The Politics of Loyalty

CEU eTD Collection Second Tolga Reader: Professor Esmer Supervisor: Professor

The Confessional and Ethnic Loyalties of the Kurds Kurds the of Ethnic Loyalties and Confessional The The Politics ofLoyalty The Politics in Seventeenth in Tijana In requirements ofthe fulfillmentof the degree partial of

Krstic

Central European University

DepartmentHistory of - Budapest, Hungary Century Eastern Anatolia Eastern Century Master of Arts Tyler Conklin Submitted to Submitted 2014 By i

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not not CEU eTD Collection labels andloyalties inseventeenth Şerefname Çelebi the from ranging sources The revealed. is borderlands the of in nature loyalty varied and multiform the that method this through is It Kurds. the on perspectives aspect important vitally are confessionalization of ramifications the and fashioning Ottoman the of context a for valuable more th Furthermore, proves empires. modern early in labels identifactory of which discussion ‘loyalty’ of discussion a with it replaces and ‘identity’ rebellion. and loyalty imperial of boundaries demarcate the actors imperial to by and regional markers both were ethnicConfessional used and people. its and region the defined which loyalties and labels of web the reveals investigation This them. defined state imperial the how and themselves defined Anatolia Eastern Ottoman Abstract s

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CEU eTD Collection 2 1 Map Relevantof EasternAnatolia: Places Table of Contents Acknowledgements Notes onTransliterationand Pronunciation Abstract ofContents Table

2.2 2.1 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 2.1.2 2.1.1 ImperialThe Perspective 1.5.3 1.5.2 1.5.1 Introduction

...... Literature Review Historical Background Outline ofThesis Introduction and Background Confessional Boundaries ImperialThe Relatio Terminology

The of Autonomyand Power Bitlis Abdal and Khan theEmpire ofBitlis Confessionalization Loyalty Identity

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...... ns with theEmirsof Kurdistan ns with

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vii 28 24 22 19 19 15 14 11 10

iii iv

ii 8 3 2 1 1 v

CEU eTD Collection 5 4 3

SecondaryLiterature: Primary Sources 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 2.4 2.3 Bibliography Conclusions The Regional Perspective 2.3.1 2.2.4 2.2.3 2.2.2 2.2.1

Şerefhan The Bitlisi: Ahmed Vani Efendi Mehmed and Feyzullah LoyaltyArmenian theKurds Perceptionsof and Confessional Chapter Conclusion Loyalt Chapter Conclusion The

Şerefname TheKhan Rebellion ofAbdal DidConfessionalWhat Loyalty Mean? LoyaltyEvliya Confessionaland Kurdish Çelebi The Kurd Kizilbaş and the Efendi: Relig Aziz y and Rebellion - i Khani

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in Translation: ChangingDynamicsin Translation: ......

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...... ion, Empire and theKurds ......

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66 65 65 62 60 55 52 47 44 42 42 40 35 35 35 33 30 29

CEU eTD Collection Places Relevant Anatolia: ofEastern Map vii

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Ibid Ali, Mustafa

Introduction .

Introduction and BackgroundIntroduction and The Mustafa Ottoman intellectual 1581states thatEastern Aliin in “there Anatolia The changes intheterm’s - confessional strife inEasternconfessional strife An 1

Among these communities areAmong these communities the“wicked Kurds…whosecharacter but isnothing Mustafa Ali's Council for Sultans 1581 of Sultans for Council Ali's Mustafa in aregiondescribed asexperience being“shaped by one bythe scholar of

ent meanings assignedent tothe labelsources of‘Kurd’ inthe reflecting

… [

[of]

and] iftheseand] [groups]are able toaffor

luck. To go beyond this [in honoringthem]luck. To isunfathomable, gobeyond [in this usage reveal how

atolia during the seventeenthatolia during , trans. , label 1

the Ottoman Empire to define sought Ottoman the -

Andreas Tietze (Wien: Verlag der der Verlag (Wien: Tietze Andreas ‘Kurd’ based Kurds elites towards was universally 2 in

Despite scathing lead its tonethat might tied to the vicissitudes of tied tothe vicissitudes

- Eastern Anatolia. 59 (Transcription). 59

became a discursive battleground abecame discursive d a military outfit, arms, d a arms, military outfit, century. From

inter Ö sterreichischen sterreichischen -

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Nelida Fuccaro, “The Ottoman Frontier in Kurdistan in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” in Centuries,” Seventeenth and Sixteenth the in Kurdistan in Frontier “The Fuccaro, Ottoman Nelida

, edited by Christine Woodhead (New York: Routledge, 2012), 249. 2012), (New Routledge, York: by Woodhead Christine edited , Outline of of Thesis Outline Th is , y seem trivial century. thesis wi th

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ll firstll provide anontheOttoman Empire historical inEastern background and ‘confessionalization.and

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Th nationalism.

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Ibid., 63. Ibid., 37 Ibid., Ebru federacy 1500when until ranks. he joined theOttoman Sönmez An important figure K for the Th -

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For information on the campaigns in Eastern Anatolia of Shah Abbas I see Caroline Finkel, Finkel, Carolinesee I Abbas Shah of Anatolia Eastern in campaigns informationthe on For Ibid. , eds. H.A R. Gibb, H.H. Kramers, E. Levi E. H.H. Kramers, R.Gibb, H.A eds. ,

t from in

By thestartseventeenth ofthe that would

modern day Armenia) and of IraqI resurgentAbbasmodernArmenia) and day (r. Shah of 1588 Safavid by the , 7

Baghdad remainedinSafavid control.

attacking deep attacking deep These concessions on thepartThese on state ofset concessions theOttoman the toneand

Ottoman armies. again

(London: I.B. Tauris, 2004), Roger Savoy,Roger 2004), Tauris, (London: I.B. ,

Shah Abbas wasunfavorableShah Abbas withthe Ottomans forced an peace tosign treaty

affected retake thelands by lost His troops theSafavids. es and - Safavid conflict see Rula Abisaab, Abisaab, Rula see conflict Safavid

the region. The first was the conquest of parts of Easternthe region. theconquest first of was Anatol The ofparts Ottoman imperial representatives early forofthe modern much to - 1923

Ottoman

1623

(New York: Basic Books, 2005), 187 2005), Books, (NewBasic York: ,

ly Shah Abbas unleas

- e population secured his newly his secured reconquered Shah territories. Abbas century 24

- Anatolia Provencal, and J. Schacht, vo1. I (Leiden: Brill, 1986), 7 1986), Brill, (Leiden: I Schacht, vo1. J. and Provencal, ,

Shah Abbas conquered andShah Baghdad sacked ,

two major conflicts and betweentheOttomans two major 6 8 .

Iran Under the Safavids the Under Iran

W s

of subjects potentially loyal Ottoman hile Diyarbakir was quickly retaken by the Converting Pe Converting h ed a new offensive into Ottoman lands into ed offensive a new 605 ,

Shah Abbas defeatedShah Abbas the main - rsia: Religion and Power in the the in Power and Religion rsia: 188 and see and 188 successfully , (Cambridge: Cambridge(Cambridge: , atolia. Afteratolia. a The Encyclopedia of of Encyclopedia The Osman’s Dream: The The Dream: Osman’s

relations occupied occupied keep them -

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CEU eTD Collection 2011). Press, SamWhite, Centralization State to Route Ottoman The Bureaucrats: 10 597 1993), Brill, (Leiden: see and 9 2006). Andrew Newman, 1980), Press, University Anatolia. Manybandit ofthese rebellions’ resul Anatolia throughout the century Ottoman and unprecedented movementstheregion. in population century was crisis’ characterized byanda social ofreligious series unrests, famines, rebellions also as known ‘the seventeenth century the highlight and theSafav (r. 1629 domains. After this IV hands in1639Murad managedconquer but Baghdad and to contact Abdal with Kha sultan fell andreturned ill to would ensure border asecure more 1635

For For

For mor For further information on the campaigns in Eastern Anatolia of Murad IV see Finkel, see IV ofMurad Anatolia Eastern campaignsin the furtheron information ,

Sultan Murad IV MuradSultan began a The Encyclopedia Islamof Encyclopedia The

Beyond inth struggles theimperial These were conquests later reversedIV Murad Ottoman Sultan 1623 by the (r. - and e information on the ‘Seventeenth the on information e 1642 Empire The Climate of Rebellion in th in Rebellion of Climate The

also nature ofthe ids for much ofthe much seventeenth ids for ) and Murad Sultan ted inwidespread that banditry the turmoilcreated by theinter in this periodin this

conquest, - 599. n ofBitlis n

inter

, eds, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, and Ch. Pellat, vol. VII VII vol. Ch. Pellat, Heinrichs, and W.P. Donzel, van E. Bosworth, C.E. eds, , the Ottoman city of

a peace (K treaty s were inimperial which soonimbricated viedfor networks - - focuses endem onthe

century crisis’ in Ottoman h century crisis’ in , generally conflict Easternimperial in thesev Anatolia during military

IV. This treaty

who hosted thesultan

e Early Modern Ottoman Empire Ottoman Earlye Modern against them Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire Persian a Rebirthof Iran: Safavid - Century Crisis’ in the Ottoman Empire see Karen Barkey, Barkey, Karen see Empire the Ottoman in Crisis’ Century

campaign toretakecampaign Y

e theseventeenth region during discussed as the‘Celalidiscussed The rebellions.’ ‘Celali century. asr

weakened Ottoman imperial controlmuch ofweakened Ottoman imperial in (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 48 1994), Press, CornellUniversity (Ithaca: - 7 . In. 1635

imperial rivalryimperial inthe region

Diyarbakir where the viaBitlis

stabilized thebordersstabilized between theOttomans -

i Shirin) wasi Shirin) agreed to ic banditryand rebellion 9

The storiesoftwocampaigns these 10 . Yerevan back Safavid soonfell into ,

Much ofon thehistoriography after ofYerevan conquest the istoriography. erevan Safavids from the

bring (Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge (Cambridge:

Iraq , (New York: I.B. Tauris, (New , Tauris, I.B. York: Osman’s Dream, Dream, Osman’s

by back The ‘seventeenth century

Safavid Shah Safi Shah Safavid

. that

into Ottoman into he , ravaged

enteenth this periodthis is came into - 54. Also see Also 54. - Bandits and and Bandits 1640). In1640). , as this , 215

the the

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CEU eTD Collection Boundaries 13 1992). Books, 12 period. this during bandits and state Ottoman 11 of discussion State theearly in is work concerning theKurds modern period surroundinginvestigation Ottoman Eastern Kurds early in The notable Anatolia. second modern and political structures theearl of twentieth centuries. important Nonetheless,Bruinessen provides serve for the as mainly background book’sonthe Kurds mainfocus thenineteenth and in the enduntil century. of thetwentieth details thevarious political theKurds andsocialearly modern structures of from period the up modern Anatolia Kurds is ofEastern in the nineteenth century explorestheissue as background 1.4 could challengeOttoman authority inthe region. Ottoman imperial and control network’s region howindividuals over the Ottom the ‘Celali to rebellions’ helps varying and control. ofpower degrees Hakan Hakan Martin van Bruines Martinvan Barkey, Karen See

by Hakan Literature Review an Özoğlu, Özoğlu, Much of theliterature concerning Kurds Eastern in - Safavid These demonstratefragile circumstances naturethe borderlands. the of

(Albany: SUNY Press, 2004). Press, SUNY (Albany:

nineteenth Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identites, Competing Loyalties, and Shifiting Shifiting and Loyalties, Competing Identites, Evolving State: Ottoman the and Notables Kurdish Özoğlu - century Ottoman Empire. The most important work Ottomanimportant Empire. concerning t Thecentury most sen, sen, Bureaucrats and Bandits Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan of Political Structures and The Social State: and Shaikh Agha, . 13 -

and twentieth Özoğlu alsotreatsÖzoğlu theearly modern

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Kamal Mirawdeli, KamalMirawdeli, Ebru “ Bajalan, Djene 35. Ibid., 21 Ibid.,

fly hint atfly hint identity the ideaa growing“Kurdish of sense of of theonly works Sönmez An important deals work which the early with - -

