The United Arab Emirates Indigenous Essential Oil-Bearing Plants

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9-2018

THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES INDIGENOUS ESSENTIAL OIL- BEARING PLANTS: ESSENTIAL OILS OF AERVA JAVANICA AND CLEOME AMBLYOCARPA GROWN IN SANDY SOILS UNDER ARID CONDITIONS

Suzan Marwan Ramadan Shahin

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Recommended Citation Ramadan Shahin, Suzan Marwan, "THE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES INDIGENOUS ESSENTIAL OIL-BEARING PLANTS: ESSENTIAL OILS OF AERVA JAVANICA AND CLEOME AMBLYOCARPA GROWN IN SANDY SOILS UNDER ARID CONDITIONS" (2018). Dissertations. 114. https://scholarworks.uaeu.ac.ae/all_dissertations/114

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iii

iv Advisory Committee

1) Advisor: Dr. Mohammed Abdul Mohsen Salem Alyafei Title: Associate Professor Department of Aridland Agriculture College of Food and Agriculture

2) Co-advisor: Dr. Shyam S. Kurup Title: Associate Professor Department of Aridland Agriculture College of Food and Agriculture

3) Member: Dr. Abdul Jaleel Cheruth Title: Associate Professor Department of Aridland Agriculture College of Food and Agriculture

vii Abstract

Essential Oils (EOs) are expensive hydrocarbons produced exclusively by specific species in the plant’s kingdom. Nowadays, with the growing trends of healthy lifestyle and enormous research-based discoveries, EOs became a popular, attractive topic, for both research and industry, with revenues reaching billions of dollars annually. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has rich traditional herbal medicine, associated with topical and EO-aromatherapy applications, that (in most cases) not scientifically justified nor clarified. This dissertation investigated the EO-bearing plants of the UAE, providing a databank with comprehensive knowledge for all indigenous and naturalized EO-bearing plant species of the UAE wild flowers. Also, this work studied EO for one of the common perennial medicinal shrubs of the UAE, which is Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schul. (Amaranthaceae). The focus was on EO isolated from leaves and flowers of this shrub, and how different factors (including: post- harvest drying methods, particle size, seasonal variation) can significantly influence EO yield quantitatively (by hydrodistillation) and qualitatively (by Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS)). This work aimed to provide a scientific justification for the rich traditional applications of A. javanica, through investigating it is antioxidant activity (in vitro) using DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays. Results showed that post-harvest drying methods lead to significant effect on EO yield qualitatively and quantitatively. Generally, EO of fresh samples provided the best quality yield, while freeze drying was the best drying method that conserves that quality. Seasonal variations lead to significant effect on all studied physiological parameters and EO yield qualitatively and quantitatively. Spring was the best season to harvest the best quality EO. Leaves particle size lead to significant variation on EO yield. A. javanica EO (particularly extracted from leaves) has antioxidant activity (in vitro). Additionally, this dissertation wanted to explore EO of Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. (Cleomaceae), which is a medicinal annual herb widespread in the UAE. Studies related to germination and seedlings emergence rate were conducted. The influences of three soil matric potentials were investigated (pF: 1.7 “control”, 1.9 “moderate stress”, 2.1 “high stress”), created by applying three irrigation regimes and measured by Stevens pF Sensors. Effect of water stress on vegetative growth

viii parameters and yield were recorded (fresh and dry weight basis). Besides, this work studied the influence of the created three pF levels on the EO yield quantitatively (by hydrodistillation) and qualitatively (by GC-MS). Results of GC-MS analysis provided compounds identification for 27, 20, and 17 volatiles, under pF levels of 1.7, 1.9, and 2.1, respectively. Morpho-physiological analysis were conducted by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and spectrophotometer methods. Finally, this dissertation explored (in vitro) the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa EO (extracted from it is seeds and whole plant) using DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays. Results showed that C. amblyocarpa is a sensitive desert herb to water availability. Drought stress severity reduced the overall vegetative growth parameters and caused significant reduction on overall vegetative yield. Drought stress caused significant morpho-physiological variations. The pF at 1.9 is a good stress indicator tool that shows the maximum tolerable water stress level during C. amblyocarpa life cycle. Results showed that this herb is a promising source of phytochemicals that have antioxidant activity (in vitro). This work concluded by adding this species as a new record of the EO-bearing plants, to have in total 136 Emirati EO-bearing plant species, as well as a new natural resource of bioactive antioxidants.

Keywords: Essential oils (EOs), Indigenous medicinal plants, Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schul., Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb., Post-harvest drying method, Particle size, Seasonal variation, Water stress, Stevens pF Sensors, Hydrodistillation, Morpho-physiological analysis, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Spectrophotometer, Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Antioxidants, UAE.

ix Title and Abstract (in Arabic)

النباتات الحاملة للزيوت العطرية في دولة اإلمارات العربية المتحدة: الزيت العطري ل ُشجيرة األرا و ُعشبة الخنيزة النامية في التربة الرمليــة تحت الظروف القاحلـــة

الملخص

تُعتبر الزيوت العطرية مركبات عضوية ثمينة يتم إنتاجها حصراً عن طريق مجموعة خاصة من األصناف النباتية في مملكة النبات. وقد ارتفعت قيمة هذه المركبات مؤخراً نظراً لتزايد نسبة الوعي المتعلق بأنماط الحياة الصحية مع ارتفاع عدد اإلكتشافات البحثية ذات العالقة. فقد أصبح موضوع الزيوت العطرية موضوعاً مثيراً لالهتمام من قِبَل شريحة واسعة على النطاق البحثي والصناعي بإيرادات ضخمة تصل قيمتها لمليارات الدوالرات سنوياً. تمتاز دولة اإلمارات العربية المتحدة بموروث ثقافي غني على صعيد التداوي باألعشاب الطبية. ولهذا اإلرث عالقة وطيدة بمفهوم التداوي بالرائحة وتطبيقات الزيوت العطرية. لكن هذا المجال اليمكن اعتماده طبياً إال عن طريق توثيق وتدعيم النتائج بالدراسات واألبحاث العلمية. وهنا يأتي الهدف من هذه األطروحة بالتحري عن جميع النباتات الحاملة للزيوت العطرية وحصرها ببنك للمعلومات يحوي معلومات مف ّصلة عن النباتات المحلية الحاملة للزيوت العطرية في الدولة. وقد قامت هذه األطروحة بتسليط الضوء على إحدى أهم الشجيرات الطبية المنتشرة في الدولة وهي شجيرة األرا/ التوايم من الفصيلة القطيفية. وقد كان الهدف التركيز على دراسة الزيوت العطرية المستخلصة من أوراق وأزهار هذه الشجيرة المحلية، ومعرفة تأثير مجموعة من العوامل )كطريقة التجفيف مابعد الحصاد، حجم الحبيبات، التغيرات المو ِسميّة( على إنتاجية الزيوت العطرية لشجيرة األرا/ التوايم كماً )عن طريق التقطير( ونوعاً )عن طريق تقنية تحليل الغازات بالطيف الكمي GC-MS(. وقد كان الهدف من هذه الدراسة تقديم تفسير علمي يُبرر اإلستخدامات الثرية لهذه الشجيرة ألغراض عالجية في الممارسات الطبية التقليدية، وذلك عن طريق دراسة النشاط المضاد لألكسدة لزيتها العطري مخبرياً باستخدام مقاييس متعارف عليها في هذا المجال )وهي الـ DPPH، ABTS ،FRAP(. وقد أظهرت النتائج بأن طريقة التجفيف أدت لحدوث فروق معنوية على الزيت العطري المستخلص كماً ونوعاً. وبشك ٍل عام فقد تم الحصول على أفضل جودة للزيت العطري عن طريق العينات الطازجة، وقد ُوجد بأن طريقة التجفيف بالتجميد هي الطريقة ال ُمثال للمحافظة على جودة الزيت العطري. كما أ ّدت التغيرات المو ِس مية لحدوث فروق معنوية على جميع العوامل الشكلية والتشريحية المدروسة وعلى إنتاجية الزيت العطري كماً ونوعاً. وقد ُوجد

x بأن فصل الربيع هو التوقيت األمثل لحصاد أفضل جودة للزيت العطري ال ُمستخلص. وقد تم إثبات بأن الزيت العطري لنبات األرا )خصوصاً الزيت المستخلص من األوراق( له خصائص فعالة كمضادات لألكسدة )ال ُمثبته بالتحليل المخبري(. وعلى صعي ٍد آخر فقد قامت هذه األطروحة بتسليط المجهرعلى نبا ٍت طبي محلي آخر منتشر في الدولة وهو عشبة الخنيزة التابع للفصيلة الذفرية. وقد تمت دراسة بعض العوامل المؤثرة على معدالت اإلنبات وظهور البادرات في هذه العشبة. كما تم دراسة تأثير معامل اإلجهاد لحبيبات الرمال المعروف بـpF على 3 معدالت )1.7 "عامل اإلجهاد المحايد"، 1.9 "عامل اإلجهاد المتوسط"، 2.1 "عامل اإلجهاد الشديد"( وذلك عن طريق تطبيق ثالثة جداول للري والتي تم قياسها باستخدام تقنية Stevens pF Sensors. وتم قياس تأثير معامالت الري على النمو والمحصول الخضري للعشبة )باالعتماد على الوزن األصلي والجاف(. كما تم دراسة تأثير معامل اإلجهاد لحبيبات الرمال على اإلنتاج الكمي "عن طريق التقطير" والنوعي )عن طريق تقنية تحليل الغازات بالطيف الكمي GC-MS( للزيت العطري للعشبة. وقد تضمن التحليل النوعي للزيت العطري تحديد جميع مركباته الطيّارة التي بلغ عددها 27، 20، 17 باستخدام معامالت اإلجهاد 1.7، 1.9، 2.1 على التوالي. كما تم إجراء تحاليل شكلية وتشريحية للعشبة باستخدام تقنية المسح اإللكتروني المجهري )SEM(. وأخيراً قامت هذه األطروحة بدراسة الخصائص المضادة لألكسدة للزيت العطري لعشبة الخنيزة مخبرياً وذلك بتطبيق ثالثة مقاييس )وهي الـ ABTS ،FRAP ،DPPH(. وقد أظهرت النتائج حساسية عشبة الخنيزة لوجود الماء. فكلما زادت نسبة جفاف التربة كلما قل المحصول الخضري بشك ٍل عام وكلما أدى ذلك لنقص ذو فروق معنوية بالمعايير الشكلية والتشريحية لل ُعشبة. وتَدل النتائج بإمكانية االعتماد على معامل اإلجهاد المتوسط عند قيمة )1.9( كمؤشر ف ّعال للحد األعلى ل ُشح المياه التي تستطيع العشبة احتماله. وتؤكد الدراسة بأن عشبة الخنيزة هي مصدر للمركبات الهيدروكربونية الفعالة المضادة لألكسدة )مخبرياً(. وقد خلُصت األطروحة بإدراج هذه العشبة المحلية كعشبة جديدة حاملة للزيوت العطرية ومصدرا ً غنياً بمضادات األكسدة الطبيعية. وبهذا تكون الدراسة قد أضافة سجالً جديداً في قائمة النباتات العطرية ليبلغ مجموعها 136 نبات عطري محلي.

مفاهيم البحث الرئيسية: الزيوت العطرية، النباتات المحلية الطبية، شجيرة األرا، عشبة الخنيزة، إجهاد المياه، طريقة التجفيف، حجم الحبيبات، التغيرات الموسمية، التقطير، تقنية الـ Stevens pF Sensor، التحليل الشكلي والتشريحي، تقنية المسح بالمجهر اإللكتروني، تقنية الطيف الضوئي، تقنية تحليل الغازات بالطيف الكمي GC-MS، مضادات األكسدة، دولة اإلمارات العربية المتحدة.

xi Acknowledgements

Praise be to my great God for his unlimited graces and help to complete the requirements of this work.

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to H.H. Sheikh Nahyan bin

Mubarak Al Nahyan for the generous grant of the Ph.D. scholarship, and H.E. Sultan bin Rashid Al Kharji who supported my application. Also, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Mohammed Salem Al Yafei for his encouragement, support and trust.

Besides, I would like to thank my Ph.D. committee, Dr. Shyam Kurup and Dr. Abdul-

Jaleel Cheruth for their advices and continuous support.

I would like to acknowledge the great assistance of the following: Prof. Ali

El-Keblawy (University of Sharjah) for sharing the knowledge related to the UAE plants. Sharjah Seed Bank and Herbarium (Sharjah Research Academy) for providing the native seeds. Dr. Franz Lennartz for the valuable assistance in soil hydrology. Dr. Senthilkumar Annadurai for his great support in EO extraction and

GC-MS analysis. Prof. Ali Al Marzouqi (College of Engineering) for the continuous support and for sharing the valuable knowledge related to EO. Mr. Saeed Tariq

(College of Medicine and Health Sciences) for his assistance related to Scanning

Electron Microscope. Mr. Arshed el daley, Mr. Felix Labata, Mr. Abou-Messallam

Azab, Mr. Saad Ismail, Mr. Babucarr Jobe, Ms. Hina Mehboob for their great cooperation. Also, I want to thank Al Foah Research Farm and all faculty and staff of the College of Food and Agriculture who supported my research journey.

Special and endless appreciation go to my family including my great and beloved parents, dear brothers, sister and soul mate “Dr. Rahaf Ajaj” for her endless support, care and love. Finally, many thanks to all my family members and friends.

xii Dedication

To the United Arab Emirates, my great and beloved parents, brothers and soul mate

xiii Table of Contents

Title ...... i Declaration of Original Work ...... ii Copyright ...... iii Advisory Committee ...... iv Approval of the Doctorate Dissertation ...... v Abstract ...... vii Title and Abstract (in Arabic) ...... ix Acknowledgements ...... xi Dedication ...... xii Table of Contents ...... xiii List of Tables ...... xvi List of Figures ...... xxi List of Abbreviations ...... xxiv Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Overview ...... 1 1.1.1 The Essential Oils ...... 1 1.1.2 The UAE ………………………………………………………... 2 1.2 Statement of the Problem and Research Questions ...... 4 1.2.1 Problem No. 1…………………………………………………… 4 1.2.2 Problem No. 2…………………………………………………… 5 1.2.3 Problem No. 3…………………………………………………… 6 1.3 Research Objectives and Hypotheses ...... 8 1.4 Research Hypotheses Discussion ...... 9 1.5 Dissertation Outline ...... 10 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 12 2.1 Essential Oils: The Gifts of Nature ...... 12 2.1.1 Insights into the Extraction Methods ...... 13 2.1.2 Insights into the Biological Activities ...... 16 2.1.3 Insights into the Applications ...... 19 2.1.4 Insights into the Sustainable Value ...... 21 2.2 The UAE: Environmental Facts ...... 23 2.2.1 Overview on the Current Freshwater Resources...... 23 2.2.2 The Demanding Future on the UAE Agricultural Sector ...... 29 2.2.3 A Key Message to the Decision Makers ...... 32 2.2.4 The Role of the Indigenous Plants ...... 32

xiv

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods ...... 40 3.1 Hypothesis No. 1 Methodologies: The Emirati EO-Bearing Plants ...... 42 3.2 Hypothesis No. 2 Methodologies: EO of Aerva javanica ...... 43 3.2.1 Plant Identification ...... 43 3.2.2 Study Location and Plant Collection Schedules ...... 43 3.2.3 Soil Analysis…………………………………………………… 44 3.2.4 Statistics and Experimental Design...... 45 3.2.5 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos ...... 46 3.2.6 Plant Physiological Parameters by Spectrophotometer ...... 47 3.2.7 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation ...... 48 3.3 Hypothesis No. 3 Methodologies: Antioxidant Activity of A. javanica EO ...... 53 3.3.1 Tested Samples ………………………………………………… 53 3.3.2 Sample Preparation ...... 54 3.3.3 Standard Curves ...... 54 3.3.4 Antioxidant Assays ...... 55 3.4 Hypothesis No. 4 Methodologies: EO of Cleome amblyocarpa ...... 56 3.4.1 Plant Material (Source and Identification) ...... 56 3.4.2 Study Location, Weather Conditions and Soil Analysis ...... 57 3.4.3 Statistics………………………………………………………... 60 3.4.4 Germination Test and Seedlings Emergence ...... 60 3.4.5 Soil Water Retention Characteristics (pF Curve) ...... 63 3.4.6 Experimental Design and Irrigation Regimes Treatment ...... 64 3.4.7 Plant Growth and Yield ...... 65 3.4.8 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos ...... 66 3.4.9 Plant Physiological Parameters by Spectrophotometer ...... 67 3.4.10 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation ...... 69 3.5 Hypothesis No. 5 Methodologies: Antioxidant Activity of C. amblyocarpa EO ...... 71 3.5.1 Tested Samples...... 71 3.5.2 Sample Preparation ...... 72 3.5.3 Standard Curves ...... 72 3.5.4 Antioxidant Assays ...... 72 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions ...... 75 4.1 Hypothesis No. 1 Outcomes: The Databank of the Emirati EO-Bearing Plants ...... 75 4.1.1 A Comprehensive Overview ...... 75 4.1.2 A Detailed Overview ...... 80 4.1.3 List of Abbreviations ...... 126 4.1.4 Obstacles and Difficulties ...... 129 4.1.5 Remarks and Conclusions ...... 130 4.2 Hypothesis No. 2 Outcomes: EO of Aerva javanica ...... 131

4.2.1 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos ...... 131 4.2.2 Plant Physiology by Spectrophotomer ...... 137 4.2.3 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation ...... 143 4.2.4 Remarks and Conclusions ...... 168 4.3 Hypothesis No. 3 Outcomes: Antioxidant Activity of A. javanica ...... 171 4.3.1 DPPH Assay……………………………………………………172 4.3.2 FRAP Assay……………………………………………………181 4.3.3 ABTS Assay……………………………………………………188 4.3.4 Correlations between Antioxidant Assays ...... 197 4.3.5 Remarks and Conclusions ...... 200 4.4 Hypothesis No. 4 Outcomes: EO of Cleome amblyocarpa ...... 202 4.4.1 Seeds Germination Parameters ...... 202 4.4.2 Seedling Emergence ...... 204 4.4.3 Soil Water Retention Characteristics (pF Curve) ...... 206 4.4.4 The pF Levels of the Irrigation Regimes ...... 209 4.4.5 Effect of pF Levels on Vegetative Growth Parameter ...... 212 4.4.6 Effect of pF Levels on Vegetative Yields ...... 215 4.4.7 Effect of pF Levels on Physiological Parameters ...... 221 4.4.8 Effect of pF on EO Yield ...... 228 4.4.9 Effect of pF on Leaf Epidermis by SEM ...... 235 4.4.10 Remarks and Conclusions ...... 239 4.5 Hypothesis No. 5 Outcomes: Antioxidant Activity of C. amblyocarpa ...... 241 4.5.1 Antioxidant Assays ...... 242 4.5.2 Correlations between Antioxidant Assays ...... 245 4.5.3 Remarks and Conclusions ...... 247 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Future Research ...... 249 5.1 Conclusions ...... 249 5.2 Recommendations and Future Research ...... 255 References ...... 256 List of Publications ...... 294 Appendix ...... 295

xvi List of Tables

Table 1: Assessing water demand by sector in the UAE ...... 24 Table 2: Aerva javanica ethnomedicinal applications ...... 37 Table 3: Summary of A. javanica treatments ...... 49 Table 4: A. javanica EO extraction conditions subjected to antioxidant test ...... 54 Table 5: Treatments of growing media ...... 62 Table 6: Treatments of the seed color influence ...... 63 Table 7: Treatments of irrigation regimes ...... 65 Table 8: C. amblyocarpa EO extraction conditions subjected to antioxidant test ...... 72 Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae ...... 83 Table 10: The UAE EO-bearing species of Fabaceae/ Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae ...... 89 Table 11: The UAE EO-bearing species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae ...... 91 Table 12: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae ...... 95 Table 13: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae ...... 99 Table 14: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae ...... 102 Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae ...... 104 Table 16: Details of EOs isolated from species of Fabaceae/ Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae ...... 115 Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae...... 119 Table 18: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from leaves under different drying methods ...... 148 Table 19: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers under different drying methods ...... 152 Table 20: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from air-dried flowers during spring and summer ...... 165 Table 21: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of fresh leaves (n=9) ...... 197 Table 22: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of air-dried leaves (n=9) ...... 198 Table 23: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of freeze-dried leaves (n=9)...... 198 Table 24: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of fresh flowers (n=9) ...... 198

xvii

Table 25: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of air-dried flowers (n=9) ...... 198 Table 26: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of freeze-dried flowers (n=9)...... 199 Table 27: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of spring flowers (n=9) ...... 199 Table 28: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of summer flowers (n=9) ...... 199 Table 29: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of autumn flowers (n=9) ...... 200 Table 30: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of winter flowers (n=9) ...... 200 Table 31: The tested parameters of seeds germination of C. amblyocarpa ...... 203 Table 32: Soil moisture contents and pF at certain pressures ...... 207 Table 33: The watering treatments and the measured pF levels ...... 210 Table 34: Measured soil moisture content for each watering treatment by TDR ...... 212 Table 35: Influence of pF levels on vegetative growth parameters ...... 213 Table 36: Composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water ...... 231 Table 37: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of C.amblyocarpa seeds’ oil (n=9) ...... 246 Table 38: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of C.amblyocarpa oil (whole plant) (n=9) ...... 246 Table 39: World essential oil production, consumption and applications ...... 295 Table 40: Prices of selected standard and organic essential oils...... 296 Table 41: Annual sales of top five essential oil companies ...... 296 Table 42: Soil chemical analysis of A. javanica by ICP-OES ...... 297 Table 43: Soil chemical analysis of C. amblyocarpa by ICP-OES (n=3) ...... 300 Table 44: Chemical analysis of C. amblyocarpa irrigation water by ICP-OES (n=3) ...... 300 Table 45: The UAE EO-bearing species of Amaranthaceae...... 301 Table 46: The UAE EO-bearing species of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae ...... 302 Table 47: The UAE EO-bearing species of Apocynaceae ...... 304 Table 48: The UAE EO-bearing species of Boraginaceae ...... 305 Table 49: The UAE EO-bearing species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae ...... 305 Table 50: The UAE EO-bearing species of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae ...... 308 Table 51: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cleomaceae ...... 310 Table 52: The UAE EO-bearing species of Convolvulaceae ...... 310 Table 53: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cucurbitaceae...... 312 Table 54: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cyperaceae ...... 313 Table 55: The UAE EO-bearing species of Euphorbiaceae ...... 314 Table 56: The UAE EO-bearing species of Myrtaceae...... 317

xviii

Table 57: The UAE EO-bearing species of Oleaceae ...... 317 Table 58: The UAE EO-bearing species of Plantaginaceae ...... 319 Table 59: The UAE EO-bearing species of Poaceae/ Gramineae ...... 320 Table 60: The UAE EO-bearing species of Polygonaceae ...... 322 Table 61: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rhamnaceae ...... 323 Table 62: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rutaceae ...... 324 Table 63: The UAE EO-bearing species of Verbenaceae ...... 325 Table 64: The UAE EO-bearing species of Zingiberaceae ...... 326 Table 65: The UAE EO-bearing species of Zygophyllaceae ...... 327 Table 66: The UAE EO-bearing species of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae...... 327 Table 67: The UAE EO-bearing species of Anacardiaceae ...... 328 Table 68: The UAE EO-bearing species of Arecaceae ...... 329 Table 69: The UAE EO-bearing species of Bignoniaceae ...... 329 Table 70: The UAE EO-bearing species of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae ...... 330 Table 71: The UAE EO-bearing species of Casuarinaceae ...... 330 Table 72: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cistaceae ...... 331 Table 73: The UAE EO-bearing species of Combretaceae ...... 331 Table 74: The UAE EO-bearing species of Frankeniaceae ...... 332 Table 75: The UAE EO-bearing species of Geraniaceae ...... 332 Table 76: The UAE EO-bearing species of Hypericaceae ...... 333 Table 77: The UAE EO-bearing species of Iridaceae ...... 333 Table 78: The UAE EO-bearing species of Liliaceae ...... 334 Table 79: The UAE EO-bearing species of Lythraceae ...... 334 Table 80: The UAE EO-bearing species of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae ...... 335 Table 81: The UAE EO-bearing species of Ranunculaceae ...... 335 Table 82: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rubiaceae ...... 336 Table 83: The UAE EO-bearing species of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae ...... 337 Table 84: The UAE EO-bearing species of Solanaceae ...... 337 Table 85: The UAE EO-bearing species of Tamaricaceae ...... 339 Table 86: The UAE EO-bearing species of Violaceae ...... 339 Table 87: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Amaranthaceae ...... 340 Table 88: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae ...... 342 Table 89: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Apocynaceae ...... 344 Table 90: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Boraginaceae ...... 345 Table 91: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae ...... 346 Table 92: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae...... 347 Table 93: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cleomaceae ...... 348 Table 94: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Convolvulaceae ...... 349 Table 95: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cucurbitaceae ...... 349 Table 96: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cyperaceae...... 350

xix

Table 97: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Euphorbiaceae ...... 350 Table 98: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Myrtaceae ...... 352 Table 99: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Oleaceae...... 352 Table 100: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Plantaginaceae ...... 353 Table 101: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Poaceae/ Gramineae ...... 354 Table 102: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Polygonaceae ...... 356 Table 103: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rhamnaceae ...... 357 Table 104: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rutaceae...... 357 Table 105: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Verbenaceae ...... 358 Table 106: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Zingiberaceae...... 359 Table 107: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Zygophyllaceae ...... 359 Table 108: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae ...... 360 Table 109: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Anacardiaceae ...... 360 Table 110: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Arecaceae ...... 361 Table 111: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Bignoniaceae ...... 361 Table 112: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae...... 362 Table 113: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Casuarinaceae ...... 362 Table 114: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cistaceae ...... 363 Table 115: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Combretaceae ...... 363 Table 116: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Frankeniaceae ...... 364 Table 117: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Geraniaceae ...... 364 Table 118: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Hypericaceae ...... 365 Table 119: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Iridaceae...... 365 Table 120: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Liliaceae...... 366 Table 121: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lythraceae ...... 366 Table 122: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae ...... 367 Table 123: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Ranunculaceae ...... 367 Table 124: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rubiaceae...... 368 Table 125: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae ...... 368 Table 126: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Solanaceae ...... 369 Table 127: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Tamaricaceae ...... 369 Table 128: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Violaceae ...... 370 Table 129: Details of EOs isolated from species of Amaranthaceae ...... 370 Table 130: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae ...... 372 Table 131: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apocynaceae ...... 375 Table 132: Details of EOs isolated from species of Boraginaceae ...... 379 Table 133: Details of EOs isolated from species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae ...... 380 Table 134: Details of EOs isolated from species of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae ...... 383

Table 135: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cleomaceae ...... 384 Table 136: Details of EOs isolated from species of Convolvulaceae ...... 385 Table 137: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cucurbitaceae ...... 386 Table 138: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cyperaceae ...... 387 Table 139: Details of EOs isolated from species of Euphorbiaceae ...... 389 Table 140: Details of EOs isolated from species of Myrtaceae ...... 390 Table 141: Details of EOs isolated from species of Oleaceae ...... 392 Table 142: Details of EOs isolated from species of Plantaginaceae ...... 393 Table 143: Details of EOs isolated from species of Poaceae/ Gramineae ...... 394 Table 144: Details of EOs isolated from species of Polygonaceae ...... 396 Table 145: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rhamnaceae ...... 398 Table 146: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rutaceae ...... 399 Table 147: Details of EOs isolated from species of Verbenaceae ...... 402 Table 148: Details of EOs isolated from species of Zingiberaceae ...... 407 Table 149: Details of EOs isolated from species of Zygophyllaceae ...... 410 Table 150: Details of EOs isolated from species of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae ...... 411 Table 151: Details of EOs isolated from species of Anacardiaceae ...... 412 Table 152: Details of EOs isolated from species of Arecaceae ...... 413 Table 153: Details of EOs isolated from species of Bignoniaceae ...... 414 Table 154: Details of EOs isolated from species of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae...... 414 Table 155: Details of EOs isolated from species of Casuarinaceae ...... 415 Table 156: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cistaceae ...... 415 Table 157: Details of EOs isolated from species of Combretaceae ...... 416 Table 158: Details of EOs isolated from species of Frankeniaceae ...... 417 Table 159: Details of EOs isolated from species of Geraniaceae ...... 418 Table 160: Details of EOs isolated from species of Hypericaceae ...... 419 Table 161: Details of EOs isolated from species of Iridaceae ...... 420 Table 162: Details of EOs isolated from species of Liliaceae ...... 421 Table 163: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lythraceae ...... 421 Table 164: Details of EOs isolated from species of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae ...... 422 Table 165: Details of EOs isolated from species of Ranunculaceae ...... 423 Table 166: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rubiaceae ...... 424 Table 167: Details of EOs isolated from species of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae ...... 425 Table 168: Details of EOs isolated from species of Solanaceae ...... 426 Table 169: Details of EOs isolated from species of Tamaricaceae ...... 426 Table 170: Details of EOs isolated from species of Violaceae ...... 427

xxi List of Figures

Figure 1: The isoprene unit ...... 13 Figure 2: Main current pathways of water withdrawal by source and sector in the UAE...... 23 Figure 3: The population growth in the UAE ...... 25 Figure 4: Aerva javanica aerial parts ...... 36 Figure 5: Cleome amblyocarpa whole plant ...... 39 Figure 6: Overview of all conducted experiments according to research hypotheses ...... 41 Figure 7: C. amblyocarpa pot plant experiment ...... 58 Figure 8: Recorded temperature of C. amblyocarpa pot plant experiment ...... 58 Figure 9: C. amblyocarpa seeds color ...... 63 Figure 10: Families of EO-bearing plant species in the UAE ...... 78 Figure 11: Habitats of EO-bearing plants in the UAE ...... 79 Figure 12: Major plant parts for EO production in the UAE ...... 79 Figure 13: Status of EO-bearing plants in the UAE...... 80 Figure 14: A. javanica leaf epidermius (abaxial view) ...... 133 Figure 15: Features of A javanica leaf epedermis (abaxial view)...... 133 Figure 16: Leaf epidermis trichomes of A javanica (abaxial view) ...... 134 Figure 17: Leaf epidermis glandular trichomes of A javanica (abaxial view) ...... 134 Figure 18: A. javanica leaf epidermius (adaxial view) ...... 135 Figure 19: Leaf epidermis trichomes of A javanica (adaxial view) ...... 135 Figure 20: Flower epidermis trichomes of A javanica (Magnification: 400X) ...... 136 Figure 21: Flowers epidermis trichomes of A javanica (Magnification: 800X) ...... 136 Figure 22: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica Chlorophyll content ...... 137 Figure 23: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica carotenoids content ...... 140 Figure 24: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica proline content ...... 142 Figure 25: Effect of drying methods on EO yield of A. javanica ...... 145 Figure 26: Effect of A. javanica leaves particle size on EO yield ...... 159 Figure 27: Effect of seasonal variation on flowers of A. javanica EO yield ...... 160 Figure 28: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by DPPH assay ...... 173 Figure 29: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by DPPH assay ...... 178 Figure 30: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by FRAP assay ...... 182 Figure 31: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by FRAP assay ...... 187 Figure 32: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by ABTS assay ...... 190

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Figure 33: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by ABTS assay ...... 194 Figure 34: The trend of seeds germination percentages ...... 203 Figure 35: The influence of growing media on seedlings emergence percentages ...... 205 Figure 36: The influence of seeds color on seedlings emergence percentages ...... 206 Figure 37: The soil water retention curve (pF curve) ...... 208 Figure 38: Soil hydraulic properties by RETC software...... 208 Figure 39: The soil matric potential versus soil moisture content by RETC software ...... 209 Figure 40: The pF levels of the applied three treatments ...... 210 Figure 41: The change of pF level over time by Stevens Sensors ...... 211 Figure 42: The change of the soil moisture content over time by TDR...... 211 Figure 43: Effect of water stress on the vegetative growth...... 214 Figure 44: Effect of water stress on the whole plant growth ...... 214 Figure 45: The influence of water stress on yield, excluding fruits ...... 217 Figure 46: The influence of water stress on fruits yield ...... 218 Figure 47: The influence of water stress on the total yield ...... 218 Figure 48: The influence of water stress on roots yield ...... 220 Figure 49: The influence of water stress on stems yield ...... 220 Figure 50: The influence of water stress on leaves yield ...... 221 Figure 51: The influence of water stress on chlorophyll content ...... 224 Figure 52: The influence of water stress on carotenoids content ...... 226 Figure 53: The influence of water stress on proline content ...... 227 Figure 54: Effect of water stress on C. amblyocarpa EO (whole plant oil) ...... 229 Figure 55: C. amblyocarpa under low water stress (pF 1.7)...... 236 Figure 56: C. amblyocarpa under moderate water stress (pF 1.9) ...... 236 Figure 57: C. amblyocarpa under high water stress (pF 2.1) ...... 237 Figure 58: C. amblyocarpa EO at low water stress (pF 1.7) ...... 237 Figure 59: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at low water stress (pF 1.7) ...... 238 Figure 60: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at moderate water stress (pF 1.9) ...... 238 Figure 61: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at high water stress (pF 2.1) ...... 239 Figure 62: C. amblyocarpa EO antioxidant activity ...... 243 Figure 63: Proline standard curve ...... 297 Figure 64: Standard curve of DPPH assay ...... 298 Figure 65: Standard curve of FRAP assay ...... 298 Figure 66: Standard curve of ABTS assay ...... 299 Figure 67: The chromatogram of A. javanica fresh leaves’ EO ...... 428

xxiii

Figure 68: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried leaves’ EO...... 429 Figure 69: The chromatogram of A. javanica freeze-dried leaves’ EO ...... 430 Figure 70: The chromatogram of A. javanica fresh flowers’ EO ...... 431 Figure 71: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO...... 432 Figure 72: The chromatogram of A. javanica freeze-dried flowers’ EO ...... 433 Figure 73: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO of spring ...... 434 Figure 74: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO of summer ...... 435 Figure 75: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 1.7 ...... 436 Figure 76: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 1.9 ...... 437 Figure 77: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 2.1 ...... 438

xxiv List of Abbreviations

ADSSC Abu Dhabi Sewerage Services Company

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

EO Essential Oil

FC Field Capacity

GC-MS Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

PWP Permanent Wilting Point

ROS Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

SD Standard Deviation

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

TDR Time Domain Reflectometry

TWW Treated Wastewater

UAE United Arab Emirates

UAEU United Arab Emirates University

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Overview

1.1.1 The Essential Oils

The essential oils (EOs) industry creates billions of dollars revenues annually.

Therefore, more attention has been given recently to this sector, as a primary natural resource for phytochemicals. Indeed, the EOs industry has a wide range of enormous applications in various fields, such as pharmaceuticals, aromatherapy, healthcare, cosmetic, food flavouring and preservation, and fragrance industry (Baser and

Buchbauer, 2015).

EOs are concentrated phytochemicals; comprise mostly from terpenes, oxygenated terpenes, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (Shahin and

Salem, 2015a). EOs are volatiles associated with a characteristic aroma resulted from the complex interaction between hundreds of volatiles, (Al‐Marzouqi et al., 2007;

Shahin and Salem, 2014a, 2015a). These hydrophobic compounds are produced exclusively from certain plant species as secondary metabolites, acting as defense phytochemicals (Wink, 2003).

Globally, EOs applications have deep roots in the old traditional practices, in which they were a natural resource to treat infections and sicknesses for hundreds of years (Tyagi et al., 2012). However, such traditional practices lack the scientific validation, and thus have to be remarkably studied and tested; looking for a scientific justification.

The chemical composition of the EOs extracted from various parts of the same plant can be significantly different based on the utilized plant part. Therefore, particular plant parts are considered for commercialization purposes. For example,

2 potential EOs could be obtained from roots (e.g., vetiver), rhizomes (e.g., ginger, calamus), bark and branches (e.g., cinnamon), leaves (e.g., mint, oregano, eucalyptus), flowers (e.g., jasmine, lavender, chamomile), fruits peel (e.g., lemon, orange), and seeds (e.g., cardamom) (Fornari et al., 2012; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

In fact, EOs are present in small quantities in the plant material (less than 5% of dry matter). The cultivation process plays a significant role in EO yield quantitatively and qualitatively (e.g., soil chemical and physical properties, soil moisture content, climatic conditions, and harvesting time) (Fornari et al., 2012).

Additionally, the post-harvest practices (e.g. plant drying method, plant particles size, extraction method and parameters, and shelf life) play essential role in the extract’s yield (Dziri et al., 2014; Acevedo-Fani et al., 2015; Sirocchi et al., 2015). Therefore, for commercialization, it is necessary to have an excellent scientific background related to the optimal conditions for the best quality yield.

1.1.2 The UAE

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a young country, with total land area of approximately 82,880 km2 (UAE Government, 2017), and an increasing population reaching 9,269,612 by 2016 (World Bank, 2017). The UAE is located in the arid region of the world, in the southeastern portion of the Arabian Peninsula. It has two coastlines, the Gulf of Oman to the east and the Arabian Sea to the north and west. The UAE is a federation of seven Emirates: Abu Dhabi (which represents 89% of total UAE land area), Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Ras Al Khaimah and Fujairah (Tayim and Al-Yozouri, 2005; UAE Government, 2017).

As it belongs to the arid zone, the climate is characterized by high summer temperatures (around 46oC) and high humidity rates along the two coastal lines (FAO,

1997). The precipitation rate is low and irregular over most of the Emirates, around 60

3 mm to 160 mm (MEW, 2005). The soil is classified as a sandy soil with high permeability rate, low water holding capacity, and thus low fertility rate (Shahin and

Salem, 2014b; Ajaj et al., 2018a, 2018b).

Soil is a precious resource that were declared to be a challenging topic in countries of the drought regions like the UAE. According to Ajaj et al. (2018b) elementary analysis of the UAE agricultural soils revealed that some elements were found to be within acceptable limits, such as Arsenic (As), Calcium (Ca), Manganese

(Mn), Strontium (Sr) and Vanadium (V). While deficiency of some elements like

Molybdenum (Mo) and (Zinc) Zn were reported. On the other hand, excessive availability of some elements were recorded, such as Aluminum (Al), Iron (Fe),

Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg), Sodium (Na), Nickel (Ni), Phosphorous (P), Sulfur

(S), and Silicon (Si). Therefore, the periodic testing is a crucial task.

Conventional surface water resources include seasonal floods, springs and falajes. The only groundwater resource comes from aquifers. Significantly, 45% of total annual renewable water depends on the groundwater resource and 80% of this is used for agricultural purposes (Murad et al., 2007).

The high dependency on groundwater aquifers with the low recharging rates cause both groundwater depletion and saline water intrusion (EAD, 2009; Gonzalez et al., 2016; Mohamed et al., 2017). Creating concerns that aquifer supplies may soon be depleted (UNDP, 2013; Gonzalez et al., 2016; Mohamed et al., 2017) and indicating a challenging future for the sustainability of the agricultural sector of the country.

1.2 Statement of the Problem and Research Questions

1.2.1 Problem No. 1

The UAE is located in the arid region of the world with challenges related to freshwater scarcity (Gonzalez et al., 2016). Therefore, it is necessary, with the sharp population growth (World Bank, 2017), to use each drop of water efficiently; to guarantee a sustainable future for the agricultural sector, and to guide decision makers with the best economic options.

The EOs industry can much help in establishing a diversified-based economy, following the bright vision of the UAE’s leadership, in a country that has mainly an oil-based economy (Shahin and Salem, 2014a, 2015a, 2015b). However, with the limited freshwater resources this mission is possible only with the right selection of plants that can best survive under harsh environmental factors, and still can provide valuable raw materials, such as, EOs phytochemicals, which are potential for multi- purposes, and indeed nothing can perform better than the endogenous plants of this place.

The main question is; do we initially have the natural resource, which is the

EO-bearing plants, suitable to establish EO-based industries in the UAE? And if so, what are the available plant families and species in the UAE that can be cultivated for such purpose? What are their ecological status, their growing places and conditions?

What are their traditional and modern potentials? What are their EO characteristics, yields, biological activities and applications?

Answering such questions opening new doors for possible economic benefits to the country. However, reviewing the literature extensively there is no reference that can provide such answers. Moreover, studies related to the Emirati EO-bearing plants

5 are scarce, and currently there is an noticeably visible gap between the rich traditional knowledge and the modern ones.

This is the case while the UAE flora is rich in biodiversity (Western, 1989;

Jongbloed et al., 2003), and has abundant traditional therapeutic applications (Tanira et al., 1994; Wasfi et al., 1995; Sakkir, et al., 2012; Shahin and Salem, 2014a). It worth mentioning that, the rich traditional practices are linked (directly or indirectly) to the availability of EOs as active components that lead to particular biological activities of great healing benefits. Additionally, it was reported by a study conducted by the

Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi (EAD) (Sakkir et al., 2012) that, 37% of the indigenous plants have been used to treat skin problems in the traditional medicine of the UAE. Which can be linked, in a way or another, to the presence of therapeutic grade EO, and therefore could be a positive indicator that the flora of the UAE could pose an excellent resource for EO phytochemicals, of various industrial applications.

Thus, it is fundamental to create a comprehensive reference that includes all the UAE indigenous and naturalized species capable of producing EOs. Focusing on the significant role of such natural resource in a region where freshwater is expensive and where the country’s leadership is working on diversifying the economic resources.

1.2.2 Problem No. 2

Since growing conditions (e.g. climate and soil) play significant role in the chemical composition of the EO (Fornari et al., 2012), and since studies related to the

EOs of the indigenous plants, grown under the UAE natural climatic conditions, are scarce (Shahin and Salem, 2014a). Therefore, it was interesting to select one of the conventional indigenous medicinal plants available in the UAE, from a rich family and genus of EOs, which have valuable traditional therapeutic applications.

Aerva javanica is a well-known medicinal plant. It is an indigenous EO-bearing shrub that is common in the UAE, especially in Abu Dhabi and Al Ain areas

(Jongbloed et al., 2003; Shahin and Salem, 2016). A. javanica (Family:

Amaranthaceae) is a perennial and xerophyte plant that can survive the drought conditions. The aromatic flowers and leaves of this plant have great applications in the traditional therapeutic applications (e.g., curing suppurating wounds) (Jongbloed et al.,

2003; Samejo et al., 2013). However, the same lack the scientific justification and validation.

