Dance and Gender in Old-Line New Orleans Carnival Balls, 1870-1920 Jennifer Atkins
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Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2008 Setting the Stage: Dance and Gender in Old-Line New Orleans Carnival Balls, 1870-1920 Jennifer Atkins Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES SETTING THE STAGE: DANCE AND GENDER IN OLD-LINE NEW ORLEANS CARNIVAL BALLS, 1870-1920 By JENNIFER ATKINS A Dissertation submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2008 The members of the Committee approve the dissertation of Jennifer Atkins defended on 25 March 2008. ______________________________ Suzanne Sinke Professor Directing Dissertation ______________________________ John O. Perpener, III Outside Committee Member __________________________________ Sally Hadden Committee Member ______________________________ V.J. Conner Committee Member ______________________________ Tricia Young Committee Member The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii This dissertation is dedicated to all of my dance history teachers, especially Diana Green, who first sparked my love of dance history, and Tricia Young, who inspired me to join the American Dance Studies community. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the support of my committee members: V.J. Conner, Sally Hadden, Tricia Young, John O. Perpener, III, and especially my major advisor, Suzanne Sinke. Additional thanks to Suzanne Sinke and Tricia Young, who generously read and commented on drafts of this dissertation. Their advice and guidance has been invaluable in this process. I would also like to acknowledge the financial support of the History Department, which awarded me two J. Leitch Wright Travel Research grants, and the University, which awarded me a Dissertation Research Grant. This financial support made archival research in New Orleans possible. While in New Orleans, the staff at the Historic Research Collection was extremely helpful and caring throughout my process. They made research at the Collection fun and fruitful and they were an extremely positive force in my journey. Thank you John Magill, Pamela D. Arceneaux, Siva Blake, Sally Stassi and Mary Lou Eichhorn. Particular thanks and appreciation goes to Amy Baptist, who not only equipped me with a thorough familiarly of New Orleans archives, but was also my neighbor and good friend throughout my research time in New Orleans. Tallahassee has been very good to me. I could not have accomplished this without the loving support of the faculty with whom I have the pleasure to work, laugh, and share a passion for dance. Thank you to Patty Phillips and Russell Sandifer, our Dance Department Co-Chairs who have tirelessly encouraged both my teaching and me. Thank you to the American Dance Studies faculty: Tricia Young, Sally Sommer, and John Perpener, who have embraced my personality and my work as I’ve grown from an M.A. student to now. And thank you to Anjali Austin, Jennifer S.B. Calienes, Doug Corbin, Alex Davis, Lynda Davis, Suzanne Farrell, Joyce Straub Fausone, Nancy Smith Fichter, Tim Glenn, Gerri Houlihan, Sheila Humphreys, Jasmine Johnson, Emily Keeler, Currie Leggoe, Carol L. McCoy, Rick McCullough, Russ Marsh, Lindsay Meeks, Anthony Morgan, Marc Ray, Jennifer Shepherd, Anna Singleton, Dan Wagoner, Tom Welsh, and Jawole Will Jo Zollar, all of whom have provided me with fabulous— sometimes singing—company when I needed a break. Finally, thank you to David, my husband, who scurried with me in the end so that I could format this dissertation amidst the hectic schedule of editing, teaching, advising, and general life! iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables……………………………………………………………………...….…..……...vi List of Figures……………………………………………….….…….…….….……....….….…vii Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………….......viii INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………….….….……..….1 1. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DANCING, MARDI GRAS AND CARNIVAL BALLS IN NEW ORLEANS……………………...…..…...….34 2. PREPARING FOR THE BALL: PERFORMANCES OF CONSPICUOUS CONSUMPTION……….….….....…....59 3. MARBLE MEN: TABLEAUX VIVANTS PERFORMANCES AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF KREWE MASCULINITY….…….....….…91 4. “USING THE BOW AND THE SMILE”: KREWE COURT FEMININITY, POLISHED PEDESTRAIN AND THE GRAND MARCH…………..….…........129 5. “THE VERY MADDEST WHIRLPOOL OF PLEASURE”: THE ROUX OF ROMANCE AND BALLROOM DANCING……...…….…….…….166 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………....…….…….….…….200 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………….…….………......234 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH………………………………………………………….………..250 v LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Popular Carnival Court Families, 1870-1920………….