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There are two other worksThere are twoother which nineteenth - orderlands during thenineteenth closeorderlands of i Khan - century. - 10 Ira

nian Borderlands: Making aBoundary,nian Borderlands:Making 1843 Incontrast, this i into English i into , Vol. 2 (2003), 311 (2003), 2 Vol. ,

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to further y modern ussion ofussion - - - CEU eTD Collection 23 22 identity. theterm They ‘self first discuss about identity.explore a Theyofterms series omnipresent term of ‘identity.’ of discussions thesis uncover encompassing of term‘identity and question imperial fashioning in the seventeenth religious loyalties and interacted comingled with imperialinOttoman politics East meaningless. atnothing all frivolous nature‘identity’ ofthe term their monumental article“Beyond‘ 1.5.1 ways addre thesis inwhich this Anatolia in of competing loyaltiesframework suited isthemost discourse Furthermore, of Ottomanthis historiography. and hasbeen todemonstrate how this

Ibid., 1. Ibid., In “Identity”,” “Beyond Cooper, Frederick and RogersBrubaker

Brubaker toprovide new andattempt Cooper Rogers Brubakerpush pastand thebroad Frederick Cooper soughtto Identity

the early period. modern Beyond th 23 ; ”

identity inseventeenth

This thesis aims tounderstandThis thesis theways local, ethnic, regional, and inwhich

the usageof and utilize cent of the Kurds in the seventeenth Kurds theseventeenth of in the ury. thisresearch The natureof

a term that relays the term brings i with

sses the methodological conceptsses themethodological identity - and how and how addressed both in other in historicaladdressed both fieldsand the within cent - understanding’ ury Eastern Anatolia yetury EasternAnatoliaprecise more is .’” . ’ 22

the fluidityand complexity surrounding that they alternatives couldas that beused felt to Using it “tends to mean too much…too little…or “tends little…or it tomean toomuch…too e

11 The centerpieceThe their argument of

issue of ‘identity issue t an overflow of connotations thatt anoverflow render connotations it of

century

for the contextfor of theborderland Eastern

Brubaker Cooper and concrete terms

surrounding Kurdish self Kurdish surrounding section Theory and Society and Theory , though this term , thoughthis

forces the toconfront all it

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has limitations whenhas limitations ’s seminalpiece’s

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speak on the ,

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CEU eTD Collection 29 28 27 26 25 24 the verb‘Identification’ ‘identification.’ i term projects whichstill ‘collectiveconformably fits butalso written identity’ prose. into proseEnglish which hinder understanding when attempting to hindrance. in the broad meaning ofidentityand that the terms or even antipathy tospecified a both feltinvolving solidarity oneness group fellow members or a with and felt difference from terms belonging asmeaningbounded toadistinctive, thegroup, “emotionallyof sense laden the replace‘identity’ thetermwhendealing of with“collective identities weakgroupness” ofidentity. toreplace and strong notions the displayscognitive awareness a oftheir ownself term historicalbecause need in Thisis writing. anwould one ego the term of ‘self have awareness the a of cognitive degree self. of trying describe to

To see Brubaker and Cooper’s reasons on choosing this terminology see ibid., 19 ibid., see terminology this choosing onreasons Cooper’s and Brubaker see To Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. 19. Ibid., 18. Ibid., case the Kurds seventeenth of in

It is important to note that this thesis doesIt thesis utilize this the notethat important to is term ‘identificatory’ derived from Brubaker and Cooper

of 28

collective of andself identity terms The ‘connectedness’ terms andbeuseful ‘commonality’, ‘groupness’tools would - understanding’ beyond theindividual understanding’

others’ understandings ofdifferentgroupsand alsoothers’ to requirestheindividual discuss

about ‘collective identities

also also

outsiders.” explore like“commonality, terms theuse of connectednes - century Eastern Anatolicentury Eastern 27 show how show how s also discussed byCooper Brubakerand whos alsodiscussed . This is the . Thisis

Brubaker and between distinction Cooper makethis 12 - - 24 understanding. understanding. understanding identity to highlight theproblems highlight identityunderstanding to

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’ buttheseproduce terms also awkward especially attempt when a . 25 26

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a context morea to context similar hy I wish use a to hy new

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CEU eTD Collection 36 35 Studies East Middle Journal of International 34 33 32 31 30 that ‘identity’notions it. carries with has awell describing what with‘solidarity.’it ‘identity.’ the Throughout the worddoes a dosoin which not way replace ‘solidarity’was butto meant theuse of Ottoman Establishment” written article by Metin Another term Aleppo for ofOttoman hiscase sense of CharlesOttomanist Wilkins categorize society. the phrase label, ‘identificatory ‘ident “intrinsic tosocial life’ ‘identity’ while “in the strongsense isnot.” form“lacksthat inthis it the reifyingof ‘identity.’” connotation Wilkins, Charles Rogers Brubaker and Frederick Cooper, “Beyond “Identity”,” 19 “Identity”,” “Beyond Cooper, Frederick and RogersBrubaker Ibid. “Ethnic MetinKunt, 15. Ibid., Ibid. 14. Ibid.,

ification’ with theidea ‘Solidarity’ has been

‘ prominent

urban solidarity urban - kn own English meaningEnglish own Forging Urban Solidarities: Ottoman Aleppo 1640 Aleppo Ottoman Solidarities: Urban Forging the terms ‘commonality’,the terms ‘connectedness’ ‘groupness’ and Kunt 32 35 - Regional ( Regional work

Solidarity by times Cooper andwhen ismentioned several Brubaker

entitled

’ that discuss

article, in his workin his Cins presents seventeenth suggested as suggested of

“Ethnic ’ ‘categorization’ which use isthe thesis’ reasoning‘categorization’ this of behind

) Solidarity in the Seventeenth in Solidarity )

‘labels’ being tools thatlocalactors andimperial‘labels’ being use tools to in K

, 1974.

unt uses the term ‘identity’ theterm without qualifyingunt uses orreconciling while still maintainingfewerwhile still and broad of misconceived the

es in attempt to movebeyondin attemptto identity: While IWhile occasionallywill use‘solidarity’ thesis inthis

5 (1974): 233 (1974): 5 - Forging UrbanSolidarities Regional (

ethnicregional anda studies loyalties inOttoman is short 34 a term a term

This 13 piece th - - Cins 239. centuryas Ottomanapolity Aleppo witha

could replacecould theterm ‘identity.’

, as demonstrated in the title, also utilizes also, asinthetitle, utilizes demonstrated ) Soli - 21. - Century Ottoman Establishment,” Establishment,” Ottoman Century - 1700 darity inthe Seventeenth

(Leiden: Brill, 2010). (Leiden: Brill, 30

. To them ‘identification’ is 33 31

Wilkins introduceWilkins Brubaker and Cooper link

‘urban solidarity.’

mean.

Solidarity - Century The The s

a new a new ,

I CEU eTD Collection c modernIt periods. distinction important that this be is made because ofthediscussions difference and between citizenship subjecthood the modern in and early anachronisticthis understandi conceptions relation thenation ofthe with individual’s between tiedtoourmodern terms significant how these is because itdemonstrates ‘identity’ is must between thesubject nationalism connotations more appropriateand foreven centuries thenineteenth twentieth especially of thecontext Ottoman Empire. bringwithit within to ‘identity’ The tends term loyalties. Easterndiscussing andimperial, various Anatolia its ethnic, webs regional, and of confessional one h encompass ofrigidity boththe connotations and unconditional Ita prose. English readilywhichworks meaning enough well understood in to flexible is understanding ofcollective solidarities discourse my of ‘identity.’research,‘loyalty’ flexible afluid provides own For and 1.5.2 ‘identity.’ have entury has anachronistically been andof treated as early homogenousattribute astatic modern

found in and, and fluidityand, infickle and (as loyalties) onthe other,are relevant bothofwhich for identify The term previously not ‘loyalty’ has toreplace Ottoman studies used been in the Loyalty Furthermore, ‘loyalty’ theterm discussi for isappropriate

it isimportantit to

with anation whilea subject only must be

my research research my

and the state.and Thisis the that a term‘loyalty’ such as isthem

ng to use different terminology todenote a of discussion

that is reflectedthat is sources. thesis’ The inthis term alsohas

an important difference tonote 14

the earlyto similar This is period. modern ;

by ‘loyalty using loyal

to an empire. Theempire. differenceto an - ness (as in, rigid loyalties)ness (as in, onthe ost produ

ons ofearly ‘identity’ modern less of a personala connection less of ethnicity in ctive alternativective to term

, because an because individual ’ weavoid’ can bringing . In. the the seventeenth

era before CEU eTD Collection 114. inDispute,” Paradigm Historiographical a ‘Confessionalization:’ of Concept 37 Reformation versus Counter 1980s German historiography seem might oddsince the 1.5.3 best reflect wh Itcontext. that theterm belief using ‘loyalty,’ my is with also combined attimes usefulness the particularcircumstances offor ‘loyalty’ ofthe seventeenth imperial of ‘loyalty’with the term as ‘identity are there Itcentury Anatolia. Eastern notethat important to there is misunderstandings inthe coulduse be ‘beyond identity societyat large. competing politicalroles loyalties regioninregional and in the played important becausestruggles. Thisis anachronisticbefore its tied tothe nation without connotations nationalism loyalties,’and others ‘ethnic loyalties’ inconjunctio byidentities Kur

For a general overview of the development of the ‘ the development of the generalof overview a For

. 37 ‘ Confessionalization responseThis new in methodology,ofBrubaker tothecall and Co built

Reinhard onfessionalization’ at scholars nowterm at scholars

, d ’

ish and Turkish nationalisthistoriography.ish and will help illuminate the competing illuminate loyalties help ofseventeenthwill and networks wanted to gobeyondwanted the

this thesis aims to bring ethnicity aims tobring thesis this thehistorical into back era picture inan by Heinz Schilling and Wolfgang Schilling by ReinhardHeinz

concept of the sourcesthat ethnic loyalties along all theother demonstrate with

Reformation andReformation fin is

n with‘confessional loyalties,’‘ an important

ideas of ‘group identity ‘group ideas of

confessionalization confessionalization

confessionalization paradigm’ see Ute Lotz Ute see paradigm’ confessionalization dichotom analytical in term , ’ 15 but these shortcomings are outweighed by the d a concept where

ous was firstdeveloped

historiographical discourse ’ inthe early modern period. With a of discussion loyaltyWith and tribal loyalties,’ ‘regional this thesis. Atfirst thesis. this Memoria y Civilización y Memoria in the social

late 1970s/early late processes - state and nationalist in the context of oper tomove oper - ‘ in Heumann, “The Heumann, solidarity, - sight, century imperial

4 (2001): 93 (2001): 4 related to of

this this

- ’ will - CEU eTD Collection Empire EarlyOttoman the in Modern Change Religious of 2 2004), Limited, Publishing Ashgate (Burlington: in ofFrance” 1 44 43 42 Nischan Bodo of Memory in Paradigm,” Interdisciplinary and Comparative 41 40 39 38 historiography. led totheconcept’sapplication tofields Ottoman beyond German historiography, including conf confession byparadigm ofconfessionalization the rolemainagent ofas deemphasizing thestatein ‘confessionalization’ expands Reinhard’s focus that and and reorients the ofSchilling’s Islamicthe world. suggeststhepossibilitySchilling the term ofutilizing Germany inregions outsideof including disciplining. integrate more tightly” asReinhard asocial‘confessionalization’ viewed process“ which of ‘confession whichdevelopmentsbuilding,’ only religion andthe within highlighted church,concept thenew theory ‘confession of Germany. dichotom each 750

