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olimpinis sportas Olympic Sports KALOKAGATHIA: Understanding Olympic in terms of beautiful goodness* Prof. Dr. Heather Reid University of Virginia Summary Olympic ethics guide us to return to the ideals of the ancient Greeks which originally inspired the Games. Thus, it becomes incorrect turning it to strict rules set in the official Code of Ethics. Olympic ethics requires us to be the ones, striving to exemplify an ideal set of personal, social, and aesthetic values. Kalokagathia can serve very well for such an ideal, embodying morally good and beautiful person (kalos k‘agathos). Understanding personal, social and aesthetic aspects of kalokagathia, observing connection of those aspects to Olympic sport and identifying key obstacles, help to find out whether it can be an Olympic value nowadays. Kalokagathia can be described as something autotelic, instrinsically rewarding, possessing beautiful things „for themselves“, and the beautiful is practiced “for its own sake“. In this sense, it has close relation to Olympic ideals and principles of Olympism, emphasising “joy of effort“. Autotelicity still evidences itself in symbolic prizes and various attempts of International Olympic Committee to get rid of commercialism from the Games, as well as focusing on volunteerism. Nevertheless, winning at all costs, unfair and unjust acts before, after and during the Games still occur, leaving behind the real meaning of Olympic ideals. Banning instrumentalism with rules only exacerbates the problem, so only a moral disposition, that values goodness instrinsically, must be promoted. The idea of social responsibility should be considered as a part of the Olympic ideal, too, as goods of being kalos k‘agathos are to be used to benefit the community. Still, the predominant position among Olympic virtues is undoubtedly occupied by the idea of Fair Play. Moral aesthetic is to enable an athlete to recognize the beauty inherent in good actions and to perform them; in this way, morally good person functions more like an artist than a lawyer. Olympic excellence of ancient times could be celebrated anew with poetic and artistic attitude, refusing countries’ competitions of the medal count. The value of Olympic glory depends on its beauty, and the beauty of Olympic glory depends on ethics, on morally beautiful activity. More than abiding by rules or codes, Olympic ethics is a matter of striving for moral beauty. Keywords: Olympic ethics, Fair Play, code of ethics, Olympic values, instrumentalism. The International Olympic Committee requires “mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, that International Federations, Local Organizing solidarity and fair play.”3 Committees, National Olympic Committees, as well In short, Olympic ethics requires us to be as Olympic athletes and officials adopt in writing certain kinds of persons, who play by the rules, to their official Code of Ethics in order to “restate their be sure, but more important, persons who strive commitment” to the Fundamental Principles of the to exemplify an ideal set of personal, social, and Olympic Charter and “affirm their loyalty to the aesthetic values. Rules, after all, merely express Olympic ideal.”1 It would be a mistake for anyone to some higher conception of moral goodness and try believe, however, that Olympic ethics might amount to to direct us toward it. To understand the Olympic such written declarations, or even to strict abidance by conception of moral goodness, I think it is very the Code’s rules and principles. After all, the Olympic helpful – as in so many Olympic matters – to Charter’s Fundamental Principles say nothing about return to the ideals of the ancient Greeks which rules. Rather, they describe a “philosophy of life” originally inspired the Games. The ideal I have in which “exalts and combines in a balanced whole, the mind for Olympic ethics is kalokagathia – a quality qualities of body, will and mind.”2 They identify the that unites the concepts of beauty and goodness. values of “good example, social responsibility, and Kalokagathia appears frequently in ancient respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.” literature but is discussed most fully in , They ban all forms of discrimination, and they demand where it emerges as the distinctive disposition of the the adoption of an “Olympic Spirit,” characterized as kalos k’agathos – the morally good and beautiful 1 IOC, Code of Ethics, 127. person. It is closely related to the concept of aretē 2 IOC, Olympic Charter, 11. 3 IOC, Olympic Charter, 11. * The article was presented at the 12th Joint International Session for Presidents or Directors of National Olympic Academies and Officials of National Olympic Committees, which took place in Ancient Olympia, Greece on the 11th–18th May, 2014. 2014 Nr. 3(77) 31

