway were also noted.

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Beyond Site 1C, to the southeast, testing in 2001 of an area which originally had been proposed to hold the site compound revealed a pit which, on excavation, contained a Bronze Age pygmy cup (Ryan: Licence No 01E1177, report pending). For this reason, attention was drawn to all pits which could possibly resemble remains of further Bronze Age burial activity in the area.

4.2 Excavation Methodology Excavation combined the recording techniques outlined in Barker (1977) and that of the Museum of London Archaeological Service site manual (Spence 1990), using methods which were appropriate to a rural location in the context of rescue archaeology. Selective phase plans were used to record the site. Following further investigation through sectioning of features, most material was evidently post-medieval as seen from substantial artefactual evidence. Only those features which it was felt would add to the archaeological record were further excavated and recorded. All archaeological deposits were bulk sampled for possible post-excavation analysis.

Site 1C had been previously identified during archaeological testing of the route of the N4 SIRR by Mary Henry Ltd in 2001 as containing possible pits of archaeological significance. Further significance was placed on the presence of these pits as a result of the identification of a Bronze Age burial pit a short distance to the southwest of the site. This pit, recognised during the same archaeological testing programme contained an intact pygmy cup and cremated bone (Frank Ryan: Licence No 01E1177, report pending).

It was proposed that information would be forthcoming through rescue excavation to establish phases and dates of use of any surviving archaeological material. Considering the extensive area to be investigated, it was proposed to strip topsoil from large trenches within the two fields to determine the extent of any archaeology remaining (refer Plate 1).

Prior to excavation, the following research questions required clarification:

• Establishing the stratigraphical sequence of the site

• Confirming the presence of an archaeological landscape based on several features identified during testing

• Examining the nature and extent of any archaeological remains

• Establishing the various dates of use of the site

Post-excavation investigation posed more specific questions:

• What was the function of archaeological features within the site?

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• What is the relationship between the features revealed and other archaeological features in the area?

• What is the status of the site in relation to similar features nationwide?

Similarly the human element of the site was investigated: Who used the site? Why such a location? How many people used the site and for how long?

A total of 24 trenches were dug in Field 1, and 10 trenches in Field 2, where the site compound for construction works is proposed (refer Figure 5). Each trench was mechanically stripped of topsoil and any features present were further investigated by hand for their archaeological significance. Features were photographed and/or planned at pre-excavation stage, sectioned and, depending on their significance, photographed, and/or planned at post excavation stage.

During excavation it became apparent that most of the features remaining were the result of extensive agricultural activity of post-medieval date. By post-excavation stage, it was clear that archaeologically significant questions were limited to two small pits identified in Trench 1C, to the southwest of the site. In this area, the trench was extended due south by a further 5m2 to investigate the presence of any associated features. None was found. From sherds of prehistoric pottery found within one of the pits in Trench 1C, it was initially proposed that these were the possible remains of Bronze Age burial pits. Radiocarbon dating and pottery analysis later confirmed the pits as Neolithic in date (refer Appendix 7.2 and 7.3).

These were the only features of archaeological significance revealed during the excavation. Post- excavation questions included:

• Was the presence of prehistoric pits evident?

• Could the nature and extent of the archaeological features be determined?

• What is the relationship of these monuments to others in the immediate vicinity?

Finally, large quantities of charcoal from an undiagnostic pit, C.126, in the extreme northeast of the site alerted the author to its possible archaeological significance. No other indication of archaeological significance such as artefactual evidence was noted, however. A second pit was located directly east; it had a similar fill but less charcoal. Radiocarbon dating of the charcoal in pit C.126 (fill C.127) has returned a calibrated date of 380–80 BC placing it firmly in an Iron Age context.

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4.3 Context Register This register details each unit in the stratigraphical sequence consecutively.

Context No Context Type C.101 Topsoil C.103 Natural C.104 Deposit C.105 Deposit C.106 Fill of C.200 C.107 Cut for sub-circular pit C.108 Fill of C.107 C.109 Linear feature C.110 Fill of C.109 C.111 Linear feature C.112 Fill of C.111 C.113 Deposit C.114 Cut of sub-circular pit C.115 Cut of sub-oval pit C.116 Cut for sub-oval pit C.117 Deposit C.118 Fill of C.121 C.119 Fill of C.122 C.120 Fill of C.123 C.121 Sub-oval shaped cut C.122 Sub-rectangular cut C.123 Cut for sub-oval pit C.124 Cut of possible Iron Age pit C.125 Fill of C.124 C.126 Cut of Iron Age pit C.127 Fill of C.126 C.128 Fill of C.114 C.129 Fill of C.114 C.130. Fill of C.115 C.131 Fill of C.115 C.132 Fill of C.116 C.133 Fill of C227

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Context No Context Type C.134 Cut for sub-oval pit C.135 Fill of C.134 C.136 Rectilinear cut C.137 Fill of C.136 C.138 Cut of circular pit C.139 Fill of C.138 C.140 Fill of C.142 C.141 Fill of C.142 C.142 Linear cut C.143 Fill of C.144 C.144 Linear feature C.145 Cut for possible posthole C.146 Fill of C.145 C.147 Cut for test trench C.148 Fill of C.147 C.150 Cut of relict field boundary C.151 Fill of C.150 C.152 Fill of C.153 C.153 Cut for test trench C.154 Fill of C.160 C.155 Fill of C.163 C.156 Cut of pit C.157 Upper fill of C.156 C.158 Fill of C.156 C.159 Lower fill of C.156 C.160 Cut of pit C.161 Fill of C.162 C.162 Cut for linear feature C.163 Linear feature C.164 Deposit C.165 Fill of C.166 C.166 Cut for field drain C.167 Cut for linear feature C.168 Fill of C.167

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Context No Context Type C.169 Cut of linear feature C.170 Peat deposit C.171 Linear feature C.172 Fill of C.169 C.173 Cut of pit C.174 Fill of C.173 C175 Cut of plough furrow C.176 Fill of C.175 C.177 Cut for plough furrow C.178 Fill of C.177 C.179 Fill of C.171 C.180 Fill of C.181 C.181 Plough furrow C.182 Stone wall C.183 Fill of C.232 C.184 Cut for pit C.185 Fill of C.184 C.186 Rectilinear feature C.187 Linear cut C.188 Fill of C.187 C.189 Linear cut C.190 Fill of C.189 C.191 Linear cut C.192 Fill of C.191 C.193 Cut of pit C.194 Fill of C.193 C.195 Cut for relict field boundary/laneway C.196 Fill of C.195 C.197 Linear cut C.198 Fill of C.197 C.199 Deposit C.200 Cut of linear feature C.201 Cut for relict field boundary/laneway C.202 Fill of C.201

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Context No Context Type C.203 Fill of C.228 C.204 Linear cut C.205 Fill of C.204 C.206 Fill of C.186 C.207 Cut for burnt pit – Neolithic C.208 Fill of C.207 C.209 Linear cut C.210 Fill of C.209 C.211 Linear cut C.212 Fill of C.211 C.213 Cut of pit – Neolithic C.214 Fill of C.213 C.215 Cut for linear feature C.216 Fill of C.215 C.217 Cut for linear feature C.218 Fill of C.217 C.219 Fill of C.226 C.220 Linear cut C.221 Fill of C.220 C.222 Upper fill of C.207 C.223 Cut for posthole C.224 Cut of pit C.225 Fill of C.224 C.226 Cut of linear feature C.227 Cut for linear feature C.228 Cut for linear feature C. 229 Field clearance feature C.230 Field clearance C.231 Field clearance C.232 Cut for land drain

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4.4 Stratigraphical Report Summary This section phases the site, based on the stratigraphical sequence provided above. The outlined information is a summarised version of the stratigraphical evidence.

Phase 1: Bedrock Carboniferous Limestone, more specifically Dartry Limestone (massive cherty calcarenite wackestone), underlies this area. Carboniferous rocks which underlie most of Sligo date to about 355–310 million years ago. This limestone was a product of the consolidation of plant and animal remains, which had disintegrated on the seabed to form layers of sedimentary rock rich in calcium carbonate (Mitchell and Ryan 1997).

Phase 2: Glacial Moraine (Substratum) These are clayey sand and silty clay deposits representing glacial moraines which form at the edge of glaciers and, as sedimentological contexts, are often the location of prehistoric human occupations. This sediment, the predominant one throughout the site, was a product of the Quaternary period, which ranged in time from the beginning of the Ice Age (1.6 million years ago) to the present day, and is the final stratum in the geological timescale. Following the end of the last Ice Age almost eleven thousand years ago, temperatures rose resulting in the colonising of these bare soils by herbaceous species such as grasses, meadowsweet and dock.

Phase 3: Environmental Stabilisation/Soil Formation (10,000–2000 BC) No surviving evidence.