See Marc Forster, Forster, Marc See 27. “Confessionalization,” Schilling, Lotz 95 Ibid., Ibid. Ibid. 95. ibid., , (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Mack Holt, “Confessionalism beyond Germanies: The case case The Germanies: beyond “Confessionalism Mack Holt, 2001); Press, University ,Cambridge (Cambridge: essional discourse

couldand becompared connected. -

Heumann, “The Concept of Confessionalization,” 97. Also see Schilling, “Confessionalization,” 24. “Confessionalization,” Schilling, see Also 97. Confessionalization,” of Concept “The Heumann, -

y 96. Also see Also 96. 39 - between Calvinism versus Lutheranism versus between duringtheperiod Calvinism Reformation inNorthern building and highligh and building Confessionalization in Europe, 1550 Europe, in Confessionalization

In they todothis b order 42

alization’ encompassedalization’ and theentire “social political system.” While theconceptWhile and was initiallyapplied Germany, developed toearlymodern 44

Catholic Revival in the Age of the Baroque: Religious Identity in Southwest Germany, 1550 Southwest Germany, in Identity Religious Baroque: the Ageof the Revival in Catholic

Heinz Schilling, HeinzSchilling, This thesis on attempts tobuild - , eds. J. Headley, H. Hillerbrandt, and A. Papalas (Ashgate, 2004), 23. (Ashgate,2004), Papalas A. and Headley,Hillerbrandt, H. eds. , J. buil . These new perspectives on the phenomenon of confessionalization have thephenomenon of new. These on perspectives confessionalization

through thestandardization ofan confessionalthrough churches

ding,’ developed by WalterZeede

ting thevariousting localwh andregionalactors “Confession oth built the concept of ‘confessionalization’ theconcept of‘confessionalization’ oth built 38 Confessionalization in Europe, 1550 Europe, in Confessionalization

- Likewise, wished todepart Schilling from the 57 1700 - alization: Historical and Scholarly Perspective ofa Perspective Scholarly and Historical alization: 74; Tijana Krstic, 74; - 16

Essays in Honor and Memory of Bodo Nischan Bodo of Memory and EssaysHonor in , (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011); Derin 2011); Press, University Stanford (Stanford: ,

recent tothe topic of related scholarship n in1958. Contested Conversion to Islam:Narratives Islam:Narratives to Conversion Contested enabled states and societie states enabled 40 -

From ‘confession 1700 — o 41 Essays in Honor and and Honor in Essays

d social

utilized utilized Schilling and Schilling

based ont ,

- s to he - CEU eTD Collection 46 45 301 Terzio conflict theSafavids with thatOttoman ‘ notion Ottoman ‘ “partialeventually metadoxya waystate gave to Empire Terzioğlu and Abisaab. Rula Terzioğlu, disc Derin the Ottoman and authors,Empires SafavidbyDerin hasbeen twoprominent demonstrated Ottoman and Safavid Empires. understandandconcept is what ofconfessionalization the were subjects Ottoman as heretics. ortreacherous either viewed loyal for of theimperial understanding loyalties indistinguishable becoming from loyalties. imperial Confessio the confessionalof empires these toconfessional twocompeting and soonled battleground contemporary an differentiated confessional blockswiththe thatterritorial coincided ofthe boundaries Ottoman thatdevelopedpolarization intheearly sixteenth

Ibid., 304 Ibid., Terzio d Safavid This empires. - 38 ğlu .

ğlu - The of sixteenth confessional contestation Recent , “How to Conceptualize Ottoman Sunnitization: A Historiographical Historiographical A Sunnitization: Ottoman Conceptualize “Howto , wide efforts at Ottoman ‘ wide efforts atOttoman - 303. Sunnitization,” Ottoman Conceptualize “Howto , sunnitization 305.

Habsburg territories literature sunni ’

was and enacted bylocal bothstate actors. in the field ofOttomanhistory in the field

resembled of thephenomenon she does note theimportantrole the tization’ resultedtization’ solely from theOttoman imperio

sunnitization the region. loyalty the ofconfessional Under rubrics theKurds . The inter

- imperial bor imperial .’ Terzioğlu chronicles theways a state of inwhich 17 -

and seventeenth enforced orthodoxy.” Sunni -

ussing theOttoman case,ussing describes the and seventeenth

has suggested thattheSunni has ‘confessionalization’ ‘confessionalization’

derlands of Eastern Anatolia became Eastern derlands of how it manifested itselfin how itmanifested confessional

century Discussion,” - 46 century Eastern Anatolia bycentury Eastern

While While Terzioğlu rejects the It therefore is important to n al markersal became vital

matured well into

conflict played

45 - Turcica confessional

in the This process of

44 (2012 44 Shii Shii both th

- in the - e 13): 13):

CEU eTD Collection 51 50 49 48 47 in the borderlands rather but thedegree of the following chapters,confessional reflect labelsnotto werereality used belief theofreligious imperial loyalty became inexplicitly linked Anatolia. Due tothis competing processes confession of in Eastern its Anatolia due to Twelver sch Shi’ite who theKurdsthe confessional initially EasternAnatolia, in of the rivals group supported of legitimacy between religion. abond and closer and thestate Twelvertransformed orth intoastandardized Shi’ite describes like Terzioğlu,inwhicha state much supported aprocess, metadoxy isslowly characterized process of as a part Shia ofSafavidTwelver confessionalization. Safavidconfessi case,describesofstate several processes peaked areas inthe border Eastern Anatolian borderlands.

Ibid., 141. Ibid., 139. Ibid., RulaAbisaab, 312. Ibid., 312. 305, Ibid., Recent scholarship suggests thus

Converting Persia Converting

olars who helped to shape and discipline thediscipline Safavidwho helped newand confessional toshapestate. olars ,

for thegroupsfor caught within

and at ofwar times withthe Safavids.” . fundamental role in

She persecuting explains[of impulse that “the theOttomans] - building came to aheadregion camebuilding ofEastern inthe contested

that political political

to confessionalization wasconfessionalization animportant social process confessi 18

the Ottoman

this inter this loyalty. odoxy onal on ,

loyalties, 50 - which in turn helped to which inturnhelped - imperial borderland building which could be which building

Also ofnote, was it the - Safavid 48

Rula AbisaaRula

t hough imperial ,

as be will seen in 49

b rivalry. The

Abisaab notions of notions , detailing the provide state Kizilbaş , 51

CEU eTD Collection 54 Boundaries. 53 World 52 autonomygranted tribes ifthey the inlocal Kurdish affairs fightagainst Ottomans to joined the by (1452 intermediaryIdris tothe OttomanBidlisi theKurdish state, great theKurdish cooperation from tribes Ismail. AnatoliaI by Selim (r. Sultan 1512 2.1 loyalty these contexts of rubrics under the by whocan individuals described of as be theimperial members chapter elite. The discuss will chapter will order meanings ofthe toshed onvarious discourse, light “Kurd” imperial inOttoman this being “shapedandexperience ofimperial by theOttoman by the power how battleground relations, shifting and mirroringborders, loyalties the Anatolia. Fromthe perspective ofthe center imperial explicitly ofregional tied totheinter vicissitudes assigned be As will argued, meaning it theidenifactory to of‘Kurd.’ perceptions label were these 2 Ebru Sönmez Ebru

Hakan Özoğlu, HakanÖzoğlu, in Centuries,” Seventeenth and Sixteenth the in Kurdistan in Frontier “The Fuccaro, Ottoman Nelida

The Imperial Perspective The Imperial the empire sought to definethe empire and to sought , edited by Christine Woodhead (New York: Routledge, 2012), 249. 2012), (New Routledge, York: by Woodhead Christine edited , The Imperial Relations with the ImperialEmirsThe Kurdistan with of Relations 53 The withthe Ottoman state Kurdish begins relationship the conquest with of The aim ofthischapt and rebellion.

The Ottoman initial spread into

(Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), 47 2004), Press, York New of University (Albany: State

examine , Idris Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identitie Evolving State: Ottoman the and Notables Kurdish - i Bidlisi: Ottoman Kurdistan and Islamic Legitimacy ( Legitimacy Islamic and Kurdistan Ottoman i Bidlisi: the

contexts er istoanalyzeelites perceiveder theand Kurds howimperial

in whichKurds imperial - 1520) in1514after1520) of the theSafavid defeat decisive Shah demarcate loyalty demarcate

E in this region, region, in this astern Anatolia against Anatolia was theSafavids astern metwith - Kurdish relationsKurdish 19 -

imperial and inter imperial

appear sourcesauthored narrative invarious ,

the

in a region described byasin aregiondescribed one scholar who were the Ottoman fold into brought - label 51.

, confessionalboundaries, and

of ‘Kurd’of Istanbul: Libra Kitap, 2012), 63. 2012), Kitap, Libra Istanbul: s, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Shifting and Loyalties, Competing s, in - confessional strife in -

1520). Eastern Anatolia revealing - Safavid rivalry.”Safavid

became a became discursive 54

The Ottomans E astern The Ottoman Ottoman The

52 Eastern

In CEU eTD Collection 60 yearsofconquest. fewfirst the during status autonomous held only and the empire inceptioninto 59 58 57 Boundaries. 56 55 relationship chapter. described thatinthis is dynamics the inter of centers was entity theonlymajor autonomous inOttoman tighter s borderlands w of elites inlight their Safavidservicesagainst the threat. seven again tolerate to autonomy Kurdish the inter until century discriminatory attempt byto curtailMustafa Kurdish theOttomans may autonomy influenced have Ali’s emirates region lessen against theSafavidsandsoughtto the Safavids theborderlands. in ixteenth

Ibid., 59. Ibid., was quicklypla OttomanDiyarbakir major center, a Also 57. Ibid., 56. Ibid., 51 Ibid., HakanÖzoğlu, 102 Ibid., teenth

. imperial administration , The autonomy the emirates of 60

the Safavids gained the upper hand in the region theupper inthe the Safavidsgained hand - - because the tribes

59. century progressed - The between relationship

103. (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004), 51 2004), Press, York New of University (Albany: State -

century. ith

Kurdish opinions on the opinions the

Safavid Iran Safavid threat ofthe Saf 57 -

imperial borderland of eastern Anatolia. borderland ofimperial Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Shifting and Loyalties, Competing Identities, Evolving State: Ottoman the and Notables

Thus,

were not , Kurdish only autonomy Empirewhen guaranteed required was the

various territories previously autonomous were brought under therefore initiallya enjoyed great ,

Kurds 55 including Van and Erzurum.including Van and L ater in the sixteenth ater inthe sixteenth the rulers ofthe avid Empire in theborderlands.avid Empire in

considered , as referenced inthe introduction stemmed from the empire’s stemmedempire’s from the

as vital to Ottoman imperial vital to conflicts.as the autonomy had the granted they Kurdish Bitlis andd theOttoman stateBitlis -

imperial changed again situation the mid E astern by Anatolia surrounded imperial century - again prompting the Ottomans again the prompting ced under Ottoman imperial control fromits control imperial Ottoman under ced 59. 59