(virtue or excellence) much discussed in Olympic Olympism celebrates “joy of effort” as a foundational ethics, but kalokagathia is something more than Olympic value. The Olympic creed declares that “The virtue, something beyond social responsibility, most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to something further than knowledge of and abidance win but to take part, just as the most important thing by ethical codes. To answer the question whether in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential kalokagathia can be an Olympic value today, we thing is not to have conquered but to have fought must understand its personal, social, and aesthetic well.”13 Ontologically, autotelicity is characteristic of aspects, observe their connection to Olympic sport, sport, art, and their common ancestor, play. Athletic and identify key obstacles. Olympic ethics requires competition may entail an effort to win, but it is only more than a code, it requires a kind of moral by adopting a lusory attitude – i.e. by seeing the game understanding that is able to engage the beautiful. as an end in itself, that we are able to meaningfully participate in sports at all.14 Historically, autotelicity Autotelicity versus Instrumentalism characterizes the realm of the divine – gods who have At the opening of Eudemian Ethics 8.15, Aristotle no needs are naturally playful and when humans act describes kalokagathia as “the excellence that arises autotelically, we more closely resemble the divine. from a combination of [excellences].”4 At the end of The ancient Olympic Games were staged to please the the brief discussion, he concludes that kalokagathia gods and the crowns of wild olive they awarded were is “perfect excellence.” 5 This implies that the kalos regarded as more valuable than the lucrative prizes k’agathos not only has aretē, she has something in the so-called money games, precisely because more – a certain kind of disposition,6 a particular way they lacked practical worth. The Modern Olympic of exercising her goodness, a kind of moral beauty.7 Games continue this legacy of merely symbolic But where does this beauty come from? Aristotle prizes and the participation of otherwise highly-paid describes virtuous actions as not only beautiful (kalai) professional athletes like Lionel Messi and Rafael in themselves, but also done for the sake of beauty (to Nadal only reinforces the idea that sport at its best kalon).8 In short, to kalon is both the beginning and is engaged in autotelically. The IOC’s banning of the end of moral excellence.9 On the face of it, this commercial signs in the arena and continued focus seems circular, and indeed a good way to describe on volunteerism are further evidence that autotelicity kalokagathia is as something autotelic – intrinsically persists as an Olympic value. rewarding; an end in itself. Autotelicity is important There is also evidence, however, that because it differentiates moral excellence from instrumentalism may be taking over. The Olympic instrumentalism, or what Aristotle calls expedience, motto, citius, altius, fortius (faster, higher, i.e. using virtues as means to acquire benefits such as stronger) is widely interpreted as opposing the wealth, health, honor, or power.10 Says Aristotle, “the creed by putting an emphasis on winning – which man who thinks he ought to have excellences for the is inevitably associated with the kind of extrinsic sake of external goods does deeds that are beautiful rewards that Aristotle warned against: wealth, honor, only by accident.”11 The kalos k’agathos, by contrast, and power. Meanwhile the benefit of health is often possesses beautiful things “for themselves” and he left behind as athletes and nations pursue victory at practices the beautiful “for its own sake.”12 all costs. The IOC itself is widely seen as a money- The connection to Olympic ideals should be fairly grubbing organization interested in marketing a obvious here. The first Fundamental Principle of sports-entertainment product in cooperation with 4 Eudemian Ethics 1248b9-10. 