Phase 4: Site Occupation Neolithic Two small pits (C.207 and C.213) were identified in the southwest corner of Site 1C (refer Plate 8; Figure 4). Both features were cut by a post-medieval linear feature containing pottery and roofing slate (C.226). At the outset, both pits were not significantly different from others excavated in Site 1C. The first measured 0.65m east–west by 0.45m and was 0.20m in depth (C.207). The second (C.213), located 1.20m to the east, measured 0.43m north–south by 0.24m and 0.12m in depth. Both contained charcoal-rich fills (C.208, C.214, C.222) with oxidised clay flecks throughout.

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The primary fill of C.207 (C.208) also contained 14 sherds of what has been tentatively identified as Neolithic pottery (Sarah Gormley pers comm) and a small quantity of hazelnut shells. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal sampled from this pit has placed it within an Early Neolithic date.

Iron Age Located in the extreme northeast corner of the site, undiagnostic isolated pits have been suggested as possible Iron Age pits (refer Plate 9). One of these, C.126, contained substantial amounts of charcoal pieces. This fill, C.127, has returned a calibrated C14 date of 300–80 BC. The second pit is associated by virtue of its close proximity to pit C.126 and its similar fill. Neither pit produced any artefacts. A third pit, to the east, contained post-medieval pottery and clay pipe fragments and was not associated with Iron Age activity.

Phase 5: Site Abandonment No evidence of further archaeological activity was found during excavation to suggest further events occurred in the Iron Age, Early Christian or Medieval periods. It must therefore be concluded that the site may have been abandoned following the Iron Age. Evidence of activity following this is limited to the post-medieval period.

Phase 6: Post-Medieval Cultivation Evidence of post-medieval agricultural works and land improvement was identified throughout Site 1C. These included plough furrows (refer Plate 5), land drains (refer Plate 6) and field clearance features (refer Plate 7). In addition, several possible relict field boundaries and a relict townland boundary (refer Plate 8) were partially excavated. Retrieval of post-medieval artefacts from all of these features placed them firmly within dates from the last 200 years (refer Plate 4).

Topsoil, dark grey brown silty sand (C.101), was mechanically removed from the site and varied considerably in depth. At the northern extent of the site, topsoil was 0.40m in maximum depth but measured 0.70m in depth at the southern, lowest lying portion of Site 1C.

4.5 Interpretation and Discussion In this chapter, the results of the excavation will be reviewed, offering interpretations and attempting comparisons with similar sites excavated around the country and further afield. The questions presented under the excavation methodology subheading are also addressed here. The subsequent paragraphs will hopefully place the interpretation of the Caltragh 1C excavation

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within a broader regional and national context, and the significance of this evidence will be examined.

The stratigraphic sequence of the site was indeed clearer once excavation had occurred and is outlined above. The presence of archaeology, while limited to a very small area in the southwest and extreme northeast of the site, proved positive in itself as it confirmed the suspicions resulting from the testing programme and further adds to the archaeological record of the area. Archaeological features, while of limited quantity, were identified and the presence of pottery and charcoal within the features made positive dating a probability. It can be stated with reasonable confidence, therefore, that the research questions posed were answered and any archaeology present was resolved.

As a result of the excavation, specific questions relating to the features themselves were posed. Due to the limited nature of the features excavated, however, it would be impossible to try to elaborate further than the contexts and dating allows. Therefore questions relating to site type, choice of site location, duration of site use etc were impossible to extrapolate from the information present. Questions will be dealt with collectively to build as detailed a picture of the site as is possible.

Neolithic Two small pits were identified in the southwest of the site as having archaeological significance (C.207 and C.213; refer Figure 4 and Plate 8). Attention was drawn to these two features as a result of the excavation of a pit burial to the southeast in which an intact pygmy cup had been identified (Frank Ryan: Licence No 01E1177, report pending). These pits, located less than 2m apart were situated in a flat pasture field, which had been subjected to considerable agricultural improvement works. There was a limited view of Knocknarea to the west and the Killery Mountains to the south. The landscape was relatively unimpressive. The field itself was well drained, with no evidence of standing water or a water source nearby.

During testing, several pits to the east within the route’s land take were identified as being of archaeological potential. The pits identified in Site 1C during the testing programme proved non- archaeological in nature. However, the current phase of works included investigation of an area to the west of the N4 SIRR route, in which it was intended to establish the site compound (refer Figure 2). The pits in this area to the west were similar to many other pits identified during the current works. On excavation, however, one pit clearly contained more than just a thin deposit of charcoal-enriched fill with various post-medieval finds, as had been seen elsewhere. This pit (C.207) contained a total of 15 sherds of coarse undecorated possible prehistoric pottery,

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including a rim sherd. The inclusion of the second pit as having possible archaeological potential (C.213) was merely as a result of its close proximity to pit C.207. No inclusions of significance were identified in the fill of pit C.213. An area of 10m2 was stripped around these two features. No further features of interest were revealed.

The temptation to label these as Bronze Age burial pits was high, especially given the presence of the pygmy cup burial to the southeast and the presence of two barrow sites (recorded monuments nos SL014:222/223) to the southwest. However, the absence of burnt bone threw a question mark over their function as burial pits. In addition, provisional identification of the pottery classed it as most likely coming from the 4th millennium BC (Sarah Gormley pers comm; refer Appendix 7.3). Radiocarbon dating of charcoal sampled from pit C.207 confirmed this theory, with dates of 3700–3630 and 3570–3540 Cal BC being returned (refer Appendix 7.2).

This would place the pits firmly within an Early Neolithic date, a time when megalithic tombs dominated the archaeological record and isolated pits are rare. Sligo is rich in such megalithic tombs with cemeteries of Carrowmore and Carrowkeel to the west and south. Closer by, along the route of the proposed road, the possible remains of a megalithic tomb were excavated by Joubert (Licence No 01E0395 Ext).

Typically, pits containing pottery and charcoal from such a date would be expected to be associated with a larger scale settlement whether temporary or permanent in use. Indeed, Grogan (2002) places most of his catalogue of rectangular Neolithic houses such as Ballygalley, Ballyglass and Tankardstown within the same period of use as the dates from the charcoal samples of the current examples (3900–3400 Cal BC). More recently, excavation at Coolfore, Co Louth has revealed several possible structures with external pits. Evidence of lithics and pottery has resulted in these pits being interpreted as refuse or collection pits (O’Drisceoil: Licence No 00E0794).

In the current example, no such evidence of further archaeological features was evident. The pits were located close to the southern edge of Site 1C. It is possible that further evidence of settlement lies beyond the edge of excavation to the south and this must be considered if further development is planned in the area. Interestingly, lithics found within the site, while mostly unstratified or within disturbed contexts, have also been provisionally classed within a broadly Neolithic date (Joanna Nolan pers comm).

With such limited archaeology surviving, it is difficult to propose a solid hypothesis of who used the site or for how long. The pits were severely truncated both vertically by intrusive agricultural works such as ploughing and, in the case of pit C.213, horizontally by a post-medieval field drain

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(C.226). A single primary fill was identified in both instances, leaving no opportunity for examination of phases of use or reuse over time.

Additionally, it is difficult to place such limited remains within the larger archaeological landscape though local evidence of Neolithic activity can be found south of Site 1C, within the same townland. Here, a possible industrial working area was identified during the monitoring and testing for the Caltragh Sewerage scheme (Joubert, Licence No 00E0815). Furthermore, the excavation of a Neolithic drystone wall, a cremation burial of similar date to the current site, and the remains of a possible megalithic tomb (Licence No 01E0395 Ext) all took place southwest of the current site.

Iron Age Two further pits were identified in the extreme northeast of the site (C.124 and C.126). Charcoal samples of hazel wood from one of these has returned an Iron Age date from C14 analysis (380– 80 Cal BC; refer Appendix 7.2).

During excavation, multiple post-medieval pits were partially excavated, revealing diagnostic pottery and often clay pipe. One such pit was identified 0.50m away from pit C.126 (fill C.127). Of no notable difference from these, the pit of prehistoric significance was a small feature cut into the natural subsoil which contained no artefacts of interest or notable characteristics. At the base of one pit, fill C.127 contained moderate quantities of well-preserved charcoal, which the author felt was worthy of experimental C14 dating. The results were surprising, returning a Middle Iron Age date. A second pit is suggested as being associated by virtue of its proximity only and may not be archaeologically significant.