The question now; is there are any biological activity of the EO extract of the leaves and flowers of this aromatic shrub that can support it is traditional healing benefits? If so, what is the best season to harvest the flowers? Also, do the post-harvest drying method affects the yield and activity of the EO? If yes, then what is the best one that can provide the best quality yield? Besides, to perform the EO extraction process, what is the best particle size of the leaves that can provide the best quality yield?

Answering such questions will support the traditional medicinal applications scientifically, and will provide a guidance for the best conditions that can offer a natural resource of EOs phytochemicals of proven biological activity (in vitro).

1.2.3 Problem No. 3

Reviewing the literature of the UAE indigenous plants shows various plants with great traditional therapeutic applications, which have no scientific validation in the literature for their herbal extracts from EOs point of view. It is expected that many plant species, with great traditional healing benefits, have not been studied yet for the potential and biological activity of their EOs. This field is a promising area for

7 discovery of superior natural ingredients that can provide great economic potentials in various industries (e.g., pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, food preservation, flavoring, cosmetic, fragrance and aromatherapy).

Cleome amblyocarpa (Family: Cleomaceae) is an annual indigenous herb in the UAE. This herb is belonging to the “Cleome” genus, which has many species with rich traditional therapeutic benefits and EO profile, such as Cleome brachycarpa

(Rassouli et al., 2014), Cleome droserifolia (Muhaidat et al., 2015), Cleome gynandra

(Lwande et al., 1999). These herbs have potential values in the folk medicine (e.g., treating skin problems) (Lwande et al., 1999; Rassouli et al., 2014; Muhaidat et al.,

2015), which are justified by the chemical composition and the biological activity of their EOs.

Although, Cleome amblyocarpa has great therapeutic applications in the traditional practices (e.g., to ease pains, curing inflammations) (Tlig et al., 2012;

Mahmoud and Gairola, 2013), and although this herb has the Cleome genus, including many species that have proven EOs biological activity (e.g., Cleome brachycarpa)

(Rassouli et al., 2014), however, the EO quality of C. amblyocarpa, related to the phytochemicals profile and biological activity, is not studied nor evaluated yet (in vitro). Having answers to all previously mentioned queries are required to support scientifically the traditional therapeutic applications. Offering new natural phytochemicals resource of a valuable benefit.

The question now; does the EO extract of this traditional medicinal herb is biologically active (in vitro)? If so, and if a country with limited freshwater resources

(like the UAE) wanted to cultivate this herb, then what is the best watering amount that will provide the best plant growth parameters, plant yield and EO yield?

Answering such questions will support the traditional applications scientifically, and will provide a guidance for the best watering conditions that can provide the best plant growth and EO yield. Also, the answers will offer the chemicals profile of the EO of this herb, offering new natural resource of phytochemicals of certain proven biological activity (in vitro) that support scientifically the traditional healing applications.

1.3 Research Objectives and Hypotheses

This Ph.D. dissertation provided answers to the three main research problems mentioned previously in section 1.2 (Statement of the Problem and Research

Questions). The same was achieved through constructing five main research hypotheses that need to be tested and evaluated. In which Problem No.1 was solved by Hypothesis No. 1, Problem No. 2 was evaluated by Hypothesis No. 2 and

Hypothesis No. 3, and finally Problem No. 3 was tested by Hypothesis No.4 and

Hypothesis No.5. Following are the five research hypothesis:

Hypothesis No. 1: The UAE is rich in essential oil-bearing plants that have the potential for valuable economic applications.

Hypothesis No. 2: The EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) grown under the

UAE natural arid conditions is a good resource of natural phytochemicals, which are significantly affected by the post-harvest drying methods of the plant material. Also, the leaves’ and flowers’ EOs are significantly affected by leaves particles size and the harvesting season, respectively.

Hypothesis No. 3: The EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) has antioxidant activity (in vitro); supporting it is traditional therapeutic applications and providing good resource of natural antioxidants.

Hypothesis No. 4: Growth, yield, morpho-physiological parameters and EO yield of the C. amblyocarpa, grown in sandy soils under the UAE natural arid conditions, are significantly affected by the watering factor. Also, C. amblyocarpa EO act as a good resource of natural phytochemicals.

Hypothesis No. 5: The EO of C. amblyocarpa (seeds and whole plant) has antioxidant activity (in vitro); supporting it is traditional therapeutic applications and providing good resource of natural antioxidants.

1.4 Research Hypotheses Discussion

Hypothesis No. 1 claims that the UAE has a rich natural plant resource of potential EO-bearing plants. To test this hypothesis different methodologies were applied, as described in the materials and methods of Chapter 3, and the outcome was establishing a databank for the Emirati EO-bearing plants, which includes all the indigenous and naturalized species that have potential for EO related industries.

In Hypothesis No. 2 and Hypothesis No. 3, an important medicinal indigenous

EO-bearing plant, from the outcomes of Hypothesis No. 1, was selected, which is

Aerva javanica. This shrub has great therapeutic applications in the folk medicine (e.g., curing suppurating wounds) (Jongbloed et al., 2003; Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Saleem et al., 2012). The main objective was looking for scientific validation for the rich traditional applications through studying the components of it’s

EO, evaluating it’s antioxidant activity (in vitro), and going through testing some of the main factors that can affect the quality of the EO yield.

In Hypothesis No. 4 and Hypothesis No. 5, the claim was; there are potential indigenous EO-bearing plants of great healing benefits in the traditional applications

(e.g., to ease pains, cure inflammations), and their EOs, which are not tested yet, can serve as a good resource of valuable phytochemicals. To do so, an endogenous

10 medicinal plant was selected (Cleome amblyocarpa), with great healing benefits in the traditional practices, and reviewing the literature revealed no studies related to the quality of it is EO. Meaning that, the selected plant was not included in the outcomes of Hypothesis No. 1 (outside our established databank of the Emirati EO-bearing plants), and it is EO volatiles will be identified and evaluated (in vitro by the antioxidant activity) for the first time. Besides, it was essential to evaluate the best watering amounts, through studying soil water retention characteristic, that can provide the best plant growth conditions and EO yield. The watering is a fundamental factor to be evaluated in studies related to the EO field, and in a country like the UAE that has limitations in the freshwater resources.

The importance of Hypothesis No. 5 that it highlights the great need to investigate the EOs of new indigenous species that have significant applications in the traditional medicine, but still their extracted EOs are not scientifically studied nor evaluated. Opening promising approaches for knowledge and research, and offering new resources of natural antioxidants for this region and the world.

It worth mentioning that positive results related to the antioxidant activity open other doors related to possibilities of other active biological activities (e.g., anti- inflammation, anti-cancer).

1.5 Dissertation Outline

In this section, a chapter by chapter outline is presented as follow:

 Chapter 2, the literature review about the most important related background

information of this dissertation is provided. This chapter provides an overview

about two main topics; the first topic is an introduction about EOs with insights

into extraction methods, biological activities, applications and sustainable value.

The second topic of this chapter provides an overview about the UAE country and

briefly explains the future challenges related to the agricultural sector, and how the

UAE indigenous plants (including the EO-bearing plants) can play a great role to

face the demanding future. Supported with two examples about the UAE

indigenous plants (Aerva javanica and Cleome amblyocarpa).

 Chapter 3, all the materials and methods used to test and evaluate each of the five

(5) research hypotheses are provided and discussed.

 Chapter 4, all the results and discussions related to each of the five (5) research

hypotheses are represented and discussed in details. Concluded with a decision

whether to accept or reject the associated proposed research hypothesis.

 Chapter 5, provides the conclusions of this Ph.D. dissertation, through highlighting

the most important outcomes of the 5 (five) research hypotheses. Also, offers

recommendations and future research directions.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Essential Oils: The Gifts of Nature

The term “Essential Oil” is an abbreviation of the original term “quintessential oil”, which was originated by the Aristotelian Idea that there are four elements that build-up the matter; fire, air, earth and water. In which, quintessence “or spirit” is the fifth element. The evaporation or distillation was thought to be a process of removing the spirit from the plant (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

The ancient Greek physicians (e.g., Hippocrates) refereed the aromatic plants as the “father of medicine”. Aromatic plants are the EO-bearing plants that produce

EOs, which are a concentrated complex mixture of natural volatiles. EOs must be volatiles that are commonly extracted by water distillation due to their low boiling points and low molecular weights below 300 Daltons. Usually EOs are hydrophobic components, including terpenes, terpenoids and aromatic aliphatic compounds as major constituents. Commonly, there will be two to three major components in the EO extract that are available in high concentrations (20 to 95%) with additional components available in trace levels. Usually, the major components of the EO determine it is biological properties and potentials (Shaaban et al., 2012).

The terpenoids are the most important group of the natural products. This is due to their significant roles during the life of plants (e.g., growth, development, reproduction and defense) (İşcan, 2017). The isoprenes (2-methylbutadiene; formula:

C5H8) (Figure 1) are the building units of the terpenoids, and the last are usually major compounds of the EOs. The integration of several isoprene units (multiple of five carbon atoms) determine the classification of terpenoids, as hemiterpenoids (5 carbon atoms), monoterpenoids (10 carbon atoms), sesquiterpenoids (15 carbon atoms),

13 diterpenoids (20 carbon atoms), sesterterpenoids (25 carbon atoms), triterpenoids (30 carbon atoms), tetraterpenoids (40 carbon atoms) (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

Figure 1: The isoprene unit

2.1.1 Insights into the Extraction Methods

In the past, EOs were extracted by cold pressing using pressure. The mechanical pressure rupturing the EOs glands so the EO is ejected outside the plant matrix. The advantage of this conventional method that it requires little or no heating during the extraction process. On the other hand, it provides low and impure yields.

Today, the process of cold pressing is commonly used to extract EOs from the peel of citrus fruits, due to the thermal instability of their aldehydes (Reyes-Jurado et al.,

2014).

The distillation is the most common traditional method of extracting EOs, including hydrodistillation and steam distillation. The process depends on heating up the plant matrix over a hot water bath to evaporate the volatile compounds, which then condensed back to liquid, and collected as an EO in the collecting vessel. The most common apparatus for distillation called Clevenger (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015). The main difference between the hydrodistillation and the steam distillation that in hydrodistillation the plant matrix is completely immersed in boiling water (direct contact with water), while in steam distillation the plant matrix is not in direct contact

14 with water. In steam distillation, the plant material rests on a separate tray and the steam generated from a boiler is blown by pipe into the bottom of the plant’s container.

The main problem of the conventional distillation process is the high generated temperature that can evaporate and deteriorate some of the EO components, and thus affect the extract’s quality. At commercial scale, steam distillation is widely used as a cheap process to produce EOs at large scales. However, the expensive costs in-terms of consumed energy and extraction time with the degradation of heat-sensitive EO components lead to the development of other extraction methods with better efficiency

(Reyes-Jurado et al., 2014).

Solvent extraction originated from the hydrophobic and nonpolar character of the EOs, which allow their extraction by organic solvents. In this method, the matrix will be in contact with the solvent (as a form of leaching) that can dissolve the substance (solute) of the matrix. Solvent extraction is the simplest method for obtaining EOs. However, the extract will be contaminated with the used solvent that must be removed entirely prior studying the biological activity of the extract. The changes that can occur during the process of solvent extraction can change the components of the extract dramatically, thus extracts obtained by solvent extraction may not be considered as true EOs. Especially, that the components with low molecular weights can be lost during solvent evaporation. Another major disadvantage for solvent extraction is the solvent extraction effluents, which may contain new active hazardous components that can pose adverse health and environmental impacts

(Reyes-Jurado et al., 2014).

Consequently, non-conventional extraction methods were developed as green environmentally friendly technologies, including microwave-assisted extraction,

15 ultrasound-assisted extraction and supercritical fluid extraction (Reyes-Jurado et al.,

2014; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

In the microwave-assisted extraction, the microwave radiation will be the source of heating for the solvent–sample mixture. The electromagnetic waves will make changes in the cell structure, allowing the extraction process to take place. This method is a fast process (around 30 minutes), as well as, produce a good quality EO with low volumes of solvents (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

Similarly, the ultrasound-assisted extraction depends on the ultrasound waves

(commonly 18 to 40 kHz), and the extraction process will be conducted with an organic solvent at room temperature. This method requires less time and low volume of solvent and produces a higher yield in comparison with the conventional extraction methods.

This process is widely used in the phyto-pharmaceutical extraction industries (Reyes-

Jurado et al., 2014).

The supercritical fluid extraction is a promising emergent technology for industrial applications. It is a technology with high selectivity for the compounds to be extracted, environmentally friendly process and usually faster when compared to traditional methods. In this technology, the used solvents to conduct the extraction process will be used at their supercritical state, meaning that they are exposed to temperatures and pressures above their critical points, having unique properties

(between gas and liquids) that depend on the pressure, temperature and composition of the fluid. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best choice as a supercritical solvent for plants-derived components. This is since it is not toxic and requires relatively low pressures and low temperature (near to room temperatures) to allow supercritical operations. The selectivity of the extract will be based on the ability of the components to dissolve in the supercritical solvent (e.g., CO2). At industrial scales, the most

16 difficulties associated with the supercritical fluid extraction technology are the expensive capital costs and the high applied pressure. Also, after the extraction process the system’s lines will be blocked, which will require periodic cleaning using suitable solvents (Reyes-Jurado et al., 2014; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

2.1.2 Insights into the Biological Activities

EOs show various potentials due to their significant biological activities. This could be due to the availability of certain major volatiles as individuals or as a whole complex mixture (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Antioxidant activity is one of the most interesting subjects in EOs research.

The oxidation damages many biological substances, which causes many diseases (e.g., inflammation, liver disease, diabetes, aging, Alzheimer’s disease, AIDS, and cancer).

This is due to generation of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage the cellular macromolecules. Consequently, the role of EOs as antioxidants and good radical-scavenging substances in preventing the oxidative damage became a popular approach to treat various diseases. Moreover, many studies (in vitro and in vivo) reported EOs (e.g., thyme, clove, and basil) as perfect natural sources of antioxidants. For example, EOs of Salvia cryptantha, as well as, Salvia multicaulis reported to pose higher antioxidant activities comparing to ascorbic acid or butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). EOs include many volatiles (from the terpenoids chemicals group) that contribute to the antioxidant activity. Example of these terpenoids in ginger and black cumin include; thymol, eugenol, and linalool (Shaaban et al., 2012; Raut and

Karuppayil, 2014).

Truly, many EOs exhibit anti-inflammatory properties for a long time (Reyes-

Jurado et al., 2014). Eucalyptus, rosemary, lavender, and clove show strong inflammation preventive abilities (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015). The inflammatory

17 reaction is associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that take place during the oxidative burst. Through different mechanisms, EOs known to show scavenging efficacy and inflammation preventive activity to the free radicals.

Examples of potential EOs include Aloe-vera (Aloe barbadensis), lavender

(Lavandula officinalis), and thyme (Thymus. vulgaris) (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Currently, the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains with their chronic toxic side effects has both increased the severity of bacterial infections. EOs exhibit a wide range of antibacterial activities against various Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial pathogens. The activity may vary based on the used EO and the bacterial strain (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015). Examples of very strong antibacterial EOs include; thyme, oregano, lemon grass, clove and cinnamon, in which they show activity (minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs)) at concentrations <1% vol/vol

(Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Indeed, there are cellular and molecular similarities between the pathogenic fungi their hosts, which make it a critical target to hit at. For example, Candida spp. and Aspergillus spp. are common fungal pathogens that trouble large immunocompromised patients. However, limited options of antifungal drugs are available and their use may cause harmful side effects (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

On the other hand, many EOs exhibit strong antifungal activities against human pathogenic fungi including yeasts (Shaaban et al., 2012). For example, the EOs of lemongrass, ginger grass, and clove have strong antifungal activity at concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 0.15% against Candida albicans. Also, the EOs of Cymbopogon sp. have potential activities against pathogenic yeast (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

The presence of monoterpene, sesquiterpene and phenylpropanoid chemical groups in the EOs profile cause inhibitory activity against the herpes virus. For

18 example, Melaleuca alternifolia EO shows significant antiviral efficacy to treat recurrent herpes virus infections (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Selected EOs show antidiabetic properties. For example, results of in vivo studies show antidiabetic effects of rosemary EO in hyperglycemic rabbits. Other promising antidiabetic EOs include cinnamon, cumin, fennel, and oregano. However, the lack of research that clarifies the mechanisms behind the antidiabetic activity of

EOs, thus the same is crucially needed (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

In fact, some EOs show potential antimutagenic activities (Baser and

Buchbauer, 2015), which may be due to different mechanisms, including their abilities to inhibit penetration of mutagenesis inside the cells, activation of antioxidant enzymes, free radical scavenging properties, and inhibition of P450 mediate formation of mutagens. Examples of potential EOs include Matricaria chamomilla, Melaleuca alternifolia, and Melissa officinalis (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Some EO volatiles (e.g., taxol) reported being effective against spreading the cancerous cells (anticancer activities) through necrosis or induction of apoptosis.

Treatments with EOs found effective in reducing various types of malignancies (e.g., glioma, colon cancer, breast cancer, liver tumor, gastric cancer, and leukemia). The

EO of Allium sativum (garlic) is well recognized to exhibit anticancer activities (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

It worth mentioning that the concentrated nature of EOs made restrictions on their therapeutic applications. The same is due to toxicity effect of the high dosages, which made it crucial to apply and consume them cautiously (Reyes-Jurado et al.,

2014; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

2.1.3 Insights into the Applications

In fact, EOs have a wide range of potential applications in various fields. The applications have deep roots into the ancient times, as well as, have promising future potentials (discoveries and patents). Since, research related to the biological activities of the EOs shows many positive therapeutic benefits for using these compounds. Thus, the same were widely used as natural raw materials by the pharmaceutical companies.

For example, the antibacterial activity of the Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) against

Escherichia coli made this plant widely used in the pharmaceuticals industries (e.g., oral care) (Reyes-Jurado et al., 2014).

Truly, there is an increase in the population of drug-resistant strains and limitations in the availability of antibiotics, which motivated people to use alternative treatments of significant medicinal properties by the use of EOs (Raut and Karuppayil,

2014).

However, the literature survey shows various studies supporting the therapeutic value of the EOs in vitro, while lacking the same in vivo. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct clinical studies that proof the therapeutic activity in vivo whether in animals or human beings (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

Aromatherapy is a very fast growing trend in the global market. It is a recall of the old practices and nature (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015). It mainly includes two aspects; the inhalation and the massages. Inhalation of EOs (e.g., by air diffusers, candle burners) plays major role in controlling the central nervous system. For example, the inhalation of Jasminum randiflorum causes a calming effect on the brain.

Massages with EOs are very potential to cure inflammatory diseases (e.g., allergy, rheumatism, and arthritis). Various studies show that the topical applications for many

EOs improve mood, relieve stress, and found to be effective to ease fatigue in cancer

20 patients (Shaaban et al., 2012). However, the safe dosage for applying the EO should be cautiously followed; to avoid the problems associated with allergy and toxicity.

Flavor and fragrance industry is a major sector became widely depending on

EOs and their natural aromatic components. There is a huge need to replace the manufactured chemical ingredients with natural ones. The increasing health problems associated with allergy made it crucial to focus on the natural organic ingredients.

Currently, many EOs (e.g., basil, clove, and lime) are greatly used as safe condiments and high-grade aromatic ingredients in the flavor and fragrance related industries (e.g., soft drinks, bakery, sweets, and perfumery). Moreover, the unique properties of the

EOs made them beneficial as natural organic additives for preservation purposes (e.g., food, and cosmetic products) (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

The growing green era and the healthy life-style trend cause a growing interest in the natural organic skin care cosmetics (e.g., skin creams, balms, soaps, shampoos, and perfumes). The awareness associated with the hazardous effects of consuming the chemical manufactured products causes major modification on the market demand for

EOs (e.g., citronella, patchouli, and lavandin) (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

The spread of the eco-friendly trend made it necessary to replace the synthetic pesticides and herbicides, which were used in the cultivation practices, with EOs as eco-friendly pesticides and herbicides. Since the production of the organic products required the cultivation process to be “chemicals-free”, thus it became important to use EOs as safe and useful alternatives that suit the modern green era (Reyes-Jurado et al., 2014; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

2.1.4 Insights into the Sustainable Value

Indeed, growing the indigenous EO-bearing plants and establishing EOs-based industries can provide the community with great sustainable values; including the cultural, environmental and economic value as discussed below:

2.1.4.1 Cultural Value

There is no doubt that, the indigenous EO-bearing plants provide great cultural and social values for the local community. In the old times, such plants had been greatly used in the traditional medicine, as the only available resource for therapeutic and medication purposes, which established a strong relationship between these plants and the Bedouin people (Sakkir et al., 2012; Shahin and Salem, 2014a, 2015b). For example, Zingiber officinale (Ginger) has been used to cure many diseases, such as swelling, sores, stomach ache and diarrhea (Saberi and Alimohammadi, 2017), due to it is antioxidant, anticancer and antimutagenic properties (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Besides, Mentha spicata (Spearmint) has been used in the traditional practices as digestive, gastro-stimulant, carminative and flavoring agent (Chauhan et al., 2009).

This is due to it is EO strong antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

2.1.4.2 Environmental and Health Value

In fact, growing the indigenous EO-bearing plants can conserve this natural resource and maintain a balanced ecosystem. Such plants developed over the years adaptation mechanisms that made them perfect candidates to survive certain environmental conditions, while producing valuable secondary metabolites (e.g., terpenoids, flavonoids) (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015; Shahin and Salem, 2014a,

2015a).

Nowadays, a great attention is given to the natural organic raw materials, as healthy ingredients of a healthy life-style. EO are natural plants-derived phytochemicals that are usually safe to be used with no side effects (following the permissible dosages), which is not the case while using the anthropogenic raw materials. In the USA, at least 6 million people have a skin allergy to use manufactured fragrances with associated life-deteriorating symptoms, such as, headache, fatigue, shortness of breath, and difficulty in concentrating (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015).

Consequently, EOs with their organic natural origin can prevent such symptoms and can enhance the quality of life for many people. Moreover, the natural organic origin of the EOs made their consumption an environmentally friendly process due to the easily and safe degradation (Baser and Buchbauer, 2015; Shahin and Salem, 2015a).

2.1.4.3 Economic Value

Indeed, EOs are major natural ingredients in various industries. This is mainly due to their general safe use and biological activity, which made them potential raw materials in multi-industries, such as pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetic, food, flavor, fragrance, and pesticides industry. This hundreds of million dollar industry can bring back great profits and unlimited economic rewards for the country (Raut and

Karuppayil, 2014; Baser and Buchbauer, 2015; Shahin and Salem, 2015a).

Globally, there are many EO-bearing plants of high economic value, such as, lavender, basil, peppermint, lemon, clove, eucalyptus, and camphor. The market value of the EOs may significantly vary based on many factors, like the source material, purity, and composition. Mainly there are major cultivators of EOs, like India, China,

Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Africa, while major producers of EOs, are USA,

France, Spain, Italy and Germany (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014).

Further information related to the top EOs consumption amounts, prices and applications are represented in Table 39 in the Appendix. Also, prices of selected standard and organic EOs are represented in Table 40 in the Appendix. Moreover, sales of top five EO companies are shown in Table 41 in the Appendix, which are all adapted from Baser and Buchbauer (2015).

2.2 The UAE: Environmental Facts

2.2.1 Overview on the Current Freshwater Resources

An overview on the main current pathways of the water produced by the source and consumed by sector is illustrated in Figure 2. The major freshwater resource in the

UAE is the groundwater, supported partially with desalinated seawater and treated wastewater.

Figure 2: Main current pathways of water withdrawal by source and sector in the UAE

Similar to everywhere, the highest water demand in the UAE is mainly used to meet agricultural requirements (83%) followed by domestic (15%) and industrial (2%) purposes. There is a sharp annual increase in water consumption for agricultural activities (Table 1) (Murad et al., 2007; FAO, 2017). Estimates indicate that three-

24 quarters of the domestic consumption rates are used for agricultural purposes. Most of the utilized TWW originates from domestic sources (municipal wastewater), not from industrial ones (EAD, 2009). This is due to the toxic content in the industrial sources, which is difficult and costly to be treated comparing to grey water treatment from domestic sewage (Tortajada, 2007).

Table 1: Assessing water demand by sector in the UAE

Year Agriculture Domestic Industry

(million m3/year)

1990 950 513 27

1995 1,300 540 27

2000 1,400 555 100

2005 3,323a 570 105

2010 3,320a 600a 80a

Note: Adapted from a data source: Murad et al., 2007; except a: FAO, 2017

2.2.1.1 Groundwater

In the UAE, the main freshwater resource is groundwater, and 80% of this resource is used to cover the watering requirements of the UAE’s agricultural sector

(Murad et al., 2007).

The high dependency on groundwater aquifers with the low recharging rate causes both depletion and saline water intrusion (EAD, 2009; Gonzalez et al., 2016;

Mohamed et al., 2017). Studies, done during 2003 to 2012, show a negative trend of

0.5 cm/year in groundwater levels corresponding to an average decline of 0.86 km3/year (Gonzalez et al., 2016), creating concerns that aquifer supplies may soon be depleted (UNDP, 2013, Gonzalez et al., 2016; Mohamed et al., 2017). The situation is

25 serious especially with the sharp population growth, as shown in Figure 3 (World

Bank, 2017).

Consequently, the UAE has supported the use of non-conventional water resources to meet current water demand using desalination of seawater, brackish groundwater and treated wastewater (TWW) (Shahin and Salem, 2014c, 2015b;

Gonzalez et al., 2016).

Figure 3: The population growth in the UAE

2.2.1.2 Desalinated Seawater

Indeed, the seawater desalinization plants are costly to operate. Further, they create harmful environmental issues. First, heavy use of fossil fuels and the emission of enormous amounts of CO2 gas, which has contributed to the UAE being listed as among the highest ecological footprint countries (Living Planet Report, 2008). Second, they raise sea water temperatures, which threaten the biodiversity of the marine environment (EAD, 2009). Third, the availability of oil (using the 2007 production rate) is expected to be depleted after about 78 years (Reiche, 2010). Meanwhile, the

26 population continues to grow creating more pressure on the water sector.

Consequently, TWW recycling emerges as a feasible, reliable and attractive solution for the UAE water management strategy (Shahin and Salem, 2015b; Gonzalez et al.,

2016).

2.2.1.3 Treated Wastewater (TWW)

Wastewater originates from domestic sewage (municipal wastewater), urban and industrial effluents and storm water. It is composed of 99% water and 1% suspended colloidal and dissolved solids. Domestic sewage contains organic matter and nutrients (N, P, K), inorganic matter or dissolved minerals, toxic chemicals and pathogens (Hanjra, et al., 2011). Typical raw wastewater contents depend on the socio- economic factors of residential communities and quantities and types of industrial and commercial units (Carr et al., 2011). TWW processes are summarized as; wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal. The main goals of TWW processes are to reduce the suspended solids, biodegradable organics (e.g., biological oxygen demand (BOD)), pathogenic bacteria, and nutrients (e.g., nitrates and phosphates).

TWW level is described by three main terminologies; primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary (mechanical) treatment refers to the removal of gross, suspended and floating solids from raw sew-age by gravitational force. Secondary (biological) treatment refers to the removal of dissolved organic matter, which escapes from the primary treatment process. Tertiary (advanced) treatment refers to the advance treatment capable of removing 99% of all the impurities from treated sewage. The quality of the produced effluent is almost similar to the drinking water standard (World

Bank; 2011). After adequate treatment, disposal of the effluent could be reused or recycled, and thus has been identified as a non-conventional (new) resource and attractive sustainable solution for increasing water scarcity (Gonzalez et al., 2016).

Many authorities and water reuse projects apply this strategy to alleviate and combat water crises (Zahida et al., 2011; Gonzalez et al., 2016). Benefits gained from reusing TWW include; pollution reduction, conserving natural resources, crops production, economic and authentic value.

In 1995, the total produced TWW was 500 million m3/year (FAO, 2009). In

1998, 61% (170,000 m3/day) of TWW (using advanced tertiary treatment) was used to irrigate parks, golf courses, highway landscaping and urban ornamentals (Al-Zubari,

1998).

Currently, interest in applying TWW in agriculture is growing (Gonzalez et al.,

2016). This is due to groundwater depletion (Shahin and Salem, 2015b; Gonzalez et al., 2016; Mohamed et al., 2017) and the sharp population growth.

In Abu Dhabi, 65% of the recycled wastewater is used in irrigation (ADSSC,

2007), and municipal landscaping is an example of the successful stories for TWW reuse (Choukr-Allah, 2011; Gonzalez et al., 2016). However, based on EAD (2009),

TSE is solely used for irrigation purposes in the capital city, and not used for crops production (Gonzalez et al., 2016).

Studies indicate that TWW can be used safely for crop production purposes without any adverse health or environmental implications (Pedreroa et al., 2010).

Many agricultural crops are suitable to be grown in the UAE (field or greenhouse), and appropriate to be produced under TWW irrigation (e.g., cabbage, chili pepper, tomato, lettuce, beans, onion, potato, spinach, date palms, lemon).

Nevertheless, applications of TWW are limited in the UAE to supply the forestry sector (130 million m3/year in Abu Dhabi, 2007) (EAD, 2009), including landscaping and urban ornamentals, and not used for food production purposes required to meet the growing demands (EAD, 2009; Gonzalez et al., 2016).

Indeed, the UAE is one of the top Arab countries that reuse wastewater after adequate treatment for irrigation purposes. Between 1985 and 1995, the sharp population growth leads to increasing the rate of produced wastewater from 47 to 125 million m3/year (Madwar and Tarazi, 2002). In 1995, TWW accounted for around

5.1% of the total utilized water (Murad et al., 2007). In 1998, daily production from

TWW was 280,000 m3, and 61% of this amount was considered as reused water (Al-

Zubari, 1998). Wastewater treatment was performed by four large sewage treatment plants, treating wastewater up to tertiary level, with total capacity reaching 295,000 m3/day (Al-Zubari, 1998). Estimates show that TWW was 289 million m3 and reused wastewater was 248 million m3 in 2006 and 2005, respectively (Choukr-Allah, 2011).

Meaning that, not all treated wastewater is reused (Gonzalez et al., 2016). The constructed wastewater treatment plants are varied from small to large ones (Murad et al., 2007).

The UAE's wastewater treatment plants implement advanced treatment technologies (e.g., package plants, membrane bioreactor (MBR) and bio-filter plants), which are operated using cost effective techniques and environmentally friendly materials (EAD, 2009). Also, odor control technology has been adopted to ensure high environmental standards and consumers’ satisfaction (ADSSC, 2017). Treatment reaches the tertiary and even the fourth level, which is the best-applied treatment level.

Treated sewage effluent can be used directly or can be injected into groundwater aquifers, contributing to the strategic water reserve (EAD, 2009).

According to the Environmental Agency of Abu Dhabi (2009), TWW is a valuable resource that has been taken into consideration for Abu Dhabi's water resources master plan (2009). Modern in use treatment methods are efficient to produce potable water that meets WHO water quality standards. Based on ADSSC

29 estimates, the average rate of TWW, produced by each person in Abu Dhabi Emirate, is about 130 liters per capita per day (LCD), based on a serviced population of 1.4 million.

However, ADSSC declares that the future urban demand for TWW is greatly above estimates of future supply and projected demands would not be met, even with the ongoing expansion works on the distribution network of the treated sewage effluent.

Therefore, adoption of arid landscape, using native drought-tolerant species, is the best water saving approach (EAD, 2009). Also, implementation of the expensive available water in cultivating the industrial crops of the UAE indigenous plants (e.g.,

EO-bearing plants) is crucially important, since such crops can provide high economic outcomes for the country with minimal inputs (e.g., water, fertilizers, labors).

2.2.2 The Demanding Future on the UAE Agricultural Sector

The future of the UAE agricultural sector, in terms of watering requirements, presents a challenging topic. As declared by the EAD (2009); agriculture in the UAE is “living on borrowed time”. Concerns are mainly associated with population growth and groundwater depletion. Following are the main future concerns related to the UAE agricultural sector.

2.2.2.1 Population Growth

The World Bank's Doing Business Report (2013), ranks the UAE as 26 out of

185 regarding socio-economic development, and classified it as a high-income country

(due to oil revenues). Relevant socio-economic indicators (e.g., U.N. Human

Development Index) indicate that the UAE is doing an excellent job related to human development, the perception of well-being and happiness. Consequently, the UAE has become an attractive destination for tourism and migration.

According to the Statistics Center Abu Dhabi (2017), the population in 2007 was 1,657,076 in the Emirates of Abu Dhabi, and 5.8 million in the whole UAE (World

Bank, 2017). The total population is expected to double from 5.8 million in 2007

(World Bank, 2017; Shahin and Salem, 2014c, 2015b) to be around 11.055 and 13.164 million by 2030 and 2050, respectively (World Bank, 2017). Resulting in enlarged urban structure and agricultural requirements (EAD, 2009). This projected doubling of population increases the pressure on water use by the agricultural sector.

2.2.2.2 Industrial Sector Competition

As a part of the great industrial development, it is highly expected that the industrial sector will see significant expansion. Currently, most TWW is used for irrigation, and the industrial sector was estimated to consume 46 million m3 in 2007 from desalinized water (EAD, 2009). However, this sector could become a real competitor to the agricultural sector shortly, concerning TWW demand after groundwater depletion. For example, the industrial sector would need treated sewage effluent for cooling purposes, adding more pressure on the limited fresh water resources to meet the growing demands from other sectors.

2.2.2.3 Food Security and Climate Change

Indeed, the UAE is not an agricultural country. All the available agricultural activities are completely depending on irrigation systems. Truly, the agricultural sector is just covering a partial amount of the sharp growing agricultural demands. This is done by providing some varieties of fruits and vegetables (e.g., dates, tomato, cucumber, lettuce, onion and potato). Most of the agricultural commodities, which consume high amounts of water, are imported. Thus, the term “food security” does not mean a full self-sufficiency, while it just means a partial food sufficiency (Shahin and

Salem, 2015b).

Although, the TWW system applies advanced technologies its effluent product is used only by the forestry sector, while crop production is achieved mainly by using groundwater resources (which is a declining resource) and desalinized water (which is an expensive resource) (EAD, 2009; Shahin and Salem, 2015b; Gonzalez et al., 2016).

The social aspect plays an essential role in making the UAE population accept the idea of reusing TWW for crop production. This acceptance can be achieved by focusing on the fact that the country is following the best health regulations and guidelines in the WWT techniques. An additional informational consideration is that in some countries (e.g., Singapore) people are drinking such treated domestic wastewater (Tortajada, 2007). Therefore, such water quality could be safely reused for food production purposes.

Shortly, there would be great competition in the use of TWW between the forestry and agricultural sector (Shahin and Salem, 2015b). As declared by EAD

(2009) and Gonzalez et al. (2016), TWW is only used by the forestry sector. However, when the groundwater supplies are depleted, the necessity to use TWW for food production would become a priority, while supplying the requirements of the forestry and landscaping sectors would become a secondary priority.

Since the UAE is located in the desert region of the world (Ajaj et al., 2018a,

2018b), the consequences of climate change and global warming can have severe implications on the limited available natural resources (EAD, 2012). Particularly, if the same synchronized with the sharp expansion in the industrial activities, urbanization, and population. Consequently, it could be highly expected that this place could be much more susceptible and sensitive to any further environmental challenges.

2.2.3 A Key Message to the Decision Makers

Reviewing the freshwater resources of the UAE shows a challenging future for the continuity of the agricultural sector of the UAE. Even with the best utilization of the available non-conventional resources, the future is still critical. Based on the current data, the future of the freshwater resources does not rely on how to enlarge the available freshwater resources (which are already limited and scarce), as much as, relying on how to best employ such limited resources to gain maximum economic benefits to the country sustainably. It is crucially needed to use each drop of such expensive freshwater cautiously and wisely. This could be done through focusing on cultivating the indigenous industrial crops that can best adapt the harsh environmental conditions and still produce expensive raw materials of great applications, such as,

EOs phytochemicals.

2.2.4 The Role of the Indigenous Plants

In fact, the UAE indigenous plants can play significant role to mitigate the challenging future, and special attention should be given to the native and naturalized industrial crops that can bring extra economic values, by each water drop, to the country (e.g., EO-bearing plants) (Shahin and Salem, 2014b, 2015b).

Indeed, cultivating the native and naturalized plants could greatly save the situation with magical adaptation techniques to survive the water shortage situation.

Over the time, such desert plants have developed different morpho-physiological mechanisms; to adapt the arid environmental conditions (Shahin and Salem, 2014b,

2015b), which include; the high sun exposure rates, high wind speed, high evaporation and evapo-transpiration rates, low precipitation rates, low soil moisture content, low soil water holding capacity, high water permeability rates, and soil nutrients deficiency

(Western, 1989).

Many native and naturalized plant species are belonging to the xerophytes and halophytes, which can adapt major soil problems related to water scarcity and soil salinity, respectively (Western, 1989).

In fact, there are different adaptation mechanisms for the desert plants that make this group so special, including; seeds dormancy, long root system, light green color, small leaves area, succulent plant parts, presence of hairy surface and thorns, short growth rate, and short life cycle (ephemerals) (Western, 1989).

Truly, there are many wonderful desert plants that have excellent landscaping potential due to their unique shapes and colors. Which is totally opposite to the general concept of the desert plants by the public community. For example, Abutilon pannosum (Family: Malvaceae), a perennial shrubby herb, has wonderful yellow flowers, grown as solitary or in clusters (Western, 1989). Another example, Viola odorata (Family: Violaceae) has violet flowers, with wonderful scent, which was used in the past in making perfumes (Sakkir et al., 2012). Besides, Ipomoea pes-caprae

(Family: Convolvulaceae), which is a salt tolerant species, has erect violet flowers

(Western, 1989). Consequently, the native and naturalized plants could be the best candidates to sustain the beauty and desert greenery of the UAE through landscaping

(Western, 1989; Brown and Sakkir, 2004).

Besides the landscaping applications, most of these desert plants have the capability to produce expensive secondary metabolites (e.g., terpenes) as their defense phytochemicals. Such natural compounds have many therapeutic applications in the traditional herbal medicine of the UAE. For example, leaves of the Acacia Arabica were used in the traditional practices to soothe burns. Besides, the seeds’ oil of the

Moringa peregrina was used for stomach cramp and constipation. Moreover, seeds of the Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as purgative (Sakkir et al., 2012). Additionally,

34 studies show that the fruits of the Phoenix dactylifera have great antioxidant and tonic value, through having the capability to decrease cell damages made by the free radicals

(Sakkir et al., 2012; Shahin and Salem, 2014c).

Consequently, while the UAE desert plants can be cultivated to sustain the landscaping beauty and to conserve a balanced ecosystem, they also could be employed to provide various therapeutic, nutraceutical and health-care applications.

On the other hand, cultivating exotic plants, which are originally from temperate and semi-temperate regions, require enormous amounts of inputs (e.g., water and soil nutrients) to survive and grow (EAD, 2009). Even with the application of the modern irrigation technologies, which save 60% of the watering amounts (FAO,

2008), still most of these plants have high watering requirements, lack adaptation mechanisms, and disturb the natural balance of the desert ecosystem. In additional, to the high irrigation requirements, exotic plants require heavily labor works (e.g., adding fertilizers, maintenance) leading to expensive environmental and economic costs

(EAD, 2009). Therefore, cultivating exotic plants have to be very restricted or even banned in some cases.

2.2.4.1 Aerva javanica

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schul. (English names: desert cotton, snow bush) (Arabic names: Al ara', twaim, efhe, tirf) (Jongbloed et al., 2003) is an important medicinal and commercial plant. It is recommended by the Ayurvedic medicine as one of the best sources of natural remedies (e.g., to treat bladders and kidney stones)

(Saleem et al., 2012). A. javanica is an essential oil-bearing shrub (or small tree), common in the dry tropical and subtropical areas. It is a perennial xerophyte belonging to the Amaranthaceae family (Common name: cockscomb).

The genus Aerva is well-known as an important medicinal genus, including many species with proven biological activities, such as antioxidant, hypoglycemic, analgesic, antivenin, antimalarial and anthelmintic activities (Saleem et al., 2012).

This shrub (Figure 4) grows up to 100 cm. It has a woody base, erect and branched stems, covered with fine hairs. Leaves are alternate with greyish-green color on very short stalks, lance-shaped to oblong (1 to 1.5 x 4 to 5 cm) with clear veins and midrib on underside covered with hairs. The flowers are aromatic, soft like cotton and available throughout the year except in summer. It has five tepals on a long spike (5 to

10 cm) from the leaf nodes. Open flowers have white color, and buds have a pinkish color. Bracts (leaf-like structure) just below flowers covered with long woolly white hairs that become more intense as the season progresses. Fruits are inside woolly covering, including one small black or brown shiny seed (0.1 x 0.15 cm) (Western,

1989; Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004).

It has various applications in the traditional herbal medicine of many countries,

“e.g. Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates”. (Jongbloed et al., 2003;

Samejo et al., 2012; Shahin and Salem, 2016). In the UAE, the whole plant has great healing benefits in the folk practices, with special topical applications for the leaves

(e.g., to treat inflammations and wounds externally) and the flowers (e.g., to stop wounds bleeding and pack suppurating wounds) (Jongbloed et al., 2003; Shahin and

Salem, 2016). In Saudi Arabia, the juice extracted from the roots was used to treat eye diseases (Jongbloed et al., 2003). In some Asian and African countries, A. javanica is used as diabetic, demulcent and diuretic. Applying the powder of the plant externally curing ulcers in domestic animals (Qureshi and Bhatti, 2008). Summary of important ethnomedicinal applications is represented in Table 2.

Flower

1 m

Leaf

Figure 4: Aerva javanica aerial parts

In additional to the traditional medical applications, A. javanica, has many economic values. The leaves were used as forage to goats (Samejo et al., 2012; Shahin and Salem, 2016) and the whole plant was used a fuel (Samejo et al., 2012). Also, the woolly flowers were used as stuffing for camel saddles and cushions. Also, roasted roots were used in the past as a substitute for eye antimony and were mixed with the mother-of-pearl to give some sparkle (Jongbloed et al., 2003). Moreover, A. javanica is used as a landscaping plant with characteristic wonderful shape and minimal watering requirements (Jongbloed et al., 2003).