5 Eudemian Ethics 1249a16-17 amoral multi-national corporations. Insofar as 6 1105a29 “it does not suffice that [actions] themselves have organizations teach moral values through their the right qualities. Rather, the agent must also be in the right state when he does 15 them.” actions rather than their words, all members of the 7 As Aristotle puts it, the kalos k’agathos not only acts beautifully, he “practices the beautiful (kalon).” Eudemian Ethics 1248b35 Olympic Movement must strive to exhibit Olympic 8 Nicomachean Ethics1120a24. See also Eudemian Ethics 3.1230a27-34, “good- values though their actions. In this, they must ness makes a man choose everything for the sake of some object, and that object is what is [kalon]”. oppose the pervasive instrumentalism of society 9 In Metaphysics 5.1013a22, Aristotle declares that “the good and the beautiful are 13 The Fundamental Principles of Olympism appear on page 11 of the 2013 Olym- the origin both of knowledge and of the movement of many things.” pic Charter. The Olympic Creed does not appear in the Olympic Charter or on the 10 Although kalokagathia must be cultivated for its own sake and not for the current IOC website, but it is so frequently cited in discussions of Olympic history purpose of achieving any further end—including pleasure and even happiness— and ideals as to be considered part of Olympism. such rewards were thought to supervene on its achievement. Says Aristotle, “the 14 For an explanation of the lusory attitude and its connection to an aesthetic sense absolutely pleasant is also beautiful and the absolutely good is pleasant.” Eudemian of fairness, see “Deontology and Fairness,” chapter 9 of Reid, Introduction to the Ethics 1249a18-21. Philosophy of Sport. 11 Eudemian Ethics 1249b14-15. 15 Derek Bok (1996) has shown, moral behavior (good and bad) is learned more by 12 Eudemian Ethics 1248b34-35. observing an institution’s behavior than from the teaching or professing of theories. 32 SPORTO MOKSLAS and the expected instrumentalism of their corporate universal fundamental ethical principles” in the first partners. The media’s depiction of the Games and Fundamental Principle of Olympism.20 It is further ceremonies plays a very important role here, as does attested by the goal of “placing sport at the service discourse within the Olympic community. Attempts of the harmonious development of humankind [and] to legislate the Olympic spirit, however, are bound promoting a peaceful society concerned with the to fail. Aristotle was clear that aretē requires us to be preservation of human dignity.”21 It is even part and “moved by to kalon and not compulsion.”16 As the parcel of the Olympic spirit, defined in terms of sad history of Olympic amateurism shows, attempts mutual understanding, friendship, solidarity and fair to ban instrumentalism with rules only exacerbate play.22 I have argued elsewhere that the Olympics’ the problem. What must be promoted is a moral peace-promoting heritage derives from certain disposition that values goodness intrinsically; a aspects of sport itself: dedicated time and space, disposition of moral beauty or kalokagathia. equality of opportunity, and respect for difference.23 Those aspects of sport persist and thrive in the modern Community Responsibility vs. Liberal Games, as does their product, friendship, understood Individualism by Aristotle to be the virtue that binds communities The social dimension of kalokagathia was together.24 Modern Olympic athletes serve their obvious to the ancients but may be overlooked today. own communities as well as the world community In contrast to modern western moral ideas based when they demonstrate not only athletic excellence, on liberal individualism, in thought but teamwork, understanding, and friendship that there is no distinguishing the morally excellent transcends national boundaries and individual individual from his community. Kalos k’agathos interests. I daresay the most beautiful moments in the is often translated as ‘nobleman’ or ‘gentleman’ in Olympic Games today are not just displays of athletic modern texts – a rendering which suggests that the excellence, but also displays of social excellence: quality is inherited rather than earned. But ancient shared joy, sympathetic understanding, even selfless Greek athletics and moral philosophy both emphasize gestures of aid to competitors. It is instructive that we demonstrated excellence over and against social call these things good sportsmanship; even today we hierarchy. Aristotle says that social goods like can recognize moral beauty in sport that transcends wealth, high birth, and power are “fitting” for the rules and