Traditionally the Iron Age appears in the archaeological record in the form of high-class sites such as Navan Fort or Dun Ailinne (Cooney and Grogan 1999), not as isolated undiagnostic pits. Approx. 10km to the south of Sligo Town, a cemetery site was excavated on the banks of the Ballysadare River. The site, dated to the Iron Age, contained a promontory fort with enclosing fosse, an extensive cemetery, rich artefactual remains and a corn-drying kiln. Further south in Roscommon, a ‘high-class’ mound site known as Rathcroghan is believed to have been the seat of Queen Maedbh and the site of many traditional literary events such as the Táin Bó Cúailgne. Such sites would typify Iron Age evidence from the current archaeological record.

In itself, an isolated pit which has returned an Iron Age date from charcoal excavated from a sealed context is not of great significance to the archaeological record. Surface finds of unstratified lithics from Site 1C are indicative of possible Neolithic activity (Joanna Nolan pers comm).

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Locally, approximately 1km to the northwest, a small hut site with an east-facing entrance has been dated to a very similar date (370–30 Cal BC, licence 03E0538), so similar that it may be contemporary and have been used by the same groups of people who dug the small pits at Site 1C. This hut site was excavated during the current phase of works at site 2B/C (Danaher pers comm). Here, a pennanular foundation for a small hut measuring 3.4m north–south by 4m in internal diameter was excavated. Split oak planks were found within the footing trench and may be the surviving remains of the lower wall. An absence of internal features and artefacts makes if difficult to elaborate about the function of the hut, but it is interpreted as a having a possible storage, rather than a permanent residence, function. Again, this site was isolated and the Iron Age date was unexpected as the site is in close proximity to a Neolithic palisade enclosure, and later ringfort.

In conclusion, our only addition to the archaeological record resulting from excavation of pit C.126 in Site 1C is that Iron Age activity (380–80 Cal BC) involving the burning of hazel occurred and was deposited in a small pit, resulting in a charcoal-rich fill.

Conclusion The unexpected remains of isolated Neolithic and Iron Age pits from the southwest and northeast corner of Site 1C have resulted in very little detail to add to the archaeological record. However any surviving evidence of activity which can extend the archaeological landscape and enhance our view of how the land was used during certain eras in the past can only be a positive development. It must be noted, however, that the absence of associated features from the surrounding area of the more significant pit (C.207 and C.126) may have been hindered by the edge of excavation, which in both cases was very close to the pits themselves. Further development in the area must take into consideration the possibility of surviving evidence remaining outside the land take of the proposed route.

5. ARCHIVE CONTENTS

5.1 Stratigraphical Report This report details each unit in the stratigraphical sequence, starting with the earliest.

C.103 Natural subsoil: compact friable orange-brown silty clay uniform throughout the site. Small to medium sized pebbles and riverine stones of up to 0.45m in size. Chert outcrops were evident towards the northern end of Site 1C and natural lime deposits were seen throughout.

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Neolithic Pits Truncated by Post-Medieval Linear Feature C.207 Sub-oval shaped cut oriented east–west, measuring 0.65m east by 0.45m and 0.20m in depth. Sides varied from steep to gradual slope on the eastern side falling to a flat base. Cut by C.226. Fills C.208 and C.222.

C.208 Primary fill of C.207. Friable moderately compact dark brown to black silty clay containing occasional flecks of natural subsoil. Rare sub-angular pebbles and occasional fire- cracked stones. Occasional charcoal flecks. 14 sherds of possible pottery found within this fill have been tentatively dated to the Neolithic period. Hazelnut shells were also present. Maximum depth 0.20m.

C.222 Upper fill of C.207. Friable mid-dark brown-grey silty clay with rare sub-angular stones and occasional charcoal flecks. Maximum thickness 0.05m.

C. 213 Cut of circular pit measuring 0.43m north–south by 0.24m and 0.12m in depth. Sides were gently sloped, though almost vertical on the eastern side. Base was flat and irregular. Cut by C.226. Fill C.214.

C.214 Friable loose mid-dark brown silty clay with rare charcoal and oxidised subsoil flecks. Maximum thickness 0.12m.

C.226 Oriented north–south in direction, measuring 1m in width and running beneath the north and south baulk of Trench 1C, this feature had steeply sloped sides and a flat base. It measured 0.18m in depth and truncated C.207 and C.213. Fill C.219.

C.219 Moderately compact mid to dark brown silty clay containing occasional charcoal flecks, pebbles and medium-sized stones. Maximum thickness 0.18m. Roof slate and post-medieval pottery present.

C.101 Topsoil/sod layer. Loose friable dark grey-brown silty sand. Abundant inclusions of modern pottery, metal and clay pipe. Maximum thickness 0.60m.

Iron Age Pits C.124 Possible prehistoric pit. Measuring 0.66m by 0.68m and 0.29m in depth. Sides were almost vertical and the base sloped northwestward. Stones lined the edge of the cut in the natural subsoil on the southeast side only. Fill C.125.

C.125 Fill of C.124. Loose dark brown-grey fill with sandy clay with occasional charcoal flecks. Inclusions of small stones (0.02cm) and larger stones (0.05m–0.10m). Maximum thickness 0.29m.

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C.126 Iron Age pit. Measuring 0.40m by 0.42m by 0.15m. Situated east of C.124.

C.127 Fill of C.126: Loose black-grey with abundant charcoal flecks and pieces and small stone (average size 0.03m). Charcoal noted in concentration from the base of the pit or which an analysed sample produced a calibrated C14 date of 300–80 BC. Maximum thickness 0.15m

C.101 Topsoil/sod layer. Loose friable dark grey brown silty sand. Abundant inclusions of modern pottery, metal and clay pipe. Maximum thickness 0.60m.

Post-Medieval/Modern/Agricultural Features C.109 Post-medieval agricultural feature exposed in Trenches 21, 22 and 23. Measuring 6.03m in length, 1.25m in width and 0.21m in depth. Sides were vertically sloped and base was concave. Feature was oriented roughly east–west and may represent a relict field boundary. Fill C.110.

C.110 Fill of C.109. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay. Clay pipe found within this fill. Maximum thickness 0.21m.

C.111 Same as C.109/C.227. Possible relict field boundary. Post-medieval agricultural feature exposed in Trenches 21, 22 and 23. Measuring 6.70m in length, 0.80m in width and 0.12m in depth. Sides were gently sloped, and base was concave and southward sloping. Feature was oriented roughly northeast to southwest. Fill C.112.

C.112 Fill of C.111. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay. Several sherds of post-medieval pottery were found within this fill. Maximum thickness 0.12m.

C.116 Post-medieval dump or rubbish pit. Measuring 3.40m in length, 1.55m in width and 0.28m in depth, the pit had gently sloped sides and a concave base. Fill C.132.

C.132 Fill of C.116. Similar to topsoil, mid-brown silty sand with post-medieval pottery sherds, animal bone and oyster shell. Maximum thickness 0.28m.

C.227 Same as C.109/111.

C.133 Fill of C.227. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay with abundant small stone inclusions. Maximum thickness 0.30m.

C.134 Cut of post-medieval pit. Measuring 1m by 0.70m and 0.30m in depth. Oriented roughly north to south. Sides were gently sloped to a flat base. Fill C.135.

C.135 Fill of C.134. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay with abundant small stone inclusions. Two fragments of red brick found at the base of this fill which measured 0.30m in maximum thickness.

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C.145 Cut of possible posthole surrounded by degraded limestone deposit. It may be related to the field boundary immediately north, or field sub-division fence immediately east. Sub-circular shaped cut measuring 0.34m and 0.52m in depth. Sides are steep leading to a concave base. Fill C.146. Cut by plough furrow.

C.146 Fill of C.145. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay with small stone inclusions. Occasional charcoal flecks. Maximum thickness 0.52m.

C.150 Cut of relict field boundary. East–west oriented linear feature. Continuation of relict field boundary identified in Trench 16 (C.195). 3.9m in width and 0.54m in depth. Sides were gently sloped and base was flat. This feature has been cut by C.184. It was marked on the 1st edition Ordnance Survey map as a boundary and laneway.

C.151 Fill of C.150. Medium to light brown-grey silty clay with some large stone inclusions (up to 0.25m in size) and frequent smaller stone inclusions. Maximum thickness 0.54m. Maximum depth 0.20m.

C.160 Cut of post-medieval pit. This was a kidney-shaped pit measuring 0.90m east–west by 0.64m and 0.26m in depth. The sides were gently sloped except for the last 0.05m where the sides fell vertically to the base. Fill C.154.

C.154 Fill of C.160. Light grey silty clay with rare charcoal flecks and a lens of charcoal measuring 0.01m in thickness at the top. Maximum thickness 0.08m. Post-medieval pottery and clay pipe present in the fill.

C.163 Linear feature, possible relict field boundary. Measuring 4.50m in length and 1m in width, this feature was oriented northeast to southwest in direction. It had vertical sides and a flat base.

C.155 Fill of C.163. Firm brown grey silty clay. Very stony fill with a mixture of both large and small stones. Rare charcoal inclusions. Maximum thickness 0.26m.