This shrub grows in the sandy, silty and rocky habitats of roadsides, disturbed sites, wadis, and on alluvial plains. It is widespread in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Al

Ain and the Northern Emirates of the UAE. The flowering period of this plant in the country is generally throughout the year, and mainly from December to May and beyond (Jongbloed et al., 2003).

Table 2: Aerva javanica ethnomedicinal applications

Plant Part Ethnomedicinal Applications Reference

Treat eye diseases Jongbloed et al., 2003

Roots Curing kidney and rheumatism problems. Qureshi and Bhatti,

2008

It is paste used to treat inflammation of joints and wounds Qureshi and Bhatti,

externally. 2008; Samejo et al., Leaves 2013; Shahin and

Salem, 2016

Mixed with water as a paste to stop wounds bleeding, and Jongbloed et al., 2003;

to pack suppurating wounds after cleaning. Qureshi and Bhatti,

2008; Shahin and

Flowers Salem, 2016

Curing kidney and rheumatism problems. Qureshi and Bhatti,

2008

Seeds Relieve a headache. Samejo et al., 2012

Treat ascaris and diarrhea with blood. Samejo et al., 2012

As a diuretic, diabetic and demulcent.

An antidote for arsenic poisoning.

Whole It is decoction used to remove swelling.

Plant Treat chest pain. Qureshi and Bhatti,

2008; Samejo et al., It is decoction as a gargle for toothache. 2012

2.2.4.2 Cleome amblyocarpa

Earlier, Cleome genus was belonging to the Capparacea/ Capparidaceae family, which was recently classified by Thomson and Cooke under a separate family

(Cleomaceae) (Rassouli et al., 2014). Among the nine (9) genera of Cleomaceae,

Cleome is the largest genus including 180 to 200 species of traditional, medicinal and ecological value.

Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. (Family: Cleomaceae) (Rassouli et al.,

2014; Shahin and Salem, 2016b) is an annual herb growing up to 80 cm height (Figure

5). It is a glandular-pubescent herb with a distinguished smell. It has an erect multi- branched stem with a hairy cover that traps a layer of dust and sand particulates. C. amblyocarpa has elliptical leaflets with three-foliolate lower leaves and simple upper ones. Flowers are light yellowish with red-brownish ends. Fruits are flat and pendulous consist of wholly tomentose seeds at maturity (Mahmoud, 2010). The life form of C. amblyocarpa belongs to the Therophytes with a short life cycle (approximately two months). This herb is commonly available in sandy soils and stony grounds of the arid regions (e.g., United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt, Tunisia) (Brown and Sakkir, 2004;

Mahmoud, 2010; Tlig et al., 2012).

C. amblyocarpa is an essential medicinal herb with potential ethnobotanical applications in the old times. In the UAE herbal medicine, infusion of leaves used to treat abdominal and rheumatic pains (Sakkir et al., 2012). In Tunisia, this herb is commonly used to ease the pain, through mixing it with other herbs, such as Artemisia herba-alba, Juniperus Phoenicia and Hammada scoparium; to treat headaches, nausea, vomiting, gastralgia, and colic (Tlig et al., 2012). In Egypt, the aerial parts of

C. amblyocarpa were used in the traditional applications for their antibacterial activity

(Mahmoud and Gairola, 2013). Also, C. amblyocarpa is considered as an important

39 source for dammarane triterpenes (Harraz et al., 1995; Mahmoud, 2010), which has potential antimicrobial activities against various bacterial infections (Mahmoud,

2010). Besides, the leaf solvent extract of C. amblyocarpa showed anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and in vivo, which could be due to its high flavonoid content (19%)

(Bouriche et al., 2003; Bouriche and Arnhold, 2010).

30 cm

Figure 5: Cleome amblyocarpa whole plant

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods

In this Chapter, all the materials and methods of all conducted experiments, which were used to test the five research hypotheses of this Ph.D. dissertation, are described and discussed in details in the following sections. For clarification, an overview of all conducted experiments required to the tested the five research hypotheses are provided in Figure 6.

Antioxidant Activity Hypo. 5 Hypo. 5

GC-MS SEM Physiological Analysis

Whole plant EO Growth & Yield

Watering Effect

Germination & Seedlings Emergence

Whole Plant EO Seeds EO

Cleome amblyocarpa

Hypo. 4 Emirati Native & Naturalized Plants

Hypo. 1

Emirati EO-Bearing Plants

Hypo. 2

Aerva javanica

SEM Leaves Flowers Physiological Analysis

EO Extraction Effect of Drying Method EO Extraction

Particles Size Effect GC-MS Seasonal Variation Effect

Hypo. 3

Antioxidant Activity Hypo. 3 Figure 6: Overview of all conducted experiments according to research hypotheses

3.1 Hypothesis No. 1 Methodologies: The Emirati EO-Bearing Plants

In Hypothesis No. 1, it was necessary to know if the UAE has a precious natural resource of EO-bearing plants, including their potential applications. To do so, the

Emirati (indigenous and naturalized) EO-bearing plants were evaluated based on three major methodologies, including extensive literature review, frequent field survey, and specimen display approach.

To best of our knowledge, all existed references “online and hardcopy printed soruces” related to the UAE flora were reviewed to collect the botanical names of all the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants, which were around 800 plant species. The references include the following; Batanouny (1987), Western (1989), Tanira et al.

(1994), Wasfi et al. (1995), Karim (1995), Emirates Natural History Group (1997),

Jongbloed et al. (2003), Brown and Sakkir (2004), Aspinall (2005), Zayed complex for Herbal Research and Traditional Medicine (2005), Handa et al., (2006), Mousa and

Fawzi (2009), Sakkir et al. (2012), Hurriez (2013), Feulner (2014), and Environmental

Agency of Abu Dhabi (2017).

After collecting the botanical names and synonyms of all documented Emirati indigenous and naturalized plants, each plant was subjected individually to an extensive literature review. The literature were collected using the online resources

“Google scholar”, in which all the published works indexed in “Scopus”, “Web of science” and “PubMed” were checked until Fall 2016. Each plant was searched individually using the keywords “botanical name/synonyms + essential oil”. Every existed published article was carefully screened and the desired information were documented and cited.

The methodologies of field surveys and specimen display approach were conducted to confirm the results obtained from reviewing the literature. Twenty five

(25) person, who are familiar and knowledgeable about the UAE flora, were surveyed, including biologists, agricultural engineers, farmers, and knowledgeable community members.

3.2 Hypothesis No. 2 Methodologies: EO of Aerva javanica

This section describes all the experiments conducted to test hypothesis No. 2, which claims that EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) is an excellent source of natural phytochemicals, that significantly affected by the post-harvest drying methods.

Also, EO of the leaves is significantly affected by the particle size, while EO of the flowers is significantly influenced by the seasonal variations.

3.2.1 Plant Identification

The mature wild plants of A. javanica were identified by Prof. Ali El-Keblawy,

Professor of Plant Ecology (College of Sciences, University of Sharjah) and Mr. Tamer

Mahmoud, Researcher Botanist (Sharjah Seed Bank and Herbarium, Sharjah Research

Academy). Also, fresh aerial parts of A. javanica were collected from Al Ain study location on 5th of November (Temperature 22 to 33○C) and identified by Dr. Mohamed

Taher Mousa from Biology Department of the UAEU, and voucher specimen of the plant was deposited in the Herbarium of the Biology Department, UAEU (Voucher

No. 14668).

3.2.2 Study Location and Plant Collection Schedules

Natural communities of A. javanica were growing wild in Al Ain area in the location (Latitude: 24○11ʹN, Longitude: 55○39ʹE). The mature leaves and flowers of

A. javanica were randomly collected and separated in the early morning according to the following time schedule and details:

 The first collection batch: The leaves and flowers (separately) were harvested

during the spring season at the end of March (temperature range 20 to 32oC,

humidity 23%). The first batch allows us to study the influence of the post-harvest

drying method on the leaves’ and flowers’ EOs yield, and to evaluate the influence

of the leaves’ particles size subjected to hydrodistillation on EO yield.

 The second collection batch: The leaves and flowers (separately) were harvested

once at around the mid of each season, except for summer’s batch of flowers,

which collected in first of June instead of July (23 to 47.2oC, average: 35.1oC). The

same was done due to unavailability of flowers after first of June since the same

will complete and end it is life cycle. The second batch of flowers and leaves

collection allows us to examine the influence of the seasonal variation on the

plant’s physiological parameter and flowers’ EO yields. The details of the

harvesting schedules of the second batch are as follow:

o Spring: Mid of April (21 to 35oC, average: 28oC).

o Summer: First of June (25 to 52oC, average: 38.5oC).

o Autumn: Late of October (24 to 35oC, average: 29.5oC).

o Winter: Mid of January (11 to 22oC, average: 16.5oC).

All weather data were obtained from the iPhone application “Weather”, which

collects the data from the Weather Channel: Aqbiyah Weather Station, UAE.

3.2.3 Soil Analysis

Analysis of soil physical properties (done for triplicates) showed that the soil has a sandy soil texture measured by dry sieve method (Sand% “2 to 0.053 mm”:

97.30±1.02; Silt% “0.032 mm”: 2.09±1.01; Clay% “<0.032 mm”: 0.61±0.37).

Analysis of soil chemical properties (done in triplicates) showed that the soil electric conductivity (EC) is 0.971±0.064 mS measured by EC meter with pH

7.6±0.035 measured at 21○C by pH meter, both tests were done for disturbed samples.

Soil samples consisted of 0.520±0.047% organic matter measured by the Walkley- black method. The utilized soil consisted of 0.0761±0.015% nitrogen, 6.074±0.021 ppm phosphorus and 102.54±0.468 ppm potassium. Total nitrogen was measured by

Vario MACRO cube CHNS and manufactured by Elementary Co., while total phosphorus and potassium were measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic

Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), model 710-ES. Total soil calcium carbonate

(CaCO3) was 27.841±0.844% measured by calcimeter method. Analysis results of 18 inorganic soil compositions (macro and micro nutrients) measured by ICP-OES are illustrated in Table 42 in the Appendix.

3.2.4 Statistics and Experimental Design

Data were subjected to statistical analysis using program package SPSS statistical software version 21. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey (Honestly significant differences, HSD) multiple range test were employed, and the differences between the individual means were deemed to be significant at P

≤ 0.05 (unless different significance level specified).

The figures and tables illustrated the significant differences between individual groups by letters, in which the use of different letters in the same treatment group means that there is a significant difference at P ≤ 0.05 (unless different significance level specified), while the use of similar letters or absence of letters means that the difference between the same individual group is not significant.

The experimental design of all conducted experiments is the completely randomized design. The number of used samples and their replications are illustrated in the description of each experiment separately.

3.2.5 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos

The finer morphological details of A. javanica flower and leaf (collected from the experimental location in mid-April) were examined using Scanning Electron

Microscope (SEM) XL Series, Netherland. The process was done at the Electron

Microscope Unit, College of Medicine, UAEU.

3.2.5.1 Chemicals

Fixative, phosphate buffer, osmium tetroxide buffer, and ethanol.

3.2.5.2 Sample Preparation Protocol

First, the specimens were cut into size 4 x 4 mm, and transferred into fixative at pH 7.2 in a 7 ml glass vial with attached lids and stand overnight at 4oC. Next day, specimens washed in 0.1 M Phosphate Buffer (3 times, 20 min each), and stored at

4oC. Then, 1 ml of buffered 1% osmium tetroxide was added to each vial, and mixed for 1 hour at room temperature on Rota mixer. After that, osmium tetroxide was removed, and samples were washed three times with distilled water (for 2 min each).

Samples were dehydrated through washing with series of ethanol. Next day, the specimens were washed again (twice) with 100% ethanol. The final flower sample was kept inside a desiccator and the leaf sample was placed between two microscope slides

(to avoid any curling in the specimen surface). Both samples kept inside a desiccator for four days to allow drying gradually.

3.2.6 Plant Physiological Parameters by Spectrophotometer

Following the collection schedules mentioned previously in section 3.2.2

(Study Location and Plant Collection Schedules: second collection batch), A. javanica leaves and flowers were randomly collected (at the middle position of mature shrubs) from the study location; to evaluate the plant physiological parameters in different seasons. Tested physiological parameters include chlorophyll (A, B, and Total), carotenoids, and proline.

3.2.6.1 Chemicals

Acetone, proline, 5-sulfosalicylic acid dehydrate, ninhydrin, glacial acetic acid, phosphoric acid, ethanol, and toluene.

3.2.6.2 Chlorophyll and Carotenoids Determination

Chlorophyll content (including chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and total chlorophyll) was measured for fresh leaves, while carotenoids content were measured separately for fresh leaves and flowers (three samples, three replications, fresh weight of each sample is 0.5 g) using acetone (85%) and measured by the spectrophotometer

(U-2001-Hitachi).

Fresh samples (of 0.5 g each) were ground (using pestle and mortar) while adding 10 ml of 85 percent acetone and filtered through a layer of filter paper. The final volume was adjusted to 50 ml using acetone 85 percent, and subjected immediately to the spectrophotometer.

Chlorophyll A was measured at 663 nm, chlorophyll B was measured at 645 nm, and carotenoids were measured at 440 nm. Acetone 85 percent was used as a blank. Calculations were done using Arnon’s Equations (1949).

3.2.6.3 Proline Determination

The free proline content was measured by spectrophotometer according to

Bates et al. (1973) method. The proline content of fresh leaves was measured for three samples with three replicates for each tested sample.

Fresh samples (of 0.5 g each) were ground (using pestle and mortar) while adding 10 ml of 3 percent aqueous 5-sulfosalicylic acid and filtered through a layer of filter paper. Two (2) ml of each sample were mixed with 2 ml of acid ninhydrin and 2 ml of glacial acetic acid and subjected to water bath for 1 hour at 100○C. After cooling,

4 ml of toluene were added to screw-cap tube, mixed vigorously for 15 to 20 second, and transferred to a clean test tube. Proline content was determined using spectrophotometer at 520 nm wavelength. Toluene was used as a blank. The proline concentration was determined from a standard curve and calculated on the fresh weight bases using Bates et al. (1973) method. The standard curve is illustrated in Figure 63 in the Appendix.

3.2.7 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation

The EO isolation was done by hydrodistillation method using Clevenger type apparatus. The influence of the three factors on the EO yield was examined, including post-harvest drying method, sample particle size, and seasonal variations. For each studied factor, three (3) replicates for each treatment group was considered.

The first studied factor was, the influence of post-harvest drying methods on

A. javanica leaves’ and flowers’ EO. The tested treatments include; fresh samples

(control), air-dried samples, and freeze-dried samples. The second and third studied factors were the influence of the particles size and the seasonal variations on A. javanica leaves’ and flowers’ EO, respectively. Summary of the three tested factors with their treatments (mentioned as points) are represented in Table 3.

Table 3: Summary of A. javanica treatments

Plant Drying Methods Particle Size Harvesting Season

Part

 10 mm

(Control: Small pieces)

 0.425 mm  Fresh samples Leaves (Ground: Coarse size) Spring (End of March) (Control)  0.150 mm  Air-drying (Ground: Fine size)  Freeze-drying  Spring (Mid. of April)

 Summer (First of June) Flowers 2 mm  Autumn (Late of October)

 Winter (Mid. of January)

3.2.7.1 Sample Preparation

Samples collected, according to the time schedule mentioned above in Table

3, were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times and then processed according to the studied factor. Description of the sample preparation for each of the three tested factors is described as follow:

3.2.7.1.1 Effect of Drying Methods

The fresh leaves and flowers samples group (collected in end of March) were weighed (fresh weight) and washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and separately cut into small homogenous pieces (Leaves: 10 mm; flowers: 2 mm). Then, directly subjected to hydrodistillation in the same harvesting day. This group from fresh samples is the control group.

In order to calculate the dry weights of the distilled samples, a small group of leaves and flowers were separately left in well ventilate shaded area (25○C) for two weeks (until completely dried). Then, weighed to obtain their dried weights.

The second treatment is the air-dried group (collected in end of March), in which leaves and flowers samples were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and separately left in well ventilate shaded area (25○C) for two weeks

(until completely dried). Then, weighed (dry weight), labelled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for further analysis. In the distillation day, samples were cut into homogenous small pieces (Leaves: 1 cm; flowers: 2 mm), and directly subjected to hydrodistillation.

Similarly, the third treatment is the freeze-dried group (collected in end of

March), in which leaves and flowers samples were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and separately subjected to freeze-drying (-80○C) using

TELSTAR Cryodos instrument. Freeze-drying reached after a period of 3 days approximately, until no further reduction in weights occurred, without causing any visual impacts on the plant materials (e.g., shrinking, curling). Then, freeze-dried samples weighed (dry weight), labeled and stored in clean and close paper bags in the fridge (to prevent absorbing moisture from the air) until use for further analysis. In the distillation day, samples were cut into small homogenous pieces (Leaves: 1 cm; flowers: 2 mm) and directly subjected to hydrodistillation. Dry matter contents were measured using the following formula:

DW DM(%) = × 100 FW

Where, DM: dry matter, FW: fresh weight, and DW: dry weight.

3.2.7.1.2 Effect of Particle Size

Leaves (collected in end of March) were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and left in well ventilate shaded area (27○C) for two weeks (until completely dried). Then, weighed (dry weight), labelled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for further analysis.

In the distillation day, leaves were cut into three homogenous groups. The first group includes leaves cut into small pieces (10 mm), and considered as a control group.

While the second and third group include leaves were ground, using Moulinex blender, to 0.425 mm (coarse size) and 0.150 mm (fine size), respectively. Particles size were measured by the U.S. Metric Sieves (SOILTEST, ASTM).

3.2.7.1.3 Effect of Harvesting Season

Flowers collected throughout the year in the middle of the four seasons (as described in Table 3) were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and left in well ventilate shaded area (27○C) for two weeks (until completely dried). Then, weighed (dry weight), labeled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for further analysis.

In the distillation day, flowers were cut into homogenous sizes (2 mm), measured by the U.S. Metric Sieves (SOILTEST, ASTM), and directly subjected to hydrodistillation. It worth mentioning, that the size of A. javanica flowers, which is 2 mm, obtained just by separating the flowers from the mother plant by hand.

3.2.7.2 Extraction Conditions and Yield Determination

The hydrodistillation process was performed for around 100g of plant matrix

(dry weight) at 85oC, for four (4) hours, until no further EO was extracted. At the end of the distillation, the EO was accumulated as a waxy extract collected and separated easily from water. Thus, drying with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Anhydrous Na2SO4)

52 was not needed. The pure collected EO was weighed and stored in a sealed glass amber vial at 4oC until analyzed. After the distillation, the Clevenger apparatus was subjected to cleaning series using water, soap, methanol, and ethanol.

The EO yield was calculated based on plant dry weight and the herbal extract weight using following equation:

W EO yield (%) = EO × 100 Wplant

Where Wplant is the dry weight of the plant (in gram), and WEO is the weight of the extracted EO (in gram).

3.2.7.3 Chromatographic Analysis

EO sample analysis was performed on an Agilent gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a flame ionization detection (FID) and an HP-5MS capillary column,

30 m length × 0.25 mm internal diameter, 0.25 μm film thickness, temperature programmed as follows: 70-300°C at 10°C/min. The carrier gas was Helium at a flow of 3.0 ml/min; injector port and detector temperature were 250°C and 300°C, respectively. One microliter of the sample (diluted with acetone, 1:10 ratio) was injected by splitting, and the split ratio was 1:100.

3.2.7.4 GC-MS Analysis

The Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis was performed on an Agilent C 5975 GC-MS system with an HP-5MS capillary column

(30 m × 0.25 mm internal diameter × 0.25 μm film thickness). The operating conditions were the same conditions as described above for the chromatographic analysis. Mass spectra were taken at 70 eV. Scan mass range was from 40-700 m/z at a sampling rate of 1.0 scan/s. Quantitative data were obtained from the electronic integration of the

FID peak areas.

The components of the EO were identified by their retention time (RT), retention indices (RI) and mass spectra, relative to C9-C28 n-alkanes, computer matching with the library of NIST Mass Spectrometry Data Center (NIST11.L) and as well as by comparison of their retention indices with those of authentic samples or with data already available in the literature (Adams, 2009). The percentage of composition of the identified compounds was computed from the GC peaks areas without any correction factors and was calculated relatively.

3.3 Hypothesis No. 3 Methodologies: Antioxidant Activity of A. javanica EO

This section describes the experiments conducted to test hypothesis No. 3, which claims that EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) has good antioxidant activity

(in vitro); supporting it is traditional therapeutic applications and providing good source of natural antioxidants.

Antioxidant activity was determined using three common antioxidant assays:

DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS. Results obtained from a single assay provide incomplete picture about the antioxidant properties of the extract. Also, the result of each test depends on the chemical profile and properties of the extract. Therefore, we used three assays to test the same.

3.3.1 Tested Samples

The antioxidant activity of A. javanica EO was tested for different treatments.

EO was extracted from it is leaves and flowers, separately. Conditions and extraction details of isolated EO by hydrodistillation are provided in Table 4.

Table 4: A. javanica EO extraction conditions subjected to antioxidant test

Factor Harvesting Parameter Post-Harvest Extraction Parameters Time Temp. (○C) Drying Method Particles Size Temp. (○C) Period (Hour)

Fresh: Directly subjected to distillation Leaves: Effect of 10 mm post-harvest drying Spring: End Average: 26 Air-Drying: 85 4 method of March Range: 20 to Shaded at 25○C on EO of 32 Flowers: leaves and 2 mm flowers, Freeze-Drying: separately at -80○C for 3 days

Spring: Mid Average: 28 of April Range: 21 to 35

Summer: Average: 35.1 First of June Range: 23 to 47.2 Effect of seasonal Autumn: Average: 29.5 Air-Drying: 2 mm 85 4 variation on Late of Range: 24 to Shaded at 25○C flowers’ EO October 35

Winter: Mid Average: 16.5 of January Range: 11 to 22

3.3.2 Sample Preparation

EO waxy samples of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) under different conditions (in triplicates) were dissolved in 500 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and vortex very well.

3.3.3 Standard Curves

The standard curves were prepared using trolox as a strong antioxidant reagent.

The absorbance of trolox at different concentrations was measured at 517 nm, 593 nm, and 734 nm for DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays, respectively. The results of all

55 conducted assays were calculated and expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g EO extract. The standard curves are illustrated in Figure 64, 65, and 66 in the Appendix.

3.3.4 Antioxidant Assays

The objective of this test was to determine the antioxidant capacity of the EO extracts of A. javanica. Therefore, three antioxidant assays were conducted in a microplate to evaluate the antioxidant activity (in vitro) by spectrophotometer

(Microplate reader, BioTek, EPOCH 2) using 96 well plate. The tested assays were

DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS.

3.3.4.1 DPPH Assay

Each prepared sample (of 100 μl) was mixed with 100 μl of 0.15 mM 2,2- diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) in 95% ethanol. The mixture was mixed vigorously and allowed to stand for 30 min at room temperature in full darkness. The absorbance of the resulting solution and the absorbance of the DPPH solution were measured at 517 nm by spectrophotometer. The sample blank at each concentration was prepared in the same manner except that DMSO was used instead of DPPH solution. The activity was calculated and expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g EO extract.

3.3.4.2 FRAP Assay

The principle of FRAP assay is the reduction of ferric into ferrous ion by the antioxidants as described by Benzie and Strain (1996, 1999). FRAP reagent was prepared by mixing stock solutions (Ratio 10:1:1) at the time of use. Stock solutions included 300 mM acetate buffer (pH 3.6), 10 mM TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) solution in 40 mM HCl, and 20 mM FeCl3_6H2O solution. The mixed solution was vigorously stirred by vortex and incubated at 37oC for 30 min in a water bath.

Each prepared sample (of 30 μl) mixed with 270 μl of FRAP solution and kept for 30 min in full darkness at room temperature. The absorbance of the ferrous tripyridyltriazine complex was measured, and a sample blank at each concentration was prepared. The absorbance was measured at wavelength 593 nm. The activity was expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g of EO extract.

3.3.4.3 ABTS Assay

The principle of ABTS (2, 2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate)) assay is described by (Arnao et al., 2001). Each prepared sample (of 30 μl) mixed with

270 μl of ABTS solution and kept for 30 min in full darkness at room temperature.

The absorbance of the ABTS complex was measured, and a sample blank at each concentration was prepared. The absorbance was measured at wavelength 734 nm. The activity was expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g of EO extract.

3.4 Hypothesis No. 4 Methodologies: EO of Cleome amblyocarpa

This section describes all the experiments conducted to test hypothesis No. 4, which claims that growth, yield, morpho-physiological parameters and EO yield of the annual herb C. amblyocarpa, grown in sandy soils under the UAE natural climatic conditions, are significantly affected by the watering factor. Also, C. amblyocarpa EO act as a good source of natural phytochemicals.

3.4.1 Plant Material (Source and Identification)

The seeds of C. amblyocarpa were provided from Sharjah Seed Bank and

Herbarium (Sharjah Research Academy), which were originally collected between

February and March 2013 from Al Dhaid, Sharjah Road, United Arab Emirates

(Latitude: 25○16ʹN, Longitude: 55○38ʹE). Each gram contains 506 seeds. The mature plant was identified by Prof. Ali El-Keblawy, Professor of Plant Ecology (College of

Sciences, University of Sharjah) and Mr. Tamer Mahmoud, Researcher Botanist

(Sharjah Seed Bank and Herbarium, Sharjah Research Academy).

3.4.2 Study Location, Weather Conditions and Soil Analysis

The pot plant experiment was conducted on C. amblyocarpa mature plants between December 2015 to April 2016 in the Experimental Station of Al Foah

Research Farm of the United Arab Emirates University (UAEU), as shown in Figure

7, at latitude 24○21ʹN and longitude 55○48ʹE in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates (UAE).

The time of conducting the experiment was the best period to grow this plant in the local habitats under the natural arid conductions (Jongbloed et al., 2003).

According to the weather data obtained from the weather station of the experimental farm (class A evaporation pan) the minimum and maximum temperature recorded in the site during the experiment were 5.2 and 39.1○C, respectively. Recorded temperatures during the experiment period are illustrated in Figure 8. The average rates of the temperature, humidity, wind speed and solar radiation were 20.3○C, 44.4%, 3.7 km/hr and 225.2 W/qm, respectively. The average precipitation rate was 0.0026 mm with maximum amount reached 4.88 mm, thus the experimental plant pots were covered with plastic sheet to eliminate the effect of precipitation.

Figure 7: C. amblyocarpa pot plant experiment

40 29.07±3.65 35

C) 30 ◦

20 Min. Temp. 15 Max. Temp. 11.54±3.63 Temperature ( Temperature 10

1 6

16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 71 76 81 86 91 96

Dec.11 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

101 106 111 116 121 126 131 Month

Figure 8: Recorded temperature of C. amblyocarpa pot plant experiment

Analysis of pot’s soil physical properties (done for disturbed samples in triplicates) showed that the soil has a sandy soil texture measured by dry sieve method

(Sand% “2 to 0.053 mm”: 97.42±1.03; Silt% “0.032 mm”: 2.05±1.23; Clay% “<0.032

59 mm”: 0.53±0.34). As the soil density represents weight per unit volume of a substance, thus, soil particle density is 2.65±0.132 g/cm3 and soil bulk density is 1.56±0.04 g/cm3. Soil water holding capacity is 25.67±3.3% and soil porosity is 37.69±0.49%.

Soil gravimetric moisture content (GMC) is 0.952±0.1% and soil volumetric moisture content (VMC) is 0.418±0.02% measured using the following equations:

푇표푡푎푙 푣표푙푢푚푒 표푓 푤푎푡푒푟 (푐푚3) Total soil porosity (%) = × 100 푇표푡푎푙 푣표푙푢푚푒 표푓 푠표푖푙 (푐푚3)

푊푒푡 푠표푖푙 (푔)−퐷푟푦 푠표푖푙 (푔) GMC (%) = × 100 퐷푟푦 푠표푖푙 (푔)

푊푎푡푒푟 푣표푙푢푚푒 (푐푚3) VMC (%) = × 100 푇표푡푎푙 푠푎푚푝푙푒 푣표푙푢푚푒 (푐푚3)

Analysis of soil chemical properties (done for triplicates) showed that the soil electric conductivity (EC) is 0.172±0.01 mS with pH 8.243±0.1, both tests were done for disturbed samples. Soil samples consisted of 0.269±0.057% organic matter measured by the Walkley-black method. The utilized soil consisted of 0.03125±0.01% nitrogen, 0.872±0.054 ppm phosphorus and 57.867±0.751 ppm potassium. Total nitrogen was measured by Vario MACRO cube CHNS and manufactured by

Elementar Co., while total phosphorus and potassium were measured by Inductively

Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), model 710-ES. Total soil calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was 34.86±0.3% measured by Calcimeter method. The rest of the macro and micro nutrients of the soil were measured by ICP-OES, model 710-ES, as shown in Table 43 in the Appendix.

Analysis of watering chemical properties (done for triplicates) showed that the water electric conductivity (EC) is 0.32±0.02 mS measured by EC meter with pH

7.9±0.1 measured by pH meter at 22.8○C, both tests were done for disturbed samples.

The utilized water consisted of 0.033±0.001 ppm phosphorus and 1.612±0.003 ppm potassium, both measured by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission

Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), model 710-ES. Chemical analysis for the macro and micro nutrients of the applied irrigation water is shown in Table 44 in the Appendix.

3.4.3 Statistics

≤ 0.05 (unless different significance level specified).

The figures and tables illustrated the significant differences between individual groups by letters, in which the use of different letters or symbol (*) in the same treatment group means that there is a significant difference at P ≤ 0.05 (unless different significance level specified), while the use of similar letters or absence of letters means that the difference between the same individual group is not significant.

3.4.4 Germination Test and Seedlings Emergence

The germination test was conducted as petri dish experiment, under laboratory conditions (temperature range 20 to 25○C), which is among the optimum range for the best germination rate recommended by Tlig et al. (2012). Plastic petri dishes (9 cm diameter) were used, ten seeds per plate and six replicates. Seeds were exposed to normal day lighting period (12 hours light, 12 hours darkness) and watered with sterilized water as required. No prior seeds’ treatment was applied. The observations were done daily at the same time for a total period of 21 days. The germination was

61 considered when the emerging radicle elongated to 2 mm, and the germinated seeds were removed from the petri dish.

The first (FDG) and last day of germination (LDG) were recorded. The final germination percentage (FGP) was calculated. The germination rate (GR), germination rate index (GRI) and the time spread of germination (TSG) were all calculated according to methods described by Kader (2005) using the following equations:

FDG (day) = Day of the first germination event

LDG (day) = Day of the last germination event

FGP (%) = Final No. of germinated seeds x 100

No.of germinated seeds GR (%) = 푥 100 Total No.of seeds

% G1 G2 Gx GRI ( ) = + + ⋯ + 푑푎푦 1 2 x

TSG (day) = The time between the first and last germination event

3.4.4.1 Influence of Growing Media

Testing the effect of growing media was conducted under greenhouse

○ conditions (26 to 31 C). Two treatments have been used as shown in Table 5; T1:

Growing media with peat moss (Peat moss: Potting soil: Sandy soil. Ratio: 1:1:1). T2:

Growing media without peat moss (Potting soil: Sandy soil. Ratio: 1:1). Twenty (20) seeds and 10 replicates per treatment were performed, in which all the used seeds were in dark brown (black) color.

In the first day, the germination trays were irrigated to field capacity (FC), followed, on the next day, by sowing the seeds to 1 cm depth, and daily irrigation to

FC. The FC was calculated for the volume (%) of pot plant experiment based on water volume (%) subjected to pressure at 0.01 MPa using pressure plate extractor method.

Results were recorded at the final observed seedlings emergence rate for both treatments for a period of 50 days, in which the average seedlings height was 7 cm.

Table 5: Treatments of growing media

Treatment No. Growing Media Treatment Treatment Description Ratio

T1 Growing media with peat moss Peat moss: potting soil: sandy soil 1:1:1

T2 Growing media without peat moss Potting soil: sandy soil 1:1

3.4.4.2 Influence of Seed Color

The objective of this experiment was to explore if there is a significant effect for the seed color, and if so what is the best seed color option (light brown or dark brown to black) suitable to obtain best seedlings emergence rate of C. amblyocarpa.

Testing the influence of seed color was conducted under greenhouse conditions

○ (26 to 31 C). Two treatments were tested as shown in Table 6; T1: light brown color.

T2: dark brown (black) color, as shown in Figure 9. Twenty (20) seeds and 5 replicates per treatment were utilized.

In the first day, the germination trays were irrigated to FC, followed on the next day by sowing seeds to 1 cm depth, and daily irrigation to FC. Results have been recorded at the finalist observed seedling emergence rate for both treatments (after 21 days), while the average seedling height was 7 cm. Utilized growing media was

(potting soil: sandy soil. Ratio: 1:1).

Table 6: Treatments of the seed color influence

Treatment No. Seed Color Treatment

T1 Light brown

T2 Dark brown to black

Dark brown seeds

Light brown seeds

Figure 9: C. amblyocarpa seeds color

3.4.5 Soil Water Retention Characteristics (pF Curve)

Soil matric potential Ψ (or soil water potential) reflects the force required for the water to be held within the soil and how much pressure is required to overcome this force to pull water out of the soil, and therefore increases as the soil becomes drier. The Ψ changes with the soil water content (θ) and it is highly affected by the soil texture. The Stevens pF Sensor is a potential and accurate tool to measure soil water retention characteristics (pF curve) by expressing the same in pF units, in which the unit of pF is the log of the pressure in Hectopascals (HPa).

In this work, soil water retention characteristics were measured by pressure plate extractor. Triplicates were used for each randomly selected soil samples. The selected pressures were recorded and obtained mean moisture content percentages with

64 their standard deviations (SDs) were calculated. RETC software, which is a computer program used to analyze the soil water retention, was used to draw the soil hydraulic properties.

3.4.6 Experimental Design and Irrigation Regimes Treatment

Seeds were sown manually to a depth of 1 cm below the soil surface in germination trays under greenhouse conditions (temperature: 26 to 31○C) in October

2015. The final healthy emerged seedlings were transferred from the germination trays outside greenhouse to the pot plant experiment (one seedling per one pot) in December

2015.

A completely randomized experimental design was conducted with three replications. Plot area was of 18 m2 with row spacing of 24 cm and by respecting a density of 23 plants m−2. The sandy soil was enriched by adding potting soil (ratio 1:1), brand Shalimar Bio Tech., consisted of: organic matter: 81%, nitrogen (N): 130 to 230 mg/L, phosphorus (P): 130 to 230 mg/L, potassium (K): 300 to 500 mg/L.

Before start applying the treatments of different irrigation regimes and to confirm a uniform moisture content, pre-irrigation was done directly after transferring the mature plants to the pot plant experimental location. Then, plants were subjected to three different irrigation regimes through applying three irrigation regimes, in which the watering was applied at the same time of the day according to the irrigation schedule shown in Table 7. In which the treatment group of the least water stress (T1) was irrigated daily and the same is the control group. The treatment group with the moderate water stress (T2) was irrigated day after day, and the treatment group with the highest water stress (T3) was irrigated day after two days. Each of the three treatments was applied randomly to a total of 99 seedlings, including three replicates

(33 seedlings for each replicate). Ten pots from each of the three treatment groups

65 were selected randomly from the center rows of each plot and used as indicators.

Weeds were removed manually by hand. Manual irrigation was provided to FC (168 ml) according to the three selected irrigation regimes. During precipitation period, pots were covered by transparent plastic sheet to maintain accuracy of watering measurements. FC was calculated based on the area of the experimental pot (height:

10 cm, diameter: 7.5 cm) and the moisture content percentage obtained by pressure plate extractor at 0.01 MPa.

The pF levels were continuously recorded using Stevens pF sensors and all recorded data were stored as a software in the DLight system. Also, the soil moisture content percentages were recorded by the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) (Brand

Field-Scout, Spectrum Technologies, Inc.). Measurements were done for the ten indicators of each treatment group at the roots zone, and the mean results with their

SDs were calculated. The harvest was done on 10 April 2016 (Minimum temperature

21oC, maximum temperature 31oC, and humidity 40%).

Table 7: Treatments of irrigation regimes

Treatment No. Treatment Description Irrigation Regimes

T1 Low water stress (Control) Daily

T2 Moderate water stress Every other day

T3 High water stress Once every 3 days

3.4.7 Plant Growth and Yield

For each treatment, final measurements of plant height, main branches number and root length were recorded from the randomly selected ten indicators of the center rows of each plot. The harvest was done on 10 April 2016 (temperature range from 21

66 to 31oC, humidity 40%). Measurements of fresh and dry matter weights were evaluated by destructive harvests of the three replicates of each treatment.

Fruits of each of the three replicates of the three irrigation treatments were collected and directly weighed (fresh weight) and then washed thoroughly for three times with distilled water and then air-dried in shaded good ventilate area for 14 days

(until completely dried), and then weighed (dry weight), labelled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for future analysis.

Similarly, pot plants of each of the three replicates from the three irrigation treatments were harvested in the same harvest day (on 10 April 2016) and immediately weighed (fresh weight). After that, harvested plants were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times and then air-dried in good shaded ventilate area for 14 days (until completely dried), and then weighed (dry weight), labelled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for further analysis. Dry matter contents were measured using the following formula:

DW DM(%) = × 100 FW

Where, DM: dry matter, FW: fresh weight, and DW: dry weight.

3.4.8 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos

The finer morphological details of C. amblyocarpa leaves (harvested on 10th

April) were done using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) XL Series, Netherland.

The process was done at the Electron Microscope Unit, College of Medicine, United

Arab Emirates University (UAEU). Three leaf samples were collected from the same middle position of the three tested watering treatments.

3.4.8.1 Chemicals

Fixative, phosphate buffer, osmium tetroxide, and ethanol.

3.4.8.2 Sample Preparation Protocol

The specimens were cut into size 4 × 4 mm, and transferred into fixation at pH

7.2 in a 7 ml glass vial with attached lids and stand overnight at 4oC. Next day, specimens were washed in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (3 times, 20 minutes each), and stored at 4oC. Then, 1 ml of buffered 1 percentage osmium tetroxide was added to each vial and mixed for 1 hour at room temperature on rotamixer. Afterward, osmium tetroxide was removed and samples were washed three times with distilled water (for

2 minutes each). Samples were dehydrated through washing with eight series of ethanol percentages (15 minutes: 30%, 50%, 70% 80%, 90%, 95%, and 30 minutes for

100% (I), 100% (II)). Next day, the specimens were washed again (twice) with 100% ethanol, and final samples were placed between two microscope slides (to avoid any curling in the specimen surface) and kept inside a desiccator for four days (to maintain a gradual drying process).

3.4.9 Plant Physiological Parameters by Spectrophotometer

Fresh leaves of C. amblyocarpa were randomly collected (at the middle position of the herb) on 10th of April (Temperature range 21 to 31oC, humidity 40%); to evaluate the physiological parameters at the three tested watering treatments. Tested physiological parameters include chlorophyll (A, B, and Total), carotenoids, and proline.

3.4.9.1 Chemicals

Acetone, proline, 5-sulfosalicylic acid dehydrate, ninhydrin, glacial acetic acid, phosphoric acid, ethanol, and toluene.

3.4.9.2 Chlorophyll and Carotenoids Determination

Chlorophyll content (including chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and total chlorophyll) and carotenoids were measured for fresh leaves (three samples, three

68 replications, fresh weight of each sample is 0.5 g) using acetone (85%) and measured by the spectrophotometer (U-2001-Hitachi).

Chlorophyll A was measured at 663 nm, chlorophyll B was measured at 645 nm and carotenoids were measured at 440 nm. Acetone 85 percent was used as a blank.

Calculations were done using Arnon’s Equations (1949), as follow:

V Chlorophyll A (mg/g) = [(12.7 × OD ) − (2.69 × OD )] × 663 645 W V Chlorophyll B (mg/g) = [(22.9 × OD ) − (4.68 × OD )] × 645 663 W V Total Chlorophyll (mg/g) = [(20.2 × OD ) + (8.02 × OD )] × 645 663 W

Carotenoids (mg/g) = (4.695 × OD440 )

Where OD is the recorded optical density at the indicated wavelength, V is the final volume and W is the fresh weight of the sample (mg).

3.4.9.3 Proline Determination

The free proline content was measured by spectrophotometer according to

Bates et al. (1973) method. The proline content of fresh leaves was measured for three samples in triplicates.

3.4.10 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation

EO isolation was done by hydrodistillation method using Clevenger type apparatus. EO of C. amblyocarpa seeds were extracted in triplicates. Also, the influence of the three watering regimes on the EO yield were evaluated.

3.4.10.1 Sample Preparation

The seeds of C. amblyocarpa were ground using mortar and pestle to size

0.0394 inch by U.S.A. Standard Sieve. Then, weighed (dry weight) and directly subjected to hydrodistillation.

The whole plant of C. amblyocarpa harvested from the water stress experiment, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits were washed thoroughly with distilled water for three times, and left in well ventilate shaded area (27○C) for two weeks (until completely dried). Then, weighed (dry weight), labelled and stored in clean and close paper bags until use for further analysis. In the distillation day, samples were grinded using Moulinex to homogenous particles size (0.425 mm), and directly subjected to hydrodistillation.

3.4.10.2 Extraction Conditions and Yields

The distillation was done at 85○C for a period of 5.5 hours, until no further EO was isolated. At the end of the distillation, the waxy EO was collected and separated easily from water. Thus, drying with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Anhydrous Na2SO4)

70 was not needed. The EO extract was weighed and stored in a sealed glass amber vial at 4oC until analyzed. After the distillation, the Clevenger apparatus was subjected to cleaning series using water, soap, methanol, and ethanol. This was done to ensure accuracy of results and minimize experimental errors.

The EO yield was calculated based on plant dry weight and the EO extract weight using following equation:

W EO yield (%) = EO × 100 Wplant

Where, Wplant is the dry weight of the plant (in gram) and WEO is the weight of the extracted EO (in gram).