obligation. kalos k’agathos, not because he has them by reason Unfortunately, the community-building lessons of birth or social status – and certainly not because of sport are regularly ignored and sometimes these privileges cause him to be kalos k’agathos – counteracted by competitive paradigms focused but rather because he uses such goods to benefit the only on results. Individualism among athletes is one community.17 The benefit may be direct and material, thing, but often it derives from the more insidious as when a wealthy man spends his money to build a phenomenon of nationalism found within teams and public fountain (like the one Herodes Atticus financed NOCs, in what is supposed to be an international at Olympia). Just as often it was indirect and spiritual, community. It may seem like nationalism (including as when an Olympic athlete unifies and inspires his sacrificing one’s personal interests for the good community with a beautifully excellent performance. of the team or nation) just is a form of community Ancient Greek athletes saw themselves as community service, but more often it is simply a collectivizing servants; it is for this reason that asks in of morally repugnant individualism – the attempt to the Apology to be rewarded as Olympic athletes are gain an advantage unavailable to competitors. Take, for his service to Athens.18 When Aristotle describes for example, the controversy surrounding bobsled the kalos kagathos as someone who “practices the design at the recent Winter Games in Sochi. The super beautiful,” he is thinking of someone who serves his high-tech American sled was financed, researched community.19 and designed by the German company BMW to This idea of social responsibility is very much gain a competitive advantage over other countries’ a part of the Olympic ideal as well. In fact, “social sleds; including team Germany, with whom BMW responsibility” was recently enshrined alongside “the did not share the technology. Some may say that a educational value of good example” and “respect for 20 As far as I can tell, it first appears in the 2011 version of the Charter. 16 Nicomachean Ethics 1116b4–5. 21 Fundamental Principle #2, p. 11 17 Eudemian Ethics 1249a9-10. 22 Fundamental Principle #4, p. 11. 18 , Apology 36d. 23 Reid, “Olympic Sport and its Lessons for Peace.” 19 Eudemian Ethics 1248b35. 24 Nicomachean Ethics 1155a20-25. 2014 Nr. 3(77) 33 country’s technological advancement is legitimately key component of the Olympic spirit, its prevalence is part of Olympic competition (I disagree), but even item number one on the Olympic Charter’s description this justification doesn’t apply. Likewise the rhetoric of the Mission and Role of the IOC.29 Respect for surrounding Lockheed Martin’s development of the spirit of fair play is also listed as a key criterion a high-tech suit for American speed skaters not for eligibility to participate in the Olympic Games.30 only revealed the defense-contractor’s warlike Too often we understand fairness analytically in understanding of sport, it backfired by distracting terms of adherence to written to rules and principles. athletes who performed below their potential. The This neglects not only the aesthetic dimension social responsibility expected of athletes must also of the English word (fair was once a synonym for be demonstrated by officials, teams, federations, beautiful), but also the metaphysical reality that rules committees, and even sponsors. The beauty of the and principles require a theoretical basis in order to Olympic Games depends on the kalokagathia of the be written and interpreted in the first place. Olympic people in the Olympic community. Officials in particular must appeal to an aesthetic sense of justice to do their job well. This seems to Fair Play be what happened at the London 2012 Games when The aesthetic dimension of kalokagathia, badminton officials disqualified eight players for specifically its linking of morality and beauty, may “not using their best efforts” in preliminary matches seem the most foreign to us. In modern thought, in order to gain advantageous matches in the finals.31 morality and beauty are usually seen as independent The Olympic Charter consistently describes fair play concepts; ethics and aesthetics are considered as a “spirit” and the IOC Code of Ethics goes so far separate sciences. This is because we now associate to describe it as “the spirit of sport.”32 The apparently morality with pure rationality. Kant’s moral theory circular idea that sport both begins and ends