Armed Social Movements and Insurgency the PKK and Its Communities of Support
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Armed Social Movements and Insurgency The PKK and its Communities of Support Francis Patrick O'Connor Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute Florence, November 18 2014 European University Institute Department of Political and Social Sciences Armed Social Movements and Insurgency The PKK and its Communities of Support Francis Patrick O'Connor Thesis submitted for assessment with a view to obtaining the degree of Doctor of Political and Social Sciences of the European University Institute. Examining Board Prof. Donatella della Porta, European University Institute (Supervisor) Prof. Olivier Roy, European University Institute Prof. Joost Jongerden, Wageningen University Prof. Jocelyn Viterna, Harvard University © Francis Patrick O’Connor, 2014 No part of this thesis may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author. Abstract The supportive environments which sustain armed groups are arguably an understudied aspect of political violence; it is widely acknowledged that all armed groups necessitate a degree of popular support if they are to be successful but the relationship between armed movements and their supporters is often underdeveloped or considered self-explanatory. This project puts forth the argument that the relationship between armed groups and their supporters is of fundamental importance to how and where armed groups mobilise and the repertoire of contention they adopt. Making use of Malthaner’s concept of “constituency” (2011a), the PKK’s armed struggle from its foundation in the 1970s until 1999 will be analysed. The particular manner in which the PKK actively constructed and maintained extensive support networks across contrasting socio-spatial contexts ensured its ongoing legitimacy and the material resources necessary for its survival. Although a noted power disparity exists between armed and unarmed actors, the relationship between them is always characterised by degrees of reciprocal influence; influence that is often expressed in a variety of subtle and contextually specific fashions. The project will therefore examine the dialectic between the PKK and its communities of support and how this has evolved over time and space from rural Kurdistan to the urban centres of western Turkey, and consider how it has impacted on the nature of violence deployed by the PKK in the course of its insurgency. i Acknowledgements Over the last four years, I have met countless Kurdish people with firsthand experiences of the conflict. Many of these people generously took the time to share their stories with me; stories which were often difficult to recount and dredged up painful memories. Research for this project has taken me to many places to which I would otherwise never have gone and introduced me to people I would likely never have gotten to know. Amongst the people I met, I encountered immense courage and resilience, and most importantly an indefatigable humanity. My experiences with them have taught me much that stretches far beyond the limits of my academic project. I would like to thank all of these people from the bottom of my heart. This project would have never have happened were it not for the initial inspiration of my two dear friends, Seyfo and Semih. Without your help this thesis would never have been written. As a non-Kurdish or Turkish speaker I was also dependent on the help of a wide group of friends as translators. To describe them simply as translators does them a huge disservice. Over hundreds of cups of cay we discussed politics, my research and life in general to such an extent that their ideas and reflections can be found throughout the thesis. I would like to thank; Nujin, Harun, Yasin, Kıvanç and Melisa for their patience and fantastic language skills. I have been consistently amazed by the hospitality I enjoyed on my travels. Special thanks to Emre and Onur, and Semih’s family for hosting me in Istanbul. I am deeply grateful for the hospitality I received in Kurdistan; many thanks to Celil and his friends, and to Veysi and his family. Not to forget Enda McNamara who kindly hosted me in Brussels. Professor della Porta has gone beyond what could be reasonably expected in her role as supervisor. She was a reliable sounding board for all my ideas, always encouraging, and only ever constructive in her criticism. I thank her for her academic support and understanding in general. I am greatly honoured that Professor Jongerden, Professor Viterna and Professor Roy have agreed to sit on my jury. I thank them for taking the time to read my project and participate in my defence. I wish to express my gratitude to Bahar Baser, Stefan Malthaner & Lorenzo Bosi for their endless encouragement. I also would like to thank my friends Vania Kaneva, Brian Kitt and Emmet Marron for their Herculean efforts to edit my oftentimes longwinded chapters. iii I would also like to express my appreciation to the scholars who have done so much work in the field of Kurdish studies and political violence, in often very trying circumstances. I would also like to acknowledge the Kurdish Studies Network which has proven to be an invaluable resource and source of information. I would like to thank the broader community of the EUI from the Professors, my fellow colleagues and librarians to the catering and ground staff whose labours make the EUI such a pleasant learning environment. Special thanks to those in the library who dealt with my interminable Inter Library Loan requests. Doing a PhD is a fairly solitary quest but I have never felt isolated because of my housemates. I would like to thank all of my housemates from Via Ghibellina and Via Frá Giovanni Angelico for the epic dinners, card games, nights out, their entertaining animals, good humour and toleration of my annoying habits. In addition, my friends have all been great. They have ensured that I never lost sight of the wider world outside of my research and are a constant source of entertainment and support. I would also like to mention the Collettivo Prezzemolo from which I have learned a lot. I would like to thank my brother Malachy and my sisters Úna and Sheila. They have long been supportive of my work and suitably sarcastic to ensure that I do not get any illusions about myself. I wish to thank my dearest girlfriend Shachi Sharma for her love and unshakeable belief in me. Her innumerable trips to Florence and my time in Giessen have made the last four years an absolute pleasure. Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to the memory of my father Francie O’Connor and in honour of my truly marvellous and inspirational mother Alice O’Connor. Francis Patrick O’Connor iv Bijî Biratiya Gelan v vi Table of Contents ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................................II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................................... VII INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 RESEARCH DESIGN .............................................................................................................................. 3 RESEARCH QUESTION........................................................................................................................... 4 NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 5 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 10 TRANSLATED INTERVIEWS ................................................................................................................... 14 SAMPLING....................................................................................................................................... 18 AUTHORITARIAN RESEARCH ENVIRONMENT AND ETHICS ............................................................................. 20 OTHER SOURCES............................................................................................................................... 24 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................. 27 CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................................... 29 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 29 ARMED GROUPS AND CIVILIANS ........................................................................................................... 30 ARMED MOVEMENTS AND THEIR COMMUNITIES OF SUPPORT ...................................................................... 32 THE STATE ...................................................................................................................................... 36 STATE REPRESSION ............................................................................................................................ 38 SPACE AND TERRITORY ......................................................................................................................