, In It contested this and is changing

the Ottomans had securedthe Ottomans the degreeautonomy. of

the seventeenth the seventeenth practical need The . Inthe early. seventeenth

local elites closestthe local to emonstrates the to

century t olerate local 58 56

As the

This once , Bitlis Bitlis - - CEU eTD Collection in Legacy,” and 64 63 62 347. 1978), Press, 61 three laterthehelp months ofthe Ottoman he totheOttomans, governor with defected Van, of to tribes.” Luristanrepresenting all theprinces and Kurdistan, rulersand of Isma’ilSafavid beII, to theone Shah him entitling “responsibleat thecourt royal for the Ottoman state. Şerefhan ‘Supreme was the the of granted commander title Kurds’ of by the some prominentŞerefhan only Kurds servedtheSafavidstate,including tolater Bitlisi, def negative the Nonetheless, Kurdsinteresting sentiments towards theiris tonote that in texts. it both ofthe imperial cente to asuntrustworthy, and treacherous, dishonorable. and start a war. death loyaltyIsma’ilII tothe Safavid Shah and claim be to buttheir hisretainers, realwasuptrouble.” motive tostir Azerbaijan “attach would border one tothesaddle rulers straps themselves ofthe of inthearea Kurds of He theborder Kurds in region. explains wholived be that agroup vast throughouthis times and impressive chronicle.Hecase oftreachery first a mentions by the source

Djene Rhys Bajalan, “ Rhys Bajalan, Djene 347 Ibid., 347. Ibid., Beg Monshi, Eskendar ,

s. Eskendar Beg Monshi, thechroniclerMonshi, I, Begthe Kurdss. Eskendar Shah Abbas of several mentions they saw the distress oftheSafavid wentthey Vanstrike Ottomans and to saw to realm toincite thedistress 64 It ofthepolitics Kurdish clearthroughaccounts thatthefrontier tribes frustrated is these The volatility of the relationships the Kurds imperial with is

After Şerefhan post, this appointed was theSafavid ofNakhchivan governor -

349. Iranian Studies, Studies, Iranian

Throughout the rest narrative ofhis ofthisevent are the Kurds alwaysreferred Şeref Xan’s Sharafnama: Kurdish Ethno Kurdish Sharafnama: Xan’s Şeref History of Shah ‘Abbas the Great the ‘Abbas Shah of History

rs, as both Eskendar Beg Monshi and express Monshi Mustafars, as Beg Eskendar both Ali similarly 45:6, 801. 45:6,

(r.

1576 - 1578) 21 , Volume ,

upon his riseupon his tothe throne - Politis in the Early Modern World, Its MeaningIts World, Modern the Early in Politis

I , trans. Roger Savory (Colorado: Wes (Colorado: Savory Roger trans. , Guran as well asGuran as theKurdish also reflected in Safavidreflected in 61

tweenand Van the These ,

but

men professed after ,

but only his tview ect to to ect CEU eTD Collection 157 61, 1990), Brill, (Leiden: Dankoff Robert Trans. Ç 14. The 2005), Univeristy, Sanatlar SinanGüzel Mimar at thesis Master’s Yıldırım(Istanbul: Feth 70 597 1993) Brill, (Leiden: Ch.Pellat. Heinrichs, 69 68 67 66 65 ItIV Murad thatSultan in1635 Bitli was visited the Safavid Empire IV (r. 1623 Bitlis the Safavids required forces.” structures inthat theempire.within autonomous government 2.1.1 the Safavid Kurdish loyalty. court distrusted perhaps the a inwhich time theS serve of ancestralBitl inhis home “MuradIV,” Groot, De A.H. elebi’s elebi’s This meeting is cited in two accounts. The first i Thefirst accounts. in two cited meetingis This 57. Ibid., 57. Ibid., HakanÖzoğlu, Ibid. - i Revan ve Bağdad i Revan

occurred Seyahatname In theseventeenth The city Bitlis of and ofBitlis Abdal Khan theEmpire 67 in return in return

Furthermore - 1640) personally1640) led in . 68 cident that Eskendarcident Beg Monshi

Kurdish Notables and th and Notables Kurdish when the Ottoman sultan visited Bitlis visited Ottoman whilewhen sultan on the it for autonomy for [Book of [Book Travels]

“neither paidOttoman state nor taxesregular military provided tothe beginning [A Short History of the Conquest of Yervan and Baghdad], Transcribed by Nermin Transcribed Baghdad], and Yervan of Conquest ofShort Historythe [A afavid future was uncertain sinc ,

was ruled by asa khan ofBitlis the Hükümet The Encyclopedia of Islam of Encyclopedia The century, major thefirst

in 1635 was his . See . is. had freedom in its internalfreedom its had in affairs e Ottoman State Ottoman e

65 army imperial imperial Evliya Evliya

and ending with It Şerefhanappears that - 598. s a small note in Kara Çelebizade Abdülaziz Efendi, Abdülaziz Çelebizade in Kara note small sa on a campaign a campaign on

66 Ç

- 159.

elebi in Bitlis: The Relevant Section of the Seyahatname the Section of Relevant Bitlis:The in elebi A loyalty

22 Hükümet references, and it , vol VII, eds. voleds. , VII,

s andAbdal metwithkhanof khan. Bitlis, …,57.

episode in episode

e the Ottoman state was onthee rise. theOttoman state was of ther

the final Baghdad conquest in1638. of

differed from other providiffered from other to retake and Yerevan

C.E Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. W.P. Bosworth,Donzel, C.E van E. egional population in its clash inits with egional population imperial Hükümet

wasastute politically military

illustrates illustrates ,

relations with , and all the Ottoman stateand all the campaign. Sultan Murad Sultan campaign. term used todenoteterm an used why some people

second is second

Baghdad from ncial

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to defect Tarihçe Evliya Evliya This 70 , Ed. Ed. ,

- i

at in 69 is

CEU eTD Collection 76 75 74 73 2. “Historical Introduction,” 1991), Press, York (1588 Pasha Ahmed Melek 72 2005)14. Univeristy, Sinan Sanatlar Güzel Mimar at thesis Master’s (Istanbul: by Yıldırım Nermin Transcribed Baghdad], Yervanand 71 later episodes khan an between the collect taxes. his stay hegranted withthe khanmore that Khanlands Abdal and stayedstopped inBitlis withAbdal Khan. meeting whilehe was in relayed Çelebi in time the mid 1682). the informationonewhich comes source. from source, That the IVEfendi ofMurad a whowrote chronicle This meetingrecorded is in passingby thecontemporaryKara Adbülaziz authorÇelebizade

Ibid. 61. Ibid., 157. Ibid., Evliya See ofEvliya life the on the explanation For Efendi, Abdülaziz Çelebizade Kara Seyahatname empire’swith interaction

first Evliya Çelebi This connectionimportant isbecause - E to

seventeenth Evliya Çelebi’s ast

Evliya Ç writes about ern Anatolia, elebi, elebi, 76

TheIV thatinstark Murad favor contrast Sultan toAbdal showed to Khan stands

(Book of Travels) b Çelebi Evliya Evliya - century. thisstudy important for is What

explains that when Murad IVexplains that whenfrom returning Yerevan, Muradwas conquering he - 1662) As Portrayed in Evliya Evliya in 1662)Portrayed As Ç

the meeting between Abdal Khan and Murad IV meeting betweenKhan Abdal the and Murad by Pasha Ahmed hispatron Melek Book ofTravels Book the retinue ofthe sultan

elebi in in elebi particularly

Abdal Khan

Bitlis. Tarihçe d thesultan. Çelebi

yIstanbulite Ottoman traveler the Evliya Çelebi his encounters with Abdal Khan.his encounters - i Feth

provides a , see Rh see

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i Revan ve Bağdad Bağdad i Revan ve Yerevan andcampaign Yerevan Baghdad it 75

provides oads Murphey, oads 23 This moment of their moment relationship This

Çelebi’s Book of Travels Travels of Book Çelebi’s He details He how during the sultan’s during

vivid

further about whom constitutes the basis of thebasis constitutes

glimpse glimpse . MelekPasha Ahmed The Intimate Life of an Ottoman Statesman: Statesman: Ottoman an Lifeof Intimate The [A Short History of the Conquest of Conquest Short Historythe [A of are Evliya’s so that the khan wouldbeso that theable khan to information, albeit minute, on minute, information, albeit the Sultan wasthe Sultan sopleased with of

visit

(Albany: State University of New ofNew University (Albany: State the Ottoman Em almost all ofthealmost all 73

, information In account, this to

descriptions ofhis

Bitlis in1635. Bitlis s.

71 this chapter,this is

presents an witnessed the

pire during

(1611 that was Evliya 74

CEU eTD Collection 164. 1992) Books, 80 Relatioans.) his 79 78 77 tribe over other regio Çelebi were intellectual more their than abilities for for known as their warfare,observedby seventeenth cultural 2.1.2 harmonious relationship betweenautonomous khan and imperial the his patron. painted duringperiod this surroundingIV’scampaign Murada againstone of theSafavidsis while ultimately still thatBitlisassumption was apowerful autonomous po autonomousa governorship…and he territory.” very has large own private resources.” governorship” heand domains imperial grantedsultan, of(having) that“instead byhas the his Bitlis discussed furtherchapter. inthe image and a of a loyal image subject; gratefulthis corresponds patron several to be depictions to

Martin van Bruinessen, Bruinessen, Martinvan (see Bruinessen both by is utilized It wordthe literature. usedin lackof another to due here ‘tribe’ use I theterm 61. Ibid., 59. Ibid., Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures Political and Social The State: and Shaikh, Agha,

that

maintained . 79 In locate thekhan tobetter order ofBitlis The Autonom writing, his Also in

context, it is important to discuss the various local discussthe various context, to isimportant dynamics it thatthe

While theRojeki While wereforcourage theirmilitarythey notknown or might, held sway came to constitute thecame militaryBitlis. toconstitute of power

- century. In Bitlis, theRojekiInBitlis, t century.

nal Kurdish tribes nal Kurdish

after He thisimperial visit. states thattheha khan ofBitlis

y and Power of Bitlis of y andPower remaining underof thecontrol Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan of Political Structures and Social The State: and Shaikh, Agha, 77

Additionally, Evliya Çelebi

. Their extended power overtribes other

he states that for Abdal Khan Bitlis “iswholly forhe Abdal statesBitlis his that Khan

describes thedegreeaut of

ribes ofKurdselite within the city. were the They 24 within historicalwithin

the Ottoman sultan. In essence,the Ottoman sultan. picture the lity themid during of Kurdistan of 80

The complexof webrelations among 78

These accountsThese supportthe , 164) and Özoğlu and ( 164) , sociopolitical/religious/ onomy - seventeenth

such as theMordkisuch that the that d

E an “independent mpire

State

(London: Zed (London: khan of

- faced inthe Tribe Tribe century, Evliya

a CEU eTD Collection 85 84 83 82 81 authority. of taxation became unclear. Ottoman imperial provincesthus and ofVan Erzurum, becausewere and the between groupswithflocks Bitlis ofthese many migrating pastoral khan and theempire became br in the region through as Bitl from the non that he was able to seventeenth due an tothesecreated issue taxesthat to Bitlis amounted whole tomore thanthe to collectregion.IV, his by in ofmore Theseafter landgranted taxes,Murad addition Sultan the the political strength ofAbdal Khan whowas Nevertheless, intra this the tribal ledtointer control confederation ofBitlis in

Ibid. Ibid. Bruiness Evliya 164. Ibid., ought him into conflict into ought him with

The controlled khan a ofBitlis due large tothe varioushe ofwealth taxes was sum able Ç

and nominally for responsible Ottoman influence inBitlis en, elebi, elebi,

- Agha, Shaikh, and State, Shaikh, Agha, century. - especially through Muslims within his region, his he within but alsoMuslims Evliya Evliya is, amajor trade corridor. impose anyhead KhanAbdal taxesdesired.collectedtheimpose usual tax( he Ç As the khan functionedAs the elebi in Bitlis in elebi - confederation strife was m

Thus

imperial struggle for regional authority,struggle foror local. be imperial is it This

his collection of tax , 59. ,

167. tax revenue of the the tax revenue of ,

Abdal Khan’s excessive inthe face taxingstood ofimperial

eventually toimperial interv led authorities 83

Th asautonomous leader alocally ese multiple sourcesese oftax multiple revenue a member a 25

itigated inthe mid in the region. The conf es herders from sheep regional imperial province created -

tribal conflicts ove tribal conflicts their respective inmatters jurisdictions’ of the Rojeki tribe. road tolls from caravansroad from passing tolls . 82 - Receiving so much money seventeenth

of Van,of which close was ention later inthe ention r emirater succession. rontation betweenrontation the

it was it opinion his causedfriction - century due to . 84

These acts ciz ye 81 )

CEU eTD Collection 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 the whims oftheBitlis. khan of wascontrolled khan. even by the local officials a highly unusual was ableBitlis to the khan.topersonally The khan of appoint the taxsimple collecting rights Abdaland Khan. ofBitlis, theautonomous emir his Kurdistan,“this isalaw is it was collectingflocks. taxes on men. reportedly sheep theregion andkilled three tookfortyemir’s from thousand ofthe hundred Th ten thousand of Abdal of menmovedintothe Khan’s regionKurdish Melazgird. emir ofthe entered regional pastoral gr uthorities.