with begins in and aims for unadulterated reason, while fairness should remind us of the autotelicity of to major utilitarian theories are based on rational kalon – and of sport’s very deep kinship with it. interests and calculations. The kalos k’agathos, by Despite the renowned beauty of the Olympic contrast, exercises a kind of moral aesthetic which Festival, ugliness is never completely absent. Not enables him to recognize the beauty inherent in good only do athletes sometimes display acts of violence actions and to perform them as an expression of the or hatred, they can be quite adept at hiding morally 25 beauty he has cultivated within. In this way, the repugnant acts like doping, bribery, and fraud. morally good person functions more like an artist Meanwhile, affiliated corporations, organizing than a lawyer, but that is not to say that she abandons committees, and even national governments often reason. According to Aristotle, it is through logos engage in unfair, unjust, and sometimes belligerent (conventionally translated as reason) that we discern acts before, after, and during the games. These also are moral beauty, and that discernment then moves us – frequently ignored or covered up. I remember at the 26 perhaps effortlessly – to right action. “Our aim is 2008 Beijing Games watching a destitute man emerge not to know what courage is but to be courageous,” from a doorway hidden within a brightly-colored 27 says Aristotle, explaining later that an apparently Olympic billboard. The billboard had been placed courageous act is actually shameful if done out there to cover up the squalor of his neighborhood. of ignorance or in pursuit of pleasure rather than Similar attempts to whitewash abuses are found at 28 beauty. It is the performance of an act autotelically many other Games. The media has a responsibility to – out of beauty and for the sake of beauty that makes reveal such moral ugliness, but they are also capable of it morally beautiful and good. manufacturing it by fomenting fears of terror attacks If this concept of moral beauty seems foreign to or exaggerating political scandals. Even something Olympic ideals, it is because we have forgotten the so apparently innocuous as the daily Olympic medal aesthetic dimension of fairness. Fair play is not only a count violates the principles of fair play by inventing 25 The comparison between moral understanding and aesthetic taste need not suggest relativism or solipsism. The ancients believed that there was a truth about a competition in which teams do not enter willingly, beauty—indeed truth is intimately connected to beauty on their view. It is possible, even common, to make mistakes about things’ beauty—indeed the distinction 29 Olympic Charter, 16: “to encourage and support the promotion of ethics and between the beautifully good and merely good person is described this way. Expedi- good governance in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate ent things like health, wealth, and honor appear beautiful to the merely good man, its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is whereas the kalos k’agathos finds beauty in what is intrinsically good. Eudemian banned;” Ethics 1249a4-5. 30 Olympic Charter, 77. 26 Eudemian Ethics 3.1229a14. 31 British Broadcasting Company. 27 Eudemian Ethics 1.1216b19-25. 32 Code of Ethics, 194. (To be fair, the Code of Ethics also describes fair play as a 28 Eudemian Ethics 3.1230a27-34. principle, p. 198) 34 SPORTO MOKSLAS have different numbers of contestants, and compete character. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. in different disciplines. It may seem like a small 6. Golden, M. (1998). Sport and Society in . thing, but how often are conventionally immoral Cambridge: Cambridge U. P. 7. International Olympic Committee (2012). Code of Ethics tactics motivated by the desire to improve a country’s and Other Texts. Lausanne: IOC. ranking in the rigged-game of the medal count? Why 8. International Olympic Committee (2013). The Olympic not return to the poetic and artistic celebrations of Charter. Lausanne: IOC. Olympic excellence in ancient times? The spirit 9. Lenk, H. (1982). Towards a philosophical anthropology of of fair play, like kalokagathia, demands that we the Olympic athletes and the achieving being. Ancient Olympia, Greece: International Olympic Academy Report, 163–77. celebrate beauty. 