3.4.10.3 Chromatographic Analysis

EO sample analysis was performed on an Agilent gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a FID and a HP-5MS capillary column, 30 m length × 0.25 mm internal diameter, 0.25 μm film thickness, temperature programmed as follows: 70-300°C at

10°C/min. The carrier gas was Helium at a flow of 3.0 ml/min; injector port and detector temperature were 250°C and 300°C, respectively. One microliter of the sample (diluted with acetone, 1:10 ratio) was injected by splitting and the split ratio was 1:100.

3.4.10.4 GC-MS Analysis

The GC-MS analysis was performed on an Agilent C 5975 GC-MS system with a HP-5MS capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm internal diameter × 0.25 μm film thickness). The operating conditions were the same conditions as described above for the chromatographic analysis. Mass spectra were taken at 70 eV. Scan mass range was from 40-700 m/z at a sampling rate of 1.0 scan/s. Quantitative data were obtained from the electronic integration of the FID peak areas.

3.5 Hypothesis No. 5 Methodologies: Antioxidant Activity of C. amblyocarpa EO

This section describes the experiments conducted to test hypothesis No. 5, which claims that EO of C. amblyocarpa (seeds and whole plant) has good antioxidant activity (in vitro); supporting it is traditional therapeutic applications and providing good source of natural antioxidants.

Antioxidant activity was determined using three common antioxidant assays:

3.5.1 Tested Samples

The antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa EO was tested for pot plant experiment at maturity stage, and irrigated manually to field capacity (daily: at 10 am,

168 ml), under the UAE natural climatic conditions. EO was extracted from it is seeds and the whole plant, separately. Harvesting conditions and extraction details of isolated EO by hydrodistillation are provided in Table 8.

Table 8: C. amblyocarpa EO extraction conditions subjected to antioxidant test

Plant Harvesting Parameter Post-Harvest Extraction Parameters Part Drying Method Time Temp. (○C) Particles Size Temp. (○C) Period (Hour)

Seeds 1.000 mm

Spring: Average: Air-Drying: End of 28 Shaded at 25○C 85 5.5 March Range: Whole 21 to 35 0.425 mm Plant

3.5.2 Sample Preparation

EO waxy samples of A. C. amblyocarpa, isolated from it is seeds and the whole plant, were dissolved in 500 μl of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and vortex very well.

This experiment was conducted in triplicates.

3.5.3 Standard Curves

The standard curves were prepared using trolox as a strong antioxidant reagent.

The absorbance of trolox at different concentrations was measured at 517 nm, 593 nm, and 734 nm for DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays, respectively. The results of all conducted assays were calculated and expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g EO extract. The standard curves are illustrated in Figure 64, 65, and 66 in the Appendix.

3.5.4 Antioxidant Assays

The objective of this test was to determine the antioxidant capacity of the EO extracts of C. amblyocarpa. Therefore, three antioxidant assays were conducted in a microplate to evaluate the antioxidant activity (in vitro) by spectrophotometer

(Microplate reader, BioTek, EPOCH 2) using 96 well plate. The tested assays were

DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS.

3.5.4.1 DPPH Assay

3.5.4.2 FRAP Assay

Each prepared sample (of 30 μl) was mixed with 270 μl of FRAP solution and kept for 30 min in full darkness at room temperature. The absorbance of the ferrous tripyridyltriazine complex was measured, and a sample blank at each concentration was prepared. The absorbance was measured at wavelength 593 nm. The activity was expressed as mg trolox equivalents / g of EO extract.

3.5.4.3 ABTS Assay

The principle of ABTS (2, 2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate)) assay is described by (Arnao et al., 2001). Each prepared sample (30 μl mixed with

270 μl of ABTS solution and kept for 30 min in full darkness at room temperature.

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions

In this Chapter, the results of all conducted experiments, which were used to test the five research hypotheses of this Ph.D. dissertation, are described and discussed in details. Concluded with most important remarks and conclusions.

4.1 Hypothesis No. 1 Outcomes: The Databank of the Emirati EO-Bearing Plants

This section illustrates and discusses in details the results of all conducted methodologies to test Hypothesis No. 1, which claims that the UAE has a rich resource of EO-bearing plants. At the end of this section, the most important remarks and conclusion would be provided.

4.1.1 A Comprehensive Overview

All the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants were evaluated and the result is establishing a databank providing a full list of all Emirati EO-bearing plants, which includes a comprehensive information and details of 135 Emirati EO-bearing plants belonging to 45 families, all cited based on up-to-date literature (over 300 reference).

Meaning that, EO-bearing plants comprise 16.9% of the estimated 800 indigenous and naturalized plants. According to Raut and Karuppayil (2014) there are around 2000 identified EO-bearing plants globally. Then, it is of high value that a country (with estimated 83 km2 land area and with limited freshwater resources) includes 135 EO- bearing plants.

It is worth mentioning that although some of the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants have rich traditional therapeutic applications and belonging to important medicinal families, however no data available yet related to the potential of their EOs. Then, it is expected that many of the medicinal and aromatic plants that are available locally are not investigated yet, and the true estimation of the Emirati EO-

76 bearing plants could be underestimated. Examples of these species include,

Amaranthus graecizans and Amaranthus viridis from Amaranthaceae family, which were used in the past by Bedouin people of UAE to treat scorpion’s stings, snake bites, and itchy skin rash as reported by Sabitha et al. (2012).

An overview of all families of the Emirati EO-bearing plants, their species number, natural habitats, potential plant parts, and ecological status are illustrated in

Figure 10, 11, 12, and 13. Based on our results, the families that include the highest number of EO-bearing species are Asteraceae, (22 plants, 16.3%), Fabaceae (11 plants,

8.1%), Lamiaceae (11 plants, 8.1%), Brassicaceae (9 plants, 6.7%), Apiaceae (7 plants,

5.1%) and Poaceae (7 plants, 5.1%), respectively, as shown in Figure 10.

Generally, the most important habitats are the plantations, farmlands and irrigated lands, which host 50% of the Emirati EO-bearing plants. While, the most important natural habitats are mountains and rocky terrain, wadis, sandy dunes and coastal saline lines, hosting 36.3%, 24.4%, 15.5%, and 14.8% of the total Emirati EO- bearing plants, respectively (Figure 11).

Since plantations and farmlands are hosting 50% of the Emirati EO-bearing plants (which could be due to their ornamental or food production value, or just available naturally as weeds due to the accessibility of water), thus educational campaigns to educate landlords about extra potentials and economic benefits related to EOs of their available indigenous plants. Also, with the sharp population growth and the current expansion in the industrial and urbanization activities, strong efforts should be invested to conserve the natural habitats of the EO-bearing plants (e.g., mountains, wadis), and take the same in consideration in the strategic planning and management.

Based on our results, shoots (particularly leaves and flowers) are the most important parts that have potential for EOs. In which, 56.3%, 37.8%, and 29.6% of the

Emirati-EO-bearing plants are having potential to extract EOs from their shoots, leaves, and flowers, respectively (Figure 12).

Our results show that 82% of the status of the Emirati EO-bearing plants are reported as least concerned plants (low risks to be endangered), as shown in Figure 13.

However, since recent references that are reporting the status of indigenous plants are limited, and taking into consideration that status of 10% of the plants are not yet evaluated. Therefore, the real status could be underestimated, especially with the current population growth and the urbanization activities.

10 Number of Species Number 5

Iridaceae Liliaceae Oleaceae Rutaceae

Cistaceae

Violaceae

Arecaceae

Rubiaceae

Myrtaceae

Lythraceae

Solanaceae

Cyperaceae

Cleomaceae

Geraniaceae

Rhamnaceae

Verbenaceae

Apocynaceae

Hypericaceae

Bignoniaceae Boraginaceae

Tamaricaceae

Polygonaceae

Zingiberaceae

Combretaceae Cucurbitaceae

Casuarinaceae Frankeniaceae

Anacardiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Plantaginaceae

Ranunculaceae

Amaranthaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Convolvulaceae

Poaceae / / Gramineae Poaceae

Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae Malvaceae/

Lamiaceae / Labiatae Lamiaceae /

Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae Aizoaceae/

Apiaceae/ Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae

Brassicaceae / Cruciferae Brassicaceae

Capparaceae / Capparidaceae / Capparaceae

Salvadoraceae / Salourloruceae / Salvadoraceae

Caryophyllaceae / Illecebraceae / Caryophyllaceae

Asteraceae / Compositae/ Anthemideae Compositae/ Asteraceae / Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae Leguminosae/ / Fabaceae Family

Figure 10: Families of EO-bearing plant species in the UAE

70 60 50 40 30 20

Number of Species Number 10 0

Habitats

Figure 11: Habitats of EO-bearing plants in the UAE

80 70 60 50 40 30

20 Number of Species Number 10 0 Flowers Fruits Leaves Roots Seeds Shoots Whole plant

Potential Plant Parts Figure 12: Major plant parts for EO production in the UAE

3% 5% Least concerned (lowest risk) 10%

Not evaluated

Vulnerable (high risk of becoming endangered) 82% Endangered species

Figure 13: Status of EO-bearing plants in the UAE

4.1.2 A Detailed Overview

A detailed view on the results of each family is divided into three table groups:

The first group represents the general botanical information related to the plant species, including form, life form, life cycle, economic value, and folk medicine/ applications internationally and locally. The second group illustrates the data related to the plants’ natural habitats in the UAE, including the important locations, soil, habitats, flowering period, and wildlife status. The third group shows details knowledge related to plants’

EOs, including potential plant parts, yields, extraction methods, main chemical groups/ constituents, and biological activities.

Results of the top three richest families, based on the number of their species, are illustrated in this chapter from Table 9 to 17, including Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and

Lamiaceae. While the rest of results are illustrated in the Appendix from Table 45 to

170.

Our results show that the taxa of all the UAE EO-bearing plants are belonging to dicotyledon group, except taxa of 15 plants that are belonging to monocotyledon group: Phoenix dactylifera, Cyperus arenarius, Cyperus conglomeratus, Cyperus rotundus, Gynandriris sisyrinchium, Dipcadi erythraeum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya bipinnata, Lolium rigidum, Cymbopogon commutatus,

Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Alpinia galangal, and Zingiber officinale.

According to our extensive literature review, the Iranian plants show the highest number of publications in the field of EO research. Other important plants’ countries of origin in conducting EOs research include India, Saudi Arabia, Tunisia,

Nigeria, Jordan, and Pakistan.

On the other hand, there are only four (4) publications that studied the EO- bearing plants of the UAE. The first publication by Al Yousuf et al. (2001), who studied EO of Pulicaria glutinosa grown in Jebal Al Faya, The second publication by

Al Yousuf et al. (2002), who studied Teucrium stocksianum grown in Khor Fakkan.

The third publication studied EOs of Haplophyllum tuberculatum also grown in Khor

Fakkan (Al Yousuf et al., 2005).While the fourth publication is by Al‐Marzouqi et al.

(2007) done on Menthe spicata collected from different regions in the UAE.

Based on above mentioned, there is scarcity in research done in the EO-bearing plants of the UAE. This is the case while the country has rich biodiversity and has rich traditional medicine applications (Tanira et al., 1994; Wasfi et al., 1995; Sakkir, et al.,

2012; Shahin and Salem, 2014a). Also, according to Sakkir, et al. (2012) 37% of the

UAE medicinal plants are applied topically to treat skin problems. Which is a direct/ indirect indication that the UAE is a good niche for EO phytochemicals of healing benefits. Consequently, it is highly recommended to invest more efforts to study the

82 local EO-bearing plants, seeking for new natural resources of phytochemicals of proven biological activity to the country and the world.

Actually, our established databank of the UAE EO-bearing plants is offering a solid background to take quick decisions in plants selection and to start-up an innovative EOs-based research pathway, which can lead to new chemotypes and promising discoveries. Besides, the databank provides the interested parties (from academic and industrial fields) the opportunity to have an overview on all the Emirati

EO-bearing plants, which enabling them to highlight the most important indigenous species to supply their needs according to field of interest. At the same time, the databank is listing all the UAE EO-bearing plants that need to be conserved from decision maker to guarantee a sustainability future for the next generations.

Table 9:Table The 9UAE: The EO UAE-bearing -bearing species species of Asteracea of Asteraceae/ Compositae/e/ Compositae/ Anthemideae Anthemideae (continued) Family No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Anthemis odontostephana Boiss. H Th A Arom, . Sajjadi et al., 2013; Ezazi et al., EOs* 2014; Zebarjad & Farjam, 2015 أُق ُحوان (Arb. O'qhowan)

2 Artemisia sieberi Besser (Eng. H / S Ch P Med, (+) (UAE) Sefidkon et al., 2002; Ghasemi Wormwood) Arom, et al., 2007; Negahbana et al., EOs*, 2007; Khosravi et al., 2009; Flav!, Mahboubi & Farzin, 2009; Cosm! Irshaid et al., 2010; Gharehmatrossian et al., 2012; Rabie et al., 2012

3 Calendula arvensis L. (Eng. Field H Th A Med, Fod, (+) Kavallieratos et al., 2001; Loi et marigold) (Arb. Ain el baqr, eqhwan- Nutr, EOs, al., 2005; Dall’Acqua et al., Cosm 2008; Paolini et al., 2010 األذريون الحقلي/ (asfar, hanwa, hanuwa Ercetina et al., 2012 الحنوة / بكورية حقلية األذريون الحقلي/ الحنوة /

بكورية حقلية

Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

4 Cichorium intybus L. (Eng. Blue H Ch P Med, (+) (Europe: "R": Are aromatic & used Nandagopal et al., 2006; Haghi daisy, blue dandelion, blue sailors, Flav, with coffee as a substitute) (UAE: "L": et al., 2012 blue weed, bunk, coffeeweed) (Arb. Forg, Boiled in water as fever treatment + EOs, "Fr": Eaten to treat headache & boiled الهندباء البري (hindibaa bareeya, chicoria (Lands in water for treating jaundice المحلي

5 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. (Syn. H / W Th A / B Med, EOs (+) Barbosa et al., 2005; Müller et Conyza linifolia (Willd.) Tackh) (Eng. / P al., 2011; Akbar & Al-Yahya, Flax-leaf Fleabane, Wavy-leaf 2011; Mabrouk et al., 2011; Fleabane, hairy fleabane) (Arb. Soares et al., 2015 األريغارون (hashishat el-jebal, tebaq البوناري / النفال / الخوع /كونيزة بونارية

6 Eclipta prostrata L. (Syn. Eclipta alba H / W Th A Med, (+) (China: Herbal medicine) (North Biondo et al., 2003; de Almeida (L.) Hassk.) (Eng. False daisy, Trailing Arom, Africa: Juice of fresh plant applied to et al., 2004; Karthikumar et al., eclipta ). (Arb. Sa'ada, sauweid, EOs scalp to improve hair growth) 2007; Chang & Kim, 2009 منكسفة مفترشة (masadate

7 Grantia aucheri Boiss. H He A Med, EOs (+) (Pakistan: "W": for snake & Rauschert, 1982; Rustaiyan et scorpion bite) al., 2004; Mehmood et al., 2012;

Sadeghi et al., 2014

Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

8 Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. (Eng. H Ch A / P Med, EOs (+) Rashid et al., 2000; Mansoor et Hawwa Baqrah ara, hindabah ara, al., 2007; Al-Mahrezi et al., huwah ara, naked launea) (Arb. 2011; Saleem et al., 2012 Huwah al ghazal, safara, huwah, الحوة عارية الساق (hindabah

9 Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip. H Th A Med, (+) (As a carminative & anti- Aburjai et al., 2007; Jalali et al., (Eng. Golden chamomile) (Arb. Arom*, inflammatory) (Used in ointments & 2008; Lukas et al., 2009; Ahmad ,.EOs*, lotions) (As a mouthwash against et al., 2009; Louhaichi et al البابونج (Babunaj Cosm* infections of mouth and gums) 2011 (chamomile essential oils "true chamomile oil": for aromatherapy) (UAE: Medicinal tea. "Fl": To treat abdominal complains)

10 Matricaria chamomilla L. (Syn. H Th A Med, (+) (Saudi Arabia: "Fl": as Nimri et al., 1999; Povh et al., Matricaria recutita) (Eng. Chamomile, Nutr, antibacterial) (Jordan: to treat various 2001; Ganzera et al., 2006; ,.Arom, diseases "e.g. inflammation & cancer") Pirzad et al., 2006; Owlia et al بابونج (camomile, german chamomile ;EOs* 2007; Aburjai et al., 2007 ألماني Heuskin et al., 2009; Tolouee et al., 2010; Hisham et al., 2012;

Roby et al., 2013

Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

11 Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser and H Ch P Med, (+) (UAE: To treat skin & as Suliman et al., 2006; Ahemd & Lack (Eng. Pluchea) (Arb. godot) Arom, doedorant) ("W": Boiled to treat skin Kamel, 2013; Goyal & EOs*, ailments + "L": Extract used as ear Aggarwal, 2013 Cosm drops + "L": Fresh "L" rubbed on body as deodorant)

12 Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. (Syn. S / T Ch P Med*, (+) (Many Important Applications) Yang et al., 2005; Goyal & Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf., Arom, (UAE) Aggarwal, 2013; El-Ghorab et Baccharis dioscoridis L.) (Eng. EOs al., 2015 Ploughmans spikenard, marsh فونرب (fleabane) (Arb. Sahikee, barnof

13 Pluchea ovalis (pers.) DC. (Eng. S / T Ph A / P Med*, (+) (UAE) Kabera et al., 2005; Bensabah et Woolly camphor-weed) Arom, al., 2013; Goyal & Aggarwal, EOs 2013

14 Pseudognaphalium luteo-album (L.) F / H Th A EOs (+) Devi, 1998; Demirci et al., 2009; H. & B. (Syn. Gnaphalium luteo- Van der Westhuizen et al., 2013 album L.) (Eng. Cudweed) (Arb.

sabount el'afrit)

Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

15 Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass. (Syn. H He A / P EOs . De Pooter et al., 1987; Mossa et Inula arabica L./ Pulicaria elata al., 1987; Yousuf et al., 2001 Boiss./ Pulicaria laniceps Bornm.) أبو عين صفرا / (Arb. Iqat, abu 'ain safra) إقات

16 Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. & Spach S Ch P Arom*, . Al Yousuf et al., 2001; Hanbali (Arb. Thal, fal, shajarat fal, muhayda, EOs, Oth* et al., 2005; Nematollahi et al., mithidi, shajarat al-mithidi, shneena, 2006 مهتدي (zayyan

17 Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC. S Ch P Med, Fod, (+) Al-Hajj et al., 2014a; Al-Hajj et Forg, al., 2014b; Al-Hajj et al., 2017 Arom, EOs, Fuel

18 Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Meyer H / S Ch A / P Med*, (+) (Dropsy, swelling, oedema, gout, Burits & Bucar, 2000; (Syn. Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Fod, Forg, febrifuges, painkillers) (Egypt: To treat Nematollahi et al., 2006; EL- Benth.) (Eng. Crisp-leaved fleabane) Arom, measles & repel insects) Kamali et al., 2009 (Arb. Gathgeth, jithjath, 'urayfijan) EOs*, Fuel حسنية/ جيتيا

19 Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (Eng. S Ch p Forg*, . Yaghmai & Kolbadipour, 1987; Flav, EOs, Nematollahi et al., 2006 عرفج (Rhanterium) (Arb. Arfaj

Fuel

Table 9: The UAE EO-bearing species of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

20 Senecio glaucus L. ssp. coronopifolius H Th A Arom, . De Pooter et al., 1986; Yaghmai (Maire) Al. (Syn. Senecio desfontanei EOs* & Kolbadipour, 1987; Ali et al., Druce) (Eng. Maire alexander, buck's 2013 horn groundsel) (Arb. Qorreis, murair, zamlooq, shakhees, rejel al ghurab) جرجار/ شيخة رمادية

21 Seriphidium herba-alba (Asso) Sojak S Ph P Med, (+) (Tunisia) (Inhaling smoke though to Vera et al., 1994; Oladipupo & (Syn. Artemisia herba-alba Asso/ EOs* be beneficial for both man & animals) Adebola, 2009; Mokhtar et al., Artemisia inculta Del) (Eng. ,FPre! ("Sh": Young "Sh" eaten by mountain 2017 Wormwood, white wormwood) (Arb. travellers) (Many applications) (UAE: L”: Crushed as a worm treatment & to“ عطا / غطا / ِشح (Ata, ghata, shih combat fevers + Many applications)

22 Sphagneticola trilobata (Syn. Wedelia H Ch P Med, EOs, (+) (Brazil) Boutkhil et al., 2011; Belhattab paludosa DC.) (Eng. Singapore daisy, Lands* creeping-oxeye, trailing daisy, et al., 2014; Verma et al., 2014 wedelia)

TableTable 10Table: The10: TheUAE11: TheUAE EO UAE- EObearing- bearingEO -speciebearing speciess of species Fabaceae/ of Fabaceae/ of Fabaceae/ Leguminosae/ Leguminosae/ Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae Papilionoideae Papilionoideae (continued) (continued) Family No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Alhagi maurorum Medik. (Syn. Alhagi H / S He / P Med, EOs, (+) (Infusion of plant or plant juice Naseri & Mard, 2007; graecorum Boiss.) (Eng. Camelthorn, Na Biof used to treat worm infestations, Ahmad et al., 2010; camelthorn-bush, caspian manna, cataract, jaundicem migraine, arthritis, Samejo et al., 2012 persian mannaplant) (Arb. Shwaika, constipation) ("R": Green "R" boiled & taken as tea with lime, as an العاقول المغربي (agool, heidj aphrodisiac & to treat kidney disease) (UAE)

2 Lotus halophilus Boiss. & Spruner V! / Th A / P Med, Fod, (+) (Qatar: as tonic & sedative) Yousif et al., 2012; Al- (Eng. Greater bird's foot trefoi) (Arb. H Forg, Mazroa et al., 2015 Horbeith "hurbuth", garn al ghazal, EOs, Lands قرن الغزال (asheb al ghanem'

3 Medicago polymorpha L. (Eng. F / W Th A Med*, (+) (India: for medicinal purposes for Catalan et al., 2003; California burclover, toothed bur Fod, Forg, skin plagues & dysentery) (Bolivia: for Sabudak & Goren, 2011 clover, toothed medick, burr medic) EOs, Eco, medicinal purposes since 16 century) ,Lands (Itally: for treating rheumatic pains الفصة متعددة األشكال / الفصة الشائكة wounds & still used until today)

4 Medicago sativa L. (Eng. Alfalfa, H He P Med*, (+) (Great therapeutic benefits) (Used Dewey & Lu, 1959; Gweru Forg*, for boosting energy levels) et al., 2009 برسيم حجازي (lucerne

EOs, Eco

Table 10: The UAE EO-bearing species of Fabaceae/ Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

5 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. (Eng. V / H Ch P Med, EOs (+) (Saudi Arabia: Used as abortive) Gweru et al., 2009; Jia et least snout-bean, burn-mouth-vine, and (UAE) al., 2015 jumby bean) (Arb. Baql)

6 Tephrosia persica Boiss. (Syn. H / S Ch P Med, (+) ("L": Boiled with water used as Hamed et al., 2014; Tephrosia apollinea (Delile) DC.) Arom, eardrops for earache + "Bk": Powdered Asgarpanah et al., 2017 (Arb. Dhafra, omayye, nafal) EOs* & mixed with water put into camel's ears to remove ticks + "L": Powdered, heated & mixed as a paste with water &/or salt & applied on wounds & fractures to relieve pain) (UAE)

7 Trigonella hamosa L. (Eng. Branched H Th A Med, (+) Shahat et al., 2013; Al- fenugreek, egyptian fenugreek) (Arb. Forg, Mazroa et al., 2015 Nafal, qutifa, qirqas, darjal, eshb al- Flav, EOs نفل- حندقوق (malik, qurt

8 Ononis sicula Guss. H Th A EOs . Al-Qudah et al., 2014; Xu

et al., 2015

Table 10: The UAE EO-bearing species of Fabaceae/ Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

9 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Syn. Acacia T Ph P Med*, (+) (Pearl drivers used to apply an Pai et al., 2010; Ogunbinu Arabica (Lam.) Willd.) (Eng. Gum EOs, infusion of fruits to skin after dives) et al., 2010; Hanif et al., arabic tree, babul/kikar, egyptian thorn, Lands ("L": Poultice of "L" used to treat joint 2010 sant tree, al-sant, prickly acacia) (Arb. pains) (Resin mixed with egg-white Sunt garath "kurut", babul, tulh. Fruit: applied to eyes to treat cararact) ("L": Eaten to treat diarrhoea) ("Se": Soaked السظٌ العربي / القرط / القرض/ السنط (karat in water or milk drunk to treat العربي النيلي/ السنط diabeted) ("Pd": Smoke from burning "Pds" inhaled for colds) (UAE: Applied to soothe burns. "L": are pounded into a paste & used a poultice on boils & swellings or applied around boils to draw out the pus)

10 Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne (Eng. S / T Ph P Med, (+) (Mostly yields resin, used as a gum Ogunwande et al., 2008; Umbrella thorn) (Arb. Samr "samur", Forg, EOs healing wounds) Seigler, 2003 السمر / السنط الملتوي (salam

11 Prosopis farcta (Banks & Sol.) Mac. S Ch P EOs . Harzallah‐Skhiri et al., (Eng. Dwarf mesquite, syrian mesquite) 2006; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2015 الينبوت/ (Arb. Yanbut, agoul, awsaj) غاف مليء

Table 11:Table The UAE 12: The EO -UAEbearing EO species-bearing of species Lamiaceae/ of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued)Labiatae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. (Eng. H Th A Med*, (+) Morteza-Semnani, Bian bing cao) Eos* 2006; Sharifi‐Rad et al., 2015

2 Mentha spicata (Eng. Spearmint, spear mint) H He P Med, Fod, (+) (UAE) Adam et al., 1998; Flav, Znini et al., 2011 نعناع مدبب Arom*, EOs*

3 Ocimum forsskaolii Benth. (Syn. Ocimum H Th A / P Med*, (+) (Oman: "L": as deodorant + Odalo et al., 2005; forskolei Benth.) (Eng. Rehan, sawma) (Arb. Arom, "L": Fragnance eases headaches Nerio et al., 2010; ;EOs, & dizziness + "L": Crushed & Fatope et al., 2008 حبقبق / ضومر / البازل (Basil Insec, placed in nose to treat colds & in Dekker et al., 2011; Lands, ears to treat earaches + "L": Al-Hajj et al., 2014a; Oth Juice from young "L" as eye Doaigey et al., 2017 drops or to soothe insect bites) (UAE: "L": to treat vomiting, against itching)

4 Salvia aegyptiaca L. (Eng. Egyptian sage) H Ch / A / P Med*, (+) (To treat diarrhoea, Kelen & Tepe, 2008; (Arb. Ra'al, na'aim, ghbeisha, shajarat al Th EOs* gonorrhoea & haemorrhoids) Bakkali et al., 2008 ,As demulcent, antispasmodic) قصعين مصري (ghazal, khizam

cicatrizant, antiseptic &

Table 11: The UAE EO-bearing species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

stomachic) (Its non-polar extracts have been tested as antimicrobial) (Nutlets are used in a drink to treat diarrhoea & piles) (UAE)

5 Salvia macilenta Boiss. (Eng. Khizama) (Arb. H Ch P Med, (+) Akhgar et al., 2012; Khmayzah lethnay, bithman) EOs* Akhgar et al., 2014; Shahin & Salem, 2015;

6 Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. (Arb. Shajarat Al H He P Med, (+) Sharififar et al., 2007; ,EOs* Misaghi & Basti شجرة الغزال (Ghazal 2007; Mahboubi & Bidgoli, 2010

7 Salvia mirzayanii Rech.f. & Esfandiari H Ch P EOs . Javidnia et al., 2002; Yamini et al., 2008; Ziaei et al., 2011

,.H He P EOs* . Sourmaghi et al ذان (Salvia spinosa L. (Arb. Shajarat al-ghazal 8 ,.Flamini et al ;2006 الحمار / دنون جبل / ثعلبه / شجره الغزال / دنون / َم ْريَميه /

2007 سمسم

Table 11: The UAE EO-bearing species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

9 Teucrium polium L. (Eng. Felty germander) H / S Th P Med*, (+) (to treat liver diseases, Abdollahi, Karimpour ,Arom, antispasmodic, antidiabetic & & Monsef-Esfehani جعد، جعدة EOs lowering blood lipid) (Many 2003; Cozzani et al., medicinal uses: to treat malaria, 2005 insect bites & abscesses) (UAE: "L" & "St")

10 Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. (Eng. Jadah, H Ch P Med*, (+) (Many applications in Al Yousuf et al., 2002; EOs* medicine) (Antispasmodic Shah et al., 2012 جعدة (yadah, Ja`adah) (Arb. Ya'dah, brair activity) (UAE: Many medicinal applications. Antispasmodic activity. to treat kidney, stomach pains, thyroids problems, common cold)

11 Zataria multiflora Boiss. (Eng. Za'atar, shirazi H Ch P Med, (+) (UAE: to treat cold, Sharififar et al., 2007; ,Flav, indigestion, toothache) Mahboubi & Bidgoli زعتر (thyme Arom, 2010 EOs*

TableTable 12: Location 13: Location of the of UAE the UAE EO- bearingEO-bearin plantsg plants of Asteraceae/ of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae Anthemideae (continued) (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Anthemis odontostephana Boiss. (RAK, F) (RA) (Sil, (Mou) Feb. to (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; Roc) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003

2 Artemisia sieberi Besser . . . . . (CO) Sakkir et al., 2012

3 Calendula arvensis L. (RAK, F, S) (HM, RA) (Sil, (FF, Jan. to (CO) (NC, CO) Western, 1989; Roc) Mou) Mar. June Jongbloed et al., 2003 to Nov.

4 Cichorium intybus L. (RAK) . (San) (FF) Feb. to (CO, RA) (RA) Western, 1989; Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Sakkir et al., 2012

5 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. (AD) (SL) . (Oas, Jan. to (CO) Brown and Sakkir, Gar, May. 2004; Jongbloed et Plat) al., 2003

6 Eclipta prostrata L. (F) (SL) . (Plat) Dec. to (NC) (NC) Western, 1989; Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003

7 Grantia aucheri Boiss. (AD) (Ain) . (Rod, Jan. to . Mousa & Fawzi,

Wad) Apr. 2009

Table 12: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

8 Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Hook. f. (AD, Du) (SL) (San) (Oas, Feb. to (CO) (NC) Western, 1989; Plat) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

9 Matricaria aurea (Loefl.) Sch. Bip. (RAK, F) (RA) (Sil, (PX, Feb. to (CO) (CO) Jongbloed et al., Roc) Mou) Apr. 2003; Sakkir et al., 2012

10 Matricaria chamomilla L. . . . (Rod!, . . Amin & Mousa, 2007 AF!)

11 Pluchea arabica (Boiss.) Qaiser and (RAK) . (Roc) (Wad, Feb. to (NE) (RA) Sakkir et al., 2012 Lack Plat, Apr. Wat)

12 Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. . (WC) (San, (Cos, Through (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Sal) Oas, Gar, the year. Jongbloed et al., Urb, AF) 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

13 Pluchea ovalis (pers.) DC. (Du) . . . . (NC) Western, 1989;

Jongbloed et al., 2003

Table 12: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

14 Pseudognaphalium luteo-album (L.) (AD) (Ain) . (Plat) Feb. to (CO) Jongbloed et al., H. & B. May. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

15 Pulicaria arabica (L.) Cass. (S, F, RAK) (HM) . (Wad, Feb. to (NC, CO) (NC, CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003 Wat, Apr. Plat)

16 Pulicaria glutinosa Jaub. & Spach (F, RAK, S, (HM) (Roc) (Plat, Feb. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; AD) Mou) Jun. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

17 Pulicaria inuloides (Poir.) DC...... Jongbloed et al., 2003

18 Pulicaria undulata (L.) C.A. Meyer (RAK, AD) (SL) (San, (Apl, Apr. to (FC) (FC) Western, 1989; Sil) AF) Jul. Mar. Jongbloed et al., to Aug.! 2003; Brown and Mar. to Sakkir, 2004 June!

19 Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (AD) (Ain, CC, EE, (San, (Dun, Jan. to (CO) Western, 1989; NE) Roc) Plat, Apl, May. Jongbloed et al.,

Hil)

Table 12: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

20 Senecio glaucus L. ssp. (RAK, UAQ, (CN) (San, (Cos, FF) Feb. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; coronopifolius (Maire) Al. AD) Sal) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

21 Seriphidium herba-alba (Asso) (RAK, F) (RA) (Roc) (PX, Feb. to (NC) (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003 Sojak Mou) Apr.

22 Sphagneticola trilobata . . . . Through . Western, 1989 the year. Spring to Autumn!

TableTable 13: Location14: Location of the of UAE the UAE EO- bearingEO-bearing plants plants of Fabaceae of Fabac /eae Leguminosae/ / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae Papilionoideae (continued) (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Alhagi maurorum Medik. (AD) (SL) (Sal!) (Cos, Dun, Mar. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Rod, DS)! Aug. Apr. ZCHRTM, 2005 to Jul!

2 Lotus halophilus Boiss. & (AD, RAK) (WC) (San, Sal) (Cos, Dun) . (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; Spruner Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

3 Medicago polymorpha L. (Du, AD) (SL) (Roc)! (Gar, Plat, Feb. to (CO)! Western, 1989; Mou, DS)! Apr.! Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

4 Medicago sativa L. (Du) . . . . (NC) Western, 1989

5 Rhynchosia minima (L.) (AD) (NE) (San, Roc) (Dun, Wad, Feb. to (LC) Western, 1989; DC. Mou) May. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and

Sakkir, 2004

Table 13: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

6 Tephrosia persica Boiss. (F, S, RAK) (RA, HM) (San, Roc) (Wad, Mou Jan. to (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; "low") May. Jongbloed et al., 2003

7 Trigonella hamosa L. (Du, AD) (SL) (San) (Dun, Oas, Feb. to (FC) (NC) Western, 1989; Gar, Plat) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

8 Ononis sicula Guss...... Jongbloed et al., 2003

9 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (AD) (EE, NE) (Roc) (Oas, Wad, Mar. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Plat, Gar, Nov. Jongbloed et al., Mou) 2003; Brown and Nov. to Sakkir, 2004; Apr.! Sakkir et al., 2012

10 Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) (AD, S) (EE) (San, Roc) (Pla, Dun. Apr. to Jun. (FC) (CO) Western, 1989; Hayne Wad, Mou Mar. to Jongbloed et al., "medium July! 2003; Brown and

elevations") Sakkir, 2004

100

TableTable 15 13: Location: Location of ofthe the UAE UAE EO EO-bearing-bearing plants plants of ofFabaceae Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae Papilionoideae (continued) (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

11 Prosopis farcta (Banks & (AD) (Ain, SL) (San, Roc) (Dun, Plat, Apr to (NC) (RA) Western, 1989; Sol.) Mac. Mou) Aug. Apr Jongbloed et al., to July! 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

101

Table 14: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Lallemantia royleana (RAK, F) (RA) (Roc) (Mou "medium & Feb. to (RA) Jongbloed et al., 2003 (Benth.) Benth. high elevations") Apr.

2 Mentha spicata ...... Amin & Mousa, 2007; Al‐Marzouqi et al., 2007

3 Ocimum forsskaolii Benth. (S, F, RAK) (HM, RA) . (Plat) Feb. to (NE) (NC) Western, 1989; Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Sakkir et al., 2012

4 Salvia aegyptiaca L. (AD, S, F, (HM) (Roc) (Wad, Hil "all Feb. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; RAK) elevations", Mou) May. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

5 Salvia macilenta Boiss. (F, RAK, (EE) (Roc) (Plat, Wad, Hil Feb. to (CO) (NC, CO) Western, 1989; AD) "low", Mou) May. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and

Sakkir, 2004

102

Table 14: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

6 Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. (F, S!, (RA! HM!) (Roc) (Wad, Hil, Mou) Feb. to (RA) Western, 1989; RAK!) May. Jongbloed et al., 2003

7 Salvia mirzayanii Rech.f. (F, RAK) (RA) (Roc) (Wad, Hil "low", Feb to (NC)! Jongbloed et al., 2003 & Esfandiari Mou) May!

8 Salvia spinosa L. (AD, S, F, (HM, RA) (Roc) (Rod, Wad, Hil Feb. to (NC, CO) Jongbloed et al., RAK) "low to medium Apr.! 2003; Brown and elevations", Mou) Sakkir, 2004

9 Teucrium polium L. (F, RAK) (RA) . (Wad, Hil "all Feb. to (NE) (RA)! Jongbloed et al., elevations")! May.! 2003; Sakkir et al., 2012

10 Teucrium stocksianum (F, S, RAK, (HM, RA, KF) (Roc) (Wad, Hil "all Mar. to (CO) (NC, CO) Western, 1989; Boiss. AD) elevations", Mou) Apr.! Feb. Jongbloed et al., to May. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

11 Zataria multiflora Boiss...... ZCHRTM, 2005

103

TableTable 15 :16 Details: Details of EOsof EOs isolated isolated from from species species of Asteracee/of Asteraceae/ Compositae/ Compositae/ Anthemideae Anthemideae (continued) (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Anthemis Fl / L (Yellow (0.2)Fl,HD HD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated [AB / AF / AM]Fl/L/St/R,HD Sajjadi et al., / St / color / (0.7)Fl,HD monoterpenes, sesquiterpene 2013; Ezazi et odontostephana R Aromatic (0.5)L,HD hydrocarbons, oxygenated (AB: Gram-negative bacteria: al., 2014; odor)Fl,HD (0.7)St,HD sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids)Fl,HD Escherichia coli, Escherichia Zebarjad & Boiss. (0.2)R,HD coli, Klebsiella bacteria. Gram- Farjam, 2015 (Spathulenol, hexadecanoic acid, positive bacteria: Staphylococcus germacrene D, 1,8-cineole, 6-methyl-5- aureus, Staphylococcus hepten-2-one, caryophyllene oxide, β- epidermidis, Corynebacterium caryophyllene, camphor)Fl,HD glutamicum)Fl/L/St/R,HD

(Borneol)Fl/L/St,HD (AF: Aspergillus niger, Fusarium solani species complex, (Pentadecanoic acid)R,HD Alternaria alternata)Fl/L/St/R,HD

2 Artemisia sieberi L / Fresh (1.7)Sh,HD HD / SD / (Sesquiterpenes: dehydro-1,8- [AB / AF / AM / FT / AD] Sefidkon et Besser Sh herbaceous, (1.02)Sh,S SFE sesquicineole)Sh al., 2002; camphorac D (0.5 to (AB: Gram positive bacteria, Ghasemi et eous, 3.5)Sh,HD (camphor, camphene, 1,8-cineol, β- Gram negative bacteria) al., 2007; earthy odor (1.6 to thujone, α-pinene)Sh,HD Negahbana et with a 14.0)Sh,SF (AM: yeast and fungi) al., 2007; fruity & E (camphor, 1,8-Cineol)Sh,SFE Khosravi et (AM: Gram positive bacilli: dried plum- al., 2009; (α- thujone, β- thujone, camphor) Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus like Mahboubi & (camphor, 1,8-cineole, bornyl acetate, cereus. Gram positive cocci: background Farzin, 2009; neryl acetate)Sh,SD Streptococcus mutans)

Irshaid et al.,

104

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

(camphene, 1, 8-cineole, trans-thujone, (AB: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, 2010; camphor, borneol)Sh,HD Staphylococcus aureus, Gharehmatros Escherichia coli)Sh sian et al., (camphor, 1,8-cineole, bornyl 2012; Rabie acetate)Sh,SD (FT against insects: et al., 2012 Callosobruchus maculatus, (camphor, camphene, 1,8-cineol, β- Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium thujone, α-pinene)L,HD castaneum)L,HD

(camphor, 1,8-cineole, camphene, (AF: for patient having Pityriasis terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, dehydro-1,8- versicolor) sesquicineole)Sh

(ketone, 1, 8 cineole, selin-11-en-4-a-ol, lavandulon)Sh

(1,8cineol, myrcene, 1,8cineol, Eudesm- 7(11)-en-4-ol, 4-tepinyl acetate, davanone, p-cymene)

3 Calendula arvensis Sh . (0.02 to HD (γ-cadinene, α-cadinol)Sh,HD . Kavallieratos L. 0.06)Sh,H Kavallieratos D et al., 2001; Loi et al., 2005; Dall’Acqua et al., 2008;

Paolini et al.,

105

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

2010 Ercetina et al., 2012

4 Cichorium intybus Sh / (Yellow . HD (carvacrol, thymol, cinnamic aldehyde, . Nandagopal L. Fl color / camphor, carvone, linalool, α- et al., 2006; Strong terpineol)Sh,HD Haghi et al., odor)Sh, 2012 HD

5 Conyza W / . (0.22)W, HD / SD (Sesquiterpenes)HD [AB / AF / AM / IS]HD Barbosa et al., bonariensis (L.) Sh / SD 2005; Müller Cronq. Fl (Monoterpenes, acetylenes, et al., 2011; sesquiterpenes, diterpenes)W,SD Akbar & Al- Yahya, 2011; (matricaria methyl ester, limonene, Mabrouk et manool, carvone)W,SD al., 2011; Soares et al., ((E)-β-farnesene, germacrene D, β- 2015 caryophyllene, limonene)HD

(matricaria ester, (Z)-nerolidol, caryophyllene oxide)Sh (matricaria ester, caryophyllene oxide, (E)-β-farnesene)Sh (matricaria ester, geranyl acetone, trans-

α-bergamotene, limonene)Sh

1 06

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

6 Eclipta prostrata L / St (Yellow (0.1)Sh,HD HD (Sesquiteprenoids, straight chain . Biondo et al., L. / Fl / color)Sh, hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids, P- 2003; de Sh HD caryophyllene, a-humulene) Almeida et (hydrocarbons with sesquiterpene al., 2004; predominating, alcohols, ketones, Karthikumar aldehydes, oxides, esters)Sh,HD et al., 2007; Chang & (α-Humulene, 6,9-heptadecadiene, (E)-β- Kim, 2009 farnesene, α-phellandrene)Sh,HD (sesquiterpenoids)L

(sesquiteprenoids, straight chain, hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids)St

(P-caryophyllene)L

(a-humulene, (E)-beta-farnesene )St

7 Grantia aucheri Sh . (0.53)Sh,H HD (Sesquiterpenes: himachalol)Sh,HD . Rauschert, Boiss. D 1982; Rustaiyan et al., 2004; Mehmood et al., 2012; Sadeghi et al.,

2014

107

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

8 Launaea Sh . . SD (limonene, Z-citral, E-citral)Sh,SD [AB / AM] Rashid et al., nudicaulis (L.) 2000; Hook. f. (AB: Gram positive bacteria: Mansoor et Staphylococcus aureus. Gram al., 2007; Al- negative bacteria: Escherichia Mahrezi et al., coli)Sh,SD 2011; Saleem et al., 2012

9 Matricaria aurea Fl . (0.63)Fl,H HD (α-bisabolene oxide A, α-bisabolol oxide . Aburjai et al., (Loefl.) Sch. Bip. D A, chamazolene)Fl,HD 2007; Jalali et al., 2008; Lukas et al., 2009; Ahmad et al., 2009; Louhaichi et al., 2011

10 Matricaria Sh / (Dark blue (0.626 to HD / SD / (azulene-7-ethyl-1,4-dimethyl, limonene, [AB / AF / AM / AO / AS] Nimri et al., chamomilla L. Fl color / 0.754)Fl,H SDE / bisabolol oxides A and B, bisabolone 1999; Povh et Strong D SFE oxide, trans-β-farnesen, isobornyl (AF: Aspergillus niger)Fl,SD al., 2001; characterist (0.25)Fl,SD isobutyrate<8-isobutyryloxy>)Fl,HD Ganzera et al., ic (0.73)Fl,H (AB: Streptoccus pygenes, 2006; Pirzad odor)Fl,HD D (α-bisabolol, trans-trans-farnesol, cis-β- Streptococcus mutans, et al., 2006; (4.33)Fl,SF farnesene, guaiazulene, α-cubebene, α- Streptococcus salivarius, Owlia et al., E bisabolol oxide A, chamazulene)Fl,SD Streptococcus faecalis, 2007; (Guaiazulene, (E)-β-faranesens, Streptococcus sanguis)Fl,HD Aburjai et al., 2007;

Heuskin et al.,

108

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

chamazulene, α-bisabolol oxide B, α- (AM: Aspergillus flavus, Candida 2009; bisabolol, hexadecanole)Fl,HD albicans, Bacillus cereus, Tolouee et al., Staphylococcus aureus)Fl,HD 2010; Hisham (Trans-anethole, estragole, fenchone, et al., 2012; limonene)Fl,HD Roby et al., 2013 ((-)-α-bisabolol, chamazulene, (-)-α- bisabololoxides)Fl (chamazulene, cis- spiroether, trans-spiroether)Fl,SD

(α-bisabolol oxide A & B, (E)-β- farnesene, α-bisabolol, chamazulene)Fl,HD

(Sesquiterpenoid)Fl,SDE

(Bisabolol oxide, bisabolon oxide, β- farnesense, α-bisabolol, chamazulene & en-yn-dicycloether)Fl,SDE

(bisabolol oxide A, α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide B, cis-enyne-bicycloether, bisabolon oxide A, chamazulene, spathulenol, (E)-β-farnesene)

(β-farnesene, α-farnesene, γ-cadinene,

α-bisabolol oxide B, α-bisabolol,

109

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

chamazulene, α-bisabolol oxide A, cis, trans-dicycloether)Fl,SFE

((E)-β-farnesene, guaiazulene, α- bisabolol oxide A, α-farnesene, α- bisabolol)Sh

11 Pluchea arabica Sh / . (0.08)Sh, SD (Sesquiterpene)Sh,SD [AB / AM] Suliman et al., (Boiss.) Qaiser and Fl SD Lack (δ-cadinol, 9-(1-methylethylidene)- (AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Suliman et al., bicyclo[6.1.0]nonane, caryophyllene Candida albicans, Bacillus 2006; Ahemd oxide, methyleugenol, β- subtilis)Sh,SD & Kamel, caryophyllene)Sh,SD 2013; Goyal & Aggarwal, (godotol A & godotol B) 2013

12 Pluchea L . . HD (Monoterpenes, light oxygenated [AO / AB / AM]!L!,HD! Yang et al., dioscoridis (L.) compounds, sesquiterpenes, heavy 2005; Goyal ,oxygenated compounds)L,HD (Farnesol (AB: Gram positive bacteria; & Aggarwal فونرب .DC cis-trans, farnesol, nuciferol, trans- Gram negative bacteria)!L!,HD! 2013; El- cadinol, eudesmol, methyl Ghorab et al., eicosane)L,HD (Farnesol, (AM: Mycotic infection with C. 2015 albicans)!L!,HD! uiterpene alcohols, oxygenated sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene

hydrocarbons)

110

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

13 Pluchea ovalis L . (0.02)L,SD SD (limonene, p-cymene, ß-maaliene, ß- . Kabera et al., (pers.) DC. phellandrene , isocomene Laggera aurita, 2005; 2,5-dimetoxy-p-cymene, ß- Bensabah et caryophyllene, δ-cadinene, α- al., 2013; cadinol)L,SD Goyal & Aggarwal, 2013

14 Pseudognaphalium Sh! . . MD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated . Devi, 1998; luteo-album (L.) monoterpenes, sesquiterpene Demirci et al., H. & B. hydrocarbons, oxygenated 2009; Van der sesquiterpenes, liphatic compounds, fatty Westhuizen et acids, esters)Sh!,Microdistillation! al., 2013 (decanal, β-caryophyllene, α- gurjunene)Sh!,Microdistillation!