C.156 Cut of pit. Circular in shape and measuring 1m east–west by 1.85m. Depth 0.60m. Sides were irregular with gently sloped sides to the south and steep side to the north. Base had southward sloping axis. Fills C.157, C. 158, C.159. Cut by archaeological test trench.

C.157 Upper fill of C.156. Moderately compact mid-brown sandy clay. Occasional small pebble inclusions and sherds of post-medieval pottery and glass. Measuring 0.16m in thickness.

C.158 Fill of C.156. Loose dark brown to black silty clay with moderate inclusions of gravel and occasional post-medieval pottery and glass. Maximum thickness 0.20m.

C.159 Lower fill of C.156. Loose black silty clay measuring 0.25m. No notable inclusions.

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C.162 Cut of linear feature possible relict field boundary/land drain. Oriented northeast to southwest, this linear feature measured 1.47m in width and may represent a land drain or similar agricultural feature. It had steeply sloped sides on its eastern edge and gently sloped sides on its western side. The base sloped eastwards. Fill C.161. Seen also in Trench 16 (C.204).

C.161 Fill of C.162. Friable dark brown silty clay with occasional inclusions of small sub-angular stones and charcoal flecks. Occasional oyster shells, post-medieval pottery and iron nail. Maximum thickness 0.20m.

C.166 Cut of field drain. Linear cut oriented north–south in direction. Sides were vertical and base was flat. Measured 6.50m in length and 1m in width. Fill C.165.

C.165 Fill of C.166. Brown-grey silty clay with occasional small stones and frequent larger stones nearer the base. Measured 0.70m in thickness and contained post-medieval pottery, clay pipe, brick, shell and charcoal.

C.167 Cut for linear feature. Linear feature oriented northeast to southwest in direction and measuring 0.30m in width, 1m in length and 0.02m in depth. Cut had gently sloped sides falling to a U-shaped concave base. May be a plough furrow. Fill C.168.

C.168 Fill of C.167. Moderately compact grey-brown silty clay with frequent small stones and a sherd of post-medieval pottery. Maximum thickness 0.02m.

C.169 Cut of linear feature. East–west oriented linear cut with gently sloped sides and a concave U-shaped base. Also noted in Trenches 11 and 13. Measuring 0.62m in width, over 1m in length and 0.19m in depth. Field drain or relict field boundary. Fill C.172.

C.172 Fill of C.169. Firm mid-brown sandy silt measuring 0.19m in maximum thickness. Stones of both large and small sizes with clay pipe and animal bone also noted.

C.171 Oriented north–south in direction this feature measured 5.30m in length, 0.97m in width and 1.05m in depth. It had vertical sides and a flat base. Fill C.179.

C.179 Fill of C.171. Friable to firm dark brown silty clay with occasional small stones present. Maximum depth 0.97m.

C.175 Cut of plough furrow. Sub-rectangular shaped cut measuring 4.1m north–south by 0.50m. Sides were steeply sloped to a concave base. Oriented north to south. Fill C.176.

C.176 Fill of C.175. Friable mid-brown peat deposit measuring 0.50m in thickness. Frequent small stone and rare large stone inclusions.

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C.177 Cut of plough furrow. Linear feature measuring 3.3m in length by 0.45m and 0.10m in depth. Double cut resulting from ploughing of the field. Sides are steeply sloped and the base is flat with a V-shaped profile. Feature is oriented north to south. Fill C.178.

C.178 Fill of C.177. Moderately compact medium-brown clay silt containing occasional charcoal flecks and post-medieval pottery sherds. Maximum thickness 0.10m.

C.181 Cut of plough furrow. Linear feature measuring 1.4m by 0.40m and 0.10m in depth. Sides are steeply sloped and base is U-shaped. Evidence of iron panning at the base of the cut.

C.180 Fill of C.181. Mid-brown clay silt with rare small pebble inclusions and occasional charcoal flecks. Maximum thickness 0.10m.

C.195/201 Cut of relict field boundary/laneway/possible townland boundary. Same as C.150 identified in Trench 17. Linear feature oriented east–west across spanning width of Trench 16. Measuring 5.3m in width and 0.70 in depth. Sides were vertically sloped on the north side and gently sloped on the south side, leading to flat base. Large stones line the edge of the cut on the north side. Profile was U-shaped. This was marked on the 1st edition Ordnance Survey map as a boundary and laneway.

C.196/202 Fill of C.195. Loose light brown silty clay containing occasional small pebbles and larger stones. Maximum thickness 0.38m. Finds include post-medieval pottery, glass, metal and animal bone. Occasional charcoal flecks also noted in fill.

C.197 Later recut of C196, result of ditch clearance. U-shaped profile, sides were gently sloped and base was concave. Measuring 1.75m in width and 0.48m in depth. Fill C.198.

C.198 Fill of C.197. Loose dark brown-grey loam with moderate inclusions or medium-sized stones and some larger stones at the base. 0.48m in thickness. Suggestions of stone surface for laneway as marked on the 1st edition Ordnance Survey map.

C.209 Cut into C.202. Linear feature cutting the fill of field boundary/laneway C.195/201. Measuring 0.70m in width and 0.45m in depth. Sides were steeply sloped on the north side and gently sloped on the south side. Base is concave with a V-shaped profile. Fill C.210.

C.210 Fill of C.209. Loose dark brown loam with moderate inclusions of medium-sized stones. Maximum thickness 0.45m.

C.220/211 Linear cut into C.195/201. Cutting C.202 and located at northern edge of field boundary/laneway C.195/201. Measuring 0.60m in width and 0.32m in maximum depth, this feature had gently sloped sides and concave base with U-shaped profile. Fill C.212. Same as C.220.

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C.221/212 Fill of C.220/211. Loose very dark brown loam containing moderate inclusions of medium-sized stones, post-medieval pottery, glass, metal and animal bone. Maximum thickness 0.32m.

C.199 Deposit. Charcoal layer within C.221. Loose black layer of crushed charcoal, with some rare charcoal pieces. 0.04m in thickness. Result of hedgerow or rubbish burning associated with boundary/lane way (C.195). This feature was marked on the 1st edition Ordnance Survey map.

C.182 Comprising 2 rough courses of large stones measuring up to 0.40m in length and 0.20m in width. Situated against the northern vertical edge of cut C. 195.

C.184 Cut of post-medieval pit. Measuring 1.76m in diameter, this sub-circular shaped cut was cut into C.150. Sides were gently sloped and base was concave. Fill C.185.

C.185 Fill of C.184. Friable medium brown clay silt with abundant stones of varying sizes. Post- medieval pottery, glass and red brick present. Maximum thickness 0.39m.

C.186 Possible land drain. Possible post-medieval enclosure/temporary field boundary. Measuring 13m in length and 0.65m to 2m in width. Variation in depth from 0.25m to 0.50m. Sides were steeply sloped and base was flat and stony. Truncated by north–south oriented water pipe at its western end. Fill C.206.

C.206 Fill of C.186. Firm dark grey-brown silty clay with frequent small angular stones. Post- medieval pottery and red brick found in fill. Maximum thickness 0.22m.

C.193 Cut of pit. Sub-oval shaped pit measuring 1.54m by 1.47m by 0.70m in depth. Sides were steeply sloped and base was flat with slight inclination westward. Fill C.194.

C.194 Fill of C.193. Friable dark grey silty clay with occasional burnt stone fragments and coal fragments. Maximum thickness 0.70m.

C.200 Cut of land drain. East–west oriented cut for linear feature probable field drain, measuring 15m in length across Trench 17, 0.70m in width and 0.40m in depth. Sides were steeply sloped and base was concave with a U-shaped profile. Fill C.106.

C.106 Fill of C.200. Firm brown-grey silty clay with moderate inclusions of small stone with some larger stones at the base of the fill. Maximum thickness 0.40m.

C.204 Cut of land drain, same as C.162 recorded in the centre of Site 1C. Oriented northeast to southwest and measuring 1.43m in width, this probable field drain was also noted in Trench 3 (C.162). 30m in length, sides were vertically sloped with a step noted at 0.10m below the surface. Base was flat. Fill C.205.

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C.205 Fill of C.204. Mid-brown silty clay with abundant medium-sized stones. Maximum thickness 0.50m.

C.215 Cut for linear feature. North–south oriented linear feature, probable plough furrow, with rounded terminal. Measuring 1.34m in length by 0.36m in width and 0.07m in depth. Sides were gently sloped and base was flat. Fill C.216.

C.216 Fill of C.215. Loose dark grey-brown silty clay with moderate inclusions of sub-angular stones, rare charcoal flecks. Maximum thickness 0.07m.