10. Martinkova, I. (2001). Kalokagathia: How to Understand Harmony of a Human Being. Nikephoros, 14, 21–8. Conclusion 11. Martinkova, I. (2010). Three Interpretations of Aristotle imagined virtuous competition aimed Kalokagathia. In: P. Mauritsch (Ed.), Korper in Kopf at beauty as part and parcel of his ethics. In fact, he (pp. 17–28). Graz: Grazer Universitatsverlag. said that the virtuous man will give up all his worldly 12. Nissiotis, N. (1979). The philosophy of Olympism. Olympic Review, 136, 82–85. goods, including wealth, power, and even his life to 13. Parry, J. (1998). Olympism at the beginning and end secure beauty for himself; since “he would prefer an of the twentieth century. Proceedings of the International hour of rapture to a long period of mild enjoyment, Olympic Academy, 81–94. a year of beautiful life to many years of ordinary 14. Pawlenka, C. (2005). The idea of fairness: a general existence, one great and glorious exploit to many ethical concept or one particular to sports ethics. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 32, 49–64. small successes.”33 Something similar may be said 15. Plato. (1997). Complete Works. Ed. J. Cooper. about modern Olympic athletes they give up a lot to Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. try and achieve the rapture of glory. But for everyone 16. Reid, H. (2006). Olympic sport and its lessons for peace. involved, the value of Olympic glory depends on its Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 33, 205–13. Reprinted beauty, and the beauty of Olympic glory depends with revisions in K. Georgiadis & A. Syrigos (Eds.) (2009). on ethics – on morally beautiful activity. Olympic Olympic Truce: Sport as a Platform for Peace (pp. 25–35). Athens: International Olympic Truce Center. ethics is not just a matter of abiding by rules or 17. Reid, H. (2009). Racing for truth: Sport, religion, and the codes, it is a matter of striving for moral beauty – scientific spirit in ancient Olympia. Stadion: International for the Olympic ideal of kalokagathia. Journal of the History of Sport, 33. 18. Reid, H. (2010). East to Olympia: recentering Olympic Bibliography philosophy between East and West. Olympika: The 1. Aristotle (1984). Complete Works. Ed. Jonathan Barnes. International Journal of Olympic Studies, 19, 59–79. 2 vols. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 19. Reid, H. (2011). Athletics and Philosophy in the Ancient 2. Bernard, A., Busse, M. (2004). Who Wins the Olympic World: Contests of Virtue. Abingdon: Routledge. Games: Economic Resources and Medal Totals. The Review 20. Reid, H. (2012). Introduction to the Philosophy of Sport, of Economics and Statistics, 86, 413–417. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 3. Bok, D. (1996). Can Higher Education Foster Higher 21. Reid, H. (2012). Athletic beauty in classical Greece: A Morals? In: W. H. Shaw (Ed.), Social and Personal Ethics philosophical view. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport 39, 1–17. (pp. 494–503). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. 22. Reid, H., Austin, M. (2012). The Olympics and 4. British Broadcasting Service (2012). Olympics Philosophy. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. badminton: Eight women disqualified from doubles, BBC 23. Torres, C. (2006). Results or participation? Reconsidering Sport. http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/19072677. Olympism’s approach to competition. Quest, 58, 242–254. Retrieved, May 8, 2013. 24. Weiler, I. (2002). Inverted Kalokagathia. Slavery and 5. Evangeliou, C. (2006). Hellenic Philosophy: Origin and Abolition, 23:2, 9–28. 33 Nicomachean Ethics1169a Kalokagatija: olimpinė etika kaip gražaus gėrio supratimas* Prof. dr. Heather Reid Virdžinijos universitetas SANTRAUKA Olimpinė etika grąžina mus prie Antikos graikų, tybių spektras. Tą puikiai išreiškia kalokagatija, įkūni- olimpinių žaidynių pradininkų, idealų. Būtų neteisinga janti gerą ir gražų žmogų (gr. kalokagathia < kalos kai suvokti šią etiką vien kaip griežtas taisykles, išdėstytas agathos – gražus ir geras). Siekiant sužinoti, ar kalo- oficialiame žaidynių Etikos kodekse. Olimpinė etika – kagatija gali būti laikoma šių dienų olimpine vertybe, tai ištisas idealus asmeninių, socialinių ir estetinių ver- reikia suprasti jos asmeninius, socialinius ir estetinius 2014 Nr. 3(77) 35 bruožus, ieškoti sąsajų tarp šių bruožų ir olimpinio k’agathos) pranašumai turėtų būti panaudoti bendruo- sporto bei nustatyti pagrindines problemas. Kalokaga- menės naudai. Tarp visų olimpinių vertybių dominuo- tiją galima būtų apibūdinti kaip „savaiminę vertybę”, janti išlieka kilnaus elgesio (Fair Play) idėja. Dvasinė