15 Pulicaria arabica Sh . . SD (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, . De Pooter et (L.) Cass. alcohols)Sh,SD al., 1987; Mossa et al., 1987; Yousuf et al., 2001

16 Pulicaria glutinosa Sh / . (0.5)Sh,SD SD (sesquiterpenes)Sh,SD (p-elemene, 7- . Al Yousuf et Jaub. & Spach Fl cadinol, a-cadinol)Sh,SD al., 2001; Hanbali et al.,

2005;

111

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

Nematollahi et al., 2006

17 Pulicaria inuloides L / (Strong (0.5)W,HD HD / SD (2-Cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1- [AB / AM]Sh,HD!/SD! Al-Hajj et al., (Poir.) DC. Sh / odor)W, methyl), Benzene, methyl-, Z.citol)L,HD 2014a; Al- W HD (2-Cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1- (AB: G+: Staphylococcus aureus, Hajj et al., methyl) with Hexadecanoic acid (CAS), Streptococcus pneumoniae, 2014b; Al- Ethane, 1,2-diethoxy)W,HD (2- Bacillus subtilis; G-: Escherichia Hajj et al., cyclohexen-1-one, 2-methyl-5-(1- coli)Sh,HD!/SD! 2017 methyl), benzene, methyl-)Sh,SD (AM: against yeast: Candida albicans)Sh,HD!/SD!

18 Pulicaria undulata Sh . (2.5)Sh,SD HD / SD (Phenolic compounds, monoterpene AB! / R! Burits & (L.) C.A. Meyer (0.32)Sh,H hydrocarbons, low in sesquiterpene Bucar, 2000; D hydrocarbons)Sh,SD (oxygenated Nematollahi monoterpenes:carvotanacetone. et al., 2006; Sesquiterpene lactone, δ-cadinene, α- EL-Kamali et elemene, sabinol) (1,8-cineole)Sh,HD al., 2009 ((+)-carvotanacetone)Sh,SD

19 Rhanterium Sh! / . 0.25! HD! (Terpenoids, Non-terpenoid aliphatic and . Yaghmai & epapposum Oliv. Fl! aromatic structures) (terpenoids: α- Kolbadipour, phellandrene, linalol, geraniol, bulnesol) 1987; (α-phellandrene, linalol, geraniol, Nematollahi

bulnesol, β-phellandrene) et al., 2006

112

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

20 Senecio glaucus L. Sh! / (Apricot- . SD / H (Monoterpenes,Sesquiterpenes)SD/H . De Pooter et ssp. coronopifolius Fl! / like odor (myrcene, dehydrofukinone)SD/H al., 1986; (Maire) Al. Fr! "while the Yaghmai & odor of the Kolbadipour, intact plant 1987; Ali et is al., 2013 herbaceous, spicy & floral fruity")SD/ H

21 Seriphidium L / Fl (Yellow (1.45)L/Fl, HD (Oxygenated monoterpenes, Oxygenated [AB / AF / AM]Sh,HD Vera et al., herba-alba (Asso) / Sh color)L/Fl, HD sesquiterpenes)L/Fl,HD 1994; Sojak HD [AO / AM]L/Fl,HD Oladipupo & (cis-chrysantenyl acetate, the sabinyl Adebola, acetate and the α-thujone)L/Fl,HD (AM: S. typhimurium, E. coli, K. 2009; pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, E. Mokhtar et faecalis, B. cereus, F. solani, A. al., 2017 oxysporum)L/Fl,HD

22 Sphagneticola L / St . (0.48 to HD / SD (Hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, . Boutkhil et trilobata / Fl / 0.78)Sh, hydrocarbon monoterpenes, low levels of Sh HD (0.18 oxygenated sesquiterpenes)Sh,HD al., 2011; to 0.25)Sh, Belhattab et HD (0.09) (α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, γ-

muurolene)L al., 2014;

113

Table 15: Details of EOs isolated from species of Asteracee/ Compositae/ Anthemideae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

(germacrene D, α-phellandrene, α-pinene, Verma et al., E-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene, limonene, α-humulene)Sh,HD 2014

(α-pinene, α-phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, β-pinene, camphene, 10-nor- calamenen-10-one, germacrene D, γ- amorphene)Sh,HD

114

Table 1617:: Details of EOs isolated from species of Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae (continued)(continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Alhagi maurorum L / St . . DSD (Ketones, acid derivatives, terpenoids, . Naseri & Medik. hydrocarbons)L/St,DSD Mard, 2007; Ahmad et (heterocyclics compunds)L,DSD (drimenol, 9- al., 2010; octylleptadecane, 4-hexyl-2,5-dioxo-3-furanacetic Samejo et acid, 2-nonadecanone, pentacosane)L,DSD al., 2012

(Aldehydes)St,DSD (neophytadiene,trans-b-ionone, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, actinidiolide, nonacosane)St,DSD

(drimenol, octadecane, eicosane, docosane, tetracosane, squalene)L/St,DSD

2 Lotus halophilus Sh (Yellow (0.07 SD (phytol, Heptadecane, 2,9-Dimethyldecane)Sh,SD . Yousif et al., Boiss. & Spruner color)Sh,S “fresh 2012; Al- D weight Mazroa et basis”)Sh, al., 2015 SD

3 Medicago . . (0.5)HD HD (Terpenoids, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, esters, . Catalan et polymorpha L. hydrocarbons, high amount of fatty acids, benzene al., 2003; compounds)HD Sabudak & Goren, 2011 (Undecanoic acid, 2-dodecanone, hexadecanoic

acid, oleic acid, tetracosane)HD

115

Table 16: Details of EOs isolated from species of Fabaceae / Leguminosae/ Papilionoideae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

4 Medicago sativa L. Fl . . TT (Alcohols, esters, ketones, terpenes, . Dewey & furanoids)Fl,TT Lu, 1959; Gweru et al., (Trans-2-hexenal)Fl,TT 2009

5 Rhynchosia L . (0.18)L,S SD (isopropyl toluene, O-cymene, camphene, [AB] [AB / AF / AM / Gweru et al., minima (L.) DC. D limonene, 2- β-pinene, α-terpinolene, α-pinene, AO]L,SD (AB: A. 2009; Jia et myrcene)L,SD calcoaceticus, B. subtilis, al., 2015 C. freundii, C. sporogenes, Escherichia coli, P. vulgaris, P. aeruginosa, S. typhii, Staphylococcus aureus, Y. enterocolitica)L,SD (AF: Candida albicans, A. niger, A. flavus, P. notatum)L,SD

6 Tephrosia persica L / . (0.05 HD (Sesquiterpenoids, monoterpenoids)L/St,HD (AM / IS)! Hamed et Boiss. St "fresh al., 2014; weight (germacrene D, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide, Asgarpanah basis")L/S trans-β-caryophyllene)L,HD et al., 2017 t,HD (germacrene D, geyrene, trans-β-caryophyllene, spathulenol, caryophyllene oxide)St,HD

7 Trigonella hamosa Sh (Yellow (0.04 "on SD or (Palmitic acid, tetradecanoic acid, linolenic acid . Shahat et al., L. color)Sh,S fresh HD! methyl ester, phytol, decanoic acid)Sh,SD 2013; Al-

D weight

116

Part Properties Method

basis")Sh, Mazroa et SD al., 2015

8 Ononis sicula . . . . (Oxygenated sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene [AO] Al-Qudah et Guss. hydrocarbons) (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: selin- al., 2014; Xu 11-en-4-α-ol, α-selinene) et al., 2015

9 Acacia nilotica St / . (0.08)St,H HD / SFE (Monoterpenoid compounds, sesquiterpenes)St,HD [AB / AF / AM] Pai et al., (L.) Delile Pd / D 2010; Bk (4.56)Pd,S (Monoterpenoid compounds: menthol, limonene. α- (AB: Bacillus Ogunbinu et FE(4.86,5. Curcumene, carvacrol)St,HD subtilis)Pd!/Bk!,SFE al., 2010; 05)Bk,SF Hanif et al., E (AF: Ganoderma 2010 lucidum)Pd!/Bk!,SFE

10 Acacia tortilis L (Yellow- (0.12)L,G GC-FID (Monoterpenes, rich sesquiterpenoid . Ogunwande (Forssk.) Hayne green C-FID compounds)L,GC-FID et al., 2008; color)L,GC Seigler, -FID (α-humulene, α-cadinol, nerolidol, γ-cadinene, 2- 2003 (E)-octenal)L,GC-FID

11 Prosopis farcta St / (Pleasant (0.00472 SD (Saturated hydrocarbons, unsaturated . Harzallah‐ (Banks & Sol.) Pd / odor)W,SD to hydrocarbons, aldehydes, carboxylic acids)Sh,SD Skhiri et al., Mac. L / Fl 0.00793) 2006; / Se / W, SD (Heneicosane, 6,10,14-Trimethylpentadecan-2-one, Sharifi-Rad R / Docosane, 2-Methyl-1-tertiobutilprop-1,3-yl-, D- et al., 2015 W Limonene, Methyl hexadecanoate)St,SD (Phytol,

Benzyl benzoate, 3-Hydroxy-beta-damascone)L,SD

117

Part Properties Method

(Phytol, Tetradeca-1,13-diene, Eicosane)Fl,SD

(Methyl octadec-9-enoate, Phytol, Methyl hexadecanoate)Pd,SD

(Octadecanal, Hexadecanal, Heptadeca-1, 11,13- triene)R,SD

118

TableTableTable 17 18: 19Details: Detailsf: Details of EOsEOs of EOs isolatedisolated isolated fromfro mfrom spespe ciesciesspecies ofof LamiaceaeLamiaceae of Lamiaceae/ /Labiatae Labiatae / Labiatae (continued) (continued) (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Lallemantia L / St . . HD (trans-pinocarvyl acetate, pinocarvone, β- [ AB / AF / AM]Sh,HD Morteza- royleana (Benth.) / Fl / pinene, (E)-β-ocimene, terpinolene, linalool, Semnani, 2006; Benth. Sh trans- pinocarveol, 3-thujen-2-one, myrtenal, (AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Sharifi‐Rad et verbenone, trans-carveol, cis-carveol, Bacillus subtilis, Klebsiella al., 2015 pulegone, carvacrol, dihydrocarvyl acetate, pneumoniae)Sh,HD (AF: β-cubebene)Sh,HD Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger)Sh,HD

2 Mentha spicata L / (Light (0.53)Sh,H HD / SD (Oxygenated, non-oxygenated monoterpenes, [AB / AF / AM / AO / IS / Adam et al., Sh green D (0.566 ± / SFE sesquiterpenes)SD (carvacrol, thymol) MP]Sh,HD!orSD! 1998; Znini et color)L,HD 0.02 "on al., 2011 fresh (Carvone, Trans carveol)Sh,HD [IS / LA / MR]L (LA & MR: weight against Culex basis")L,H (piperitone oxide, piperitenone oxide, quinquefasciatus, Aedes D carvone, dihydrocarvone)L,HD aegypti, Anopheles (1.2)Sh,HD stephensi)L (carvone, limonene, 1,8-cineole, trans- !orSD! (0.1 carveol)L,HD to (AO: good 1.8)Sh!orL! activity)Sh,HD!orSD! (AO: (carvone, cis-carveol, limonene, 1,8 cineol, good activity)L,HD (0.9)Sh,SD cis-dihydrocarvone, carvyl acetate, cis- (0.32)Sh,S sabinene hydrate)Sh,HD!or SD! (strong AB: Staphylococcus D SFE aureus, Escherichia coli, (carvone, menthone)HD Bacillus subtilis, Pasturella multocida)Sh,HD!orSD! (linalool, germacrene D, β-caryophyllene, 1,8 (strong AF: Aspergillus cineole)Sh!orL! (menthol, menthone) niger, Mucor mucedo,

(carvone, limonene, 1,8-cineole, menthone,

119

Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

linalool, isomenthone)Sh,SD (piperitenone Fusarium solani, oxide)Sh,SD Botryodiplodia theobromae, Rhizopus (menthol, carvone, D-Limonene)L,HD solani)Sh,HD!orSD! (piperitenone oxide)Sh,HD (AM: Enterococcus faecium, (carvone, cis-carveol, limonene)L (Carvone, Salmonella cholerasuis, B. Limonene, Cineole, Linalool, Menthol, subtilis)Sh,SD Dihydrocarvone)SD

(Carvone, Limonene, a-pinene, Cineole, Linalool, Menthol, Dihydrocarvone)SFE

3 Ocimum L / Fl . (0.45 to HD / SD (estragole, linalool)L/Fl/Sh,SD [AB / AF / AM]L,SD Odalo et al., forsskaolii Benth. / Sh 0.47)L,SD / H [AO]Sh,SD (MR: against 2005; Nerio et (0.6 to (linalool, methyl chavicol, (E)-methyl female Anopheles al., 2010; Fatope 0.96)Fl,SD cinnamate, myrcene, eugenol) gambiae)Sh,HD et al., 2008; Dekker et al., ((R)-(-)-linalool, (S)-(+)-1-octen-3-ol, trans- (MR: Aedes aegypti)H 2011; Al-Hajj et caryophyllene, naphthalene, al., 2014a; (weak AF: against Doaigey et al., methyl salicylate, (R)-(-)-a-copaene, methyl Dermatophytes)L,SD 2017 cinnamate, (E)-ocimene) (AM: Candida (benzene, methyl-)Sh,SD albicans)Sh,SD

(Bicyclo hept-2-ene, 2, naphthalene,

phytol)Sh,SD

120

Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

4 Salvia aegyptiaca W (Yellow (0.033!)W, SD (Terpenoidal constituents, fat . Kelen & Tepe, L. color / SD derivatives)W,SD 2008; Bakkali et Same plant al., 2008 odor)W,SD (Aristolene, diphenyl amine, methyl palmitate)W,SD

5 Salvia macilenta Sh / . . HD (Rich in monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,HD . Akhgar et al., Boiss. W 2012; Akhgar et (γ-elemene, thymol, elemol, β- al., 2014; Shahin caryophyllene)Sh,HD & Salem, 2015;

6 Salvia Sh (Yellow (0.14)Sh, HD / SD (Sesquiterpenes, α-Gurjunene, β-Cubebene, [AM] (AM: Streptococcus Sharififar et al., macrosiphon color)Sh,H HD (0.14 Germacrene-B)SD pneumoniae, Klebsiella 2007; Misaghi Boiss. D to 0.23)Sh, pneumoniae, Staphylococcus & Basti, 2007; HD (linalool, hexyl hexanoate, hexyl isovalerate, aureus, Escherichia coli, Mahboubi & (0.5)Sh,HD hexyl-2-methyl-butanoate, sclareol, hexyl Staphylococcus epidermidis) Bidgoli, 2010 octanoate)Sh,HD

(δ–Cadinen and Sclareol, Franesol, δ- Amorphene Caryophyllene oxide, Hexyl octanoate, Beta Eudesmol, α-Bisabolol, α- Muurolol, Decanoic acid, Manoyl oxide, Manool)Sh,HD

(Sclareol, (+) Spathulenol, (-)-Aristolenel, β- Elemene, Hexyl n-valerate, Germacrene D, β-Eudesmol)Sh,HD (linalool, hexil isovalrate, hexil 2-methyl buterat, δ-cadinen)

(piperitone)

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Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

7 Salvia mirzayanii Sh (Yellow HD / (linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, linalool, 8- [AM]Sh [AB] (AM: good Javidnia et al., Rech.f. & color)Sh,H (2.2)Sh,HD MW / acetoxy linalool)HD/SFE activity)Sh (AB: against 2002; Yamini et Esfandiari D (11.2)MW SFE E.coli, S.aureus, al., 2008; Ziaei (0.50 to (linalyl acetate, linalool, 1,8-cineol, 8- K.pneumonia, B.subtilis, et al., 2011 9.67)SFE acetoxy, linalool, a-terpineole, E-anethole, d- P.aeroginosa) cadinene)HD

(linalyl acetate)SFE

(spathulenol, γ-cadinene, linalool, α-terpinyl acetate, α-cadinol, β-eudesmol, cubenol, linalyl acetate)Sh,HD

(α-terpinenyl acetate, 1,8-cineol, linalool)Sh

(linalyl acetate, linalool, α-terpinyl acetate, 1,8–cineol, α-terpineol, δ-cadinene)HD

8 Salvia spinosa L. Sh (Yellow (0.2)Sh,HD HD / SD (High amounts monoterpene derivatives, low [AB / AM]Sh,HD Sourmaghi et color)Sh,H (0.02)Sh, amounts sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids, al., 2006; D HD aliphatic esters)Sh,HD (thymol)Sh,HD (AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Flamini et al., Basillus subtilis, 2007 (1,8-cineol, (z)-β-ocimene, germacrene d, 2- Psedomonas Butyl thiophene, trans caryophyllene, 3- aeruginosa)Sh,HD Butyl thiophene)Sh,HD

((E)-β-ocimene, β-caryophyllene, isopentyl

isovalerate)Sh,SD

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Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

9 Teucrium polium L / St (Yellow (0.8 ± HD / SD (Sesquiterpenes, Germacrene D, β- [GP]Sh,HD [ASP] Abdollahi, L. / Sh color)Sh,S 0.04)Sh, / SFE caryophyllene)HD/SFE (terpenoidal [ASP]Sh,HD [AB]HD Karimpour & D HD (0.8) compounds, rich in alcohols, esters) (8- [moderate AM]Sh,SD Monsef- (1.7) cedren-13-ol, β-caryophllene, germacrene D, Esfehani, 2003; (0.2)Sh,HD sabinene)Sh,HD (AB: against Bacillus Cozzani et al., (0.75)L/ cereus)HD (AM: moderate 2005 St,HD (α-pinene, β-pinene, p-cymene) (α-cadinol, effect against Bacillus (1.2)Sh,HD 3β-hydroxy-α-muurolene, α-pinene, β- cereus, Enterococcus (0.21)Sh, pinene)Sh,HD faecalis, Escherichia coli, SD SFE Staphylococcus (β-pinene, limonene, α-phellandrene, and γ- aureus)Sh,SD and δ-cadinenes. Alcohols: linalool, terpine- 4-ol, cedrol, cedrenol, guaiol) (a-pinene, linalool, caryophyllene oxide, b-pinene, b- caryophyllene)L/St,HD (germacrene D, bicyclogermacrene, ß-pinene, carvacrol)Sh,SD

(β-pinene, β-caryophyllene, α-pinene, caryophyllene oxide, myrcene, germacrene- D)Sh

10 Teucrium Sh / (Light (0.34)Sh, HD (Sesquiterpenoids rich, cis-sesquisabinene [AN]Sh,HD Al Yousuf et al., stocksianum Boiss. Fl yellow HD hydrate rich, epi-β-bisabolol, guaiol, β- 2002; Shah et color)Sh, (0.4)Sh,HD eudesmol, monoterpenoids rich)Sh,HD al., 2012 HD (a-cadinol, 6-cadinene, seychellene, P-

caryophyllene, germacrene-D-4-01,

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Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

germacrene D, γ-cadinene, a-muurolene, valencene)Sh,HD

(camphene, α-cadinol, myrcene, carvacrol)HD

(Monoterpenoids: α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, sabinene)Sh,HD

11 Zataria multiflora L / . (3)SD HD / SD (Rich oxygenated monoterpens)Sh,HD [IS]Sh [AB / AO]HD Sharififar et al., Boiss. Sh (2.8)HD / MW / (phenolic monoterpenes, glycosides of [AF]SD [AF]Sh,HD 2007; Mahboubi (1.59 ± SFE monoterpenes, polyhydroxy monoterpenes, [AM]Sh,SD & Bidgoli, 2010 0.86 to 0.99 benzoic acid derivatives, alkanes, β- ± 0.29)Sh, sitosterol, betulin, fatty acids, oleanolic acid) [strong AO]Sh,HD [CE]

HD (thymol, λ-terpinene, ρ-cymene)SD/SFE (AB: strong activity (carvacrol, thymol, p-cymene, linalool, α- especially against G- (1.66, 1.71, terpineol) bacteria. Staphylococcus 2.8) (0.82 aureus, Escherichia coli, to (thymol, carvacrol, para-cymene, c-terpinene, Klebsiella pneumoniae, 0.97)Sh,H b-caryophyllene)HD Staphylococcus epidermidis, D (3.66, Enterococcus faecalis, 3.44)MW (Thymol, carvacrol, ρ-cymene)Sh,HD Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella (thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, linalool, γ- typhi, Seratia marcescens, terpinene) (γ-terpinene, α-pinene, eucaliptol, Shigella flexneri)HD globulol)SD (AB: Staphylococcus

aureus)Sh,HD (IS: against

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Table 17: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lamiaceae/ Labiatae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(oxygen-containing monoterpenes, Rhyzopertha dominica, sesquiterpene hyrocarbons, monoterpene Togoderma granarium)Sh hydrocarbons)Sh (AF: against aflatoxin by (linalol, linalyl acetate, β-caryophyllene)Sh Aspergillus flavus)SD (thymol, a phenolic compound of oxygenated monoterpens)Sh,HD (AM: Bacillus cereus, Salmonella Typhimurium, (carvacrol, thymol, linalool, p- Staphylococcus cymene)Sh,HD aureus)Sh,SD

(AB: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli)L

(G+: Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis. G-: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Escherichia coli. Pathogenic yeasts: Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis)Sh,HD

125

126

4.1.3 List of Abbreviations

This section will provide the meaning and description of all the abbreviations that were used to construct the database of the UAE (native and naturalized) EO- bearing plants. For clarity, the columns’ head will be mentioned to describe the abbreviations that were used accordingly. Also, the key to understand the way used to present the data will be described.

 Botanical Name: Syn. “Synonyms”, Eng. “English”, Arb. “Arabic”.

 Form: Vine “V”, Grass “G”, Weed “W”, Forb “F”, Herb “H”, Shrub “S”, Tree “T”.

 Life Form: Geophyte “Ge”, Phanerophyte “Ph”, Chamaephyte “Ch”,

Hemicryptophyte “He”, Therophyte “Th”, Cryptophyte “Cr”, Neophyte “Na”.

 Life Cycle: Annual “A”, Biennial “B”, Perennial “P”.

 Economic Value: Medicine &/or Folk Medicine "Med", Food "Fod", Nutrition

"Nutr", Food Preservation "FPre", Flavouring "Flav", Food Aroma "FArom",

Forage "Forg", Aromatic "Arom", Essential Oils "EOs", Cosmetic "Cosm",

Biofuel "Biof", Fuel "Fuel", Cleaning & Hygiene "Clea", Insecticides "Insec",

Ecological "Eco", Landscaping "Lands", Other "Oth": (Dye, Constructions,

Household items, Cushions, Fibers, Sponges, Tobacco, Honey Production, Soil

Amendment).

 Folk Medicine:

(Application: yes “+”, no “.”) (Country: Applications examples + Plant parts)

Plants’ part abbreviations: Leaves "L", Stems & twigs "St", Pods, "Pd", Buds "Bd",

Bark "Bk", Flowers "Fl", Shoots & Aerial parts "Sh", Fruits "Fr", Seeds "Se",

Whole Plant "W").

 Emirates: Abu Dhabi "AD", Dubai "Du", Sharjah "S", Fujairah "F", Ajman "A",

Ras Al Khaimah "RAK", Umm Al Quwain "UAQ".

127

 Important Locations: Al Ain "Ain", Khor Kalba "K", Khor Fakkan "KF", Hajar

Mountains "HM", Ru'us Al-Jibal "RA", Jebel Hafit "JH", Wadi Jeema"J", Hatta

"H", Wadi Lakayyam "WL", Along the Country "AC", Country Center "CC", East

Emirates "EE", North Emirates "NE", Coasts of North Emirates "CN", Eastern

Coast "EC", Western coast "WC", Scattered Locations "SL"

 Soil: Sand "San", Silt "Sil", Rocky or Gravel "Roc", Saline "Sal".

 Habitats: Oasis "Oas", Sand Dunes "Dun", Coasts "Cos", Roadsides "Rod",

Offshore Islands "Off", Inland Water Habitats "Wat", Plantations & Farmlands &

Irrigated Lands "Plat", Hillsides "Hil", Disturbed Sites "DS", Alluvial & Interdunal

Plains "Apl", Wadis "Wad", Gardens "Gar", Fallow Fields & Plains "FF", Cliffs

"Cli", Mountains & Rocky terrains "Mou", Plateaux "PX", Wastelands &

Abandoned Fields "AF", Urban areas "Urb".

 Flowering: Months’ abbreviations will be used.

 Wildlife Status: Fairly common & locally abundant "FC", Common & widespread

locally "CO", Not common "NC", Rare & vulnerable "RA", Not evaluated "NE",

Cultivated Plant "C".

 Plant Part: Potential for EOs (Roots "R", Rhizomes "Rz", Tuber "Tu", Leaves "L",

Stems & twigs "St", Pods, "Pd", Buds "Bd", Bulbs "Bl", Bark "Bk", Flowers "Fl",

inflorescences "IF", Shoots & Aerial parts "Sh", Fruits "Fr", Seeds "Se", Whole

Plant "W").

 Physical Properties: EOs physical characteristics (Color / Odor) Plant part +

extraction method.

 Yield (%): EO yield (%, v/w of dry weight). Supported with plant part and

extraction method

 Isolation Method: EO extraction method including:

128

Hydrodistillation "HD", Steam Distillation "SD", Dry Steam Distillation "DSD",

Microdistillation "MD", Solid-Phase Microextraction "SPM", Simultaneous

Steam Distillation & Extraction "SDE", Vacuum Distillation "VD", Ligarine

Extraction "LE", Soxhelt Extraction "SH", Headspace Analysis "H", Gas

Chromatography Flame Ionization Detector "GC-FID", Supercritical CO2 Fluid

Extraction "SFE", Microwave-Assisted Hydrodistillation "MW", Solvent-Free

Microwave Extraction "SFME", Tenax-Trapping "TT".

 Main Chemical Groups/ Components:

(Main EOs Chemical Groups) &/or (Main/Potential Chemical Constituents) Plant

part + extraction method.

 Biological Activity: [EO Biological Activity] (Activity Details) Plant part +

extraction method.

Antitumor "AT", Antioxidant "AO", Antifungal "AF", Antibacterial "AB",

Antimicrobial "AM", Antibiotic "OT", Anti-inflammatory "AI", Antianxiety

"AA", Mosquito Attractant/ Repellent "MR", Insecticidal & Pesticidal Activity

"IS", Larvicidal Activity "LA", Nematicidal activity "NM", Oviposition

attractant/deterrent activity "OA", Antihelminthic "Anthelmintic" effect "AH",

Antiechinococcal Activity "AE", Fumigant Toxicity "FT", Antidiabetic Activity

"AD", Antistreptococcal "AS", Anticarcinogenic Effect "AC", Cytotoxic

Properties "CP", Antimycotoxins "XN", Phytotoxic Properties & Herbicidal

Activity "PP", Apoptotic Properties "AP", Antimutagenic Properties "MP",

Analgesic properties "GP", Antidepressant "DP", Antispasmodics properties

"ASP", Antinociceptive activity "AN", Antinociceptive Activity "CE", Antiseptic

"SP", Stimulant "ST", Antidiarrheal Activity "DR".

 General Notes: The use of “!” means information uncertainty.

129

4.1.4 Obstacles and Difficulties

Actually, the most obstacles and difficulties that were faced to evaluate

Hypothesis No. 1 include the following; in additional, to the scarcity of the UAE wild flowers references, there are so many confusions in the literature between the botanical names and the synonyms, including spelling mistakes that make the task of data collection to list all the Emirati plants (followed by screening and listing the Emirati

EO-bearing plants) a difficult and complicated mission.

For example, Cornulaca arabica Botsch and Cornulaca monacantha Delile were mentioned as two different species in the reference of Brown and Sakkir (2004), while according to Jongbloed et al. (2003) Cornulaca arabica Botsch is a synonym of

Cornulaca monacantha Delile. Besides, the plants Actiniopteris semiflabellata,

Commicarpus boissieri, and Cymbopogon jwarancusa were mentioned with minor spelling mistakes as Actioniopteris semiflabellata, Commicarpus boisieri, and

Cymbopogon jwarancuse (respectively) in the text book of Jongbloed et al. (2003) which is one of the most important references of the UAE indigenous and naturalized plants.

Moreover, some publications are using either the synonyms or the common names instead of using the botanical names. Therefore, while reviewing the literature using the formal botanical names (to screen the EO potential) no results will appear.

Although, in many cases the plant would be a rich resource of EO phytochemicals. For example, some publications will use Dipcadi serotinum, Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf.

Heliotropium europaeum, and Calligonum polygonoides instead of using the botanical names, which are Dipcadi erythraeum Webb & Berth., Cymbopogon commutatus

(Steud.) Stapf., Heliotropium lasiocarpum, and Calligonum comosum, respectively.

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4.1.5 Remarks and Conclusions

Based on our comprehensive and detailed screening to all the families of the

UAE wild flowers, we concluded that, there are at least 135 EO-bearing plants in the

UAE (16.9% of the UAE wildflowers) belonging to 45 families. The top three richest families, based on the number of their species, are Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and

Lamiaceae..

Most of the UAE EO-bearing plants have rich traditional medicinal applications and other economic values, such as pharmaceuticals, nutrition, aromatherapy, fragrance, and flavoring. Generally, the shoots (especially leaves and flowers) are the most important parts to extract EO phytochemicals (e.g. terpenoids) of valuable biological activities, like antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumor.

The UAE EO-bearing plants are widespread in the areas of plantations, mountains and wadis of the country. Serious efforts to educate landlords about the great value of the UAE EO-bearing plants are needed, to make sure that these expensive species are well-cultivated in a sustainable manner. Besides, strong efforts related to management and strategic planning should be employed to conserve the natural habitats of the EO-bearing plants.

All our obtained results of this section support our claim in Hypothesis No. 1, that the UAE is a rich natural resource for the native and naturalized EO-bearings plants that have rich ethnobotanical applications of high economic potentials.

131

4.2 Hypothesis No. 2 Outcomes: EO of Aerva javanica

This section illustrates and discusses the results of all conducted experiments to test Hypothesis No. 2, which claims that EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) is a good source of natural phytochemicals, which significantly affected by the post- harvest drying methods. Also, EO of A. javanica leaves and flowers are significantly affected by the particle size and the seasonal variations, respectively. At the end of this section, the most important remarks and conclusion would be provided.

4.2.1 Plant Morphology by SEM Photos

SEM photos for the leaf epidermis are illustrated (Figure 14 to 17). The woolly tomentose indumentum of the leaf (abaxial view) shows the formation of two kinds of trichomes with glandular openings (glandular trichomes: GT). The short simple trichomes are not prominent, while the long multi-branched trichomes are very prominent and exist in large density, especially in the adaxial side (front side), with varied density based on their location on the epidermis. The long multi-branched trichomes consist of unicellular base with multicellular tapered uniseriate ending, forming multiarticulate stellate (star-shaped) base cells.

The high density of the trichomes, especially in the adaxial side of the leaf

(Figure 18 to 19), is an adaptation mechanism to tolerate the high sun exposure. Also, our SEM results illustrate different features for water stress adaptation mechanisms, such as the sparsely distributed sunken stomata (SS) and the formation of epicuticular wax (ECW).

Similarly, flowers SEM photos show pubescent indumentum, consisting of stellate (star-shaped) base cells with uniseriate tapered ending. Trichomes are prominent and appear in high density (Figure 20 to 21) similar to the trichomes of the leaf adaxial side. Our SEM photos for the leaf epidermal tissue are similar to other

132

SEM photos in the literature (Soliman, 2006; Mehmood et al., 2014), while flowers

SEM photos illustrated for the first time.

Glandular trichomes indicating thero-tolerance by dissipating heat from the surface of the plant, as well as, play major role in enhancing water use efficiency through adjusting the osmotic potential, which are natural adaptation mechanism for desert plants in the arid regions. Besides, glandular trichomes are suspended to produce secondary metabolites, like EOs, acting as defense phytochemicals against biotic (e.g., herbivores) and abiotic (e.g., high temperature, low precipitation) stress factors

(Gonzales et al., 2008).

The appearance of all mentioned morphological features justify the fact that A. javanica is a desert xerophytic plant, that can survive the high temperatures and the high sun exposure rates with minimal water requirements. Also, the existence of glandular trichomes on the epidermis of the leaf and flower supports the fact that A. javanica is an EO-bearing plant.

133

Figure 14: A. javanica leaf epidermius (abaxial view)

ECW

Figure 15: Features of A javanica leaf epedermis (abaxial view)

134

GT Opening

Stellate opening

Figure 16. Leaf epidermis trichomes of A javanica (abaxial view)

GT Opening Uniseriate Tapered Hair

Figure 17: Leaf epidermis glandular trichomes of A javanica (abaxial view)

135

Figure 18: A. javanica leaf epidermius (adaxial view)

Figure 19: Leaf epidermis trichomes of A javanica (adaxial view)

136

Figure 20: Flower epidermis trichomes of A javanica (Magnification: 400X)

Figure 21: Flowers epidermis trichomes of A javanica (Magnification: 800X)

137

4.2.2 Plant Physiology by Spectrophotomer

4.2.2.1 Chlorophyll (A, B, Total)

The results’ mean of chlorophyll A, B, and total chlorophyll content for fresh leaves of A. javanica are presented in Figure 22 with their SDs and error bars. The highest values, recorded in the spring and autumn, followed by the winter. While the lowest values, recorded in the summer. Results show same trend for the contents of chlorophyll A, B and total.

Chlorophyll A Chlorophyll B Total Chlorophyll

2.5 a a 2.15±0.11 2.00±0.15 a 2 a 01.72±0.09 1.54±0.13 b 1.45±0.03 1.5 b 1.14±0.03 1

a c a c b

0.46±0.03 0.40±0.02 0.43±0.02 ChlorophyllContent (mg/g) 0.5 0.34±0.01 0.31±0.00 c 0.05±0.035 0 Spring1 Summer2 Autumn3 Winter4

Season

Figure 22: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica chlorophyll content

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 22) showed a significant difference

(at P ≤ 0.05) for the influence of the seasonal variations on the chlorophyll content A,

B, and total. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of chlorophyll A for the spring at 0.001 and 0.002

138 significance level with the summer and winter season, respectively. While variations of the same season (spring) did not show any significant variations with the autumn.

Similarly, variations of chlorophyll B and total chlorophyll for the spring were significant at 0.001 significance level with the summer and winter. While variations of the same physiological parameters of the spring did not show any significant variations with the autumn.

The temperature range during the spring and autumn season are similar, which justify the similar recorded chlorophyll A, B and total between the two seasons, thus explains that variations between these two moderate seasons are not significant. On the other hand, the high temperature variations between either the spring or autumn with the summer and winter justify the obtained significant variations. Our previously recorded temperatures of the study location (Chapter 3: Section 3.2.2) support the obtained results and our explanations.

The high or low temperatures (during summer and winter, respectively) are forms of abiotic stress that have been reported to reduce both biosynthesis and chlorophyll content due to enhances the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)

(e.g., O2- and H2O2) that can lead to lipid peroxidation and thus chlorophyll degradation (Cheruth et al., 2009; Salama et al., 2011). The same justifies our obtained results and support that the lowest recorded chlorophyll A, B, and total were recorded during the hottest season (summer), which has the highest recorded temperatures and highest temperatures’ range.

Another explanation could be that, the lowest chlorophyll contents recorded in the summer could be a result of the dilution effect, which is due to a bigger leaf area in comparison with the other seasons. On the other hand, the highest chlorophyll

139 contents recorded in the autumn and spring could be due to the smallest leaf area

(Shahin et al., 2018).

It worth mentioning that, A. javanica is a perennial desert shrub that will has a productive growth that starts when the plant will have access to water during the precipitation periods, then the plant will continue the growth to form a bigger leaf area that reaches its maximum size during summer.

4.2.2.2 Carotenoids

The results’ mean of carotenoids content for fresh leaves and flowers of A. javanica are presented in Figure 23 with their SDs and error bars. Similarly to the results of the chlorophyll content, the highest carotenoids values for leaves and flowers, recorded in the spring and autumn, followed by the winter. While the lowest values, recorded in the summer.

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 23) showed a significant difference

(at P ≤ 0.05) for the influence of the seasonal variations on the carotenoids content of leaves and flowers. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of leaves and flowers carotenoids (at <0.0005 significance level) with all seasons.

140

1.2 a 0.97±0.02 1 b 0.88±0.03 c 0.8 0.69±0.01

0.6 Leaves Flowers 0.4 d a 0.26±0.00

b 0.24±0.01 c Carotenoids (mg/g) Carotenoids 0.18±0.00 d 0.2 0.15±0.00 0.09±0.00

0 Spring1 Summer2 Autumn3 Winter4 Season

Figure 23: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica carotenoids content

Carotenoids have an essential role in photosynthesis and photoprotection. Also, carotenoids play a significant role for their antioxidant activity through inhibiting lipid peroxidation and stabilizing membranes. Additionally, carotenoids are essential in the assembly of the light-harvesting complex and in the dissipation of excess energy

(Cheruth et al., 2009; Hencl and Cebeci, 2014). This explains the reason of obtaining higher carotenoids contents for the leaves in comparison with the flowers.