Ibid. 169. Ibid., Evliya Bruinessen, Evliyasee And Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. is authority]neighbors. our toraid

88 city ofyet theOttoman province wasthe jurisdiction under men Abdal ofErzurum, Khan’s

When AbdalWhen was governor KhanVan, informed of bythe this of h This examplearose demonstratesthevariousOttoman thatEmpire issues between the that more is is What striking tocollect order taxes in these Abdal his for from Kahn Ç into Ottoman imperialinto provinces. elebi, elebi,

91 Agha, Shaikh, and State, Shaikh, Agha,

Inthe empire, rest the of the in Evliya Evliya right for a governor a right for

their decision oups, he Ç Ç elebi, elebi, elebi in Bitlis in elebi

Evliya Evliya . As would have them of the house of Abbas [the Abbasids from [the Abbas of which thehouse of

- 89 making t Ç

he Ottoman state alsoIslamic cededcontrol judicial ofmatters , 175 , 167. 92 Evliya elebi in Bitlis in elebi

This degree ofinfluence m ” because the because

90 - 177.

. In. however,case; Bitlis, thiswas the not the Çelebi 86

kadi

One recounted by tale , 165 , chase

recounts recounts enjoyeda largedegree ofindependence from 26 kadi - The khan’s 167.

was

them down that normally

autonomy the khan wouldevenclaim later that eant the local judge was theateant local entirely by kadi Evliya Çelebi appointed byappointed theimperial his soldiers evenhis soldiers

(local judge) of extended e plainlystated thathe the khan claimed

describes how further than kadi if the chase if the

Bitlis ’s salary 87 ,

CEU eTD Collection 95 94 93 help contextualize to theelite imperial ontheKurds, perspective whorepresented boththe of power thedynamic in tomaintain control accepted degree this ofautonomy demonstrates level which thesecenters the to they local needed of theSafavids. Ottoman authorityagainst degrees autonomy inthe Ottoman of made military upthepoliticalwere and structureofBitlis to maintain large powerful enough highlig domain these his powers outside of w matters inBitlis legal( expert Hanafi theempire in locals local autonomy judicialauthorityand inits legal s some cases. Hanafi, ( theexperts legal Ottoman Balkans. Islamic of the four popularand accepted inWesternwas schools law Anatolia the which Ott alsohad anBitlis impressive relation degreein his theempire to ofautonomy at The large.

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. oman state endorsed

hts two important hts two issues. Firstly,emirate and tribes ofthat thecollection theKurdish The came it When which tohowand religious 94 strenuous mufti

This is what remarkableThis is makesbecause Bitlis allowed emiratewas the greater 93 ) followed theShafi’i school. ere under khan the ofBitlis jurisdiction the

In cities inthewhere empire, other p the majority ofthe relationship betweenrelationship the

the interpretation of Islamic law interpretation of according the Hanafi to School,oneof

mufti

as orSyria inEgypt

) couldofany the follow the rulings three other of schools in ,

he came theOttoman Empire. with intoconflict - Safavid borderlands

Secondly, recognized thefact thatand the Ottomans

borderlands with the Safavids. These theSafavids. with tworeflectionsborderlands Kurdish emirate 27 . This is further is mirrored thefact. This by that the local 95

laws were Thus

choolother when major compared non to ,

the executive, andreligious judicial,

due totheir impor

interpreted in the courts, thekhancourts, of interpreted inthe

of Bitlis and theOttoman Empireof Bitlis ,

and when thekhan extended tanceas thebulwark opulation was non

- - CEU eTD Collection 777. 1995) Brill, Lecomte G. (Leiden: Heinrichs, vanW.P. E. Donzel, 99 1986) (Leiden: Brill, Pellat 98 97 96 Imam andw hiding into went divinely ordainedleaders main tenet whichonly ofTwelverthelegitimacy Shi’ism, Imams recognizes oftwelve wore red onthem. distinctive that hadtwelve turbans points century. one another? Ottomans and Safavids,an how does includefor not a intra space o Beyond Ottoman confessional rosy view this relations, of a“noassembling othersuch capital aand sultanate races.” varietyreligions possessed of these many statesover that points “multiconfessional therules Ottomana sultan empire”and that twenty dynasty supremacy ofthe its Ottoman states. other qualities which over proved 2.2 werea thebulwark andburgeoning needed stemmed localthat power tobe

Ibid., Ibid., Roger 30. Ibid., Necipoğlu, Gülrü

did In BoundariesConfessional 243

Savory Theoften label juxtaposed labelwas of‘ withthe of‘Kurd’

the late sixteenththe late The the imperial center view the intra

- 244. See also See 244.

Kizilbaş , “Kizil , The Age of of Sinan Age The gainst theSafavid Empire. - Bash,” Bash,” , literally meaning ‘red head’ inTurkish,, literallywere meaning calledthusbeca head’ ‘red

P. Darley P.

243

. - century(around 1593) The Encyclopedia of Islam of Encyclopedia The d how 244. Another tenet of ould

Doran, “Safawids,” Doran,

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 30. 2005), University Press, Princeton (Princeton:

- were confessional competitors.

return

each groups ofthese seenempi by the

at the end oftimes. end at the - confessional rivalry in confessional Twelver Shi’i Twelver

28 Islam of Encyclopedia The , , vol. V, eds. C.E Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis, Ch. Ch. Lewis, B. Donzel, van E. Bosworth, C.E vol. eds. , V,

the court historian Talikizadethe courthistorian enumerated some

also sm

ne assume description must thatthis 98

This 99 the steadfast co was thebelief

The twelve points representedThe twelve points the With therise ofWith theSafavid passage thus E Kizilbaş astern Anatolia betweenAnatolia astern the , vol. ,

VIII, eds. C.E Bosworth,C.E eds. VIII, ’ - that

religionists who religionists in the seventeenth re inrelation with

beg

the twelfth s the use they 96

question who were

97 One of

CEU eTD Collection 104 103 102 101 765 1995) Brill, (Leiden: Lecomte G. Heinrichs, 100 heretics hypocrites”your irreligious “the andOttoman andSultan...shares religion the that and being oftrue believers descent creed, and intheSunni enemy had nogreater than the hell I Selim came toDiyarbakir, then places inthei theKurds ar status andstate beyondprofession. and name his his forIV Murad Sultan in1632 2.2.1 state. Ottoman to the Sunni the Kurdish emirates toenjoy autonomy some degree due perceiv of tothis i Idris Bidlisi was present Kizilbaş Kizilbaş Safavid Empire in the early sixteenth e a “strong barrier along thevictorious frontier“strongealong theredheads against barrier a [

Ibid., 12. Ibid., “Kanun Efendi, Aziz Sönmez Ebru 765 Ibid., Darley P. Office of the University Publisher at Harvard University, Harvard at vii. Publisher Officethe University 1985), of Literatures and Languages Oriental

Religion, Aziz Efendi: Empire the Kurds and Aziz Efendi, anOttoman bureaucratAziz , asbe will demonstrated inthe military in units tribes.

- - Doran, “Safawids,” “Safawids,” Doran, 766.

even ateven the onset ofOttoman n thesixteenth , Idris

101 - spons

- While theWhile aambiguous Kurdsrelationship theSafavids more with had andthe i Bidlisi - Name orship of the Kurdish emirs in E ofthe Kurdish orship emirs E

- , 81 , astern Ana i Sultani Li 'Aziz Efendi [Aziz Efendi's Book of Sultanic Laws],” in Laws],”in ofSultanic Book Efendi's [Aziz 'AzizLiEfendi i Sultani 102 The Encyclopedia of of Islam Encyclopedia The century waya thethatwouldallow Kurds inorder such in topresent and sent - - mperial narrative - 1633. century,

85.

, ed. ed. ,

Efendi’sof knownaboutlife Aziz There islittle the details

One Şinasi Tekin Gönül and Alpay Tekin, tolia a message to theKurds o a to message Twelver Shi’ism gained Shi’ism political legitimacy.Twelver next - 766, 777. 766, -

third of his ofthird Kurdish relations.was Thisnarrative constructedbyKurdish who fought fought who , chapter, theimperialof narrativeKurdish Sunnism wrote awrote

of the Ottoman state by claiming thatwhen Ottoman state byof Sultan claiming the 29

, vol. , Nasihatname Nasihatname astern Anatolia. against theOttoman Empire were the V

III, eds. C.E Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. vanW.P. eds.E. Bosworth,Donzel, C.E III,

f the city f the

deals specifically withthe (mirror princes literature) for trans. Rhoads Murphey (Harvard: Murphey (Harvard: Rhoads trans. 103 Kizilbaş

that said that

He thatthe Kurds states ed ingrained loyalty ].”

“you, while 104 100 Sources of

Aziz Efendi

The main - bound

CEU eTD Collection 106 105 through thelabels used. does specifically religion not mention categories.and accountcritical is the the of the Secondly, favors Kurd demonstrates storythis by these Thenarrative labels. Firstly, isparticularly two reasons. for it striking parties:1640, presents aKurda opposing two and (1572 2.2.2 the label ‘ Thus It Sunni. howconfessional alsodemonstrates loyaltywas related to directly a example striking administrators state ofhow saw theOttoman tribes asbeing theKurdish to prevent Ottoman state togrant more balance autonomy and restore toOttoman with the Twelver state Shi'a Safavid doctrine of Thisdepiction of theOttoman state. theKurds theconflicvital in was specifically theSultanconstructed the to butalsotheSunni Kurdsnotjust how to a were loyal, story of belongs tothe same sect.” Ibid., 36 Ibid., Ibid. ,

the labelwent and of‘Kurd’together‘Sunni’ loyalty withlabel Ottoman state while tothe 1650), who was from the city1650), from whowas o An interesting accountrec is and the Kurd The Aziz Efendi usedargumentsAziz his andpolitical ofKurdish loyalty Sunni the tourge - 38. Kizilbaş Kurdish emirs fromKurdish tothe Safavid rebelling emirs andturning state.

that,

’ implied aloyalty “Shi’i”and allegiance tothe Safavid state. from the c from the In essence,

105 Kizilbaş

entral Ottoman perspectiveentral Ottoman T

hrough this example, it isclearlyEfendiit hrough example, this thatAziz demonstrated

the story the

orded inthe seventeenth orded in the seventeenth f as afeature

Pécs

in modern

is a 30 morality tal

in this oppositional relationship oppositional in this Kizilbaş -

century day ,

a Kurd anda Kurd a . These twomenare described only in Hungary. around story, written The - e written amidst e written century chronicle of Ibrahimcentury Peçevi chronicleof .