teikiančią vidinį pasitenkinimą ir apimančią nuos- estetika įgalina sportininką suvokti grožį per teisingus tabius dalykus dėl jų pačių. Šia prasme ji yra artima veiksmus ir juos atlikti; dėl to moralaus asmens el- olimpiniams idealams ir olimpizmo principams, kurie gesys labiau panašesnis į aktoriaus nei į teisėjo. Ta- pabrėžia „džiaugsmą dėl įdėtų pastangų“. Ši „savaimi- čiau vis dar pastebima neteisingo ir negarbingo elge- nė vertybė“ pastebima ir mūsų dienomis: simboliniai sio apraiškų prieš ir po žaidynių bei jų metu. Antikos prizai už pergales, Tarptautinio olimpinio komiteto olimpinio tobulumo reikėtų iš naujo siekti pasitelkiant pastangos įvairiais būdais išguiti žaidynių komercia- poetinį, meninį jausmą, atsisakant šalių varžymosi dėl lizaciją, savanorystės skatinimas. Deja, dažnai nugali didesnio medalių skaičiaus. Olimpinės garbės vertė pergalės siekis bet kokia kaina, o tikroji olimpinių ide- priklauso nuo jos grožio, o olimpinės garbės grožis – alų reikšmė lieka pamiršta. nuo etikos, moraliai gražių veiksmų. Olimpinė etika Instrumentalizmo draudimas taisyklėmis tik dar la- skirta labiau siekti moralinio grožio nei laikytis taisy- biau aštrina šią problemą, todėl būtina ugdyti vidinį klių ar kodeksų. žmogaus gėrį skatinančias moralines nuostatas. Soci- Raktažodžiai: olimpinė etika, kilnus elgesys, Eti- alinės atsakomybės idėja taip pat turėtų būti laikoma kos kodeksas, olimpinės vertybės, instrumentalizmas. olimpinio idealo dalimi, nes „gražaus ir gero” (kalos * Pranešimas skaitytas 12-oje Tarptautinės olimpinės akademijos sesijoje, skirtoje nacionalinių olimpinių akademijų prezidentams ar direktoriams ir nacionalinių olimpinių komitetų atstovams Olimpijoje, Graikijoje, 2014 m. gegužės 11–18 dienomis. Heather Reid Šarlotsvilis, Virdžinijos valstija, JAV (Charlottesville, VA, USA) Tel. (712) 274-5374 Gauta 2014 03 30 El. paštas: [email protected] Patvirtinta 2014 10 22 Pjeras de Kubertenas ir olimpinio sąjūdžio prielaidų istorinis suvokimas* Dr. Arvydas Juozaitis Klaipėdos universitetas Santrauka Straipsnyje, taikant istorinį-analitinį metodą, apžvelgiama barono Pjero de Kuberteno (Pierre de Coubertin, 1863–1937) idėjinių intencijų ir olimpinio sąjūdžio prielaidų istorija. Idėjos suvokiamos kaip auklėjimo ir mokymo sistema, padariusi gyvą įtaką XIX amžiaus II pusės Prancūzijos kartai. Šiai kartai buvo lemta rasti naujus tarptauti- nio sugyvenimo, bendradarbiavimo ir konkuravimo būdus. Reikėjo pasitikti milžiniškus XX amžiaus iššūkius. Iššūkiai buvo labai pavojingi ir antihumaniški, nes techninė pažanga, iki begalybės augantys miestai masiškai nužmogino kolektyvines gyvenimo formas. Reikėjo rasti tokias formas, kurios įrodytų, kad masiniai procesai viešą gyvenimą gali paversti ne vien karo ir nužmogėjimo arena. Tėvai kūrėjai negalėjo numatyti dviejų pasaulinių karų, tačiau tuo gy- vybingesnis pasirodė esąs Olimpinis universalizmas (lot. universalis – visuotinumas). Vakarų civilizacijos negandos buvo atsvertos humanizmo svertais – olimpiniu sąjūdžiu ir olimpinėmis žaidynėmis. Tokia reali alternatyva destruk- cijai, toks naujasis universalizmas. Mastais jis prilygo Katalikų Bažnyčios universalizmui. Istorija paliudijo, kad šios dvi universalizmo ideologijos rado sugyvenimo būdą. Kita vertus, kelios P. de Kuberteno idėjos neišgyveno istorinio patikrinimo. 1992 m. XXV olimpiados žaidynės Barselonoje pradėjo tradiciją, kuri įsileido į olimpinį sąjūdį komerciją ir profesionalųjį sportą. Be to, fiasko patyrė ir olimpinio sąjūdžio pradininko nenoras įsileisti į olimpines žaidynes moterų. Naujausių laikų olimpinių žaidynių atgaivintojas Pjeras de Kubertenas ir jo bendraminčiai buvo įsitikinę, kad daugiau kaip 1200 metų gyvavusi senovės graikų kultūros filosofija turėtų būti naudinga ir XX amžiaus žmonėms. Raktažodžiai: noblesse oblige, olimpinis sąjūdis, XIX–XX amžiaus istorija, universalizmas, istorinės prielaidos. Įvadas vyko lygia greta su modernios epochos žingsniais. XX a. pradžioje Europa įžengė į buržuazinės Įsipareigoję visuomenei žmonės, jaučiantys nobles- raidos epochą. Sparti technikos pažanga sąlygo- se oblige (kilmė įpareigoja) iššūkį, turėjo rasti būdą, jo nepaprastai greitą miestų augimą, kuris anaiptol kaip pakilti virš prekinių-piniginių santykių diktato. nežadino žmogaus vertės, žmogaus nuvertinimas Ir kaip įveikti dehumanizuojančią technikos tiro- * Pranešimas skaitytas 2013 m. lapkričio 20 d. Lietuvos olimpinės akademijos organizuotoje mokslinėje konferencijoje „Pakilti dvasia tobulame kūne“, skirtoje Pjero de Kuberteno 150-osioms gimimo metinėms.