The high or low temperatures (during summer and winter, respectively) are forms of abiotic stress that have been reported to reduce both biosynthesis and plant pigments, like carotenoids, due to enhances the production of reactive oxygen species

(ROS) (e.g., O2- and H2O2) that can lead to lipid peroxidation and thus pigments degradation (Cheruth et al., 2009; Salama et al., 2011). The same justify our obtained results and support that the lowest recorded carotenoids were recorded during the

141 hottest season (summer), which has the highest recorded temperatures and highest temperatures’ range.

Another explanation could be that, the lowest carotenoids content recorded in the summer could be a result of the dilution effect, which is due to a bigger leaf area and flower size in comparison with the other seasons. On the other hand, the highest carotenoids contents recorded in the autumn and spring could be due to the smallest leaf area and flower size.

Actually, A. javanica is a perennial desert shrub that will has a productive growth starting in the precipitation periods. Then the plant will continue the growth to form bigger leaf area and flower size that reach its maximum sizes during summer, thus lowest carotenoids contents.

4.2.2.3 Proline

Results of the proline are presented in Figure 24 with their SDs and error bars.

The highest proline value, recorded in the summer, 1.43 μg/ml, followed by 1.34 μg/ml for the winter. While the lowest values recorded in the spring (0.96 μg/ml) and autumn

(1.05 μg/ml).

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 24) showed a significant difference

(at P ≤ 0.05) for the seasonal variations on proline content. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups showed significant variations between the spring with the summer and winter season at 0.001 significance level. While the same (spring) did not show any significant variation with the autumn.

Similarly, analysis of multiple comparisons between groups showed significant variations between the summer with the spring and winter season at 0.001 significance level. While the same (summer) did not show any significant variation with the winter.

Meaning that, variations of proline between the most stressful seasons (summer and

142 winter) or moderate seasons (spring and autumn) were similar, thus analysis of multiple comparisons between them did not show any significant changes.

1.8 a 1.6 1.43±0.12 a 1.34±0.01 1.4 b 1.2 b 1.05±0.02

g/ml) 0.96±0.02 μ ( 1

0.8

Proline 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 Spring1 Summer2 Autumn3 Winter4 Season

Figure 24: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica proline content

Many studies are considering proline as a good indicator of many stress factors, including water shortage, extreme temperatures, and high light intensity (Claussen,

2005; Mahalingam, 2015). Proline is a compatible solute that plays three main roles, including acting as a metal chelator, defense antioxidant molecule, and as a signalling molecule. Literature review indicates that stressful environmental conditions lead to high proline production, in plants in order to maintain cell turgor or osmotic balance.

The same preventing electrolyte leakage and keeping normal concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that prevent oxidative burst in plants (Hayat et al.,

2012).

143

The high temperature fluctuations with the high (summer) or low (winter) temperatures are all forms of abiotic stress factors that enhance proline production, acting act as a scavenger and osmolytes to supply energy required for growth and survival, thus support the plant to adapt the stressful conditions. While the moderate seasons of autumn and spring will not lead to stressful conditions on the plant, thus will not enhance proline production. Our results are in agreement with other studies

(Jaleel et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2011; Hayat et al., 2012; Hencl and Cebeci, 2014; Al

Muhairi et al., 2015).

4.2.3 EO Extraction by Hydrodistillation

This section represents and discusses EO yields of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) under the influence of different post-harvest drying methods (qualitatively and quantitatively). Also, the influence of leaves particle size (subjected to hydrodistillation) on the EO yield was tested. Moreover, the influence of the seasonal variations on the flowers EO yield was evaluated.

EO Physical Characteristics

Results show that leaves EO of A. javanica has a yellowish color with waxy nature at room temperature. It has a characteristics odor similar to the fresh grinded leaves. Similarly, flowers EO has yellowish color with waxy nature, and has a characteristics floral odor similar to the fresh flowers. The variation between the odor of the leaves and flowers EO is an indicator of different phytochemical constituents.

According to Samejo et al. (2012) the EO obtained from A. javanica air-dried leaves, harvested from Pakistan, reported to be yellowish oil. While our obtained EO found to be a yellowish waxy oil at room temperature. An explanation could be due to different extraction methods, in which we used the hydrodistillation, while they used

144 steam distillation to isolate the EO. Another explanation may be due to different ecological conditions (e.g., soil, water, temperature, wind, sun exposure) between

Pakistan and UAE, which may lead to availability of two different chemotypes.

4.2.3.1 Effect of Drying Method

Quantitative Analysis (by Yield)

Calculated dry matter content (DM%) of A. javanica is 28.58% and 32.5% for leaves and flowers, respectively. Moisture content (MC%) is slightly higher in leaves

(71.42%) comparing to flowers (67.44%).

The influence of selected drying methods on the EO yield (%, v/w of dry weight) of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) is illustrated in Figure 25. Mean results represented with their standard deviations (SDs) and standard deviation error bars.

The mean EO yield of the leaves ranged from 0.005 to 0.0074%. The highest yield obtained from the fresh samples (control), and shows similar results in comparison with the freeze-drying treatment. While the lowest yield obtained from the air-drying treatment.

Average EO yield of the flowers ranged from 0.002 to 0.013%. The lowest yield obtained from fresh samples (control), followed by freeze-drying treatment.

While the air-dried samples showed the highest obtained yield. Results obtained by control and the freeze drying treatment were similar.

145

0.018 a 0.013±0.005 0.016

0.014

0.012 0.007±0.004 0.01 0.007±0.003 Leaves 0.008 0.005±0.002 b Flowers 0.006

Essential Essential OilYield (%) 0.003±0.001 0.004 b 0.002±0.0002 0.002

0 Fresh Sample1 (Control) Air2Dry Freeze3 Dry

Drying Method

Figure 25: Effect of drying methods on EO yield of A. javanica

Comparing the results obtained from leaves and flowers treatment groups showed that in both cases fresh and freeze-dried samples showed similar results. On the other hand, results obtained from the air-dried group showed lowest values in the case of leaves, while highest values obtained from the flowers, which was the highest recorded result in our experiment. In general, under the tested drying methods the yield of leaves’ EO is double or even triple the yield of flowers’ EO, except for the air-dried samples.

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 25) showed no significant effect for the drying methods on leaves EO, which is similar to other works in the literature

(Sefidkon et al., 2006). The same could be due to similarity of results obtained by the fresh (control) and freeze-dried samples.

According to Samejo et al. (2012) EO yield of A. javanica air-dried leaves, harvested from Pakistan, recorded to be 0.1%, which is higher than our obtained results

(0.005%). It worth mentioning that our used distillation method (hydrodistillation) is

146 different than the one used in their work (dry steam distillation). Also, micro and macro-ecological conditions (e.g., climate, soil) play major role on the EO yield of the same plant (Fornari et al., 2012), which may lead to new chemotypes of the same plant species. Consequently, all mentioned explanations justify variation of results between our work and others.

However, analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 25) showed significant effect for the drying method on flowers EO yield at 0.008 significance level. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of flowers EO for the air-drying group at 0.01 and 0.018 significance level with the fresh (control) and freeze-drying treatment, respectively. Flowers’ yield showed significant enhancing effect for the air-drying treatment, followed by freeze- drying and the fresh samples, respectively. Our results are in agreement with other studies (Pirbalouti et al., 2013; Rahimmalek and Goli, 2013).

Based on results obtained by Díaz-Maroto et al. (2004) and Pirbalouti et al.

(2013), different drying methods could significantly affect EO yield and composition by either increasing or losing in oil components due to different factors, like oxidation, glycoside hydrolysis, and esterification. Which explain our obtained results from the air-drying treatment.

It worth mentioning that freeze-drying is one of the most suitable drying methods that conserve the original EO composition. Which explains the similarity between the EO yield of the fresh sample (control) and the freeze-dried samples. On the other hand, the process of leaving the plant material to dry gradually in the air- drying treatment causes alteration in the EO chemical profile quantitatively and qualitatively. Our results are in agreement with other studies (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004;

Pirbalouti et al., 2013).

147

Based on our results, the influence of drying method on A. javanica EO is significantly depending on the part of the tested plant material. Thus, to obtain the highest quantitative yield of leaves it is recommended to distill the oil directly from fresh samples. In case, direct distillation is not possible, then freeze-drying is a better option to preserve the oil content comparing to air-drying. On the other hand, air- drying of flowers samples under shaded area recommended to obtain the highest quantitative yield comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples.

Qualitative Analysis (by GC-MS)

The chromatogram results of A. javanica leaves’ and flowers’ EO subjected to different drying methods are illustrated in the appendix, in which results of the leaves shown in Figure 67, 68 and 69, and results of the flowers shown in Figure 70, 71, and

72. The complete chemical composition of EO, retention time (RT) in minutes, retention indices (RI) and percentages (%) of identified compounds of the leaves and flowers oil are all represented in Table 18 and 19, respectively.

148

Table 18: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from leaves under different drying methods

Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

1 α-Fenchocamphorone 11.700 1104 0.97 ------

2 1,3,8-ρ-Menthatriene 11.899 1108 ------9.80

3 1-Octen-3-yl-acetate 11.904 1110 29.87 15.68 -----

4 trans-Thujone 12.184 1112 5.76 1.67 3.04

5 cis-Limonene oxide 12.884 1132 ----- 1.68 3.95

6 Terpinen-4-ol 14.667 1174 ----- 0.65 -----

7 1-Dodecene 15.244 1187 1.11 0.67 -----

8 cis-Piperitol 15.594 1195 1.65 ------

9 cis-4-Caranane 15.780 1200 1.89 1.17 -----

10 Verbenone 15.979 1204 ----- 9.77 8.65

11 3-methylthio-1-Hexanol 16.054 1207 3.17 ------

148

12 (2E)-Octenol acetate 16.171 1208 ----- 4.48 2.72

149

Table 18: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from leaves under different drying methods (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

13 Linalool formate 16.416 1214 ----- 0.72 -----

14 2,3-dimethyl Benzofuran 16.678 1219 ----- 2.83 3.68

15 Citronellol 16.812 1223 ------0.88

16 nor-Davanone 17.028 1228 ----- 0.54 1.27

17 exo-Fenchyl acetate 17.115 1229 ------1.16

18 tetrahydro-Linalool acetate 17.121 1231 ----- 1.48 -----

19 Pulegone 17.249 1233 ----- 1.72 2.00

20 Cumin aldehyde 17.477 1238 ------1.67

21 Ethyl oct-(2E)-enoate 17.780 1245 ------1.70

22 (4Z)-Decen-1-ol 18.246 1255 ----- 5.71 -----

23 cis-Carvone oxide 18.415 1259 ------1.60

24 2(E)-Decenal 18.467 1260 ------4.00

25 o-Guaiacol acetate 18.485 1261 ----- 1.08 -----

149

150

Table 18: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from leaves under different drying methods (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

26 Geranial 18.590 1264 14.15 4.87 9.18

27 tetrahydro-Lavandulol acetate 18.794 1268 ----- 0.66 -----

28 Pregeijerene B 19.074 1274 ------1.94

29 2-Undecanol 20.245 1301 ----- 0.91 -----

30 Isoamyl benzyl ether 20.653 1310 ----- 1.20 0.82

31 2-ethyl-exo-Fenchol 21.079 1297 1.17 ------

32 (2E,4E)-Decadienol 21.079 1319 ----- 0.90 0.92

33 Evodone 21.871 1337 3.51 3.44 3.17

34 (Z)-α-Damascone 22.641 1355 3.16 1.46 1.97

35 Angustione 23.381 1372 4.64 6.89 6.00

36 1-Tetradecene 24.098 1388 4.23 1.57 2.44

37 methyl-Cresol acetate 24.786 1403 5.94 9.61 9.42

38 (E)-Trimenal 25.45 1419 4.39 1.90 2.58

150

151

Table 18: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from leaves under different drying methods (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

39 γ-Elemene 26.103 1434 6.33 14.30 12.38

40 (Z)-Methyl isoeugenol 26.791 1451 3.27 1.34 1.75

41 α-Macrocarpene 27.589 1470 2.75 1.10 1.31

42 Capillene 28.533 1493 2.05 ------

151

152

Table 19: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers under different drying methods

Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

1 1-Octen-3-yl-acetate 11.898 1110 ------7.12

2 2E,4E-Octadienol 12.184 1113 5.93 1.35 3.81

3 cis-Limonene oxide 12.883 1132 ----- 0.42 -----

4 Verbenone 15.973 1204 1.12 6.06 2.81

5 (2E)-Octenol acetate 16.171 1208 ----- 1.14 -----

6 Methyl-(2E)-nonenoate 16.678 1221 ----- 1.20 -----

7 nor-Davanone 17.033 1228 ----- 0.39 -----

8 Thymol methyl ether 17.115 1132 ----- 0.84 -----

9 Methyl ether carvacrol 17.616 1241 0.97 ------

10 (4Z)-Decen-1-ol 18.246 1255 ----- 4.07 -----

11 (2E)-Decenal 18.485 1260 ----- 0.44 -----

152

12 cis-Chrysanthenyl acetate 18.537 1261 1.29 0.43 -----

153

Table 19: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers under different drying methods (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

13 Geranial 18.595 1264 1.31 0.97 -----

14 trans-Carvone oxide 19.044 1273 ----- 0.71 -----

15 δ-Octalactone 19.167 1276 3.96 ------

16 (2Z)-Hexenyl valerate 19.388 1282 ----- 0.39 -----

17 n-Tridecane 20.245 1300 2.45 3.79 2.15

18 Isoamyl bemzyl ether 20.653 1310 2.14 0.95 1.25

19 2E,4E-Decadienol 21.078 1319 1.94 2.08 1.31

20 Evodone 21.877 1137 11.52 14.77 10.75

21 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 22.641 1355 5.09 4.56 3.65

22 Angustione 23.392 1372 21.32 20.72 26.60

23 1-Tetradecene 24.092 1388 4.76 3.98 4.34

24 Cyperene 24.529 1398 1.09 1.16 1.61

25 methyl-Cresol acetate 24.791 1403 14.54 12.49 17.22

153

154

Table 19: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers under different drying methods (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Fresh Sample Air Dried Freeze Dried

26 (E)-Trimenal 25.450 1419 4.22 2.77 3.18

27 cis-Thujopsene 25.858 1429 ----- 0.80 -----

28 γ-Elemene 26.103 1434 11.61 9.15 12.27

29 α-Humulene 26.791 1452 2.72 1.65 -----

30 (2E)-Dodecen-1-ol 27.589 1469 2.0 1.05 -----

31 α-Selinene 28.755 1498 ----- 0.88 -----

32 Menthyl isovalerate 29.507 1516 ----- 0.80 1.94

154

155

In fresh leaves, 19 volatile components were identified representing 100% of total volatiles. The main components were 1-octen-3-yl-acetate (29.87%), geranial

(14.15%), γ-elemene (6.33%), methyl-cresol acetate (5.94%) and trans-thujone

(5.76%).

While in air-dried leaves, 29 volatile components were identified (Table 14) representing 100% of total volatiles. The main components were 1-octen-3-yl-acetate

(15.68%), γ-elemene (14.3%), verbenone (9.77%) and methyl-cresol acetate (9.61%).

In freeze-dried leaves, 27 volatile components were identified (Table 15) representing 100% of total volatiles. The major components were γ-elemene (12.38%),

1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene (9.8%), methyl-cresol acetate (9.42%), geranial (9.18%) and verbenone (8.65%).

Comparing the leaves results of the fresh samples (control) with the air-dried samples show that 1-octen-3-yl-acetate percentage reduced, while methyl-cresol acetate percentage increased after the samples were air-dried. γ-elemene was preserved by air-drying, with higher percentage comparing to fresh samples. The availability of geranial was preserved by freeze-drying, with a similar quality to the fresh samples.

Geranial, is a main component in lavender oil with pleasant aroma, thus the quality of the freeze-dried samples were better comparing to air-dried samples. Similar results for the influence of air-drying and freeze-drying on the EO quality are available in the literature (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004; Rahimmalek and Goli, 2013).

Based on our results, tested drying methods have significant influence on the leaves EO. Our results are in agreement with other studies showing that different drying methods have significant influence in the chemical profile and quality of EO

(Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004; Rahimmalek and Goli, 2013; Pirbalouti et al., 2013).

156

Reviewing the literature, there are two works studied EO composition of leaves, stems and seeds of A. javanica grown in Pakistan (Samejo et al., 2012; Samejo et al., 2013). According to Samejo et al., (2012), analysis of air-dried leaves of A. javanica found 19 compounds representing 82.96% of the total volatiles. While in our results, we identified 29 compounds for the air-dried leaves representing 100% of the total volatiles. Although, the compounds identification of the leaves’ oil were identified by Samejo et al. (2012) using dry steam distillation, however, in this work

A. javanica leaves’ oil was extracted from wild A. javanica grown under UAE arid conditions and the used distillation method was the hydrodistillation. Thus, variation of results between Samejo et al. (2012) and our work is justified. On the other hand, the flowers’ oil is extracted for the first time in the literature along the compounds identification.

In fresh flowers, 19 volatile components were identified representing 99.98% of total volatiles. The major components were angustione (21.32%), methyl-cresol acetate (14.54%), γ-elemene (11.61%), evodone (11.52%), 2e,4e-octadienol (5.93%) and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (5.09%). While geranial (1.31%), verbenone (1.21%) and cyperene (1.09%) were identified as minor components.

In air-dried flowers, 29 volatile components were identified representing 100% of total volatiles. The main components were angustione (20.72%), evodone (14.77%), methyl-cresol acetate (12.49%), γ-elemene (9.15%) and verbenone (6.06%). Geranial

(0.97%) and cyperene (1.16%) were identified as minor components with similar percentages comparing to fresh samples.

In freeze-dried flowers, 15 volatile components were identified representing

73.41% of total volatiles. The major components were angustione (26.6%), methyl- cresol acetate (17.22%), γ-elemene (12.27%), evodone (10.75%), 1-octen-3-yl-acetate

157

(7.12%) and 2e,4e-octadienol (3.81%). While verbenone (2.81%) and cyperene

(1.61%) were identified as minor components, and geranial was not detected in freeze- dried samples.

Based on our results of flowers EO, the oil is characterized by the availability of angustione and evodone as major components under all tested drying methods.

While the fresh leaves’ oil is characterized by the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate and geranial as major components. Also, results of leaves and flowers both share similar components’ profile, such as methyl-cresol acetate and γ-elemene as main components under all tested drying conditions.

Angustione is a ketone reported to have antioxidant, anticancer and antiviral

(anti-HIV) biological activity (Robertshawe, 2011). Which found in higher percentages in our freeze-dried flowers comparing to the fresh and air-dried samples.

Therefore, freeze-drying is more favorable to be considered as a post-harvest drying method in obtaining flowers’ oil with better quality and higher expected biological activity.

Our results show that leaves and flowers EO of A. javanica is a rich source of potential hydrocarbons, supporting the results published by Samejo et al. (2012) and

Samejo et al. (2013).

In general, different drying methods have significant influence on the quality of the leaves’ and flowers’ oil. Our results are in agreement with other studies (Díaz-

Maroto et al., 2004; Rahimmalek and Goli, 2013; Pirbalouti et al., 2013). It worth mentioning that the influence of drying methods in the literature is varied based on the tested plant species and based on the tested plant part (Tátrai et al., 2016). Also, analysis of fresh samples show less number of identified components comparing to air and freeze-dried samples. The same could be due to different factors that affect the

158 samples if not directly subjected to distillation, like oxidation, glycoside hydrolysis, and esterification, which lead to formation of new compounds. This process is particularly noticed in the air-dried samples that show the highest number of compounds due to oxidation process, while the process of freeze-drying shows better efficiency (specially in flowers) to conserve the original chemical profile and percentages of the fresh samples. Our results are similar to results of other studies found in the literature (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004; Pirbalouti et al., 2013).

Truly, the decision of deciding the favorable post-harvest drying method depends upon the proposed application of the extracted oil. The chemical profile of the oil will be varied according to the applied drying method. Therefore, different applications can consider different drying methods accordingly.

Generally, our findings recommend the freeze-drying as an interesting post- harvest drying method to conserve the original chemical profile, thus providing a quality EO yield comparing to shade air-drying method. Our results are in agreement with other studies in the literature (Díaz-Maroto et al., 2004; Rahimmalek and Goli,

2013).

4.2.3.2 Effect of Particle Size

The results’ mean of EO yield extracted from A. javanica leaves at different particles sizes are presented in Figure 26 with their SDs and error bars. The highest value (0.01%), recorded at the coarse grinded particles (0.425 mm). While the lowest value (0.002%), recorded at the fine grinded particles (0.125 mm).

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 26) showed a significant difference

(at P=0.01) for the influence of particle size on EO yield. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of EO yield for the coarse particles group at 0.018 significance level with the fine particles

159 group. On the other hand, variations between small particles size (10 mm) with other treatment groups were not significant at 0.05 significance level.

0.014 a 0.0102±0.002 0.012

0.01

0.008 0.004±0.002 b 0.006 0.002±0.001

0.004 Essential Essential OilYield (%)

0.002

0 0.151 0.4252 10.003 Fine Pieces Coarse Pieces Small Pieces Leaves Particle Size (mm)

Figure 26: Effect of A. javanica leaves particle size on EO yield

According to the literature survey, particles size of the plant material subjected to hydrodistillation plays major role in the EO yield. Decreasing the particles size is well documented to enhance the EO yield due to increasing the surface area subjected to distillation, thus amount of released volatiles from glandular cells will be increased.

However, after certain limits, decreasing the particles size reduces the EO yield. The same is due to the formation of bed caking (bed compaction) from the packed fine particles, which reduces the volatiles extraction. Another explanation could be due to the channeling effect with the fine particles, which enhances a faster depletion of volatiles (e.g., monoterpenes, monoterpenic oxides) (Langa et al., 2009; Liu et al.,

2010).

Based on our results, the coarse particles size (at 0.425 mm) of A. javanica leaves provides the highest EO yield comparing to other tested sizes (10 and 0.15 mm),

160 thus the same is recommended to obtain the best quantitative yield. Our results are in agreement with other studies (Langa et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2010).

4.2.3.3 Effect of Seasonal Variations

Quantitative Analysis (by Yield)

The influence of seasonal variations on the EO yield (%, v/w of dry weight) of

A. javanica air-dried flowers is illustrated in Figure 27. Mean results represented with their standard deviations (SDs) and standard deviation error bars.

0.014 a 0.011±0.002

0.012 0.009±0.001 0.01 0.007±0.001 0.008 b 0.006±0.000 0.006

Essential Oil Yield (%) Yield Oil Essential 0.004

0.002

0 Spring1 Summer2 Autumn3 Winter4 Season

Figure 27: Effect of seasonal variation on flowers of A. javanica EO yield

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 27) showed significant effect for the seasonal variation on flowers’ EO yield (quantitatively) at 0.042 significance level

(P≤0.05). Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of EO yield obtained in the spring season at 0.036 significance level with the results obtained in the autumn season. Our results are

161 similar to other studies found in the literature, which report that seasonal variation has significant influence on EO yield (Hussain et al., 2008; Omer et al., 2013; Villa-Ruano et al., 2015). According to Hussain et al. (2008), the highest EO yield obtained in spring, which was reduced afterward. Therefore, our findings are in agreement with their obtained results.

Annually, A. javanica flowering stage started approximately in November (end of autumn season) to continue growing in the winter reaching maturity in the spring, and completing the life cycle by the beginning of summer. The same explains the trend of our obtained EO yields, which shows the lowest results in the autumn, followed by increasing the EO yield in winter to reach the maximum yield in spring, which start decreasing by the beginning of summer.

Our results are in agreement with results obtained by Hussain et al. (2008),

Omer et al. (2013) and Villa-Ruano et al. 2015, which report that seasonal variation has significant influence on the quantitative EO yield. According to Hussain et al.

(2008), high EO yield was recorded in spring and reduced afterward, which is similar to our results.

Referring to our results discussed in the physiological analysis section of A. javanica leaves, the proline content will increase gradually during autumn and winter to drop-down during the spring season, to again continue increasing with the entrance of the summer. Since, EOs are defense phytochemicals produced from glandular cells in response to biotic and abiotic stress factors (e.g., high or low temperatures, temperature variations), thus increasing of the leaves proline supports our findings related to EO yield increasing. However, with the entrance of the spring, the proline content of the leaves will drop-down (due to moderate temperature and lower variations between the maximum and minimum temperature). On the other hand, the

162 flowers will reach the maturity stage at that period (spring), thus the EO yield from the glandular cells will reach it is maximum levels, which will play major role in pollination process. However, with the entrance of the summer, which is characterized by high temperature and high variations between daily minimum and maximum temperature, the proline content of the leaves will reach it is maximum levels, while flowers will end it is life cycle, and accordingly the glandular cells will be collapsed, thus flowers’ EO content will be reduced.

Based on our results, the best season to extract the highest quantitative EO yield (0.011±0.002%) obtained from A. javanica flowers is the spring season, followed by the early summer (0.009±0.001%) and winter (0.007±0.000%). While extracting the oil from flowers collected during the autumn period provides the lowest amount of yield (0.006±0.001%), thus not recommended.

Qualitative Analysis (by GC-MS)

The chromatogram results of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO extracted during two different seasons (mid spring and early summer) are illustrated in Figure

73 and 74 in the appendix. The complete chemical composition of EO, retention time

(RT) in minutes, retention indices (RI) and percentages (%) of identified compounds of the flowers oil are all represented in Table 20.

In spring flowers, 29 volatile components were identified representing 100% of total volatiles. The main components were angustione (20.72%), evodone (14.77%), methyl-cresol acetate (12.49%), γ-elemene (9.15%) and verbenone (6.06%).

4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (4.56%), (4Z)-decen-1-ol (4.07%) and 1-tetradecene (3.98%) were identified as minor components.

In summer flowers, 31 volatile components were identified representing

99.99% of total volatiles. The major components were angustione (17.92%), methyl-

163 cresol acetate (12.43%), verbenone (11.83%), evodone (10.19%), γ-elemene (10.03), and (2E)-octenol acetate (4.27%). While 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (3.98%) and 1- tetradecene (2.93%) were identified as minor components.

Based on our results of flowers EO of spring and summer, the oil is characterized by the availability of angustione as major component with higher percentage in the spring (20.72%) comparing to summer (17.92%). Similarly, evodone percentage reduced from 14.77% in spring to reach 10.19% in summer. Oppositely, verbenone percentage doubled from 6.06% in the spring to reach 10.19% with the entrance of the summer At the same time, amounts of methyl-cresol acetate, γ-elemene, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde did not change significantly at the two studied seasons.

Our results show that compounds identification between the two studied seasons did not show significant variation in the identification of the major components. Although, the availability of the same showed increasing (e.g., verbenone) or decreasing (e.g., angustione, evodone) in the percentages of some major components with the entrance of the summer season.

Our results are similar to other studies found in the literature, which report that seasonal variation has significant influence on the quantitative EO yield (Hussain et al., 2008; Omer et al., 2013; Villa-Ruano et al., 2015). According to Hussain et al.

(2008), basil EO extracted in spring was rich in oxygenated monoterpenes, while the oil obtained from summer was rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbons. Meaning that, seasonal variation has significant influence on the EO qualitative yield, which is similar to our obtained results.

Our results show that flowers EO of A. javanica is a rich source of potential hydrocarbons, supporting the results published by Samejo et al. (2012) and Samejo et al. (2013). Angustione is a ketone reported to have antioxidant, anticancer and antiviral

164

(anti-HIV) biological activity (Robertshawe, 2011). Therefore, spring season is more favorable to be considered as a collection season of A. javanica flowers that provides

EO with a higher percentage of angustione comparing to the summer and consequently a better biological activity.

It worth mentioning that verbenone is a monoterpene (bicyclic ketone terpene) that has a pleasant characteristic aroma, thus it is used in wide range of industries (e.g., herbal remedies, herbal teas, spices, aromatherapy, and perfumery) (Selvaraj et al.,

2010). Also, verbenone is an insect pheromones, thus used to control insects (Huber and Borden, 2001). Similarly, γ-elemene is a sesquiterpene that has a floral aroma and reported to cause antifungal and antioxidant activity (Akpuaka et al., 2013).

Consequently, if verbenone or γ-elemene are components of interest to be isolated from flowers’ EO thus summer is a better harvesting season comparing to spring.

Truly, the decision of deciding the favorable harvesting season depends upon the proposed application of the extracted oil. Therefore, different purposes can consider different harvesting season accordingly.

165

Table 20: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from air-dried flowers during spring and summer

Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Spring Summer

1 2E,4E-Octadienol 12.184 1113 1.35 1.33

2 cis-Limonene oxide 12.883 1132 0.42 0.73

3 Verbenone 15.973 1204 6.06 11.83

4 (2E)-Octenol acetate 16.171 1208 1.14 4.27

5 endo-Fenchyl acetate 16.573 1218 ----- 0.51

6 Methyl-(2E)-nonenoate 16.678 1221 1.20 1.21

7 nor-Davanone 17.033 1228 0.39 0.72

8 Thymol methyl ether 17.115 1132 0.84 -----

9 tetrahydro-Linalool acetate 17.121 1231 ----- 1.19

10 Pulegone 17.261 1233 ----- 2.08

11 Carvotanacetone 17.768 1244 ----- 0.70

165

12 (4Z)-Decen-1-ol 18.246 1255 4.07 2.05

166

Table 20: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from air-dried flowers during spring and summer (continued) Percent Composition (%) No. Compound RT RI Spring Summer

13 (2E)-Decenal 18.485 1260 0.44 -----

14 cis-Chrysanthenyl acetate 18.537 1261 0.43 1.22

15 Geranial 18.595 1264 0.97 1.04

16 trans-Carvone oxide 19.044 1273 0.71 -----

17 (2Z)-Hexenyl valerate 19.388 1282 0.39 -----

18 n-Tridecane 20.245 1300 3.79 2.64

19 Isoamyl bemzyl ether 20.653 1310 0.95 1.65

20 2E,4E-Decadienol 21.078 1319 2.08 1.36

21 3-oxo-ρ-Menth-1-en-7-al 21.580 1330 ----- 0.61

22 Evodone 21.877 1137 14.77 10.19

23 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 22.641 1355 4.56 3.98

24 Angustione 23.392 1372 20.72 17.92

25 (E)- Methyl cinnamate 23.556 1376 ----- 0.66

166

167

Table 20: Composition of A. javanica EO obtained from air-dried flowers during spring and summer (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Spring Summer

26 1-Tetradecene 24.092 1388 3.98 2.93

27 α-Chamipinene 24.448 1396 ----- 0.84

28 Cyperene 24.529 1398 1.16 0.69

29 methyl-Cresol acetate 24.791 1403 12.49 12.43

30 (2E,4E)-Undecadienal 25.281 1415 ----- 0.79

31 (E)-Trimenal 25.450 1419 2.77 2.03

32 cis-Thujopsene 25.858 1429 0.80 0.66

33 γ-Elemene 26.103 1434 9.15 10.03

34 α-Humulene 26.791 1452 1.65 0.95

35 (2E)-Dodecen-1-ol 27.589 1469 1.05 0.75

36 α-Selinene 28.755 1498 0.88 -----

37 Menthyl isovalerate 29.507 1516 0.80 -----

167

168

4.2.4 Remarks and Conclusions

This section illustrates the most important highlights of all conducted experiments to test Hypothesis No. 2, which claims that EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) is a good resource of natural phytochemicals, which significantly affected by the post-harvest drying methods. Also, EO of A. javanica leaves and flowers are significantly affected by the particle size and the seasonal variations, respectively.

Our morphological results by SEM photos show the appearance of glandular trichomes on the epidermis of the leaves and flowers, which support the fact that A. javanica is a desert xerophytic plant that can survive the harsh environmental conditions with minimal water requirements. Also, the prominent woolly tomentose indumentum support the fact that A. javanica is an EO-bearing plant.

During the year, A. javanica exposed to climatological and seasonal variations that show significant influences on all tested physiological parameters. In which chlorophyll content (A, B, and total) significantly increasing reaching the maximum levels during mid spring and autumn. Similarly, during the same seasons, carotenoids content of the leaves and flowers significantly increasing recording the highest levels.

On the other hand, the hottest (summer) and coldest (winter) seasons show the highest proline content of the leaves.

The EO obtained from leaves and flowers of A. javanica is a waxy yellowish oil with characteristic odor. Quantitative analysis of leaves’ and flowers’ oil showed variations under tested post-harvest drying methods.

EO yield obtained from the leaves ranged from 0.005±0.002 to

0.0074±0.001%. Highest yield obtained from the fresh samples, while the lowest yield obtained from the air-dried samples. Tested drying methods did not show significant influence on the quantity of the leaves’ oil. The same is due to similarity of results

169 obtained from fresh samples and freeze-dried samples. It is recommended either to distill leaves’ oil directly from fresh samples or to expose the samples to freeze-drying, in order to obtain the highest quantitative yield of leaves.

Tested drying methods showed significant influences on the quantity of the flowers’ oil, which ranged from 0.002±0.0002 to 0.013±0.005%. Lowest yield obtained from fresh samples, while the air-dried samples showed the highest obtained yield, and thus recommended.

Qualitative analyses of leaves’ and flowers’ oils by GC-MS showed significant variations under tested post-harvest drying methods. In leaves’ oil, identified compounds varied according to applied drying method. Highest compounds number obtained from air-dried leaves (29 volatiles), followed by freeze-dried leaves (27 volatiles), and finally fresh leaves (19 volatiles).

Fresh leaves’ oil was characterized by the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate

(29.87%), geranial (14.15%), and γ-elemene (6.33%) as major components. Air-dried leaves’ oil was characterized by the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate (15.68%), γ- elemene (14.3%), and verbenone (9.77%). While freeze-dried leaves’ oil was characterized by the existence of the following main compounds: γ-elemene (12.38%),

1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene (9.8%), and methyl-cresol acetate (9.42%).

Similarly, identified compounds of flowers’ oil varied according to applied drying method. Highest compounds number obtained from air-dried flowers (29 volatiles), followed by fresh flowers (19 volatiles), and finally freeze-dried flowers (15 volatiles).

Flowers’ oil was characterized by the availability of angustione and evodone as major components under all tested drying methods with different percentages.

Freeze-drying is considered as a favorable option to preserve the original ingredients.

170

While the process of oxidation, which takes place in the air-dried samples, caused modifications on the original chemical profile, thus formation of new volatiles.

Studying the influence of leaves particle size showed significant effect on EO yield, in which the highest yield (0.01%) obtained from the coarse grinded particles

(0.425 mm), thus recommended. While the lowest yield (0.002%), obtained from the fine grinded particles (0.125 mm).

Quantitative analysis showed significant effect for the seasonal variation on flowers’ EO yield. The best season to extract the highest EO yield (0.011%) obtained from flowers harvested in spring, followed by early summer (0.009%) and winter

(0.007%). While extracting the oil from flowers collected during the autumn period provided the lowest amount of yield (0.006%), thus not recommended. The life cycle of flowers (which starts during end of autumn, reaches maturity in spring and ends in summer) plays major role on the amount of it is produced oil.

During spring, 29 volatile components were identified in the flowers’ oil. The main components were angustione (20.72%), evodone (14.77%), and methyl-cresol acetate (12.49%). While in summer, 31 volatile components were identified in the flowers’ oil. The major components were angustione (17.92%), methyl-cresol acetate

(12.43%), and verbenone (11.83%).

Flowers’ oil of A. javanica harvested in spring and summer were characterized by the availability of angustione as a major component. The compounds identification between the two studied seasons did not show significant variation in the identification of the major components, while their percentages were varied showing an increasing

(e.g., verbenone) or decreasing (e.g., angustione, evodone) trend with the entrance of the summer season.

171

Truly, the decision of deciding the favorable conditions (e.g., post-harvest drying method and harvesting season) depends upon the proposed application of the extracted oil. The chemical profile of the oil will be varied according to the applied factors. Therefore, different applications can consider different manipulated factors, accordingly.

All our results obtained from this section support our claim in Hypothesis No.

2, which says that EO extracted from leaves and flowers of A. javanica is a rich source of natural hydrocarbons. In addition, post-harvest drying methods, particles size of plant material subjected to distillation and the seasonal variations are all factors that play key roles in the quantity and quality of the isolated oil.

4.3 Hypothesis No. 3 Outcomes: Antioxidant Activity of A. javanica

This section illustrates and discusses the results of antioxidant activity (in vitro) to test Hypothesis No. 3, which claims that EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) has good antioxidant activity (in vitro); supporting it is traditional therapeutic applications and providing good source of natural antioxidants. At the end of this section, the most important remarks and conclusion would be provided.

To test our hypothesis, we conducted three antioxidant assays, which are:

DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS. These assays employ the same principle, which involves the generation of colored radical or redox-active compound, and the capability of the tested sample either to scavenge the radical or to reduce the redox-active compound.

The reaction process of each of DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS is similar, depending on the electron transfer and causes reduction of a colored oxidant. These assays are measured by spectrophotometer method, recording the absorbance at certain wavelength suitable to the tested assay. Then, the obtained results are compared in equivalent to a standard curve for a common antioxidant (e.g., trolox, ascorbic acid) (Floegel et al., 2011).

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According to Karthishwaran et al. (2018) they reported very strong antioxidant activity for A. javanica (aerial parts) crude extracts using methanol, acetone, hexane, chloroform, and ethyl acetate by cold percolation method.

On the other hand, no data available in the literature regarding the antioxidant activity of A. javanica EO, and this work provides the first insights about the same under different tested conditions. The recent results published by Karthishwaran et al.

(2018) provide positive indication that A. javanica EO may show good antioxidant activity.

It worth mentioning that positive antioxidant results will justify and support the ethnobotanical applications of this shrub. In the UAE, leaves and flowers of A. javanica were extensively used (in the old herbal practices) to treat inflammations and severe wounds topically (Jongbloed et al., 2003; Shahin and Salem, 2016). According to Schäfer and Werner (2008) antioxidants (particularly the low molecular weight antioxidants) have major role in healing skin wounds, through regulating the redox environment.

4.3.1 DPPH Assay

The DPPH molecule (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl) is one of the few stable organic nitrogen radicals. It is characterized by deep purple color, with maximum absorbance at 517 nm wavelength. The antioxidants cause reduction reactions against the free radical DPPH by pairing it is odd electron with the free radical scavenging antioxidant. This reaction causes color loss of the purple DPPH due to the formation of the reduced DPPH-H. The more the color loss, the higher the antioxidant concentration would be, thus higher DPPH scavenging activity (Brand-Williams et al.,

1995).

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In this work, the antioxidant concentration was calculated as trolox equivalent from a calibration curve (Figure 64, Appendix) and the antioxidant activity was expressed as mg trolox eq/ g of extract.

4.3.1.1 Effect of Drying Method

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 28) showed a significant difference

(at <0.0005 significance level) for the tested drying methods on the antioxidant activity of A. javanica leaves and flowers EO using DPPH assay. As shown in Figure 28, the highest antioxidant activities of both leaves and flowers obtained from fresh samples

(leaves: 136.08±2.40; flowers: 40.63±2.14 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by freeze-dried (leaves: 58.41±1.78; flowers: 20.73±0.31mg trolox equivalent/ g) and air- dried samples (leaves: 9.07±0.23; flowers: 4.29±0.22 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively. Under all tested drying methods, leaves EO showed at least double antioxidant activity in comparison to the activity of flowers EO.

160 a 136.08±2.40 140

120

100

80 b Leaves 58.41±1.78 60 a Flowers 40.63±2.14

(mg Trolox (mg g eq/ extract) 40 b DPPH Antioxidant Activity c 20.73±0.31 20 9.07±0.23 c 4.29±0.22 0 Fresh1 Air-Drying2 Freeze3-Drying

Post-Harvest Drying Method

Figure 28: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by DPPH assay

174

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of antioxidant activity (at <0.0005 significance level) with the results obtained from all tested drying methods of both leaves and flowers, independently.

The oxidation process, which takes place in the air-drying method, causes an elongation in the enzymatic reactions, as well as, losing or forming new compounds, which all result in a lower quality extract, thus lower antioxidant activity. On the other hand, freeze-drying prevents the oxidation and the enzymatic processes, thus preserve the original quality of the extract and it is antioxidant properties.

Our previous quantitative results of leaves’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed no significant variation between fresh and freeze-dried samples, which means that both results are similar. While, the lowest EO percentage was obtained from the air-dried samples. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results using DPPH assay revealed the high availability of rich antioxidants in both fresh and freeze-dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves.

While our qualitative results showed significant influence for the tested drying methods on the chemical profile of the leaves’ oil. Upon air-drying, the percentages of

1-octen-3-yl-acetate and geranial reduced significantly, while methyl-cresol acetate percentage increased in comparison to the fresh samples. Freeze-drying method preserved the availability of geranial in comparison to the air-dried samples, and showed the availability of 1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene as a new volatile.

175 samples, respectively. While it is suggested that the availability of methyl-cresol acetate do not contribute to the antioxidant activity.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze- dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves: trans-thujone, (Z)-α-damascone, 1- tetradecene, (E)-trimenal, (Z)-methyl isoeugenol, and α-macrocarpene. Therefore, the high DPPH antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze- dried leaves. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were only recorded in the air-dried samples: terpinen-4-ol, linalool formate, tetrahydro-linalool acetate, (4Z)- decen-1-ol, o-guaiacol acetate, tetrahydro-lavandulol acetate, and 2-undecanol.

Consequently, the low DPPH antioxidant activity of leaves’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

Our previously obtained quantitative and qualitative analysis of A. javanica leaves’ oil, under tested drying methods, supporting our current antioxidant findings using DPPH assay. It is recommended to extract EO from either fresh or freeze-dried leaves, comparing to air-dried samples, in order to obtain highest antioxidant activity.

Our previous quantitative results of flowers’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed significant enhancing effect for the air-drying method on the EO yield comparing to the fresh and air-dried flowers. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results, using DPPH assay, revealed that the oxidation process occurred in the air-drying method contributes in forming high amounts of volatiles that do not have good antioxidant properties.