- Kizilbaş Kizilbaş Kurdish relations inorderKurdish 106

His account provides imperial loyalty. Peçevi’ .

are oppositional

While ,

it s discussion s discussion is

the story implied t CEU eTD Collection 108 35 2005), University, Marmara at Thesis (Istanbul: Masters 107 of obviously these most confessionalThis is twolabels boundaries. inthefate and demonstrated severeexecute“most wife way.” the inthe tribes were story. relays his he W struggle and the kills the ensuing battle,the the sideof joins wife the theKurdto kill andback take food. the When Kizilbaş was military awayhis fulfilling wife thatshe his the hehim sleptwith duties. When tells arrives, betrayalrescueThe to Kurdnight this while the isunawareandreturnsat hiswife of the consented sexually tothe Kizilbaş progresses,Kurdhis wife andare the by separated therebythe bravery aonthe Kurdish light ofthepositive casting protagonist. Asthe Kurds, story relationship oft wife ofacaptives became the andthe appropriate provides for a script of the

Ibid., 36. Ibid., IbrahimPe Kizilbaş Kizilbaş The the storyand of theKurd TheIbrahim storypresented by Peçevia hisbeautiful together “Kurd describes how with

under duress. together, The reunitedstealing leaves the couple takes theKurd’s wife inthe story, tobed.At point this Peçeviwrites thatthe wife

çevi, ’

crime . It. thelines to warn ofim cross atale those is who he wife with both theKurdhewith both wife and the Kizilbaş Peçevi Tarihi Tarihi Peçevi ,

and thusly Kizilbaş

returns home, he finds that the Kurd has taken back his wifereturns his finds thattheKurd and home,he vows hasback taken

Kizilbaş [ TheHistoryofPe . Upon this victory,. Uponthis Kurd takestothe back Kurdish the wife his

Kizilbaş the woman.catches When he upwit ,

know ith this news, the tribes this “all oftheith gather Kurds” and to decide . Thispart ofthe story beingcomplicit in as presents thewife ingly betraying bothher betraying communalingly religious and loyalties. Kizilbaş ” inthe city ofMardin. response to those responseto those whoareas labeled 108 ç evi]

reveals many perceptions about things the imperial 31

Kizilbaş (317b -

36. Kizilbaş

- 351a) Kizilbaş . The Kurdmanages still the towin , Transcription of text by Zuhal Kayayurt Kayayurt Zuhal byoftext Transcription , . Peçevi starts the tale by highlighting 107 . The Kur

The accountrevolves the around perial confessional and loyalty, h

the Kurd, theythe Kurd, fight.During Kizilbaş d istaken away, and the Kizilbaş ’

horse and his Kizilbaş

or Kurd.

CEU eTD Collection 1516 Rule: Ottoman 111 110 109 the Ottoman up thequestion of why thelanguage confessional inmaking strife sense of of was soimportant and security subjects.”“enforcing conformity Muslim rather onits than religious the population was Shi’a.” claimed that the Ottoma Lebanon and Shi’a groups that have characterized been differentlyof Ottom intheregion more stable between evidenced Thisis empires. Ottomansrelationship and other thetwobetween by the the confessional buta loyalty of the borderlands Kizilbaş Kurd following the tran wins the daythe by defeating (the wife) by out pointing community for of the wife thesewas whotransgressed boundariesand

Ibid. For more information on Shiites in the Ottoman Empire see Empire Ottoman inShiites the Foron more information Ibid. 31. Ibid., BruceMasters, sgressions ofthese boundaries. . In. way, this InOttoman sources Ottoman imperial narrativesOttoman imperialthe havenotonly region to of related totheir seems been

in the contextPeçevi’s of of discussion the . It astory alsois praise. of

marked - Safavid borderlands ofEastern A also Kizilbaş

her ‘crime.’ Thisher the accountdemarcates boundariesconfessional communities of The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman the of Arabs The the confessional other (the - 1788 in the more surrounding Baghdad. autonomousOttoman regions

the story alsoareaffirm actswaysuperioritythe story asSunni to the over heretical

their placetheir inthe inter

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012). Press, University (Cambridge: Cambridge will lead todefeatand at death ns “didnotseek [Shi’ism tosuppress ns

, lso to theirthevolatile and geographicin lso to uncertain position borderland

110 the confessionalthe of loyalty

It because is this the argued been that E has Kizilbaş

Additionally, storyalso demonstrates the of of

and bringing wife his tocommunaljustice for her the courageous Kurd,the courageous whois - Kizilbaş imperial conflict. depiction Yet in their negative imperial

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 30 2013), Press, University Cambridge (Cambridge: natolia. 32

) and thosewho warning Kizilbaş

the the

the hands ofacasea believer,inthis true

subsequently -

Kizilbaş Stefan Winter, Winter, Stefan .

] ] in regions where themajority of

in the Ottoman

assume punished by respective the The Shiites of Lebanon under under Lebanon of Shiites The mpire preferredmpire peace

d tobe cross theboundarie the belief that 111 - Safavid 109

Sunni This brings

It is an - 31.

and

some

CEU eTD Collection 116 115 145. 1988), Brill, (Leiden: Boeschoten Hendrik and Bruinessen 114 113 112 the villain oftheKarbalastory, to be law inthe other ofthe regions Ottoman Empir ( tells astory about inaninteresting question Islam into polo.Evliya furthermore way: is of brought agame Çelebi many Quran whoas thecase knowthe is people by heart, inArabia.” passages comes decryingit ofknowledgetoreligious theirpractices. lack when Kurds’Islam, pietythey how and schooloffollow the details several Shafi’i he provides other thus implying piety. of adegree the Rojeki “use their henna handsbeards, and on feet and following thepracticeof Prophet,” pure adding infaith and thatof they practice,” areand “men learning culture.” describes aspeople ofKurds who theRojekiBitlis tribe “practice in rite, and theShafi’i natureSunni ofthe Kurds accounta deeper l adds confessional inOttoman loyalty 2.2.3 çevgan

Ibid., 150. Ibid., Evliya Evliya Ibid Evliya

disrespectful the to ., ., 145. While travelingWhile throughDiyarbakir, Evl The examples Aziz EfendiIbrahim from and P Kurdish Çelebi and Evliya ConfessionalLoyalty ) Ç Ç Ç . 115 elebi, elebi, elebi, elebi, elebi,

Evliya Evliya Evliya Evliya explains that the gameexplains was that forbidden “strictly groups of were Kurdsfond of groups who and thegame Persians polo Ç Ç Ç elebi in Bitlis, in elebi Diyarbakir in elebi Bitlis, in elebi ayer The tothe discussion. account ofEvliya

martyrs of Karbala in the Islamicmartyrs Karbala Yezid of inthe thatCaliph He states tradition.

but

also

113 martyred Imammartyred and Huseynof others Karbala onthe plain E asternfrom Anatolia the imperial Evliya perspective.

150 152 the Shafi’i bentEvliya ofthepopulation aswell. While EvliyaWhile - - 151. the Seyahatname of Section Relevant The : 63. 153,

33 iya exclaims that “this is that“this exclaims iya disapproved of the game ofthe disapproved Çelebi

eçevi demonstrate the importance

provides thesepraises various of the

, ” and the practitioners of Islamic” of and thepractitioners Çelebi 114

Their knowledge of . Kurdistan; 116 , Ed. Trans. Martin vanEd. , MartinTrans.

cites onl not Polo wasPolo considered 112

Furthermore,

Çelebi there are not Çelebi

y the of all are

and ’s , CEU eTD Collection 464. 1993) Brill, 120 119 118 117 Quran. n Kurds Here are the as apassive due mistake, oflearning more toalack the appropriate Arabic textsin which lapseispresented discuss the offensive nature ofpolo. This depart from standar Islamicon various figures important orevents, such asKarbala.or Ali theplain of and examine d Sunni howthe early modern Sunni the martyrs shouldpushscholars tolookdeeper Shi’a more Persians thanthe (Safavids) intothe place Shi’a pilgrimage. for Karbala important themost memorializedevents isone modern tworeasons.episode that in Shi’ismfirst isfascinating being The for theKurdsand sothey withit, inpolo.” that“theand are notfamiliar Persians indulge emphasizes anniversary ofKarbala thetocomm martyrdom of thatin1680 mentions explains that otherintheempire regions thelevel understand ofdisrespect. play polo. then The Encyclopedia of Islam of Encyclopedia The Ibid., 151. Ibid., Ib Ibid. id., id., 150 took the

Secondly Evliya 117 -

151. that polowas strictly inEgypt forbidden

ir This

Çelebi

heads rolledwithmallets from themontheground their and horses andto started ,

and thisstudy more importantlyfor story isused d - Shi’a battleground for religious memory battlegroundagereligious confessionalization forShi’a intheof

Ottoman Sunni Ottoman , cites that “the storycites that “the quite explicitly isrecorded chronicles” inseveral Arab

the governor Egypt ordered a of great memorial onthe gathering , vol. ,

120 ot presentedasheretics active VII, eds. eds. VII,

octrine have tolet’ Shi’ism an‘was immediate monopoly going not For Evliya

to highlight to highlight

C.E Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, and Ch. Pellat (Leiden: Ch. Pellat Heinrichs, and W.P. Bosworth,Donzel, C.E van E. practice instance inthis Çelebi the reason why isdisrespectful thegame 34

to statetha

emorate the tragic

becauserespect they for Karbala have ,

Islam, aswithnot just Evliya ,

and Karbala as has animportant served

but rather as victims ofan as improperbut rather victims t it is the Sunni Ottomans theSunni is whot it respect

because they arebecause they with notfamiliar Çelebi

explains that explains event ,

and To illustrate this, heTo illustratethis,

, memorizing the memorizing

the martyrdom at

Evliya

the Kurds . He then Çelebi 119 . 118

This

CEU eTD Collection 121 Abdal theOttoman Evliya Khanstate against to light. the Ottoman Empire. 2.3.1 2.3 by (disloyalty). thenotionofrebellion rebellion andloya which theempire interacted. but howtheimperial elites used andofloyalties navigate theseweb denote to labels the with loyal what important here theOttomans. Whatis local to ofthese realities isnot term wereloyaland therefore theSafavids Shi’a to borderlands became simpli 2.2.4 due toactivethe heresy, like way. inorderconfessional vital for still was education theseIslam groups practice inthe to ‘proper’ boundaries period tiedthis toethniclabels were much very during by center. theimperial They elites from demonstrate education. provide descriptions a These more howthe nuancedinto Kurds glimpse were viewed

Evliya

These Loyalty and Rebellion and Loyalty In the yearIn 1655, Evliya the The Rebellion AbdalKhan of Confessional What Did Mean?Loyalty The Ç elebi, elebi,

groups had d groups

Ottoman imperial chronicles Evliya Evliya lty. Thus lty. Ç 121 elebi in Bitlis in elebi

This rebellion was iverged from practicesa standard andnot lackunderstanding due of to

, fiedyou from the imperial perspective:a if were

the labels they used were definedb Kizilbaş

For imperial the agents regiondichotomy saw throughthe of

Çelebi ,

171

. -

175.

reports that Abdal Khan, Khan of Bitlis, rebelledreports Khan, Bitlis, thatAbdal Khan against of

essentially demonstrate

the watershed moment thatthe watershed brought past crimes of ,

but if you youbut if a Kurd,were wereand Sunni then 35

that evenconfessional thoughthe Çelebi ’s narrative builds acase builds ’s narrative against y ofnotion loyalty the either or

that the conflict in the that theconflict in ,

the need to discipline throughthe need todiscipline Kizilbaş , then you, then s were CEU eTD Collection 124 123 122 incident, the rebellion1655is of he wasbegin Bitlis, transferred fromAfter the journey governorship. his second towards this then governor Erzurum of so Ottoman jurisdiction, he Ahmedas was Pasha, hepleased.led Melek freeThisevent todo “toll.” Erzurum provincesheep pasa and Kurdish from raided eye.” instance, alarge Abdalsohe sent ofgoldMelek “turneda to Ahmedand Khan bribe blind Pasha Melek Ahmed patron Pasha, the of Evliya by an snubandsawsultanordered act this appointed itas governor, oftreachery. The thenewly respects to thesultanBecauseto Bitlis. close toBitlis, heexpectedtravelAbdal was pay Khan to tohis IVwhile Muradwas from victory returning his Baghdad, he stayeda in city close inDiyarbakir, the Ottoman sultanyearsto insult some three whereIV hostedMurad Sultan and he was service, inBitlis greatly his rewardedhe for managed begins immediately almost encountered afterhe inthe chronicles.After isfirst 1635occasion Empirethe Kurdsof Ottoman Sunni inthe as theeast. bulwark Ottomans and Abdal Khan Abdal hispast Khantransgressions, thatlists