C.217 Cut of linear feature/possible land drain. North–south oriented linear feature measuring 12m in length beneath northern and southern baulk. 0.47m in width and 0.38m in depth. Sides were vertically sloped and base was flat. Fill C.218.

C.218 Fill of C.217. Friable and compact mid-dark brown silty clay with rare sub-angular pebbles and occasional medium-sized stones. Occasional charcoal flecks and shell. Fragmentary sherd of post-medieval pottery. Maximum thickness 0.38m.

C.228 Cut for linear feature. Possible field drain. Oriented northwest to southeast measuring 1.40m in width and 0.50m in depth and spanning the full width of Trench 16 (15m width). Sides were steeply sloped falling to a concave base with a U-shaped profile.

C.203 Fill of C.228. Mid-brown silty clay with occasional inclusions of small to medium sized stones. Clay pipe stem found in fill. Maximum thickness 0.50m.

C.229 Field clearance feature. Linear feature containing large sub-rounded stones and smaller pebbles. No discernible cut.

C.230 Field clearance. Circular feature containing large rocks, smaller stones and pebbles. Also animal bone and tooth present. Measuring 2m in length, 1.8m in width and 0.30m in depth. No discernible cut.

C.231 Field clearance. Shallow circular feature containing small stones, pebbles and larger rocks. Measuring 1.5m by 1.7m and 0.10m in depth. No discernible cut.

C.232 Cut for land drain. Linear feature with vertically sloped sides and a flat base. Measuring 2.90m by 1.40m and 0.15m in depth. Fill C.183.

C.183 Fill of C.232: Measuring 2.90m by 1.40m and 0.15m in thickness. Fill comprised friable dark brown to black silty clay. Contained rare small pebbles and sub-angular stones. Occasional charcoal and shell, moderate inclusions of burnt clay and brick and modern pottery.

C.101 Topsoil/sod layer. Loose friable dark grey-brown silty sand. Abundant inclusions of modern pottery, metal and clay pipe. Maximum thickness 0.60m.

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5.2 Drawing Register

Plan No Description 1 Pre-excavation plan of the northern end of Site 1C including Trenches 21, 22, 23. Scale 1:50. 2 Pre-excavation plan of linear feature C.142 and C.144, Trench 16. Scale 1:20. 3 Pre-excavation plan of Trench 9C with rectilinear feature C.186. Scale 1:50. 4 East-facing section of C.207, Trench 1C. Scale 1:10. 5 East-facing profile of pit C.213, Trench 1C. Scale 1:10. 6 Pre-excavation plan of features C.207, C.212, C.213, C.217 and C.218. Trench 1C. Scale 1:20. 7 Post-excavation of Trench 17. Scale 1:20.? 8 Section drawings of C.150, C187, C.189, C.191, C.195, C.201. Scale 1:20. 9 Longitudinal profile of hill; western section. Scale 1:500. 10 Longitudinal profile of hill; western section. Scale 1:100. 11 Section drawings of C.142, C.202 and C.204. Scale 1: 10. 12 Pre-excavation plan of northern end of Trench 16. Scale 1:50. 13 Section drawing of C.114 and C.115. Scale 1:10.

5.3 Sample Register

Sample Context No of Sample Type Description No Bags 1 C.208 2 Bulk Soil sample from primary fill of pit C.207. 2 C.214 2 Bulk Soil sample from fill of pit C.213. 3 C.208 1 Bulk Soil sample from primary fill of pit C.207. 4 C.208 1 Bulk Soil sample from primary fill of pit C.207. 5 C.222 1 Bulk Soil sample from upper fill of pit C.207. 7 C.208 1 Charcoal Charcoal sample from fill of pit C.207 8 C.127 1 Charcoal Charcoal sample from fill of pit C.126 (). 9 C.219 1 Charcoal Sample from upper layer of deposit. 10 C.219 2 Bulk Sample of deposit C.219.

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5.4 Finds Register

Trench Context No No of Description No Bags 16 C.132 1 7 sherds post-medieval pottery. 13 C.173 1 Clay pipe stem. 18 Plough 2 Red brick fragment. furrow 9C C.183 1 2 red brick fragments. 1C C.217 1 Small sherd of post-medieval pottery and shell fragment. 3 C.161 1 4 sherds post-medieval pottery, 1 iron nail, shell fragment. 19 C.101 1 2 sherds of post-medieval pottery, 2 pieces post-medieval glass, 1 clay pipe stem and 1 glass bead. 9C C.183 1 6 post-medieval pottery sherds. 3C Unstratified 1 3 pieces of unworked chert. 3C Unstratified 1 Clay pipe stem and sherd of post-medieval pottery. 3C Unstratified 2 Post-medieval pottery sherd and 2 pieces of unworked chert. 3C Unstratified 1 Clay pipe stem, glass fragment and animal bone fragment. 1C C.226 1 6 fragments of clay pipe stem and 2 of clay pipe bowl. Test 1 2 sherds of post-medieval pottery and 2 fragments of glass. trench 1C C.110 1 Clay pipe stem. 1C Ext. C.225 1 Flint waste flake. 17 C.157 1 6 sherds of post-medieval pottery, clay pipe bowl and 8 glass fragments. 17 Unstratified 1 Glass fragment, sherd of post-medieval pottery, clay pipe stem. 9C C.180/206 1 Post-medieval pottery sherds and glass fragments. 1C C.208 1 14 sherds of possible prehistoric pottery including rim sherd. 1C C.212 1 Sherd of post-medieval pottery and slate fragment. 17 C.192 3 Clay pipe fragments, 4 stem and 1 bowl. 7 Unstratified 1 2 sherds of post-medieval pottery and clay pipe stem. 1 Unstratified 1 Flint blade. 16 C.221 1 31 sherds of post-medieval pottery and 13 glass fragments. 16 C.221 3 Bag of various post-medieval metal pieces. 16 C.202/ 1 Mixed bag of post-medieval finds including a piece of red brick, 6 sherds of pottery, 5 glass fragments, 4 clay pipe bowl 210 fragments and 2 stem fragments, 5 metal pieces. 1 Unstratified 2 Struck flint.

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Trench Context No No of Description No Bags 13 C.172 1 Sherd of post-medieval pottery and a clay pipe stem fragment. 18 Plough 1 1 clay pipe stem, 2 post-medieval pottery sherds and an animal furrow tooth.

5.5 Film Register

Film No Description 03-24: CP117-CP122 Pre-excavation of site/Sections/Post-excavation and working shots

5.6 Animal Bone Register

Context No No of Bags Description C.148 1 Large piece of animal bone. C.192 1 Small bag of animal bone fragments. C.221 1 Animal bone. C.132 1 1 small fragment of animal bone. C.226 1 Fragments of animal long bone. Trench 4 1 Long bone fragment-animal. Trench 16 1 3 fragments of animal bone.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barker, P. (1977) Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. Batsford. London.

Bentgtsson H. and Bergh, S. (1984) in G. Burenhult (ed.) The Archaeology of Carrowmore. Environmental Archaeology and the Megalithic Tradition at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Theses and Papers in North European Archaeology, No. 14. Stockholm.

Bergh, S. (1995) Landscape of the Monuments. A study of the passage tombs in the Cúil Irra Region, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Stockholm.

Bradley, J. (1987) Urban Archaeological Survey. OPW.

Buckley, V.M. (ed.) (1990) Burnt Offerings, International Contributions to Burnt Mound Archaeology. Wordwell. Bray.

Burenhult, G. (1984). The Archaeology of Carrowmore. Environmental Archaeology and the Megalithic Tradition at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Theses and Papers in North European Archaeology, No 14. Stockholm.

Condit, T and Gibbons, M. (1991) A Glimpse of Sligo’s Prehistory. Archaeology Ireland.

Condit, T. and Simpson, D. (1998) ‘Irish Hengiform Enclosures and Related Monuments: A Review’ in A. Gibson and D. Simpson (eds) Prehistoric Ritual and Religion. Sutton Publishing.

Cooney, G. (2000a) Landscapes of Neolithic Ireland. Routledge.

Cooney, G. (2000b) ‘Recognising Regionality in the Irish Neolithic’ in New Agendas In Irish Prehistory, Papers in Commemoration of Liz Anderson. Wordwell.

Cooney, G. (2002) ‘From Lilliput to Brobdingnag: The Traditions of Enclosure in the Irish Neolithic’ in G. Varndell and P. Topping (eds) Enclosures in Neolithic Europe. Oxbow Books.

Cooney, G. and Grogan, E. (1999) Irish Prehistory. A Social Perspective. Wordwell.

Danaher, E. (2004) Report on Archaeological Excavation of an Early Neolithic Causewayed and Palisaded Enclosure at Magheraboy Co. Sligo. Report to be submitted to the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government.

De Valera, R. and O’Nuallain, S. (1961) Survey of the Megalithic Tombs of Ireland: Volume 1: Clare. Dublin.