176 comparison to the same obtained from the air-dried samples could be due to the high percentages of angustione and γ-elemene, which occurred in high percentages in fresh and freeze-dried samples. While the deterioration of antioxidant activity in the air- dried samples may be attributed to the high amounts of evodone and verbenone in comparison to the fresh and freeze-dried samples, and/ or due to the lower availability of angustione and γ-elemene in air-dried samples.

Therefore, the results of flowers’ oil antioxidant activity using DPPH assay could be due to the high amounts of angustione and γ-elemene in both fresh and freeze- dried samples in comparison to the air-dried samples.

According to Robertshawe (2011), angustione is a ketone reported to have antioxidant, anticancer and antiviral (anti-HIV) biological activity. Which found in higher percentages in our fresh and freeze-dried flowers’ oil comparing to air-dried samples. Therefore, freeze-drying is more favorable to be considered as a post-harvest drying method in comparison to the air-drying method in obtaining flowers’ oil with similar quality and antioxidant activity to the original fresh sample.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze- dried flowers in comparison to the air-dried flowers: 2E,4E-octadienol, isoamyl bemzyl ether, 1-tetradecene, cyperene, and (E)-trimenal. Therefore, the high DPPH antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze-dried samples. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were either only recorded in the air-dried samples or existed in higher percentages in air-dried flowers comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples: cis-limonene oxide, (2E)-octenol acetate, methyl-

(2E)-nonenoate, nor-davanone, thymol methyl ether, (4Z)-decen-1-ol, (2E)-decenal, trans-carvone oxide, (2Z)-hexenyl valerate, n-tridecane, 2E,4E-decadienol, cis-

177 thujopsene, and α-selinene. Consequently, the low DPPH antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

It worth mentioning that the antioxidant activity could be due to the activity of certain volatiles in the extracted oil. In addition, it could be due to the presence of volatiles mixture that contributes together to the antioxidant activity. Therefore, it is difficult to conclude the contribution of certain volatile to the reported antioxidant activity, thus further studies for the oil fractionation and isolation of certain compounds are required.

Our results are similar with other studies done by Pinela et al. (2011),

Siriamornpun et al. (2012) and Orphanides et al. (2013), which report that freeze- drying shows a better antioxidant activity comparing to air-dried samples. Thus, freeze-drying is a recommended post-harvest drying method to enhance the shelf life of the extract, and to preserve it is original quality and antioxidant activity.

In general, the antioxidant activity obtained from DPPH assay is due to the availability of hydrogen donating ability, which can be linked to the existence of adjacent substituted groups (e.g., methoxyl). While the existence of electron- withdrawing group (e.g., carboxyl) has negative antioxidant effect. The same support our GC-MS results obtained previously.

Results of DPPH assay, shows that the leaves’ oil of A. javanica is an interesting resource of natural antioxidants that performs a better antioxidant activity, thus a better quality comparing to it is flowers’ oil.

4.3.1.2 Effect of Seasonal Variation

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 29) showed a significant difference

(at <0.0005 significance level) for the influence of seasonal variation on the

178 antioxidant activity of A. javanica flowers’ EO using DPPH assay. As shown in Figure

29, the highest antioxidant activities obtained in the spring (12.20±1.44 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by winter (11.5±0.15 mg trolox equivalent/ g), autumn

(7.77±0.21 mg trolox equivalent/ g), and summer (7.08±0.21 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively.

14 a 12.20±1.44 a 12 11.5±0.15

10 b c 7.77±0.21 8 7.08±0.21

(mg Trolox eq/ g extract) g eq/ Trolox (mg DPPH Antioxidant Activity Activity Antioxidant DPPH 2

0 Spring1 Summer3 Autumn4 Winter5

Harvesting Season

Figure 29: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by DPPH assay

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of antioxidant activity recorded in spring with summer and autumn both at <0.0005 significance level, while no significant variation between spring and winter was observed. The antioxidant activity recorded in winter was significant with also summer and autumn at <0.0005 and 0.001 significance level, respectively.

179

According to our previously measured physiological parameters, the chlorophyll content (A, B, total) and carotenoids (measured for leaves and flowers, independently) all showed high levels during spring season, while lowest values recorded in summer. Oppositely, the proline content of the leaves found at it is lowest levels in spring, while the highest levels recorded in summer. Which all support a healthy physiological situation of A. javanica flowers during spring season and an opposite situation during summer. All previously mentioned support our antioxidant activity of flowers’ EO measured by DPPH assay.

Although, there are many studies that link the influence of exposing the plant to biotic and abiotic stress factors with the high productivity of EO (Laribi et al., 2009;

Tátrai et al., 2016). However, in our work there was a negative correlation between the severity of seasonal impacts and the EO yield, which is in agreement with results obtained by Hussain et al. (2008), who reported that during the year the highest antioxidant activity of basil EO was recorded in spring, while the lowest activity was recorded in summer.

Referring to our EO results obtained from flowers, the highest yield throughout the year was recorded in spring, with 29 identified volatiles (representing 100% of the oil). The major compounds were angustione (20.72%), evodone (14.77%), methyl- cresol acetate (12.49%), γ-elemene (9.15%) and verbenone (6.06%). 4- hydroxybenzaldehyde (4.56%), (4Z)-decen-1-ol (4.07%) and 1-tetradecene (3.98%) were identified as minor components.

While in early summer’s flowers, 31 volatile components were identified representing 99.99% of total volatiles. The major components were angustione

(17.92%), methyl-cresol acetate (12.43%), verbenone (11.83%), evodone (10.19%), γ-

180 elemene (10.03), and (2E)-octenol acetate (4.27%). While 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde

(3.98%) and 1-tetradecene (2.93%) were identified as minor components.

Based on our results of flowers’ EO of spring and early summer, the oil is characterized by the availability of angustione as major component with higher percentage in the spring (20.72%) comparing to summer (17.92%). Similarly, evodone percentage reduced from 14.77% in spring to reach 10.19% in summer. Oppositely, verbenone percentage doubled from 6.06% in the spring to reach 10.19% with the entrance of the summer At the same time, amounts of methyl-cresol acetate, γ-elemene, and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde did not change significantly at the two studied seasons.

Linking the quantitative and qualitative results of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers to our current antioxidant DPPH results show that the high antioxidant activity recorded in the spring, which then reduced significantly by the entrance of summer, could be due to the variation in amounts of major compounds, which causes reduction in the availability of electron-donation group. It is recommended that angustione and evodone may have contribution to the high antioxidant activity recorded in spring. While, verbenone may not has contribution to the antioxidant activity.

It worth mentioning that, A. javanica flowering stage started approximately in

November (end of autumn season) to continue growing in the winter reaching maturity

181 in the spring, and completing the life cycle by the beginning of summer. The same support the trend of our obtained antioxidant results by DPPH assay.

4.3.2 FRAP Assay

The ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) measures the reduction of ferric into ferrous ion by the availability of antioxidants. This assay measures the ability of the extract’s components to reduce the ferric salt (TPTZ-Fe3+), which has yellow color, to ferrous product (TPTZ-Fe2+), which has deep blue color. The electron transfer reaction happens due to the availability of the electron-donating group (e.g., hydroxyl) of the antioxidants, thus this assay determines the antioxidant activity of the tested extract (Benzie and Strain, 1996; Benzie and Strain, 1999).

4.3.2.1 Effect of Drying Method

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 30) showed a significant difference for the tested drying methods on the antioxidant activity of A. javanica leaves (at 0.01 significance level) and flowers (at <0.0005 significance level) EO using FRAP assay.

As shown in Figure 30, the highest antioxidant activities of both leaves and flowers obtained from freeze-dried samples (leaves: 8.856±0.487; flowers: 7.747±0.616 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by fresh (leaves: 6.045±2.564; flowers: 4.837±0.109 mg trolox equivalent/ g) and air-dried samples (leaves: 3.050±0.201; flowers:

1.651±0.059 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively. Under all tested drying methods, leaves EO showed higher antioxidant activity in comparison to the activity of flowers’

EO.

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant difference between antioxidant results of air-dried and freeze-dried leaves at 0.008 significance level. While the same analysis of flowers’ oil showed significant

182 difference between antioxidant results of all tested drying methods at <0.0005 significance level.

10 a 8.856±0.487 9 a 7.747±0.616 8 6.045±2.564 7 b 6 4.837±0.109 5 b Leaves 4 3.050±0.201 Flowers 3 c 1.651±0.059

(mg (mg Trolox eq/ extract)g 2 FRAP Antioxidant Activity 1 0 Fresh1 Air-2Drying Freeze3-Drying Post-Harvest Drying Method

Figure 30: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by FRAP assay

Our previous quantitative results of leaves’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed no significant variation between fresh and freeze-dried samples, which means that both results are similar. While the lowest EO percentage was obtained from the air-dried samples. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results using FRAP assay revealed the high availability of rich antioxidants in both fresh and freeze-dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves.

183

While our qualitative results showed significant influence for the tested drying methods on the chemical profile of the leaves’ oil. Upon air-drying, the percentages of

Therefore, the results of leaves’ oil antioxidant activity could be due to the high amounts of geranial in both fresh and freeze-dried samples. Also, can be due to the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate and 1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene in fresh and freeze-dried samples, respectively. While it is suggested that the availability of methyl-cresol acetate (as an individual compound or mixed with other compounds) do not contributes to the antioxidant activity.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze- dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves: trans-thujone, (Z)-α-damascone, 1- tetradecene, (E)-trimenal, (Z)-methyl isoeugenol, and α-macrocarpene. Therefore, the high FRAP antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze- dried leaves. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were only recorded in the air-dried samples: terpinen-4-ol, linalool formate, tetrahydro-linalool acetate, (4Z)- decen-1-ol, o-guaiacol acetate, tetrahydro-lavandulol acetate, and 2-undecanol.

Consequently, the low FRAP antioxidant activity of leaves’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

Our previously obtained quantitative and qualitative analysis of A. javanica leaves’ oil, under tested drying methods, supporting our current antioxidant findings

184 using FRAP assay. It is recommended to extract EO from either fresh or freeze-dried leaves, comparing to air-dried samples, in order to obtain highest antioxidant activity.

Our previous quantitative results of flowers’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed significant enhancing effect for the air-drying method on the EO yield comparing to the fresh and air-dried flowers. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results, using FRAP assay, revealed that the oxidation process occurred in the air-drying method contributes in forming high amounts of volatiles that do not have good antioxidant properties comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples.

Our previous qualitative results (GC-MS) showed significant influence for the tested drying methods on the chemical profile of the flowers’ oil. Our current high antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil obtained from fresh or freeze-dried samples in comparison to the same obtained from the air-dried samples could be due to the high percentages of angustione and γ-elemene, which occurred in high percentages in fresh and freeze-dried samples. While the deterioration of antioxidant activity in the air- dried samples may be attributed to the high amounts of evodone and verbenone in comparison to the fresh and freeze-dried samples, and/ or due to the lower availability of angustione and γ-elemene in air-dried samples.

Therefore, the results of flowers’ oil antioxidant activity using FRAP assay could be due to the high amounts of angustione and γ-elemene in both fresh and freeze- dried samples in comparison to the air-dried samples.

185 drying method in comparison to the air-drying method in obtaining flowers’ oil with similar quality and antioxidant activity to the original fresh sample.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze- dried flowers in comparison to the air-dried flowers: 2E,4E-octadienol, isoamyl bemzyl ether, 1-tetradecene, cyperene, and (E)-trimenal. Therefore, the high FRAP antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze-dried samples. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were either only recorded in the air-dried samples or existed in higher percentages in air-dried flowers comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples: cis-limonene oxide, (2E)-octenol acetate, methyl-

(2E)-nonenoate, nor-Davanone, Thymol methyl ether, (4Z)-decen-1-ol, (2E)-decenal, trans-carvone oxide, (2Z)-hexenyl valerate, n-tridecane, 2E,4E-decadienol, cis- thujopsene, and α-selinene. Consequently, the low FRAP antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

Our results are similar with other studies done by Pinela et al. (2011),

Siriamornpun et al. (2012) and Orphanides et al. (2013), which report that freeze- drying shows a better antioxidant activity comparing to air-dried samples. Thus,

186 freeze-drying is a recommended post-harvest drying method to enhance the shelf life of the extract, and to preserve it is original quality and antioxidant activity.

In general, the antioxidant activity obtained from FRAP assay is due to the availability of hydrogen donating ability, which can be linked to the existence of adjacent substituted groups (e.g., hydroxyl).

Results of FRAP assay, shows that the leaves’ oil of A. javanica is an interesting resource of natural antioxidants that performs a better antioxidant activity, thus a better quality comparing to it is flowers’ oil.

4.3.2.2 Effect of Seasonal Variation

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 31) showed a significant difference

(at <0.0005 significance level) for the influence of seasonal variation on the antioxidant activity of A. javanica flowers’ EO using FRAP assay. As shown in Figure

31, the highest antioxidant activities obtained in the spring (7.76±0.55 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by summer (5.47±0.57 mg trolox equivalent/ g), winter

(3.28±0.148 mg trolox equivalent/ g), and autumn (3.14±0.38 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively.

187

9 a 7.760±0.555 8

7 b 5.473±0.574 6

5 c c 4 3.141±0.383 3.286±0.148

3 (mg (mg Trolox eq/ extract)g

FRAP Antioxidant Activity 2

0 Spring1 Summer3 Autumn4 Winter5 Harvesting Season

Figure 31: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by FRAP assay

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of antioxidant activity recorded in spring with antioxidant results recorded in summer at 0.001 significance level. Also, variation between results of spring with autumn and winter were significant both at <0.0005 significance level.

While no significant variation between autumn and winter was observed.

According to our previously measured physiological parameters, the chlorophyll content (A, B, total) and carotenoids (measured for leaves and flowers independently) all showed high levels during spring season. Oppositely, the proline content of the leaves found at it is lowest levels in spring. Which all support a healthy situation of A. javanica flowers during spring season, thus support our antioxidant activity of flowers’ EO measured by FRAP assay.

Although, there are many studies that link the influence of exposing the plant to biotic and abiotic stress factors with the high productivity of EO (Laribi et al., 2009;

188

Hydroxybenzaldehyde (4.56%), (4Z)-Decen-1-ol (4.07%) and 1-Tetradecene (3.98%) were identified as minor components.

Our results are in agreement with results obtained by Hussain et al. (2008), who reported that during the year the highest antioxidant activity of basil EO was recorded in spring, which reduced afterward.

It worth mentioning that, A. javanica flowering stage starting approximately in

November (end of autumn season) to continue growing in the winter reaching maturity in the spring, and completing the life cycle by the beginning of summer. The same support the trend of our obtained antioxidant results by FRAP assay.

4.3.3 ABTS Assay

The ABTS assay (2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) is based on the production of a blue/green ABTS+, which can be reduced by antioxidants (Floegel et al., 2011).

4.3.3.1 Effect of Drying Method

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 32) showed a significant difference for the tested drying methods on the antioxidant activity of A. javanica leaves’ (at

0.008 significance level) and flowers’ (at <0.0005 significance level) EO using ABTS

189 assay. As shown in Figure 32, the highest antioxidant activities of leaves obtained from fresh samples (29.678±12.64 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by freeze-dried

(20.349±1.175 mg trolox equivalent/ g) and air-dried samples (1.008±0.035 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively. Antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil showed the highest antioxidant activities from freeze-dried samples (5.215±0.116 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by fresh samples (4.408±0.0937 mg trolox equivalent/ g) and air-dried samples (0.862±0.005 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively. Under all tested drying methods, leaves EO showed much higher antioxidant activity using ABTS assay in comparison to the activity of flowers’ EO.

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant difference between antioxidant results of freeze-dried leaves with fresh and air-dried samples at 0.007 and 0.041 significance level, respectively. While the same analysis of flowers’ oil showed significant difference between antioxidant results of air-dried flowers with fresh and freeze-dried samples at 0.001 and <0.0005 significance level, respectively.

190

a 40 29.678±12.64 35

25 b 20.349±1.175 20 Leaves

15 Flowers a 10 a

(mg eq/ (mg extract)Trolox g 5.215±0.116 ABTSAntioxidant Activity 4.408±0.937 a 5 1.008±0.035 b 0.862±0.005 0 Fresh1 Air-Drying2 Freeze-3Drying

Post-Harvest Drying Method

Figure 32: Effect of drying method on A. javanica EO by ABTS assay

Our previous quantitative results of leaves’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed no significant variation between fresh and freeze-dried samples, which means that both results are similar. While the lowest EO percentage was obtained from the air-dried samples. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results using ABTS assay revealed the high availability of rich antioxidants in both fresh and freeze-dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves.

While our qualitative results showed significant influence for the tested drying methods on the chemical profile of the leaves’ oil. Upon air-drying, the percentages of

1-octen-3-yl-acetate and geranial reduced significantly, while methyl-cresol acetate

191 percentage increased in comparison to the fresh samples. Freeze-drying method preserved the availability of geranial in comparison to the air-dried samples, and showed the availability of 1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene as a new volatile.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze- dried leaves in comparison to the air-dried leaves: trans-thujone, (Z)-α-damascone, 1- tetradecene, (E)-trimenal, (Z)-methyl isoeugenol, and α-macrocarpene. Therefore, the high ABTS antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze- dried leaves. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were only recorded in the air-dried samples: terpinen-4-ol, linalool formate, tetrahydro-Linalool acetate,

(4Z)-decen-1-ol, o-guaiacol acetate, tetrahydro-lavandulol acetate, and 2-undecanol.

Consequently, the low ABTS antioxidant activity of leaves’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

Our previously obtained quantitative and qualitative analysis of A. javanica leaves’ oil, under tested drying methods, supporting our current antioxidant findings using ABTS assay. It is recommended to extract EO from either fresh or freeze-dried leaves, comparing to air-dried samples, in order to obtain highest antioxidant activity.

Our previous quantitative results of flowers’ oil (Section 4.2.3.1) showed significant enhancing effect for the air-drying method on the EO yield comparing to

192 the fresh and air-dried flowers. Linking the results of our quantitative analysis with the current antioxidant results, using ABTS assay, revealed that the oxidation process occurred in the air-drying method contributes in forming high amounts of volatiles that do not have good antioxidant properties comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples.

Our previous qualitative results (GC-MS) showed significant influence for the tested drying methods on the chemical profile of the flowers’ oil. Similarity between availability of minor compounds showed between fresh and freeze-dried flowers’ oil.

Our current high antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil obtained from fresh or freeze-dried samples in comparison to the same obtained from the air-dried samples could be due to the high percentages of angustione and γ-elemene, which occurred in high percentages in both fresh and freeze-dried samples. While the deterioration of antioxidant activity in the air-dried samples may be attributed to the high amounts of evodone and verbenone in comparison to the fresh and freeze-dried samples, and/ or due to the lower availability of angustione and γ-elemene in air-dried samples.

Therefore, the results of flowers’ oil antioxidant activity using ABTS assay could be due to the high amounts of angustione and γ-elemene in both fresh and freeze- dried samples in comparison to the air-dried samples.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results (Section: 4.2.3.1), the following minor volatiles were recorded in higher percentages in both fresh and freeze-

193 dried flowers in comparison to the air-dried flowers: 2E,4E-octadienol, isoamyl bemzyl ether, 1-tetradecene, cyperene, and (E)-trimenal. Therefore, the high ABTS antioxidant activity could be linked to their availability in fresh and freeze-dried samples. On the other hand, the following minor volatiles were either only recorded in the air-dried samples or existed in higher percentages in air-dried flowers comparing to fresh and freeze-dried samples: cis-limonene oxide, (2E)-octenol acetate, methyl-

(2E)-nonenoate, nor-davanone, thymol methyl ether, (4Z)-decen-1-ol, (2E)-decenal, trans-carvone oxide, (2Z)-hexenyl valerate, n-tridecane, 2E,4E-decadienol, cis- thujopsene, and α-selinene. Consequently, the low ABTS antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil using air-dried samples could be linked to the availability of previously mentioned compounds.

Our results are similar with other studies done by Pinela et al. (2011),

Results of ABTS assay, shows that the leaves’ oil of A. javanica is an interesting resource of natural antioxidants that performs a better antioxidant activity, thus a better quality comparing to it is flowers’ oil.

194

4.3.3.2 Effect of Seasonal Variation

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 33) showed a significant difference at <0.0005 significance level for the influence of seasonal variation on the antioxidant activity of A. javanica flowers’ EO using FRAP assay. As shown in Figure 33, the highest antioxidant activities obtained in the spring (3.075±0.263 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by autumn (1.719±0.025 mg trolox equivalent/ g), winter

(1.685±0.255 mg trolox equivalent/ g), and summer (0.706±0.248 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively.

Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey HSD test showed significant variations of antioxidant activity recorded in spring with antioxidant results of all season at <0.0005 significance level. Also, variation between results of summer with spring, autumn and winter were significant at <0.0005, 0.002, and 0.003 significance level, respectively. While no significant variation between autumn and winter was observed.

a 3.5 3.075±0.263

2.5 b b 1.719±0.025 2 1.685±0.255

1.5 c

1 0.706±0.248 (mg (mg Trolox eq/ extract)g

ABTSAntioxidant Activity 0.5

0 Spring1 Summer3 Autumn4 Winter5

Harvesting Season

Figure 33: Effect of seasonal variation on A. javanica EO by ABTS assay

195

According to our previously measured physiological parameters, the chlorophyll content (A, B, total) and carotenoids (measured for leaves and flowers, independently) all showed high levels during spring season, while the lowest values recorded in summer. Oppositely, the proline content of the leaves found at it is lowest levels in spring, while the highest levels recorded in summer. Which all support a healthy physiological situation of A. javanica flowers during spring season and an opposite situation during summer. All previously mentioned support our antioxidant activity of flowers’ EO measured by ABTS assay.

Although, there are many studies that link the influence of exposing the plant to biotic and abiotic stress factors with the high productivity of EO (Laribi et al., 2009;

While in early summer’s flowers, 31 volatile components were identified representing 99.99% of total volatiles. The major components were angustione

(17.92%), methyl-cresol acetate (12.43%), verbenone (11.83%), evodone (10.19%), γ-

196 elemene (10.03), and (2E)-octenol acetate (4.27%). While 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde

(3.98%) and 1-tetradecene (2.93%) were identified as minor components.

Linking the quantitative and qualitative results of A. javanica EO obtained from flowers to our current antioxidant ABTS results show that the high antioxidant activity recorded in the spring, which then reduced significantly by the entrance of summer, could be due to the variation in amounts of major compounds, which causes reduction in the availability of electron-donation group. It is recommended that angustione and evodone may have positive contribution to the high antioxidant activity recorded in spring. While, verbenone may not has positive contribution to the antioxidant activity.

It worth mentioning that, A. javanica flowering stage started approximately in

November (end of autumn season) to continue growing in the winter reaching maturity

197 in the spring, and completing the life cycle by the beginning of summer. The same support the trend of our obtained antioxidant results by ABTS assay.

4.3.4 Correlations between Antioxidant Assays

Correlation analysis using Pearson’s correlation test was done to evaluate the strength of relationship between results of antioxidant activity obtained by applying the three antioxidant assays: DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS. The Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated using SPSS statistical software (version 21) at ≤0.01 significance level, in which the significant effect will be illustrated in this section’s tables using the sign (*).

Our correlation analysis of leaves’ antioxidant activity measured for the three studied drying methods (fresh, air-dried, and freeze-dried) are shown from Table 21 to

23. Overall, the illustrated correlation coefficients show a strong positive relationship between results obtained from all tested antioxidant assays. Correlation coefficient of fresh leaves found very strong (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between DPPH and FRAP.

While, there was good positive correlation (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between

DPPH with ABTS, and FRAP with ABTS. Correlation coefficient of antioxidant activity measured for air and freeze-dried leaves found very strong (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between the three evaluated antioxidant assays.

Table 21: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of fresh leaves (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +0.879 FRAP +1* --- +0.879 ABTS +0.879 +0.879 ---

198

Table 22: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of air-dried leaves (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

Table 23: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of freeze-dried leaves (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

Our correlation analysis of flowers’ antioxidant activity measured for the three examined drying methods (fresh, air-dried, and freeze-dried) are shown from Table 24 to 26. The illustrated correlation coefficients show very strong positive relationship

(significant at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between results of all tested antioxidant assays.

Table 24: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of fresh flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

Table 25: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of air-dried flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

199

Table 26: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of freeze-dried flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

Our correlation analysis of flowers’ antioxidant activity measured for the four seasons are shown from Table 27 to 30. The illustrated correlation coefficients of spring flowers show strong positive relationship between all tested antioxidant assays.

Correlation coefficient of spring flowers found strong (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between DPPH and FRAP, DPPH with ABTS, and FRAP with ABTS. While, the correlation coefficients measured for the rest of seasons show very strong positive relationship (significant at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between all tested antioxidant assays.

Table 27: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of spring flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +0.933 +0.994 FRAP +0.933 --- +0.968 ABTS +0.994 +0.968 ---

Table 28: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of summer flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

200

Table 29: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of autumn flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

Table 30: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of winter flowers (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

4.3.5 Remarks and Conclusions

Overall, A. javanica EO isolated from leaves and flowers has good antioxidant properties (in vitro) measured by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assay. The highest activity was obtained using DPPH assay, thus using the same is more efficient and better to be used comparing to FRAP and ABTS, respectively. Applying the three antioxidant assays, leaves showed higher antioxidant properties in comparission to flowers.

Applying the three assays, the antioxidant activity of both leaves and flowers were significantly affected by the three tested post-harvest drying methods (fresh, air- drying, freeze-drying). Generally, EO extracted from fresh and freeze-dried samples showed good antioxidant activity, which was (in most cases) significantly higher than air-dried samples that exhibited the lowest EO quality and antioxidant activity.

In order to obtain the highest antioxidant activity, it is recommended to distill the oil directly after harvesting A. javanica leaves and flowers. Freeze-drying is an efficient drying option that preserves the original quality and antioxidant activity of the oil in comparison to shaded air-drying.

201

The antioxidant activity of leaves’ oil in fresh and freeze-dried samples could be due to the high amounts of the following major volatiles: geranial, 1-octen-3-yl- acetate, and 1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene. While the antioxidant activity of flowers’ oil in fresh and freeze-dried samples could be due to the high amounts of the major volatiles: angustione and γ-elemene.

Seasonal variation has significant effect on the quality and antioxidant activity of A. javanica flowers’ oil. Applying all tested antioxidant assays showed that the highest antioxidant activity was recorded in the spring, which then reduced significantly by the entrance of summer. Therefore, spring is the best harvesting season to obtain the best quality A. javanica oil. Flowers’ oil isolated in spring characterized by the availability of angustione and evodone as major compounds.

Actually, it would be interesting to fractionat and isolate all previously mentioned compounds, and examine their antioxidant properties. Besides, conducting further antioxidant tests (in vitro) by using other assays (e.g., oxygen radical absorption capacity “ORAC”) are required. Moreover, clinical (in vivo) studies for the antioxidant activity of A. javanica EO are recommended.

The correlation analysis, using Pearson’s correlation coefficients, showed a strong positive correlation between all tested antioxidant assays.

Based on all previously mentioned remarks, our Hypothesis No. 3, which claims that “EO of A. javanica (leaves and flowers) has good antioxidant activity (in vitro)” is scietifically approved. The same supports and justifies scientifically the fact that this shrub has rich traditional applications in the folk medicine.

Further in vitro and in vivo studies related to the biological activity of A. javanica EO, like antibacterial and anti-inflammatory, including extracting roots’,

202 stems’ and seeds’ oil, are required. Also, identification and isolation of the bioactive compounds of A. javanica EO are crucially needed.

4.4 Hypothesis No. 4 Outcomes: EO of Cleome amblyocarpa

This section illustrates and discusses the results of all conducted experiments to test Hypothesis No. 4, which claims that growth, yield, morpho-physiological parameters and EO yield of the C. amblyocarpa, grown in sandy soils under the UAE natural arid conditions, are significantly affected by the watering factor. Besides, C. amblyocarpa EO act as a good source of natural phytochemicals. At the end of this section, the most important remarks and conclusion would be provided.

It worth mentioning that, no data available in the literature regarding C. amblyocarpa EO, and this work provides the first insights about the same under different tested watering conditions and under natural arid conditions of the UAE.

4.4.1 Seeds Germination Parameters

The germination test showed low germination percentage (35.0 ± 18.7%) as illustrated in Figure 34. Based on the results shown in Table 31, the germination started

(FDG) from 2.83 ± 0.75 days and the last day germination (LDG) was occurred on the

5.0 ± 1.78 day. The GI, which emphasizes on both the percentage and speed of germination, was 226.66 ± 78.40, showing a low record for the percentage and speed of germination. The result of the GRI was 9.44 ± 4.15 %/day reflecting a low and slow germination. TSG result was 2.0 ± 1.78 day, showing a small difference in the germination speed between the ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ germinated seeds (Kader, 2005).

Although the germination test was conducted between 20 to 25○C temperature, which was optimum temperature range according to the experiment done by Tlig et al.

(2012), however the germination percentage obtained by this work was lower in

203 comparison to their work. This could be due to some fungus growth or attack prior conducting the experiment, or could be due to insufficient storage conditions of the seeds.

Since wild desert seeds tend to have low germination percentages, the obtained results are justified. The low germination percentages of the desert plants act as a water scarcity adaptation mechanism required to survive drought conditions and conserve the species availability (El-Keblawy et al., 2011; Shahin and Salem, 2016b).

100

R1 80 R2 60 R3

40 R4

R5 20

R6 Germination Percentage Percentage (%) Germination

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time (Days)

Figure 34: The trend of seeds germination percentages of C. amblyocarpa

Table 31: The tested parameters of seeds germination of C. amblyocarpa

Parameters of Seeds Germination (Mean ± SD)

FGP (%) FDG (day) LDG (day) GI GRI (%/day) TSG (day)

35.0 ± 18.7 2.83 ± 0.75 5.0 ± 1.78 226.66 ± 78.40 9.44 ± 4.15 2.0 ± 1.78

204

4.4.2 Seedling Emergence

4.4.2.1 Effect of Growing Media

Studying the influence of growing media was required to explore if there is a significant effect for the utilized growing media on the seedling emergence percentage, and if so what is the best growing media option suitable to grow C. amblyocarpa. Thus, it was of interest to explore the effect of growing media with higher soil moisture content (through the use of peat moss) or lower soil moisture content (without the use of peat moss).

Results, illustrated as a bar chart with error bars in Figure 35, show a significant effect (at 0.038 significance level) for using high composition of sandy soil on seedling emergence percentage. Showing a quick and a better performance with the result of

39.5 ± 8.9 % compared to T1 (with peat moss) with the result of 25.0 ± 18.4 %.

Growing C. amblyocarpa without peat moss enhanced the seedlings emergence percentage by 14.5%.

Soil moisture content is one of the critical factors that significantly affects the germination of desert plants which occurs only when conditions are optimal for a certain crop species (El-Keblawy et al., 2011). C. amblyocarpa has wholly tomentose seed-coat (or testa) surface, which preserves high moisture around the seed. Thus, the low amount of the moisture content (without the use of peat moss) was enough to obtain the best seedlings emergence percentage, while the high amount of the moisture content (with the use of peat moss) caused negative effect on the seedlings emergence percentage. Thus, for best results it is recommended to use a growing media with higher amounts of sandy soils. The result is consistent with the fact that this herb is common and wide spread in the sandy soils and rocky habitats.

205

100 90 80 70 60 50 a With Peat Moss 39.5±8.9 40 b Without Peat Moss 25.0±18.4 30 20

Seedling Emergence Seedling Emergence Percentage (%) 10 0 Growing Media

Figure 35: The influence of growing media on seedlings emergence percentages

4.4.2.2 Effect of Seed Color

Results, illustrated as bar chart with error bars in Figure 36, show a significant effect (at 0.011 significance level) for using dark brown to black color seeds, which performed better (with mean result of 39.0 ± 8.2 %) comparing to the light brown seeds

(with mean result of 19.0 ± 10.8 %) on seedling emergence percentage. Using dark brown to black seeds enhanced the seedlings emergence percentage by 20%. An explanation could be that light brown seeds are not completely mature, which turns into darker color when it becomes fully mature. Thus, it is recommended to use dark brown seeds to propagate C. amblyocarpa.

206

100 90 80 70 60 50 a Light Brown 39.0±8.2 40 Dark Brown b 30 19.0±10.8 20 10

Seedling Emergence Seedling Emergence Percentage (%) 0 Seed Color

Figure 36: The influence of seeds color on seedlings emergence percentages

4.4.3 Soil Water Retention Characteristics (pF Curve)

Based on the results obtained from the pressure plate extractor, the mean moisture content (θ) percentages of the randomly tested soil samples with their standard deviations (SDs) were calculated as illustrated in Table 32. Each 0.1 MPa is equivalent to a matric potential (Ψ) of 1000 cm, and the log of the Ψ is the pF value.

The results were used to draw soil water retention curve (pF curve) as shown in Figure 37. Also, results were used to draw the soil hydraulic properties using RETC software as illustrated in Figure 38 and 39. At 0.01 MPa (pF: 2) the FC, corresponding to moisture content of 9.49 ± 1.6%, was recorded, while at 1.6 MPa (pF: 4.2) the permanent wilting point (PWP), corresponding to moisture content of 5.99 ± 0.5%, was recorded. Our results are similar to other pF curves of the sandy soil found in the literature (Tuller and Or, 2004), which has a sharp slope in comparison to other soil textures (e.g., loamy and clayey). Therefore, maintaining irrigating regimes of sandy soils within FC range is a challenging task, while slightly reduction in watering amount

207 can cause huge variation in the pF level, thus can be easily within the range of PWP that associated with losing plant material.

Based on the obtained pF curve, applying daily different water pF levels with a moisture contents range between the FC (9.49%) and PWP (5.99%) were practically unfeasible. Thus, watering by applying the same FC amount based on three different irrigation regimes was the best option to create three different water pF levels, which justify the implementation of different watering regimes in this experiment.

Studying the soil water retention through the pF curve and referring the results to the pF water stress levels is a potential tool, which is based on the fact that the same pF levels can be applied to any soil, and the obtained results can be generalized by referring the same to the corresponding pF levels, regardless of the nature of the utilized soil texture.

Table 32: Soil moisture contents and pF at certain pressures

Pressure (MPa) Moisture Content (%) Ψ (cm) pF

Mean ± SD

0 43.428 ± 1.8 0 0.00

0.01 9.498 ± 1.6 100 2.00

0.03 8.768 ± 1.1 300 2.48

0.05 7.7198 ± 0.5 500 2.70

0.1 8.189 ± 1.0 1000 3.00

0.2 7.640 ± 1.1 2000 3.30

0.3 7.205 ± 0.8 3000 3.48

1.5 6.983 ± 0.7 15000 4.18

1.6 5.995 ± 0.5 16000 4.20

208

6.00

5.00 PWP 4.00

3.00 pF FC 2.00

1.00

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 Soil Moisture Content (%)

Figure 37: The soil water retention curve (pF curve)

Figure 38: Soil hydraulic properties by RETC software

209

Figure 39: The soil matric potential versus soil moisture content by RETC software

4.4.4 The pF Levels of the Irrigation Regimes

4.4.4.1 Results Obtained by Stevens pF Sensors

The recorded pF results are illustrated in Table 33. Since, temperature is a factor affecting the measurements of the Stevens sensors, their temperatures also recorded. The lowest pF value (which was 1.721743 ± 0.090234) was recorded in the lowest water stress treatment group (T1: Control group), while the moderate (1.903447

± 0.050497) and the highest (2.108818 ± 0.184041) pF values were recorded in the moderate (T2) and severe (T3) water stress treatment, respectively.

Results of sensors’ temperatures (Table 33) were consistent with the recorded pF results, in which the lowest temperature (24.21 ± 8.64○C) was recorded in the

○ lowest water stress treatment (T1: Control group), while the moderate (25.39 ± 9.16 C)

○ and the highest (26.06 ± 9.67 C) temperatures were recorded in the moderate (T2) and severe (T3) water stress treatment, respectively.

210

Applying the pF mean levels on the previously drawn soil water retention curve

(pF curve) are illustrated in Figure 40, while Figure 41 demonstrates the change of the three pF levels over time. Based on the recorded pF results all the applied water stress treatments (T1, T2, T3) were approximately in the FC range, and the terms used for each of the water treatments meant to describe and compare between each of them.

Table 33: The watering treatments and the measured pF levels

Watering Treatment pF Sensor Temperature (○C)

(Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD)

Control: Low water stress (T1) 1.721743 ± 0.090234 24.21 ± 8.64

Moderate water stress (T2) 1.903447 ± 0.050497 25.39 ± 9.16

High water stress (T3) 2.108818 ± 0.184041 26.06 ± 9.67

6.00

5.00

4.00

3.00 pF

2.00 T2

T1 1.00

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 Soil Moisture Content (%)

Figure 40: The pF levels of the applied three treatments

211

2.5

2 Low water stress

Moderate water stress

1.5 pF High water stress

0.5

0 1

97 Time (days)

289 193 385 481 577 673 769 865 961

2017 1057 1153 1249 1345 1441 1537 1633 1729 1825 1921 Figure 41: The change of pF level over time by Stevens Sensors

15 Low Stress Moderate Stress

10 High Stress Soil Moisture Moisture Soil Content (%)

0 Time (Days)

Figure 42: The change of the soil moisture content over time by TDR

212

4.4.4.2 Results Obtained by TDR

The recorded soil moisture content percentages obtained by the TDR are shown in Table 34. The highest moisture content (14.083 ± 4.128) was recorded in the low water stress treatment (T1: Control group), followed by the moderate treatment group

(T2: 12.067 ± 3.846) and the high water stress group (T3: 9.386 ± 4.642), respectively.

The change of soil moisture content (%) over time, measured by TDR, is illustrated in

Figure 42. Results obtained by the TDR were slightly higher than the moisture contents corresponding to the measured pF levels obtained by Stevens Sensors (Figure 40), which could be due to curve fitting. Also, it is well-known that measurements using

Stevens Sensors are very accurate in comparison to other tools.

Table 34: Measured soil moisture content for each watering treatment by TDR

Watering Treatment Soil Moisture Content (%)

(Mean ± SD)

Control: Low water stress (T1) 14.083 ± 4.128

Moderate water stress (T2) 12.067 ± 3.846

High water stress (T3) 9.386 ± 4.642

4.4.5 Effect of pF Levels on Vegetative Growth Parameter

An overview about the effect of pF level on C. amblyocarpa growth is shown in Figure 43 and 44. The results illustrated in Table 35 showed that water pF level affected the main number of branches significantly (at 0.014 significance level).

According to the Tukey HSD test, the effect was particularly significant between the low (control) and high pF treatments at 0.014 significance level, meaning that the main branches number per plant decreased significantly with the severity of water deficit.

Our results are in agreement with previous findings showing that more water

213 availability contributes to better photosynthesis, plant growth and thus higher biomass production (Dunford and Vasquez, 2005; Shao et al., 2008). On the other hand, the decreasing of the pF level slightly enhanced the lengths of plants and roots, without showing any statistically significant effects on the same. It was noticed that leaves area

(collected from a middle position of the plant) were slightly reduced with the increase of drought stress. Drought stress is well known to reduce cell elongation and enlargement, and consequently diminish growth (Cheruth et al., 2009). As a defense and water use efficiency mechanism, water stress leads to smaller leaf area. Results are in agreement with other results available in the literature (Simon et al., 1992; Laribi et al., 2009; Tátrai et al., 2016). Water stress was reported to enhance the roots’ length to promote root absorption capacity and sustain plant growth, which was not noticed in this experiment (Tátrai et al., 2016). An explanation could be that C. amblyocarpa follows different mechanisms to adapt to drought stress (e.g., enhancing fruits production to end the life cycle) rather than enhancing roots growth.

Table 35: Influence of pF levels on vegetative growth parameters

Treatments Length of plants (cm) Number of branches Length of roots (cm)

(Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD)

Control (T1) 14.4 ± 1.9 6.3 ± 1.8* 9.4 ± 3.0

Moderate (T2) 13.45 ± 1.7 5.8 ± 1.2 8.9 ± 2.0

Severe (T3) 13.23 ± 1.9 4.1 ± 1.7* 7.9 ± 2.2

(*) means significant at <0.05 significance level.

214

High Water Stress Level Low pF: 2.1 pF: 1.9 pF: 1.7

Figure 43: Effect of water stress on the vegetative growth

Low Water Stress Level High pF: 1.7 pF: 1.9 pF: 2.1

Figure 44: Effect of water stress on the whole plant growth

215

4.4.6 Effect of pF Levels on Vegetative Yields

The results of yields (fresh and dry weights basis) of each treatment (T1: Low water stress (control group) at pF 1.7, T2: Moderate water stress at pF 1.9, T3: High water stress at pF 2.1) represented with their SDs and error bars are shown in Figures

45, 46, and 47. Figure 45 represents the yields of each treatment excluding the fruits’ yields, which are shown separately in Figure 46, while Figure 47 represents the total yields including fruits. The DM % was 42.2% at pF 1.7 (lowest applied water stress

(control group)) followed by 43.63% at pF 1.9 (moderate applied water stress) and

53.259% at pF 2.1 (highest applied water stress), respectively.

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 45 and Figure 46) showed a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05) for the water stress level on the yields of the harvested plants and their fruits (fresh and dry weight basis) (illustrated in Figure 47). As shown in Figure 45 and Figure 46, the highest yield obtained from low water stress treatment

(control group), followed by moderate and high, respectively. These results are similar to other studies in the literature (Laribi et al., 2009; Rahbarian et al., 2011). While as shown in Figure 47, the highest fruits yield obtained from the moderate water stress treatment, followed by low (control) and high, respectively. Based on the results, the low water stress level (control) has a significant enhancing effect on the overall vegetative growth yield, while the first level of the drought stress (moderate stress) enhances the ability and efficiency of the plants to produce more fruits, which reduced with the second level of further drought stress (severe stress). It is worth mentioning that the life cycle of C. amblyocarpa belongsto the therophytes (Mahmoud, 2010), in which the fruiting is an adaptation mechanism to drought stress, and if the growing conditions are unfavourable, the plant survives by seeds only. The same justifies the annual availability of this plant during the precipitation season only (winter season).