Ibid. 159. Ibid., 158. Ibid., 123 124

The goes oftransgressions further list asisclaimed it thatAbdal into Khan moved Infact, AbdalKhan’s the insubordinationandsuspect story of loyalty

In and washe ofBitlis that he replied senttothe was khan awarning in event, not this

the victorious sultan, but Abdal Khan did not come. not sultan, butAbdal Khanthe victorious did

, to march against the khan. Just asMelek, tomarch Ahmed againstPasha Just was thekhan. about to in 1655

described . Abdaldisloyalty Khan’s imperialchallenged fictionof the Çelebi

by Evliya

culminating in a in culminating later, accordinglater, Evliya to 36 , to “take Abda vengeance, upon”

Çelebi toral group claiming hetoral was a groupclaiming collecting . At this point, Melek point, Ahmed. Atthis Pas

confrontation betweenconfrontation the 122

Sultan Murad IV MuradSultan was offended

Çelebi

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Ahmed ously, between thetwoempires between ously, of Kurmanc as -

Out of this borderland peoples whoborderland asa act i

- Kh i Kh ani ) in the world by ) inthe ani was for pushing aani explains that “wheneverexplains ,

Ahmed weAhmed see carried - i Kh ʿ eleyhi, 168 political ani

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Ibid., 107. Ibid., ani , Turk) and, Turk)

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i , and alsoterms these how lords thats here r much of the Ahmed prologue Kh

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erved as thebasis for Ahmed world inwhich eachworld (ethni nation

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orts in the seventeenth century theseventeenth lordswishedto orts in inwhichKurdish ,

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Acem he states thatthe “

considerably different, also ashe sees imperial

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- i Kh cnation group) hasown its ani’srather beliefs some sortof than

and ani is not suggesting a monolithic a suggesting ani not monolithic is 172 ʿ

Ejem [ Many thatAhme argued have nd his claimsnd his ofAbbasid Acem n problematic, to Abdal Khan’sAbdal claims, ] -

i Kh i have ani saw the Kurds

power overpower us, lordship over the as hasbeen -

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CEU eTD Collection S Sunni a was 175 174 173 ethnic labels played inself several chapter, texts this social the role in real textdemonstrates other political and this useful toexamineis most seventeenth thetext its in hisworkhasWhile continuously beenKurdis the used todemonstrate origins of ethn sources. religion,” Inothermentioned here. they ethnic this, addition solidaritiesto “completedwould have the theof thatif theKurds.Kurds Hisclaim is thehe Kurds positions relation in potential other thelost to ethnic loyalty markersand highlights Ottoman and disunity Safavid and onKurdish inthe borderlands. disloyalty discourse Secondly, the religion andthe state.” A’jam [Safavid discord”followed le “all and hadone iftheytogether laments thatthe Kurdish tribes are“always agreement,without always rebellion having and lineages ofauthority than region especiallyas claimed somesometimes Kurdish Khan Abdal greater like lords, ofBitlis, modern nationalist movement Kurdishnot anationalist wasendeavor tribes. This

The ‘purity of religion’ is surely in reference to purifying Islam with some form of Sunnism as Ahmed Sunnism form withof some Islam purifying to insurely reference is The‘purityofreligion’ Ibid. 112. Ibid., ic labels played inseventeenth Ahmed The in

175 pointing out the out pointing Kurds religious purity the asseen inthe Ottoman of presented

ufi and not a Shi’ite. Shi’ite. notufi a and triguing andtriguing Ahmed provocative words of - i Kh , Acem ani goes on to explain whyindependentani this goesonto statehas topass.He come not ] all, wouldhave us.” become all, servants to ]

the Ottomans themselves. 174 - fashioning an

First ofall, First

but instead aofimperial contestation over claims tolordship this - century Eastern Anatolia fromcentury theperspectiveof localactors. Eastern d loyalty in this period.in this d loyalty these final wordsthese from final Ahmed had united they ablehad toruleall united over been wouldhave 51

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it CEU eTD Collection 180 179 802. 178 177 176 was ofauthority avitaltool inthe early world modern Umayyad families important because connect they ma of theand time up until the records their history cites heavily fr noticeable inthelanguage chosen composition for ruleautonomous asgovernor. anOttoman Kurdish ofHakkari lords tenure there 1576). the authorIran inSafavid theSafavid was andTahmasp born upin court grew (15 ofShah Abdal Khan ofBitlis. Şerefname 3.4 understanding ofethnic andloyalties. labels their explicit di natio labelsnot perform do same exclusivistfunction the

Ibid., 31. Ibid., Hakan “ Bajalan, see Bitlisi also Şerefhan of theonFor life Further information 29. Ibid., 28. Ibid., Hakan

nalism. Thelaments ofAhemd Şerefhan Bitlisi:Şerefhan The 177 The The first major text wri Özoğlu, Özoğlu, Özoğlu,

Şerefhan appoint was later

(1596) by Ş (1596) , Şerefname

he defected to t he defected om the Persian om the Persian scussion of ethnic loyalty Kurdish Notables and and Notables Kurdish State Ottoman the and Notables Kurdish , tying 176 erefhan Bit itself chronicles thedynastic lineagesofthefamilies great Kurdish tribal

The work iswritten inPersian

. He them tothe Prophet Muhammad. he Ottomans due tointrigueof Şerefname

literaryepic of was hisfamily’s ancestral granted lan tten bya Kurdishtten author l the Ottoman State, State, Ottoman the isi ny of the Kurdish ruling families ruling backny ofthe tothe Abbasid Kurdish and - ed theSafavidNakhc of governor i Kh ,

who was of theKhan and grandfather ofBitlis (father?)

, ani for the borderlander Kurdish people are for borderlanderfor striking people the Kurdish ani

and 178

The Safavid upbringing of the author is not onlyThe ofisnot upbringing Safavid theauthor Shahnama Shahnama theyalso 52 Şerefname ,27.

, 30.

but that

it hasit and some rulingdynasties, suchas the

about the Kurdsabout exclusively isthe help to further analyzehelp further local to most likely bymost influenced thefact that they ofmodern dointhe form by Ferdowsi. 180 ’s writing. These lineageswriting. These ’s are

the Ottoman governor of Vanthe Ottoman governor ofand the

also This is important becauseThis is lineage

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and during his and that

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Ibid. 806. Ibid., 803 Ibid. 803. Ibid., “ Bajalan,

The Another importantofthe feature Anatolia int 184 ’s grandfather - ’s emphasis on Kurdish theOttoman helpendeavoremphasis in inEast on ’s 804.

Şeref Xan’s Sharafnama,” 800. Sharafnama,” Xan’s Şeref

His accountth warns Şerefname

merely merely

ld not claimld not these same Thus links. 182

The account on how vital Idris onhowvitalThe account he earlyhe sixteenth to references

presents acasefor Kurdis require tribute territories from theKurdish land and notrule workedwho with

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century. The work even claims that Idris workcentury.The claims even that Şerefname

nasties and howtheynasties and came imbricated tobe with the Idris

context of the 181

This account explicitly ties theefforts of - i Bitlisi, tothe successful i Bitlisi, 53

h autonomy as well, which would be inthe whichh autonomy as would well, ,

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conquest of the region byconquestregion oftheOttomans. ighty and kings grea

was in also includesaccounts ofthe ,

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Ottoman t monarchs” have - i Bitlisi managed i Bitlisi

conquest of 185 toman

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Ibid., 808. Ibid., Ibid. 807. Ibid., 803. Ibid., 186

account

Şerefhan’s historyreassuresare thatthe Kurdish theOttomanauthorities lords loyal to The fascinating most ofthe feature

s the importance of ethnic labels in order to legitimize and places theimportance tolegitimize ofethnic order in theKurds labels within 187 ,

he describes howthe heSafavids tocontrol describes wished

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yet

Shah warns ofwarns any in

nama

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whereas cursions by outside powerscursions that by 189 - century. Şerefhan’s the Safavid experiencecentury. with c

This misreading helpsŞerefhan the toaggrandize Shahnama Şerefname Shahnama ,

the Ottomans wereablethe toaccommodate the 188 54

It noted last by thatthis is some scholars for thisbyfor saying “

by because Thisis Şerefhan. generally itis

is the way in which the Kurds are wayKurds inwhichthe is the was infac gord

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to their (Kurd) ’s writer ourt ,

in CEU eTD Collection 193 192 1a 18547, Add. Ms. BritishLibrary, Blessings], Good Historyof from firstthe the and theportion and Han ofSharaf theHistory 191 190 the state ( evident and understood.” history of attended inE a meeting calling atr it provide an case of interesting text describes textand Kurdish ofthe merits thepurpose language ofthe yearsforprincipalities Eğil theperiod ofPaluand between the 1597 an appendix K t and translation was 3.5 of found the Kurds new intimacy andwith their in the region Persian literature thestrongpoliticalrepresents andculturalIran ontheKurdish influence of elite hat he Farsi urdish ofEğil, lord Mustafa Bey Ş Ibid. Ibid. 2b. Ibid., “ Bajalan,

am’i, . These the additions to The The )

“ , was commissioned totranslate PersianOttoman Turkishwasfrom into theworkfor commissioned the Şam Eighty

mukayyedolmad Tercümanin tārīh Tercümanin some of made for orders Şerefhan Şerefname Şeref Xan’s Sharafnama,” 815. Sharafnama,” Xan’s Şeref

’i titles his work his ’i titles . anslation of the anslation of to the direct translation of thetextto the direct - 1b. On other hand, - seven yearsthe original afterseven

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was group recitedfrom and by peopledetails “the the important produced in 1684. The scribe of produced in1684.The scribe

ī” in in DynamicsTranslation: Changing - i şeref hān turkī ve el ve turkī i şerefhān ğ

il whereil leaders therewereIn meeting manythis region. of that

192 this humble humble this Turkish,work’stext, coupled with theOttoman translation into After this Histories ofŞerefHistories Han

A Translation in Turkish ofA Translation inTurkish the of History Şeref Han the contentchanging and work of his life demonstrates loyalties

Kurdish self . 190

one , This work isparticularly because interesting

he notesthat - cuzel ve [Şam’i] to[Şam’i] transla - fashioning duringthe seventeenthfashioning Şerefname that that 55

in it. - evvel min tārīh el tārīh evvelmin

193 the Ottoman state. . includes thelocal of histories the 191

because the this workthis was named

It from is this

In work, this

was pennedwas Bitlisi by Şerefhan te this book[ te this

- Şerefname massʿūdī massʿūdī

instance - Şam 1684. Moreover,1684.

in an introduction tothe in an Şerefname ’i recounts howhe ’i [A Translation in Turkish of Turkish Translationin [A Şam

was inPersian was

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while later Şam ] into the into ] became leaders of Şam

’i a copy ,

the added ’i CEU eTD Collection 194 forin Abdal rebellion Khan’s 1655. legitimation in I also po warned imperial those The Kurdishit. work autonomy served tolegitimate loyalty. imperial and highlight The work am he read the local Kurdish politicalelites. Similarly, thepreviousas chapter, Evliya noted in of the regionKurds for the commissi Turkishwith Ottoman rather thanPersian northmeeting just inEğil, ofthe nodeof Ottoman imperial more Diyarbakir, were comfortable significantly efforts Anatolia Eastern in understood and readily Persian. However, used originally composed inPersian culture of the time until thecomposition ofthe a Eastern few composition. after Anatolia generations was its Persianate verya literary much dynamics the seventeenth of languageTurks.” ofthe n light of these aspects ofthe ofthesen light

Ibid. “sāhib Ibid. ongst Kurdishongst vital notablesbecause is the Şerefname Furthermore, dynamicstheutility whilethe imperial changed certain languagesinthe of oned work this by Şam’i. Şerefname - . Thus i davlet bū kitābī zebān türkī zebān kitābī bū i davlet . Hisanecdote demonstrates ,

by the late seventby the ,

introduction introduction

in the library of Abdal Khan of Bitlis. Thethe library local ofBitlis. proliferation ofAbdalKhan in of thetext 194

This is This is in the seventeenth century toofarwersencroached upon who Şerefname ,

it mayit bethat assumed intriguing intriguing by

- eenth Şam as well asas theimportance the well of ye tercüme eylemeğe bū hakīre emirlerī oldī” emirlerī hakīre bū eylemeğe yetercüme , .