Edwards, N. (1990) The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland. Batsford.

Elcock, 1883-1884 Edition Ordnance Survey

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Flanagan, L. (2000) Ancient Ireland Life Before The Celts. Gill and Macmillan.

Goransson, H. (1980) ‘Pollen Analytical Investigations in Cloverhill Lough, Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, Ireland’ in G. Burenhult (ed) The Carrowmore Excavations – Excavation Season 1980. Stockholm Archaeological Reports No 7. Institute of Archaeology. University of Stockholm.

Goransson, H. (1981) ‘Pollen Analytical Investigations in Cloverhill Lough, Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, Ireland’ in G. Burenhult (ed) The Carrowmore Excavations – Excavation Season 1981. Stockholm Archaeological Reports No 8. Institute of Archaeology. University of Stockholm.

Goransson, H. (1984) in G. Burenhult (ed) The Archaeology of Carrowmore. Environmental Archaeology and the Megalithic Tradition at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Theses and Papers in North European Archaeology, No 14. Stockholm.

Grogan, E. (2002) ‘Neolithic Houses in Ireland: A Broader Perspective’ in Antiquity 76, 517–25.

Grogan, E. and Roche, H. (2002) ‘Irish Palisade Enclosures – A Long Story’ in A. Gibson (ed) Behind Wooden Walls: Neolithic Palisaded Enclosures in Europe. BAR International Series 1013.

Henken, H. (1939) A long cairn at Creeveykeel, Co. Sligo. J. Roy. Soc. Antig. Irl. 69.

Henry, M. (2002) ‘Magheraboy and Caltragh. Monitoring’ In I. Bennett (ed) Excavations 2000. Dublin. Wordwell.

Herity, M. (1971–1976) Excavations 1971–1976: Summary of Archaeological Excavations in Ireland (ed.) T.G. Delaney. Association of Young Irish Archaeologists. Belfast.

Hunt, J. (1974) Irish Medieval Figure Sculpture 1200–1600. Irish University Press.

Joubert, S. (2002) ‘Caltragh, Site 6. Fulacht Fiadh’ in I. Bennett (ed) Excavations 2000. Dublin. Wordwell.

Joubert, S. (2002) ‘Caltragh, Sites 2 and 3. Fulacht Fiadh’ in I. Bennett (ed) Excavations 2000. Dublin. Wordwell.

Killanin, L. and Duignan, M. (1989) The Shell Guide to Ireland. Revised and updated by Peter Harbison 1995.

MacDermot, C.V., Long, C.B. and Harney, S.J. (1996) Geology of Sligo-Leitrim. Geological Survey of Ireland. Department of Transport, Energy and Communications.

Mitchell, F. and Ryan M. (1997) Reading the Irish Landscape. Town House.

Murphy, D. (1999) Report on Archaeological Assessment of Proposed Visitor Centre at Sligo Abbey, Co. Sligo. Report submitted to Dúchas, The Heritage Service.

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O’Donovan (1840) Ordnance Survey (OS) Name Book.

O’Drisceoil, C (2000) Excavation.ie Database of Irish Excavation Reports. Site 1, Coolfore.

Opie, H. (1996) ‘Carrowgobbadagh Ringfort’ In I. Bennett (ed) Excavations 1995. Dublin. Wordwell.

Oswald, A., Dyer, C. and Barber, M. (2001) The Creation of Monuments Neolithic Causewayed Enclosures in the British Isles. English Heritage.

Petrie 1837 Edition Ordnance Survey.

Raftery, B. (2000) Pagan Celtic Ireland. The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age. Thames and Hudson.

Saville, A. (2002) ‘Lithic Artefacts from Neolithic Causewayed Enclosures: Character and Meaning’ in G. Varndell and P. Topping (eds) Enclosures in Neolithic Europe. Oxbow Books.

Sheridan, A. (2001) ‘Donegore Hill and Other Irish Neolithic Enclosures: A View from Outside’ in T. Darvill and J. Thomas (eds) Neolithic Enclosures in Atlantic Northwest Europe. Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers 6. Oxbow Books.

Sligo Abbey. Guide Book, National Monuments Service, Dúchas, The Heritage Service.

Spence, C. (ed) (1990) Archaeological Site Manual. Museum of London. London.

Thorn, R.H. (1985) Sligo and West Leitrim Field Guide No. 8. Irish Association for Quaternary Studies.

Waddell, J. (1998) The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. Galway University Press.

Woodman, P.C. (1978) ‘The Mesolithic in Ireland’, 58, in Oxford BAR British Series.

Woodman, P.C. (2000) ‘Hammers and Shoeboxes: New Agendas for Prehistory’ in New Agendas in Irish Prehistory: Papers in commemoration of Liz Anderson, 1–10. Wordwell. Bray.

Wood-Martin, W.G. (1882, 1889 and 1892) History of Sligo, Vols. i, ii, iii. Dublin.

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Signed:

______

Sue McCabe Archaeologist

February 2005

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Lithics Analysis by Bernard Guinan & Joanna Nolan 03EO544: Report on the lithic assemblage

This site was excavated during construction of the Sligo inner relief road, it was in Caltragh townland in Co. Sligo. It has been described as ; “site 1c Caltragh; 2 small possible Bronze Age pits were revealed at this site. They were located 1m apart and both were truncated by modern drainage feature. Possible Bronze Age pottery was recovered from 1 pit which had a primary fill containing charcoal and fire cracked stone inclusions. The second pit contained charcoal and oxidised clay.” There was no context information given with this assemblage, such details might change some of the interpretations given below.

Type Flint Chert Total

Core 1 1

Blade 1 1

Flake 2 2

Eolith 3 3

Debitage 1 1

Plano-convex 1 1 Knife

Total 4 5 9

Table 1

Nine lithic items were recovered by this excavation (table 1), three of them were unmodified chert pebbles, they have been described as eoliths and are excluded from the following discussion. This group of material is too small to extrapolate trends about the industry it represents or the type of activities which might have generated it. Any conclusions given can only relate to the individual items in this group.

Raw Material

The raw material was a mix of flint and chert, the two chert pieces, a core and a blade, were both black/grey, the dark denser chert which is a good quality raw material for knapping. There were four flint items, two flakes, a piece of struck debitage and a Plano- Convex knife. The chert would have been readily available in the limestone landscape of co. Sligo, the flint is less easily available. It is probably derived from cretaceous chalk deposits off the west coast or as glacially transported nodules in the landscape. The flint is a mix of different colours and levels of patination (grey, white patinated and grey/white differentially patinated). It also shows different degrees of abrasion, it may not all have been subject to the same levels of post-depositional weathering.

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Primary technology

Most of these items are knapping waste, by products of core reduction and tool manufacture. One of the flakes (00?:00?) is a platform rejuvenation flake, a waste piece struck to refresh the flaking angle on a core when previous flake removals have caused it to become too acute or when there are too many spurs on the edge of the core. The single core is multi platform and has been completely exhausted. The blade appears to have an intentional break surface, it may be a snapped-off waste piece from a finished tool. The surviving striking platforms across the assemblage indicate that one flake and the plano- convex knife were knapped using indirect punch percussion. There is one example of a facetted striking platform indicating at least one instance of platform preparation in advance of striking the flake. These pieces derived from separate episodes of knapping, they are of different raw materials and within the raw material classes they do not match up with each other.

Secondary technology

The only finished artefact was the plano-convex knife (U/S:001), it was made on an elongated curving, quite thick, slightly irregular blade. It was retouched across about one third of its’ dorsal face on the proximal and along all of RL. Rough flake scars on distal and upper LL indicate an attempt to shape this side also. It seems to be unfinished and was probably abandoned because of an angular “shoulder” and impurities on the left edge of the blade. This artefact type is a Neolithic form, elongated examples like this one seem to date to the earlier part of the Neolithic.

Discussion

This group of material is too small to treat as an assemblage, it cannot be used to suggest the type of site and / or activities that might have been associated with this lithic material. However the technological indicators associated with the striking platforms indicate Neolithic type percussion techniques, this coupled with the presence of a plano-convex knife suggest that the material was of Neolithic date.

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Pottery Analysis POTTERY REPORT, SITE 1C, CALTRAGH, CO. SLIGO SARAH GORMLEY

INTRODUCTION

A total of 14 samples from Site 1C in Caltragh townland were submitted for analysis (licence no. 03E0544). One rim sherd recovered is likely to be from a Carinated Bowl Style vessel and as such would suggest that the assemblage is Early Neolithic in date. The assemblage was recovered from a small charcoal rich pit which was radiocarbon dated to the 4th millennium BC.

The pottery was identified visually, using a hand lens where necessary and the main characteristics of the form and fabric were noted. The composition of the assemblage and its distribution is discussed below.