….….….…….…….……….220 Table 2. Carnival Court Family Dynasties in Old-Line Krewes and Tableaux Societies, 1870-1920…..…..….……..………..…....….….…..….…....227 Table 3. Old-Line Krewe Seasonal Themes, 1870-1916………….…..…..….….………….…228 vi LIST OF FIGURES 1. 1864 Washington Ball………………………………………………………………………..42 2. Proteus Dance Card……………………………………………………………………..……71 3. 1900 Momus Invitation………………………………………………………………..……..73 4. The French Opera House……………………………………………………………..………75 5. The First Balcony……………………………………………………………………...……..80 6. “A Parisian Ball Gown”………………………………………………………………...……82 7. Ladies in “Full Dress”………………………………………………………………….….…85 8. “The Carnival Season Moves Merrily On”…………………………………………………..92 9. “C. Briton, watercolors, 1873”…………………………………………………………..….100 10. Comus Tableaux…………………………………………………………………………...102 11. “Louisiana.”………………………………………………………………………..………113 12. “Plenty and Liberty”………………………………………………………………….……114 13. “Louisiana—Her Founders and Defenders”……………………………………….….……123 14. Winnie Davis as Comus Queen, 1892…………………………………………….…..……131 15. Josephine Maginnis, Queen of Comus, 1893…………………………………………....…137 16. “The Sun King”…………………………………………………………………………….142 17. “Cotillion Figure No. 1”……………………………………………………………………143 18. Isabel Hardie………………………………………………………………………….……153 19. “L'été”………………………………………………………………………………..…….172 20. A scene from the Krewe of Proteus ball at the French Opera House, 1907………….……180 21. The Standard Waltz………………………………………………………………………..183 22. “The Closed Position”……………………………………………………………………..185 23. “The Tango Position”……………………………………………………………….….….189 24. Ragtime Dances……………………………………………………………………………193 25. “Mr. and Mrs. Vernon Castle”……………………………………………………………..195 26. “The Promenade”…………………………………………………………………………..197 27. “Four Types of Fair Women in Tableau”………………………………………………….201 28. “Emblem of the Mysterious”……………………………………………………….….…..202 29. French Ball Advertisement in the 10th Edition Blue Book....................................................206 30. “Mademoiselle Rita Walker”………………………………………………………………208 vii ABSTRACT Mardi Gras Carnival balls are traditional New Orleans events when krewe organizations present their seasonal mock monarchs. Traditionally, these ballroom spectacles included tableaux vivants performances, the grand march and promenade of the season’s royal court, special dances with masked krewemen, and general ballroom dancing. These events reinforced generational ties through the display of social power in a place where women were crystallized into perfect images of Southern beauty. Since the mid nineteenth century, old-line krewes (the oldest, most elite Carnival organizations) have cultivated patriarchal traditions in their ball presentations and have acted as historical vehicles of commentary on personal and social identity. The manner in which krewe members used their bodies to proclaim their royalty, to promenade, or to dance, all signified individual social roles and represented the evolving mores of their connected group. Likewise, masked courtiers and fashionable guests used their bodies in ballroom dancing to uphold or refute acceptable standards of male and female behavior. From 1870 to 1920, old-line krewes dominated the private terrain of New Orleans Mardi Gras. Through their steadfast commitment to performing white elitism, traditional krewes set the stage for the gender battles of the twentieth century, when female, black, and gay bodies, within newly formed krewes, used dance in their own carnival balls to define modern and diverse sexual, personal, and communal identities. viii INTRODUCTION MEANINGS OF CARNIVAL, GENDER, AND DANCE Every Mardi Gras season, select members from New Orleans’ elite society transcend their everyday identity and assume a royal persona. As part of a Mardi Gras tradition that dates back to the mid nineteenth century, each Carnival organization (known as a krewe) chooses a king, a queen, and a few royal attendants from among their members and members’ families. Among the myriad of krewes, a handful of organizations are positioned at the top of the Carnival hierarchy. These are the “old-line” krewes: The Mistick Krewe of Comus, the original Twelfth Night Revelers, Rex, the Knights of Momus and the Krewe of Proteus.1 They are the oldest, most elite, most prestigious groups who ruled Mardi Gras during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. These annual monarchs and social aristocrats led public parades and took center stage at some of the most important krewe activities—Carnival balls. Several types of masked balls (bals masqué) during Carnival season date back to the founding of New Orleans, but private krewe Carnival balls emerged in the 1870s as a way to use dance and highly choreographed, themed spectacles to reinforce krewe superiority.