’i it Understanding this, it is logical is that it Understanding this, theywould have century also demonstrates the continued political thealso importance continued demonstrates can because Şam’i describes lang changing the

that century Şerefname Şerefname 56 with be seenbe the ,

many of the Kurdish lords present the Kurdishmany atthis of lords the increasing centralization Ottoman , Şerefname

the many lordsinthe region Kurdish that

has important ethno

prominence prominence in 1597. it couldit have an been important tool

was recited within thecircles within was recited of the righ As Şerefname of Ottoman Turkish of Ottoman the ts of theKurdish lords ts Şerefname

- political claims in Çelebi

to Kurdish lords

was was

cites that uage rose .

CEU eTD Collection 197 dir” veavgānī verūmīhindī 196 Ali ( Yusuf Abdullah 195 the Arab isthel it language since languages.” Şam’i some Farsi [Persia world what in maythat be “some of order ofthemareArabic, importance. He[languages] states variations Quranic Surah ways self oflocal Kurdish gives available wit being make to thework toanew of Kurdish legible generation lords Şerefname audienceof Kur claims various the story Kurdish reinforce Moreover, loyalty. itwouldalso of toanon administrators inthe nearby ofDiyarbakir imperial text could node this readorhear Kurdish Having lords. the work Ottoman Tur into translated story loyaltytothe Ottoman ofSunni statetopushfor inorder support greaterfor the Ottoman Efendidemonstrated chapter, intheprevious utilized thetraditionalAziz work of the Kurdish

Ibid., 2b. Ibid., Ş Surah also Ar 2a. Ibid., h Ottoman Turkish.The second being am’i,

insight into local into understandingsinsight ofethnic lines and differences onlinguistic also based

commentsthat beyond further thereareand “many these wondrous tongues strange The introduction by also discussion includesa Şam’i fascinating Thealsobeen workreaso haveOttoman Turkish may into translated for another Tercümanin tārīh Tercümanin

and legible

of your and of languages into Ottoman Turkish in Eğil in1684 Turkish Eğil in may Ottoman into purposes.first servedThe have these two 197

: He all that thenreiterates thelanguages “from

“And among His Signs is thecreation is HisSigns “And among of theheavensand Elmhurst: Tahrike Tarsile Qur’an, 1995), 265. 1995), Qur’an, Tarsile Tahrike Elmhurst: n], somen], Kurdish,some Turkish

to Ottoman administrative elites. to - Room Chapter 30, Verse 22. English Translation from English 22. Translation Verse 30, Chapter Room -

i şeref hān i şeref

- fashioning. Şam’i starts his discussion of languages hisdiscussion fashioning. starts Şam’i byciting the

dish authority based onlineage.In based dish authority thetranslation essence, of the

, , 2a your anguage which received was inthegreat and Quran afterthis - 2b. “bʿazīsī ʿarabī ve bʿazīsī fārsī ve bʿazīsī kūrdī ve bʿazīsī tūrkī ve tūrkī vebʿazīsī kūrdī fārsī vebʿazīsī vebʿazīsī “bʿazīsī ʿarabī 2b.

colors.”

to make Kurdish claimsofloyalty and legitimacyto make 195 57

He then

, Rumi [Greek?], Hindi, [Greek?], Rumi and Afghan.”

goes on to list thelanguagesgoes list onto ofthe kish meant that anykish meant that Ottoman new the highest and most articulatedmost is highest and The Qur’an: Translation Qur’an: The that were - Kurdish or PersianateKurdish about

the earth,and the the language more fa more that boasted miliar miliar n. As ,

196 which , trans. ,

CEU eTD Collection 200 199 dir” fārsī dīlī 198 Islamistates “the thatwithin Kurdish, a discussionhe away linguistic shifts from toonethat more is bound toethnicity. He demarcate u elevateconnotations oftheirand the ownethnic forwhowished actors imperial to loyalties demarcate region. loyaltybothfor was inavolatile This whowished theregionalactors done to century. were These markerswhich, as importance language of the acceptable coupled be with a deemed translation accept andeven prefer useof language. Th the the Kurdish divine acceptanceand furthermore that demonstrates language the toothers within Here scholars]of and virtue noblemen prefer that everyone understand. may isdonethe Kurdish whilesimultaneously which language writing remarkab dominated by twolanguages “elevate these began people their ownlanguages.” to importance] isthePersian[in language.”

Ibid. “herk bir Ibid. di dīlī veefsahaʿrab “cumle aʿlā Ibid. dillerden ,

Şam’i illustrates the exteriorwork Şam’i the illustrates of motive his

“ After aboutMuhammad’s the Şam’i'sProphet surprisingstatement preference for Şam’i explains that the Prophet Muhammad al uʿlamā le statementservesa Şam’i’s discussionand and precursor as to

that nderstandable boundariesevernderstandable inan - i aʿzām vefazlā i aʿzām avm kendū dīllerīn iʿlā tūtmuşlar” iʿlā dīllerīn kendū avm ethnic and linguistic loyalties linguistic and ethnic inth played

- i kırām kūrd dīlinī iktiyār edūb makbūl tūtmuşlar edūb iktiyār kūrddīlinī i kırām c community [

empire. Şam’i

seen in the imperial context, inthe seen couldserve asto tools red 198 r ki aʿzīmel r korān millet

the Kurdish languagethe Kurdish and deem Şam’i proclaims that proclaims 58 - ] ] bravethe most theArab is and generous clan fluid region. fluid

states that after a number of yearsstates thataftera number of were which

influential people, divine andinfluential worldly, people, divine ong with“ ong :

to legitimize theKurdsto legitimize and theKurdish - e regionseventeenth duringthe şān ol lugatla nāzıl olmuşdur ve būndan sonra vebūndan nāzıl olmuşdur lugatla ol şān

is the Kurdish language

push by Şam’i to havepush byŞam’i to theKurdish

many great Şerefname the text ”

the in Ottoman Turkishin Ottoman so ed ,

ulema ulema demonstrate

legitimization of legitimization

it acceptable”it

was granted 199 [religious [religious

This is a This is s

the

200

CEU eTD Collection 206 Ş 205 204 203 202 201 Şam besieged byand it 1677 pro the Ottomans and pledged controlled thearea as ‘ known Ottoman war of 1676 playing along the roa drumsandinstruments recounts onthecampaign off howthey toChyhyryn set castle with theOttoman army together the Ottoman campaign1676 tojoin toChyhyryn inmodern BeyBey Kucarthegovern and Mehmed of thecall answered Bey Mehmed Kucarand Bey patron)The (Şam’i’s respectively. account describes howMustafa two emirates. local Palu whichcover ofand histories Eğilrecent the seventeenth events century ofthe Anatolia, court such of as Eğil. thesmall by byactors imperial elites butalso who regional frequented the andwere labelsEasternthatthese earlyand labels in Anatoliasuggests utilized notonly modern t therefore asonly places the Kurds rankingvarious his tothe Arabsin second peoples ofthe of [ he world. prologue The the by Şam’i provocative demonstrates importance ofethnic loyalties kabile am’i,

Finkel, Finkel, 60b. Ibid., Chyh 59b. Ibid., Ibid. Ibid. - Ottoman position ’i claims thattheOttoman forces faced “a Tercümanin tārīh Tercümanin

].” After introduction Şam’i includes this an theoriginalincludes addition to the text which Osman’s Dream Osman’s Dream Osman’s 201

He goes on to say that “after [that] thereHe goes“after say[that] istheKurdish onto that clan [ This section mainly oftheThis section and tworulers details Palu, Mustafa theexploits ofEğil yryn is spelled yrynisspelled - i şerefhān - . 205 81 in which 81 , 282. 282. , see the text, in ofMoscow” as the “Kingdom to isreferred Empire TheRussian 282. ,

captured

The Ottomans then sent alarge arm loyalty Empire toRussian

Çehrin

, , 60b. Right it

the Ottoman inthe text.

by 1678 - Bank Ukraine’ withcapital his atChyhyryn

d. after which theyafter destroyed it n 204

59 Cossack accursed battalionfour of thethree orhundred

The datestart corresponds ofthe theRusso to

due to the increasing unpopularitdue tothe increasing

vassal - day centralday Ukraine or of Diyarbakir Kaplan Diyarbakir Pasha or of yChyhyryn northtotake and castle Hetman Hetman small Kurdish courts Kurdish ofEastern small Petro DoroshenkoPetro who . kabile 206

The account by ].” .

203 defected from from defected 202

The story

Şam’i y ofhis

for these

in - CEU eTD Collection 209 208 207 recited orally;Mehme Vani populatio sourcesfrom elites, all come oftheir regional were works non disseminated tothe regional of ethnic, voice confessional, totheandimperial discussion Efendi andrulings byFeyz claims made inAhmed 3.6 demonstrate the lo of textwould theaudiences werethis officials imperial for whom text Ottoman to this local Itstate. wasfact the written inOttoman Turkish to the thatpoints is that this possibility thatone lords of the theways out points the twobrothers(they inwhich were inarms perhapscousins) actual and Diyarbakirand served bravelyaway inthe far of campaign Chyhyryn. loyal andthe theOttomanand state answeredcall Sultan to the of the brief Thefirsthighlights twoimportantthatit points. section is highlights the Kurds were Must troops. Russian received commander anGrand from VizierMustafa order were Pasha that they the tofight from Chyhyryn. thousand

Ibid. Ibid. Ş

am’i, afa Bey, and thehonora Chapter Conclusion

Şam’i’s elevationKurds amongstsim of to thegroupsis greatest the ofMuslim Tercümanin Tercümanin n ofEastern th Anatolia infidels” withtheRussiancommanderRomodanovsky sideriver ofthe ontheother Hükümet 208 207

yalty its of It thatŞam’i highlights moment the how inthis “honorable lord is ofEğil,

tārīh He then statesHe thattheir battalion then under the Kaplanpasha command of s

of Eğil andPalu wereof an brave - - i şeref hān i şeref i Kh i

ullah

d Efendia mosque waspreacher and wa ani’s work, the ble lord of Palu, Mehmed Kucarble lord ofPalu,Mehmed B

Kurdish

Efendi. These five (presumably five These Efendi. , 60b. Romodanovsky written “Ramdansko” in the text. text. in the “Ramdansko” written Romodanovsky, 60b. r ough oral Theofthe culture. twoversions

patrons. Şerefname

d valiant their in service tothe Ottoman , and statements byVani made Mehmed ey, ) Kurdish authors bring Kurdisha authors ) fought as bravefought men! s known for hispopulars known loyalties. While theseloyalties. While five

Ottoman governor of The secondThe that is Şerefname

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209 it

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