COMPOSITION AND CONDITION

Fourteen samples were submitted in total, nine of which do not appear to be fired pottery. Eight of the samples consist of dark red/ brown sandy material, which appears to be loosely adhering together with small stoney inclusions and also small fragments of charcoal. One further sample is a stone.

The assemblage under discussion, therefore, is made up of five sherds of pottery, weighing just 13.1g. Four fragments are body sherds and one is a small fragment of a rim. Two different fabrics are represented by the five sherds. Three body fragments are tempered with quartz and are quite abraded and are an average 6mm thick. One abraded body fragment is 5mm thick and was pitted with angular voids left by temper which has burnt off in the firing process. There is only one featured sherd, a small rim fragment. The rim sherd is 7mm thick and is also pitted with small angular voids.

Little can be deduced from this small assemblage. The sherds are both fragmented and abraded and represent only a tiny fraction of the original vessel. It is not possible to establish if the two fabrics represented, indicate that only two vessels are present or if the sherds are from more than two vessels. From the rim sherd, however, it is possible to conclude the likely type and date of the assemblage. The rim sherd would appear to be from a Carinated Bowl Style vessel which is likely to date to sometime between 4000 cal BC and 3350 cal BC (Sheridan 1995, 6). More specifically the radiocarbon dates from Site 1C associated with the pottery would suggest that the

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assemblage dates to the early-mid 4th millennium cal BC as the radiocarbon dates from this feature fell into the ranges 3700-3630 and 3570-3540 cal BC.

DISTRIBUTION

All of the material submitted for analysis was recovered from c208, the truncated remains of a small pit filled with charcoal rich material. It is difficult to assess whether the pottery was included within this pit fill in its current condition, or whether the subsequent truncation of the feature, by a modern drainage feature, led to the material becoming fragmented and abraded. One other small pit is the only other associated feature.

DISCUSSION

This small assemblage consists of four small and abraded body sherds and one small rim sherd. The material is likely to date to the early-mid 4th millennium and belongs to the Carinated Bowl Style pottery tradition. The sherds were recovered from the truncated remains of a small pit which was associated with another similar pit. The disturbance of the features by a modern drain makes it difficult to determine the nature of this pottery deposit and indeed it may be the case that the full assemblage is not represented. The material recovered, however, belongs to a tradition which has been recovered widespread, throughout Ireland and Britain.

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REFERENCES

Sheridan, A. (1995) ‘Irish Neolithic Pottery: The Story in 1995’, in Kinnes, I. and Varndell, G. (eds) Unbaked Urns of Rudely Shape: Essays on British and Irish Pottery for Ian Longworth, 3-21, Oxford.

Sherd recommended for illustration: Rim fragment: 208:14

NOTE: No part of this report may be altered without the written consent of the author.

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Radiocarbon Dating Results

Ms. Rachel Sloane Report Date: 8/23/2004

Sample Data Measured 13C/12C Conventional Radiocarbon Age Ratio Radiocarbon Age(*)

Beta - 194436 4880 +/- 40 BP -26.7 o/oo 4850 +/- 40 BP SAMPLE : 03E544F208S7 ANALYSIS : AMS-Standard delivery MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT : (charred material): acid/alkali/acid 2 SIGMA CALIBRATION : Cal BC 3700 to 3630 (Cal BP 5640 to 5580) AND Cal BC 3570 to 3540 (Cal BP 5520 to 5480) ______

Beta - 194437 2170 +/- 50 BP -23.9 o/oo 2180 +/- 50 BP SAMPLE : 03E544F127S8 ANALYSIS : Radiometric-Standard delivery MATERIAL/PRETREATMENT : (charred material): acid/alkali/acid 2 SIGMA CALIBRATION : Cal BC 380 to 80 (Cal BP 2330 to 2030) ______

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CALIBRATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS (Variables: C13/C12=-26.7:lab. mult=1) Laboratory number: Beta-194436 Conventional radiocarbon age: 4850±40 BP 2 Sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 3700 to 3630 (Cal BP 5640 to 5580) and (95% probability) Cal BC 3570 to 3540 (Cal BP 5520 to 5480) In te rc ep t da ta Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal BC 3650 (Cal BP 5600) 1 Sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 3660 to 3640 (Cal BP 5610 to 5590) (68% probability)

4850±40 BP C h ar re d m a te ri al 4980

4960

4940

4920

4900

4880

4860

4840

4820

Radiocarbon age (BP) age Radiocarbon 4800

4780

4760

4740

4720

4700 3720 3700 3680 3660 36 4 0 3620 3600 3580 3560 3540 3520 Cal BC References: Database used INTCAL98 Calibration Database Editorial Comm ent Stuiver, M., van der Plicht, H., 1998, Radiocarbon 40(3), pxii-xiii INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Stuiver, M., et. al., 1998, Radiocarbon 40(3), p1041-1083 M athe matics A Sim pl ifie d Approach to Calibratin g C14 Dates Talma, A. S., Vogel, J. C., 1993, Radiocarbon 35(2), p317-322 Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory 4 98 5 S.W . 74th Co urt, Miami, Florid a 33 15 5 • Tel: (3 05 )66 7- 51 67 • Fax: (3 05 )6 63 -09 64 • E-M ail: b eta@ra dio carbo n.co m

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CALIBRATION OF RADIOCARBON AGE TO CALENDAR YEARS (Variables: C13/C12=-23.9:lab. mult=1) La borato ry num ber: Beta-194437 Conventional radiocarbon age: 2180±50 BP 2 Sigma calibrated result: Cal BC 380 to 80 (Cal BP 2330 to 2030) (95% probability) In te rc ep t da ta Intercept of radiocarbon age with calibration curve: Cal BC 200 (Cal BP 2150) 1 Sigma calibrated results: Cal BC 360 to 280 (Cal BP 2310 to 2230) and (68% probability) Cal BC 240 to 170 (Cal BP 2190 to 2120)

2180±50 BP C h ar re d m a te ri al 2350

2300

2250

2200

2150

2100 Radiocarbon age (BP) age Radiocarbon

2050

2000

1950 400 35 0 300 250 20 0 150 100 50 Cal BC References: Database used INTCAL98 Calibration Database Editorial Comm ent Stuiver, M., van der Plicht, H., 1998, Radiocarbon 40(3), pxii-xiii INTCAL98 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Stuiver, M., et. al., 1998, Radiocarbon 40(3), p1041-1083 M athe matics A Sim plified Approach to Calibrating C14 Dates Talma, A. S., Vogel, J. C., 1993, Radiocarbon 35(2), p317-322 Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory 4 98 5 S.W . 74th Co urt, Miami, Florid a 33 15 5 • Tel: (3 05 )66 7- 51 67 • Fax: (3 05 )6 63 -09 64 • E-M ail: b eta@ra dio carbo n.co m

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Wood Identification by Ellen O’Carroll

SPECIES IDENTIFICATION OF CHARCOAL SAMPLES

FROM the N4 SIRR, Sligo

(03E0542, 03E0544 & 03E0546 & 03E0547)

ELLEN OCARROLL June 2004

Table of Contents Pg nos

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1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………3

2. Methods……..………………..………………………………………..4

3. Results…………………………………………………………………..4

4. Discussion………………………………………………………………5

5. CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………….7

6. REFERENCES……………………………………………………………9

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1. Introduction

Fourteen charcoal samples were submitted for analysis from excavations along the Sligo Inner Relief road. There have been a series of excavations carried out in this area comprising pre-historic activity ranging from Bronze Age pits (sites 1C and 2A) to fulacht fiadh spreads, hut sites, ditch material and associated pits (sites 2D and 1E). The charcoal samples were sent for species identification and analysis in order to re-construct the range of tree species and types of woodland, which grew in the area, as well as the utilization of these species for various functions. Wood used for fuel at pre-historic sites would generally have been selected at locations close to the site. Therefore charcoal identifications may, but do not necessarily, reflect the composition of the local woodlands. Charcoal identifications can also provide information regarding the use and selection of a species for a particular function.

2. Methods The process for identifying wood, whether it is charred, dried or waterlogged is carried out by comparing the anatomical structure of wood samples with known comparative material or keys (Schweingruber 1990). The identification of charcoal material involves breaking the charcoal piece so as a clean section of the wood can be obtained. This charcoal is then identified to species under an Olympus stereomicroscope with magnification up to 200. Only larger pieces of charcoal were selected for identification purposes. By close examination of the microanatomical features of the samples the species were determined. The diagnostic features used for the identification of charcoal are micro-structural characteristics such as the vessels and their arrangement, the size and arrangement of rays, vessel pit arrangement and also the type of perforation plates. It is important to note that only in some cases were all the characteristic features described above present in the archaeological samples.

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Representative pieces of charcoal from all samples were suitable for species identification. The results are laid out below in tabular form by site/licence no.

3. RESULTS Table 1: Results from Site 1C, 03E0544

Type Sample Feature Context Species Weight no. no. and Comment Bronze 8 F127 Charcoal rich fill Corylus Corylus Age of pit avellana avellana Pit? (14g) Bronze 7 F208 Charcoal rich fill Corylus Corylus Age of pit avellana avellana Pit? (2.5g)

Table 2: Results from Site 2A, 03E0546 Type Sample Feature Context Species Comment and no. no. weight Pit 4 F7 Fill of pit Corylus 9 yrs and 18 avellana rods grammes in weight Pre-historic 2 F9 Charcoal rich fill Quercus sp. Quercus sp. (10g) pit of pit Pre-historic 25 F38 Charcoal rich fill Quercus sp Quercus sp. (11g) pit of pit Pre-historic 26 F44 Charcoal rich fill Quercus sp. & Quercus sp. (10g) pit of pit Corylus & Corylus avellana avellana (0.1g)

Table 3: Results from Site 2D, 03E0547

Type Sample Feature Context Species Weight and no. no. Comment Fulacht 6 F6 Overlying spread Quercus sp. & Quercus sp. (1g) material of fulacht material Corylus & Corylus avellana avellana (12g) Pit with 42 F39 Lowest fill of pit Quercus sp Quercus sp (2.8g) stake holes Pit 29 F166 In situ burning Quercus sp. & Quercus sp. (1g) associated Corylus & Corylus with fulacht avellana avellana (1.5g) Fulacht 51 F302 Fill of trough Quercus sp. & Quercus sp. material Corylus (0.5g) & Corylus avellana avellana (4)

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Table 4: Results from Site 1E ext, 03E0542

Type Sample Feature no. Context Species Weight and no. Comment Fulacht 55 F402 Lower fill of pit Corylus Corylus avellana material avellana (28g)

Pre- 170 F420 Fill of ditch Salix and Alnus 1 g historic glutinosa ditch material Pre- 77 F578 Remains at Pomoideae 500g historic entrance to hut hut Pre- 109 F643 Fill of pit Alnus glutinosa 8g historic pit

*Pomoideae (apple type) includes crab apple, wild pear, hawthorn and mountain ash.

4. Discussion There are five species types present in the charcoal remains. The most commonly occurring species were hazel (Corylus avellana) and oak (Quercus sp.). The sites appear to be dated to the pre-historic period namely the Bronze Age. A tighter time frame has not been assigned to the sites as yet. In general hazel and oak were more prevalent in the pit features excavated at the site. This may suggest that hazel wattle was being used to define the edge of the pits (site 1C - F127, F208, site 2A - F7, F44) while oak may have been selected for use as stakes and posts excavated from within these pits (site 2D – F9). Alder (Alnus glutinosa) and willow (Salix sp.) were identified from the ditch material at site 1E ext while burnt pomoideae (apple type) wood was sampled from remains associated with an entrance to the hut. In general the charcoal samples identified were all quite fresh with few indications of insect channels or rotting prior to their use. This is suggestive of fresh wood material being collected from trees rather than foraging rotten branch material from the ground.

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The range of species identified from the Sligo inner relief road excavations includes large (oak) and smaller (alder and hazel, pomoideae- apple type) trees and some scrub (willow). Hazel (Corylus avellana) was identified in varying quantities from all sites investigated. The hazel tree was very common up to the end of the 17th century and would have been used for the manufacture of many wooden structures such as wattle walls, posts, trackways and baskets. McCracken (1971, 19) points out that “it was once widespread to a degree that is hard to imagine today”. With the introduction of brick, steel and slate the crafts associated with hazel became obsolete, and today the woods that supplied hazel have diminished rapidly. Hazel is normally only about 3-5m in height and is often found as an understory tree in deciduous woods dominated by oak. It also occurs as pure copses on shallow soils over limestone as in The Burren in Co. Clare and survives for 30 to 50 years. Its main advantage is seen in the production of long flexible straight rods through the process known as coppicing. Oak (Quercus sp.) was identified from the pits associated with the fulacht material at sites 2A and 2D. Throughout all periods of prehistory and history oak has been used for structural timbers. Oak also has unique properties of great durability and strength which makes it a suitable species for such structural requirements. The oak identified suggests that there was a supply of oak in the surrounding environment particularly during the Bronze Age period. Sessile oak (Quercus petraea) and pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) are both native and common to Ireland. The wood of these species cannot be differentiated based on its microstructure. Pendunculate oak is found on heavy clays and loams particularly where the soil is of alkaline pH. Sessile oak is found on acid soils often in pure stands and although it thrives on well drained soils it is also tolerant of flooding (Beckett 1979, 40-41). Both species of oak grow to be very large trees (30-40m) and can live to an age of 400 years. The oak may have grown in mixed woodlands nearby to the site. Alder (Alnus glutinosa) was identified from site 1E from the fill of the ditch (F420) and the fill of a pit (F643). It is a widespread native tree and occurs in wet habitats along streams and riverbanks. Alder also grows regularly on fen peat. It is an easily worked and split timber and does not

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tear when worked. Alder is commonly identified from wood remains associated with wet/boggy areas.

Pomoideae, which was identified from the remains of an entrance feature to a hut (F568) includes apple, pear, hawthorn and mountain ash. It is impossible to distinguish these wood species anatomically but as wild pear is not native and crab apple is a rare native species to Ireland it is likely that the species identified from 03e0542 are hawthorn or mountain ash (rowan) (Nelson 194-200, 1993). Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) is a native species, and is found in many hedgerows throughout Ireland. Mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) is also a common tree to Ireland growing particularly well in rocky and hilly mountainous places.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Five species were identified from the four areas investigated. Hazel and oak may have been selected for certain structural requirements within the pre- historic pits. Hazel rods would have been suitable for a wattle type structure while oak would have been suitable for post/stake material. It is difficult to attribute a use to the remaining three species identified above but the willow and alder suggest a slightly wetter environment for site 1E as opposed to the other three sites investigated. From the analysis above it is clear that the local environment of sites 1C, 2A and 2D were fairly dry where open conditions did not prevail. The oak and hazel would have grown in dry conditions preferring free- draining soils and nutrient rich clays. Alder and willow indicates local wet condition along river banks or peat bogs The hawthorn/mountain ash is indicative of those species, which may have grown locally in hedgerows or as scrub nearby to the sites.

Advice for carbon dating As oak is a long-lived species it is not advisable to send the oak pieces for carbon dating. The hazel, alder, willow and pomoideae are all suitable for

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carbon dating.

6. REFERENCES

Beckett, J.K., 1979, Planting Native Trees and Shrubs. Jarrold & Sons Ltd, Norwich.

Nelson E.C., 1993 Trees of Ireland. The Lilliput Press, Dublin.

Pilcher , J & Hall, V. 2001. Flora Hibernica, The Collins press, Wilton, Cork

Warner, R.B., 1987, "A proposed adjustment for the « Old-Wood Effect »", in Mook, W. & Waterbolk, H. (eds) Proc. 2nd Symp of 14C & Archaeology, Groningen 1987, 29, 159-172.

Webb, D.A., 1977, An Irish Flora. Dundalgan Press Ltd, Dundalk.

Schweingruber, F.H. 1990. Microscopic Wood Anatomy. 3rd edition.Birmensdorf: Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research

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Plate 1: Site 1C showing area stripped of topsoil and location of pits C207 and C213(marked in red) and pit C126 (marked in blue), facing West. (03_24_CP113_2)

Plate 2: C190, C191, C192; natural peat formation, facing east. (03_24_CP118_4)

03_24_PS03 Area 1C Archaeological Excavation Report February 2005

Plate 3: Natural lime deposits C104, facing West. (03_24_CP117_15)

Plate 4: Selection of post-medieval artefacts found during excavation of Site 1C.(03_24_Site_1C_001)

03_24_PS03 Area 1C Archaeological Excavation Report February 2005

Plate 5: Plough furrows identified to the north of Site 1C, facing South. (03_24_CP118_20)

Plate 6: Field clearance feature containing post-medieval artefacts, facing Southwest. (03_24_CP119_9)

03_24_PS03 Area 1C Archaeological Excavation Report February 2005

Plate 7: Land drain C166 located to the north of Site 1C, facing Southwest. (03_24_CP118_9)

Plate 8: Neolithic pits C207 and C213, truncated by post-medieval linear feature C226, facing South. (03_24_CP121_24)

03_24_PS03 Area 1C Archaeological Excavation Report February 2005

Plate 9: Possible iron age pits C124 and C126, facing North. (03_24_CP119_17)

03_24_PS03 Area 1C Archaeological Excavation Report February 2005