216

The results of Tukey HSD test of vegetative yield excluding fruits (Figure 45) showed that the fresh treatments of the high water stress, with low (control) and moderate water stress treatments, have significant variations at 0.002 and 0.013, respectively. While, dry treatments of high water stress with low (control) and moderate water stress treatments have significant variations at .001 and 0.013, respectively.

Results of Tukey HSD test of fruits yield showed a significant difference between the moderate water stress treatment and the high water stress treatment on fresh and dry weight basis at 0.025 and 0.024 significance levels, respectively (Figure

46). Fruits yield increased at the first level of the drought stress and significantly reduced with the second level of further drought stress. The explanation could be that

C. amblyocarpa is an annual desert plant (Mahmoud, 2010) which is sensitive to water stress. Once this herb subjected to the first level of drought stress it will enhance quickly the fruits yield attempting to produce the highest possible fruits that will increase the probabilities to conserve the availability of this herb for the next favourable season and conditions. However, with the further drought stress the plant will be forced to reduce the growth parameters to adjust the osmotic potential, which will consequently reduce the overall yield including the fruits, and the same was noticed with the second level of drought stress.

The results of Tukey HSD test of the overall vegetative yield including fruits

(Figure 47) showed that fresh treatments of high water stress with low (control) and moderate water stress treatments have significant variations at .002 and 0.006, respectively. While, the dry treatments of the high water stress with low (control) and moderate water stress treatments have significant variations at 0.001 and 0.003, respectively. The previously observed significant difference of the water stress on the

217 number of branches affected the overall yield. As the water stress increased, the main branches’ numbers decreased and, thus, the overall yield decreased. The findings were consistent with previous studies in which drought conditions reduce cell elongation and enlargement, and consequently reduce vegetative growth parameters and plant yields (Ashraf and Akhtar, 2004; Ashraf and Orooj, 2006; Kim et al., 2007; Cheruth et al., 2009; Jday et al., 2016).

80 a 70 55.88±11.567 a 60 45.88±4.042

40 b 21.27±1.323 Fresh Weight a 30 a 21.61±3.259 Dry Weight 17.50±1.154 20 b 10.19±1.302

Total Yield TotalYield excluding (gm) fruits 10

0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 45: The influence of water stress on yield, excluding fruits

218

15 a 11.52±1.54 13

11 a 8.41±0.60 9 7.55±0.73 b 5.56±1.12 7 b 5.58±0.18 Fresh Weight 4.1±0.87

5 Dry Weight Fruits Fruits Yield (gm) 3

-1 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 46: The influence of water stress on fruits yield

90 a 80 64.30±12.51 a 57.40±2.42 70 60 50 b a 26.84±3.04 40 a Fresh Weights 27.19±3.11 25.05±0.76 30 b Dry Weights 20 14.29±2.39

Total Yield TotalYield IncludingFruits (gm) 10 0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 47: The influence of water stress on the total yield

Insights on the results of the indicators showed a significant difference (P <

0.05) for the water stress level on the roots (dry weight basis) and leaves yield (fresh and dry weight basis) of the harvested plants as illustrated in Figures 48 and 49.

219

Similarly, the severity of water stress decreased the stems yield (fresh and dry weight basis) without showing a statistically significant difference (Figure 50). Although, water stress did not cause significant variation on the stems yield, however the same was gradually reduced while increasing water severity.

The results of Tukey HSD test of the indicators’ roots and leaves yields (Figure

48 and 50) showed that roots yield (dry weight basis) of low water stress (control) with the moderate and high water stress have significant variations at 0.001 and <0.0005, respectively. While leaves yield (fresh weight basis) of high water stress with low

(control) and moderate water stress treatment have significant variations at 0.001 and

0.004, respectively, leaves yield (dry weight basis) of high water stress with low water stress treatment (control) has a significant variation at 0.013 significance level.

Based on the results obtained from the indicator pots, the severity of water stress decreased vegetative growth parameters. The results were consistent with previous studies (Babaee et al., 2010; Cheruth et al., 2009; Bolat et al., 2014; Tátrai et al., 2016; Jday et al., 2016). Drought stress induces different plant morphological changes, which are critical to respond and adapt to drought stress (e.g. decline in growth rate).

Studies reported that drought stress enhances roots growth as an adaptive mechanism to enhance soil water uptake by the plant. However, the adaptation mechanisms to drought stress greatly varied between plant species (Cheruth et al.,

2009). The findings of this experiment showed that the treatment group subjected to the severest water stress did not respond to water stress by enhancing roots growth, which supports that this plant is sensitive to water stress, and as an adaptation mechanism it can survive the drought conditions by seeds only.

220

0.25 0.188±0.217

0.2

0.15 a 0.077±0.023 0.096±0.033 0.072±0.030 Fresh Weight 0.1 b b Dry Weight 0.048±0.020 0.048±0.020

0.05 Roots Yield RootsYield of theIndicator Pot (gm)

0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 48: The influence of water stress on roots yield

0.9 0.722±0.379 0.8 0.609±0.357 0.7 0.6 0.477±0.235 0.5 0.4 Fresh Weight 0.284±0.124 0.3 0.229±0.131 Dry Weight 0.200±0.102 0.2

0.1 Stems Stems Yield the of Indicator Pot (gm) 0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 49: The influence of water stress on stems yield

221

2.5 a a 1.672±0.521 2 1.566±0.392

1.5 b 0.922±0.280 a Fresh Weight 1 0.709±0.248 0.639±0.202 b Dry Weight 0.395±0.231 0.5

Leaves Leaves yieldof the Indicator Pot (gm) 0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 50: The influence of water stress on leaves yield

4.4.7 Effect of pF Levels on Physiological Parameters

4.4.7.1 Chlorophyll (A, B, and Total)

The results’ mean of chlorophyll A, B, and total chlorophyll content for C. amblyocarpa are presented in Figure 51 with their SDs and error bars. The highest values, recorded at the moderate water stress, were 0.474, 0.214, and 0.692 mg/g for chlorophyll A, B, and total, respectively. While the lowest values, recorded at the control group, were 0.214, 0.136, and 0.346 mg/g for chlorophyll A, B, and total, respectively. Chlorophyll values were similar to other annual desert plants found in the literature (Salama et al., 2011).

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 51) showed a significant difference

(at <0.0005, 0.001 and <0.0005) for the water stress on the chlorophyll content A, B, and total, respectively. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups by Tukey

HSD test showed significant variations of chlorophyll A for the control group at

<0.0005 and 0.008 significance level with the moderate and the high water stress

222 treatment, respectively. Also, variations of the chlorophyll A content between moderate and high water stress were significant at 0.025 significance level. While, variations of chlorophyll B for the control group was only significant at 0.001 significance level with the moderate water stress treatment. Variations of the total chlorophyll for the control group were significant at <0.0005 and 0.005 significance level with the moderate and the high water stress treatment, respectively. Also, variations of the total chlorophyll content between moderate and high water stress were significant at 0.011 significance level.

The highest chlorophyll content of the moderate drought stress supports our previously shown result related to fruits production, which was the highest in the moderate treatment. C. amblyocarpa adapt to water stress by producing more fruits to complete the life cycle and survive the harsh conditions annually by seeds only. The lowest chlorophyll contents at low water stress (control group) could be a result of the dilution effect, which is due to a bigger leaf area in comparison to other treatments. It worth mentioning that the abiotic stress has been reported to reduce both biosynthesis and chlorophyll content due to enhances the production of reactive oxygen species

- (ROS) (e.g., O2 and H2O2) that can lead to lipid peroxidation and thus chlorophyll degradation (Salama et al., 2011). However, in this work the chlorophyll content increased significantly with the first level of drought stress and reduced with further drought stress.

The explanation could be that C. amblyocarpa is an annual desert plant

(Mahmoud, 2010) which is sensitive to drought stress and categorized as drought- escaping plants. The main characteristic of such plants is their ability to complete their life cycle within one growing season (Al-Tawaha et al., 2017).

223

Once this herb subjected to the first level of drought stress, it will significantly increase the chlorophyll content to be able to quickly enhance photosynthesis and the fruiting production. This was a crucial step to yield the highest possible seeds that will increase the probabilities to conserve the availability of this herb for the next favourable conditions.

However, with the further drought stress, the plant will be forced to reduce significantly the growth parameters to adjust the osmotic potential, which will consequently reduce the chlorophyll content, and the same was noticed with the second level of drought stress. The observed decreasing in the photosynthesis pigments during the severe drought stress treatment is in agreement with other studies (Cheruth et al.,

2009).

Another explanation could be that under normal conditions of watering (control group) the nitrogen content will be high in the lower leaves. However, with the induction of water stress, the nitrogen content will be transported from the lower leaves to the mid leaves, which will increase the chlorophyll content in comparison to the control group. With further water stress, the nitrogen that will be released from the lower to the mid leaves will be decreased, causing a significant reduction in the chlorophyll content.

224

Chlorophyll A Chlorophyll B Total Chlorophyll 1 0.9 a 0.8 0.692±0.03 0.7 0.6 a 0.528±0.03 0.474±0.02 0.5 b b 0.356±0.02 0.4 0.346±0.02 c a 0.3 0.214±0.02 0.214±0.01 b 0.176±0.00 Chlorophyll Chlorophyll Content (mg/g) 0.2 0.136±0.006 7 0.1 0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3

Water Stress Treatments

Figure 51: The influence of water stress on chlorophyll content

4.4.7.2 Carotenoids Content

Results of the carotenoids are presented in Figure 52 with their SDs and error

bars. In comparison with the control, the highest value, recorded at the moderate water

stress, 0.254 mg/g, followed by 0.474 mg/g for high water stress. Obtained

carotenoids results were similar to other annual desert plants found in the literature

(Salama et al., 2011).

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 52) showed a significant difference

(P=0.001) for the water stress on carotenoids content. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups showed significant variations between the control and the moderate stress treatment at 0.001 significance level. Also, variations between the moderate and the high stress treatment found significant at 0.028 significance level.

225 assembly of the light-harvesting complex and in the dissipation of excess energy

(Hencl and Cebeci, 2014). Therefore, their accumulation in the treatment groups subjected to drought stress was increased in comparison with the control group.

During the first level of drought stress, the plant significantly increased the production of carotenoids to be able to capture the highest solar energy that will quickly enhance photosynthesis and the fruiting production. Similar to other annual drought-escaping plants, C. amblyocarpa will attempt to end its life cycle with the inception of the water stress (Al-Tawaha et al., 2017). To do so and as an adaptation mechanism to the water limitation, it was necessary to yield the highest possible fruits and seeds through increasing the production of the carotenoids that will increase photosynthesis, photoprotection, and the probability of conserving the availability of this herb for the next favourable conditions.

However, with additional drought stress, the plant will be forced to reduce significantly the growth parameters to adjust the osmotic potential, which will consequently reduce the carotenoids content significantly, and the same was noticed with the second level of drought stress. The observed decreasing in the photosynthesis pigments during the treatment of the severe water stress is in agreement with other studies (Cheruth et al., 2009).

Another explanation could be that, under normal watering conditions (control group) the nitrogen content will be high in the lower leaves. However, with the induction of water stress, the nitrogen content will be transported from the lower leaves to the mid leaves, which will increase the carotenoids content in comparison to the control group. With further water stress, the nitrogen that will be released from the lower to the mid leaves will be decreased, causing a significant reduction in the carotenoids content.

226

0.35 a 0.3 0.254±0.040 b 0.25 0.191±0.036 b 0.2 0.149±0.017

0.15

0.1

Carotenoids Content (mg/g) 0.05

0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 52: The influence of water stress on carotenoids content

4.4.7.3 Proline Content

Results of the proline are presented in Figure 53 with their SDs and error bars.

In comparison with the control, the highest proline value, recorded at the moderate water stress, 2.61 μg/ml, followed by 2.109 μg/ml for high water stress.

Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 53) showed a significant difference

(P=0.003) for the water stress on proline content. Analysis of multiple comparisons between groups showed significant variations between the control and the moderate stress treatment at 0.002 significance level.

Proline is a good indicator of water stress (Mahalingam, 2015). According to

Salama et al. (2011) the possible causes of proline synthesis increasing are as follow: first, stimulation of proline production from glutamic acids, which has been reported to be dependent on the abscisic acid concentration; second, inhibition of protein production, and third inhibition of proline oxidation to other soluble compounds.

Therefore, proline plays a crucial role to protect cells against damage induced by water

227 stress. Additionally, Jaleel et al. (2007) and Al Muhairi et al. (2015) declared that during drought stress the enhancing in proline production is required to supply energy for growth and survival, which consequently supports the plant to tolerate stress.

Meaning that proline accumulation might act as a scavenger and osmolytes.

Based on the results, proline content of the leaves were significantly increased with the first level of drought stress as a protective mechanism against water stress promoted peroxidative process. During water stress, the organic compounds required for osmotic adjustment (e.g., proline and soluble sugars) will be increased, and our findings are in agreement with other studies (Zhou et al., 2011; Salama et al., 2011;

Hencl and Cebeci, 2014; Ajithkumar and Panneerselvam, 2014; Al Muhairi et al.,

2015). However, with further drought stress, the capability of the plant protection against the oxidative stress will be restricted, especially that the plant is following the drought-escaping mechanism to end it is life cycle, thus the proline synthesis will be reduced.

3.5 a 2.610±0.609

3 ) 2.109±0.181

2.5 g/ml

μ b 2 1.449±0.352

1.5

1 ProlineContent ( 0.5

0 Control1 Moderate2 Severe3 Water Stress Treatments

Figure 53: The influence of water stress on proline content

228

4.4.8 Effect of pF on EO Yield

4.4.8.1 Quantitative Analysis

This is the first time C. amblyocarpa EO is extracted. The extract has a waxy nature with a yellowish color and characteristic smell (similar to the fresh plant’s smell). Results of the water stress experiment done on C. amblyocarpa showed that average EO yield ranged from 0.0221% (at moderate water stress treatment, pF: 1.9) to 0.0835% (at high water stress treatment, pF: 2.1). EO yield at low water stress (at pF: 1.7) was 0.0264% (Figure 54).

Although, results of the statistical analysis show no significant effect for the water stress (at measured pF levels) on essential oil yield. However, samples subjected to high water stress (pF 2.1) showed a significant positive effect on essential oil yield.

Reviewing the literature, there is a positive correlation between water stress and essential oil yield, similar to obtained results in this work (Laribi et al., 2009; Tátrai et al., 2016). A good explanation could be that the water stress leads to higher oil glands density in the epidermal tissues associated with leaf area reduction, and thus higher essential oil yield (Tátrai et al., 2016). It could be concluded from the results that the level of soil moisture content at moderate water stress (pF 1.9) was optimal for tested physiological parameters, and the lowest essential oil yield is a supportive evidence.

While severe water stress found to be optimal for the highest essential oil yield. It is recommended that the wholly tomentose leaves and the hairy fruits (including the wholly hairy seeds) are the important bearing parts of EO.

229

0.09 a 0.0835 0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04 b 0.03 0.0264 b 0.0221 0.02

Essential Oil Yield (%) YieldOil Essential 0.01

0 Low Stress Moderate Stress High Stress Water Stress Level

Figure 54: Effect of water stress on C. amblyocarpa EO (whole plant oil)

4.4.8.2 Qualitative Analysis by GC-MS

The chromatogram results for the whole herb (including the fruits) subjected to different water stress treatments are illustrated in Figures 75, 76, and 77. The composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water stress is shown in

Table 36.

At low water stress (pF 1.7), 27 volatile components were identified representing 99.99% of total volatiles. The major components were isobornyl formate

(43.9%), tetrahydro-linalool acetate (7.45%), neo-menthyl acetate (5.8%), 1-dodecene

(4.82%) and γ-elemene (4.8%). The oil at low water stress was characterized by isobornyl formate, which is a food flavoring agents described to have a camphor, earthy and green flavor, according to the Flavor & Extract Manufacturers Association

(FEMA) and EU Food Improvement Agents.

At moderate water stress (pF 1.9), 20 volatile components were identified representing 100% of total volatiles. The major components were trans-chrysanthenyl

230 acetate (38.6%), tetrahydro-linalool acetate (6.32%), verbenone (5.86%) and γ- elemene (5.66%).

At high water stress (pF 2.1), 17 compounds were representing 99.99% of total volatiles. The main components were (e)-ocimenone (39.66%), γ-elemene (8.3%), methyl eugenol (7.41%), cis-chrysanthenyl acetate (7.12%) and tetrahydro-linalool acetate (7.1%). As declared by Preedy (2015) (e)-ocimenone has applications in the flavors and fragrance industry.

Similar to other studies (Laribi et al., 2009) different water stress regimes lead to significant change in the chemical profile and the quality of the extracted oil. At different pF levels, the oil was characterized by different chemical profile.

C. amblyocarpa is a promising source of phytochemicals with particular interest in the flavour and fragrance industry. The results are consistent with previous studies, which are supporting the value of the herbal extract of this plant as a source of flavonoids (Bouriche et al., 2003; Bouriche and Arnhold, 2010). Also, obtained results may contribute to clarify the use of this herb in folk medicine.

231

Table 36: Composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Low (Control) Moderate Severe

1 2-Acetyl pyridine 8.856 1028 0.61 ------

2 Camphenilone 10.704 1078 0.71 ------

3 dimethyl acetal Benzaldehyde 11.898 1109 2.1 ------

4 trans-Pinocarveol 13.000 1135 0.96 ------

5 2Z-Nonenol 14.172 1162 0.46 ------

6 α-Terpineol 15.227 1186 --- 3.83 3.23

7 1-Dodecene 15.256 1187 4.82 ------

8 Verbenone 15.973 1204 1.25 5.86 5.18

9 2E-Octenol acetate 16.171 1208 2.31 1.78 1.64

10 Coahuilensol methyl ether 16.672 1219 1.45 3.57 3.05

11 Tetrahydro-linalool acetate 17.121 1231 7.45 6.32 7.10

12 (E)-Ocimenone 17.331 1235 ------39.66

231

232

Table 36: Composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Low (Control) Moderate Severe

13 Isobornyl formate 17.383 1235 43.89 38.66 ---

14 Carvone 17.535 1239 ------3.22

15 Hexyl isovalerate 17.546 1241 --- 3.24 ---

16 Perilla ketone 17.774 1245 1.26 ------

17 (Z)-Cinnamyl alcohol 18.362 1259 --- 1.64 ---

18 (4E)-Decen-1-ol 18.368 1259 1.81 ------

19 cis-Chrysanthenyl acetate 18.526 1261 ------7.12

20 o-Guaiacol acetate 18.537 1261 --- 5.41 ---

21 dec-9en-1-ol 18.543 1263 4.48 ------

22 Citronellyl formate 18.910 1271 --- 4.83 ---

23 neo-menthyl Acetate 18.922 1271 5.8 ------

24 δ-Octalactone 19.138 1276 1.59 ------

25 Carvacrol 20.163 1298 0.86 ------

232

233

Table 36: Composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Low (Control) Moderate Severe

26 trans-dihydro-α-Terpinyl acetate 20.233 1300 ------2.53

27 2-Undecanol 20.245 1301 1.78 2.74 ---

28 6-hydroxy-Carvotanacetone 20.636 1309 ------1.07

29 Iosamyl benzyl ether 20.653 1310 0.95 0.94 ---

30 neo-Verbanol acetate 21.067 1319 0.45 ------

31 (2e,4e)-Decadienol 21.073 1319 --- 1.11 ---

32 δ-Elemene 21.860 1335 ------3.77

33 Evodone 21.865 1337 1.98 2.83 ---

34 Butyl butyryl lactate 22.617 1353 ------0.96

35 (z)-α-Damascone 22.635 1355 --- 1.03 ---

36 Eugenol 22.699 1356 0.46 ------

37 trans-Mentholactone 23.358 1371 ------3.31

38 trans-p-Mentha-8-thiol-3-one 23.369 1371 2.03 ------

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234

Table 36: Composition of C. amblyocarpa EO at different treatments of water (continued) Percent Composition (%)

No. Compound RT RI Low (Control) Moderate Severe

39 Longicyclene 23.375 1371 --- 2.84 ---

40 α-Isocomene 24.069 1387 ------1.34

41 (Z)-Cinnamyl acetate 24.086 1388 0.78 1.36 ---

42 methyl Eugenol 24.762 1403 ------7.41

43 Methyl-cresol acetate 24.774 1403 4.4 5.45 ---

44 β-Cedrene 25.427 1419 ------1.10

45 β-Ylangene 25.438 1419 0.55 0.90 ---

46 γ-Elemene 26.091 1434 4.8 5.66 8.30

234

235

4.4.9 Effect of pF on Leaf Epidermis by SEM

The SEM photos of the leaf epidermal tissue of C. amlyocarpa (abaxial view) showed the morphological variations under the three pF levels (Figures 55 to 61). The wholly tomentose leaves show the formation of one kind of glandular trichomes (GTs).

GTs indicating thero-tolerance by dissipating heat from the surface of the leaf, which is a natural adaptation mechanism for desert plants in the arid regions. Also, GTs are suspended to produce secondary metabolites (e.g. EO). Different features for water stress adaptation mechanisms are formed, such as the sparsely distributed sunken stomata (SS) and the formation of epicuticular wax (ECW).

The influence of low water stress (pF 1.7) is shown in Figures 55 and 58. In

Figure 58, two drops of essential oils are shown at same low water stress level. The influence of moderate stress treatment (pF 1.9) is illustrated in Figures 56 and 59.

While the influence of high -stress treatment is illustrated in Figures 57 and 60. The

SEM photos of the samples subjected to different water pF levels show some morphological variations, especially in the case of high water stress (pF 2.1). The decomposition of the epidermis cells is shown in Figure 57, while some glandular trichomes found collapsed and broken under high water stress (pF 2.1) (Figure 61).

These morphological variations are due to water stress, and similar results are available in the literature (Simonneau et al., 2017). Under high stress, the plant tends to lower the leaf surface area as a mechanism to adjust the osmotic potential and to enhance water use efficiency. As a defense and survival mechanism, the production of essential oil from glandular trichomes increase to reach an intolerable level that causes collapsing and damaging for such glandulars.

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Figure 55: C. amblyocarpa under low water stress (pF 1.7)

Figure 56: C. amblyocarpa under moderate water stress (pF 1.9)

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Broken GT

Particulate

Epidermis decomposition

Figure 57: C. amblyocarpa under high water stress (pF 2.1)

Figure 58: C. amblyocarpa EO at low water stress (pF 1.7)

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ECW GT

GT Opening

Figure 59: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at low water stress (pF 1.7)

ECW

Figure 60: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at moderate water stress (pF 1.9)

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Broken GT

SS GT

Broken GT

Figure 61: Glandular trichomes of C. amblyocarpa at high water stress (pF 2.1)

4.4.10 Remarks and Conclusions

The desert annual C. amblyocarpa has low germination rates in which the seedlings emergence percentages were significantly improved by 14.5% and 20% using growing media with high sandy soil content and dark brownish seeds color, respectively. It is required to examine the influence of seeds pre-treatment factors individual and in conjunction to enhance the final germination percentage of this potential medicinal herb.

In the sandy soils, the pF curve is a potential tool (especially, in the arid regions) to be utilized for the best understanding and measurements of soil hydraulic properties. Also, this tool is a potential to generalize the results regardless of the nature of the soil texture by referring the findings to the utilized pF levels. Based on the soil retention characteristic, the three applied irrigation regimes (pF: 1.7 (control), 1.9

(moderate stress), and 2.1 (severe stress)) reduced the overall vegetative growth

240 parameters (e.g., roots’ and plants’ height), in which the severity of drought stress reduced the number of branches significantly, which lead to a significant reduction in overall vegetative yields.

C. amblyocarpa is a sensitive desert plant to water availability, and as an adaptation mechanism to survive the drought conditions, water stress increased the fruiting and seeds yield significantly. During drought stress, the significant increase in the measurements of chlorophyll, carotenoids, and proline (measured at pF 1.9) can be good stress markers and indicators to the maximum tolerable water stress level on C. amblyocarpa life cycle.

Our results show that, increasing levels of water stress declined the different parameters of growth (height and length of roots, fresh and dry matter weight) and caused significant decreases in the number of branches and plant vegetative yield. The optimal watering level to produce the highest yield of fruits obtained at pF 1.9

(moderate water stress treatment). Water deficit increased C. amblyocarpa EO from

0.00715% (at pF: 1.9) to 0.02669% (at high water stress treatment, pF: 2.1). Different irrigation regimes caused significant variation in the quantity and quality of the extracted EO. The EO was characterized by isobornyl formate (at pF 1.7), trans- chrysanthenyl acetate (at pF 1.9) and (e)-ocimenone (at pF 2.1). High water stress level

(at pF: 2.1) caused morphological changes on the leaf epidermis represented by glandular trichomes breaking down and collapsing.

It worth mentioning that although recorded pF levels (1.7, 1.9, and 2.1) were in the range of field capacity (FC), however noticable variations (that were significant in many cases) were recorded on the vegetative growth, yield, morpho-physiological parameters and EO volatiles.

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Finally, C. amblyocarpa is a promising resource of phytochemicals with particular potential for flavour and fragrance industry, thus testing the biological activity of the extracted EO (e.g., anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-bacterial) is highly recommended.

All our obtained results of this section support our claim in Hypothesis No. 4, that growth, yield, morpho-physiological parameters and EO yield of the C. amblyocarpa, are significantly affected by the watering factor. Additionally, C. amblyocarpa EO act as a good source of natural phytochemicals (e.g., flavonoids).

4.5 Hypothesis No. 5 Outcomes: Antioxidant Activity of C. amblyocarpa

This section illustrates and discusses the results of antioxidant activity (in vitro) to test Hypothesis No. 5, which claims that EO of C. amblyocarpa (seeds and whole plant) has good antioxidant activity (in vitro); supporting it is folk therapeutic applications and offering good source of natural antioxidants. At the end of this section, the most important remarks and conclusion would be provided.

To test our hypothesis, we conducted three antioxidant assays, which are:

Actually, no data available in the literature regarding the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa EO, and this work provides the first insights about the same.

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4.5.1 Antioxidant Assays

EO antioxidant activity was measured using three common antioxidant assays, which are: DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS, to test the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa EO extracted from it is seeds and whole plant, separately. Analysis of variance (illustrated in Figure 62) showed a significant difference between the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa isolated from seeds using the three antioxidant assays (at <0.0005 significance level). Similarly, the same analysis showed a significant difference between the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa isolated from the whole plant using the three antioxidant assays (at <0.0005 significance level).

As shown in Figure 62, the highest antioxidant activity of seeds’ oil was recorded using FRAP assay (3.664±0.074 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by DPPH

(2.593±0.044 mg trolox equivalent/ g) and ABTS (0.268±0.119 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively. While, the highest antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa oil (as a whole plant) was recorded using FRAP assay (9.564±0.088 mg trolox equivalent/ g), followed by DPPH (6.510±0.283 mg trolox equivalent/ g) and ABTS (1.320±0.012 mg trolox equivalent/ g), respectively.

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10 9.564±0.088 9 8 7 6.510±0.283 6 5 DPPH 3.664±0.074 FRAP 4 ABTS

Antioxidant Activity 3 2.593±0.044 (mg Trolox (mg g eq/ extract) 2 1.320±0.012 1 0.268±0.119 0 Seeds1 Whole2 Plant Plant Part

Figure 62: C. amblyocarpa EO antioxidant activity

Results of both seeds’ and whole plant EO (independently) showed the same trend using the three antioxidant assays. In which, the highest activity was recorded using FRAP > DPPH > ABTS, respectively. Therefore, applying FRAP assay to test the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa is more efficient comparing to DPPH and

ABTS, respectively.

Based on our results, around one third of the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa (as a whole plant) is obtained from it is seeds. Our conducted DPPH,

FRAP, and ABTS are all supporting this result. Consequently, it is recommended to identify the volatiles of seeds’ oil and to fractionate and isolate the active compounds, to conduct further biological activities in vitro and in vivo.

Moreover, it is interesting to explore the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa

EO isolated from it is leaves, stems, and fruits, separately. Followed by conducting comparative antioxidant studies between them.

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According to results of our previously conducted water stress experiment

(Section 4.4.8.1), water stress increased the EO yield by around four folds. Thus, increasing water stress level may significantly affects the antioxidant activity, and testing the same in future studies is recommended.

Based on our previously obtained GC-MS results of C. amblyocarpa EO (under normal watering conditions to field capacity), the major components were: isobornyl formate (43.9%), tetrahydro-linalool acetate (7.45%), neo-menthyl acetate (5.8%), 1- dodecene (4.82%) and γ-elemene (4.8%). The oil was characterized by isobornyl formate, which is a food flavoring agents described to have a camphor, earthy and green flavor, according to the Flavor & Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) and EU Food Improvement Agents. It is expected that isobornyl formate has positive contribution to the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa.

Reviewing the literature, our antioxidant results of C. amblyocarpa EO are in agreement with other antioxidant activities reported from the same family

(Cleomaceae). For example, Cleome droserifolia EO, isolated from shoots by hydrodistillation, reported to show antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against gram positive bacteria (G+: Micrococcus luteus) and gram negative bacteria (G-:

Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium). The reported biological activity was linked to the high percentages of major bioactive groups, like monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (Muhaidat et al., 2015).

Our positive antioxidant results (in vitro) for C. amblyocarpa EO justify it is traditional therapeutic applications scientifically. This herb was associated in the ethnobotanical applications with pain relieving (e.g., abdominal and rheumatic pains)

(Sakkir et al., 2012). Also, C. amblyocarpa was used to ease pains of headaches,

245 nausea, vomiting, gastralgia, and colic (Tlig et al., 2012). According to the clinical studies of Kirk et al. 2006 and Bhardwaj et al. 2009, antioxidants were significantly effective in reducing oxidative stress levels and relieving pains of chronic pancreatitis

(CP). According to Gorji (2003), reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS) have causative role in many types of headaches, and antioxidants play vital role in reducing the oxidative stress, thus headache pains.

4.5.2 Correlations between Antioxidant Assays

Our correlation analysis of antioxidant activity measured for C. amblyocarpa

EO, extracted from it seeds and whole plant, are shown in Table 37 and 38, respectively. Overall, the illustrated correlation coefficients show a strong positive relationship between results obtained from all tested antioxidant assays. Correlation coefficient of seeds’ oil found very strong (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between DPPH and FRAP. While, there was good positive correlation (at ≤ 0.01 significance level) between DPPH with ABTS, and FRAP with ABTS.

Our correlation analysis of antioxidant activity measured for C. amblyocarpa oil (extracted from whole plant) shows very strong positive relationship (significant at

≤ 0.01 significance level) between results of all tested antioxidant assays.

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Table 37: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of C.amblyocarpa seeds’ oil (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH ---- +1* +0.946 FRAP +1* ---- +0.947 ABTS +0.946 +0.947 ----

Table 38: Pearson correlation coefficients of antioxidant activity of C.amblyocarpa oil (whole plant) (n=9)

Antioxidant Assays DPPH FRAP ABTS DPPH --- +1* +1* FRAP +1* --- +1* ABTS +1* +1* ---

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4.5.3 Remarks and Conclusions

Overall, C. amblyocarpa EO, isolated from seeds and whole plant, has good antioxidant properties (in vitro) measured by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assay. The three assays showed the same trend between seeds’ and whole plant’s oil.

The highest activity was obtained using FRAP assay (whole plant’s oil: 9.5 mg trolox eq/ g extract, seeds’ oil: 3.6 mg trolox eq/ g extract), thus using the same is more efficient and better to be used comparing to DPPH and ABTS, respectively. Applying the three antioxidant assays, EO of the whole plant showed higher antioxidant activity

(by around three times) comparing to seeds’ oil.

The antioxidant activity of whole plant’s oil could be due to the high amounts of the following major volatiles: isobornyl formate, tetrahydro-linalool acetate, neo- menthyl acetate, 1-dodecene and γ-elemene. The oil was characterized by isobornyl formate, which contributes to (44%) of the oil yield, and our recorded antioxidant activity could be due to the availability of this compound. Therefore, fractionation of oil to evaluate the antioxidant activity of this compound and the rest of major compounds is recommended. Besides, conducting further antioxidant tests (in vitro) using other assays (e.g., oxygen radical absorption capacity “ORAC”) are required.

Moreover, clinical (in vivo) studies for the antioxidant activity of C. amblyocarpa EO are recommended.

The correlation analysis, using Pearson’s correlation coefficients, showed a strong positive correlation between all tested antioxidant assays.

Based on all previously mentioned remarks, our Hypothesis No. 5, which claims that “EO of C. amblyocarpa (isolated from seeds and whole plant) has good antioxidant activity (in vitro)” is scientifically approved. The same supports and

248 justifies the fact that this herb has rich therapeutic applications in the traditional herbal practices.

Therefore, the outcomes of Hypothesis No. 1, which provided a preliminary database for 135 Emirati EO-bearing plants, will include C. amblyocarpa as an additional valuable plant to the Emirati aromatic plants list that provides natural antioxidants.

Consequently, our previous claim related to the value of Hypothesis No. 5, which suggested that “in the UAE there are many EO-bearing species of rich traditional therapeutic benefits that are not studied nor justified yet scientifically” is a true statement, and C. amblyocarpa is an excellent example.

Further in vitro and in vivo studies related to the biological activity of C. amblyocarpa EO, like antibacterial and anti-inflammatory, including extracting and evaluating roots’, stems’ and leaves’ oil, are required. Also, identification and isolation of the bioactive compounds of C. amblyocarpa EO are crucially needed.

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Chapter 5: Conclusions and Future Research

In this chapter, conclusions of this Ph.D. dissertation are provided, and recommendations and further research directions are introduced.

5.1 Conclusions

In this dissertation, a database for EO-bearing plants of the UAE was presented, proofing that the UAE has a significant natural resource of such economic and industrial crops. The databank included an extensive knowledge for 135 plant species, contributing to 16.9% of the UAE wildflowers. EO-bearing plants of the UAE are belonging to 45 families. Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae are the richest families that include the highest number of species. Most of the UAE EO-bearing plants have rich traditional therapeutic benefits, plus other economic benefits (e.g., pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, aromatherapy, fragrance, and flavoring). Actually, the shoots (especially leaves and flowers) are the major parts to extract EO bioactive volatiles (e.g., terpenoids) that exhibit various potential biological activities (e.g., antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumor). In the UAE, mountains and wadis considered as the richest natural habitats for EO-bearing plants, thus required to be conserved. Serious efforts to raise awareness of landlords about the value of native and naturalized EO-bearing plants are crucially needed.

Aerva javanica is a xerophytic EO-bearing plant of the UAE that are characterized by woolly tomentose indumentum leaves and flowers. Seasonal variation lead to significant influences on tested physiological parameters, including chlorophyll content (A, B, and total), carotenoids, and proline content. The highest chlorophyll and carotenoids contents were recorded in the spring season, while the highest proline contents were recorded in the summer and winter, respectively.

250

Quantitative analysis by hydrodistillation showed significant effect for the seasonal variation on flowers’ EO yield. The best season to extract the highest EO yield (0.011%) obtained from flowers harvested in spring, followed by early summer

(0.009%) and winter (0.007%). While extracting the oil from flowers collected during the autumn period provided the lowest amount of yield (0.006%).

Qualitative analysis of flowers’ oil by GC-MS showed that 29 volatile components were identified in the flowers’ oil of spring season. The main components were angustione (20.72%), evodone (14.77%), and methyl-cresol acetate (12.49%).

While in summer, 31 volatile components were identified in the flowers’ oil. The major components were angustione (17.92%), methyl-cresol acetate (12.43%), and verbenone (11.83%). Flowers’ oil of A. javanica harvested in spring and summer were characterized by the availability of angustione as a major component. The compounds identification between the two studied seasons did not show significant variation on the identification of the major components, while their percentages were varied showing an increasing (e.g., verbenone) or decreasing (e.g., angustione, evodone) trend with the entrance of the summer season.

Seasonal variation has significant effect on antioxidant activity of A. javanica flowers’ oil. Applying all tested antioxidant assays (DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS) showed that the highest antioxidant activity was recorded in the spring (with high amounts of angustione and evodone), which then reduced significantly by the entrance of summer.

During the spring season, the highest measured antioxidant activity (12.2 mg trolox eq/ g extract) was obtained by DPPH assay. While, the lowest measured antioxidant activity during the same season (3.07 mg trolox eq/ g extract) was obtained by ABTS assay. Strong positive correlations were recorded between the three applied antioxidant assays.

251

Post-harvest drying methods, including fresh (control), shaded air-drying and freeze-drying, caused variations on A. javanica EO, isolated from it is leaves and flowers, separately. Quantitative analysis of leaves’ EO extracted by hydrodistillation showed that the yield ranged from 0.005 to 0.0074%. Highest yield obtained from fresh samples, while the lowest yield obtained from air-dried samples. Freeze-drying was an efficient drying method that preserved the original quality of leaves’ EO comparing to air-drying method. While, quantitative analysis for the tested drying methods showed significant variation on flowers’ EO yield, that ranged from 0.002 to

0.013%. Lowest yield obtained from fresh samples, while air-dried samples showed the highest yield.

Qualitative analyses of leaves’ and flowers’ oils by GC-MS showed significant variations under tested post-harvest drying methods. In leaves’ oil, highest compounds number obtained from air-dried samples (29 volatiles), followed by freeze-dried (27 volatiles), and finally fresh samples (19 volatiles). In flowers’ oil, highest compounds number obtained from air-dried flowers (29 volatiles), followed by fresh flowers (19 volatiles), and finally freeze-dried flowers (15 volatiles).

Fresh leaves’ oil was characterized by the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate

(29.87%), geranial (14.15%), and γ-elemene (6.33%) as major components. EO of air- dried leaves was characterized by the availability of 1-octen-3-yl-acetate (15.68%), γ- elemene (14.3%), and verbenone (9.77%). While EO of freeze-dried leaves was characterized by the existence of the following major volatiles: γ-elemene (12.38%),

1,3,8-ρ-menthatriene (9.8%), and methyl-cresol acetate (9.42%).

Flowers’ oil was characterized by the availability of angustione and evodone as major components under all tested drying methods with different percentages.

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Freeze-drying is considered as a favorable option to preserve the original EO volatiles comparing to shaded air-drying method.

Analysis of antioxidant activity (in vitro) by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays showed that A. javanica EO (isolated from leaves and flowers, separately) is a good resource of natural antioxidants, and has high potential for pharmaceuticals industry.

Particularly, leaves’ oil exhibited higher antioxidant activity, using all assays, comparing to flowers’ oil. The antioxidant activity of both leaves’ and flowers’ oil

(separately) were significantly affected by the three tested post-harvest drying methods

(fresh “control”, air-drying, freeze-drying). Generally, EO extracted from fresh and freeze-dried samples showed good antioxidant activity, which was (in most cases) significantly higher than air-dried samples that exhibited the lowest EO quality and antioxidant activity. The highest activity was recorded for oil isolated from fresh samples (Leaves’ oil: 136 mg trolox eq/ g extract. Flowers’ oil: 40.6 mg trolox eq/ g extract), followed by oil isolated from freeze-dried samples (Leaves’ oil: 58.4 mg trolox eq/ g extract. Flowers’ oil: 20.7 mg trolox eq/ g extract) all obtained using DPPH assay. Consequently, to obtain the highest antioxidant activity, it is recommended to distill the oil directly after harvesting A. javanica leaves and flowers. Freeze-drying was an efficient drying option that preserved the original quality and antioxidant activity of EO in comparison to shaded air-drying. Strong positive correlations were recorded between the three applied antioxidant assays.

Studying the influence of leaves particle size that are subjected to hydrodistillation showed significant effect on EO yield, in which the highest yield

(0.01%) obtained from the coarse grinded particles (0.425 mm), while the lowest yield

(0.002%), obtained from the fine grinded particles (0.125 mm).

253

Cleome amblyocarpa is an annual herb in the UAE that has low germination rates in which the seedlings emergence percentages were significantly improved by

14.5% and 20% using growing media with high sandy soil content and dark brownish seeds color, respectively.

In sandy soils, the pF curve is a potential tool (especially, in the arid regions) to be utilized for the best understanding and measurements of soil hydraulic properties.

Based on the soil retention characteristic, watering reduction by increasing the pF level

(pF: 1.7 (control), 1.9 (moderate stress), and 2.1 (severe stress)) caused reduction in the overall vegetative growth parameters (e.g., roots’ and plants’ height), in which the severity of drought stress reduced the number of branches significantly, causing significant reduction in overall vegetative yields.

Our results showed that, increasing levels of water stress declined the different parameters of growth (height and length of roots, fresh and dry matter weight) and caused significant decreases in the number of branches and plant vegetative yield. The optimal watering level to produce the highest yield of fruits obtained at pF 1.9

(moderate stress).

Water deficit increased C. amblyocarpa EO from 0.00715% (at pF: 1.9, moderate stress) to 0.02669% (at pF: 2.1, high stress). Different irrigation regimes caused significant variation in the quantity and quality of the extracted EO. The EO

254 was characterized by isobornyl formate (at pF 1.7, low stress), trans-chrysanthenyl acetate (at pF 1.9, moderate stress) and (E)-ocimenone (at pF 2.1, high stress). High water stress level caused morphological changes on the leaf epidermis represented by epidermis cells decomposition and glandular trichomes breaking down and collapsing.

C. amblyocarpa EO is a promising resource of natural bioactive hydrocarbons, thus listed as a new record to our established EO-bearing plants database of the UAE.

C. amblyocarpa EO has particular potential for flavouring and nutraceutical industries.

EO isolated from it is seeds and whole plant, showed good antioxidant properties (in vitro) measured by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS assays. The highest activity was obtained using FRAP assay (whole plant’s oil: 9.5 mg trolox eq/ g extract, seeds’ oil: 3.6 mg trolox eq/ g extract), followed by DPPH and ABTS, respectively. Applying the three antioxidant assays, EO of the whole plant showed higher antioxidant activity (by around three times) comparing to seeds’ oil. Strong positive correlations were shown between all tested antioxidant assays.

255

5.2 Recommendations and Future Research

This dissertation opens promising doors for further research in EO-bearing plants. Here, are some directions. Recommendations are not limited to the two studied

EO-bearing plants of this dissertation (A. javanica and C. amblyocarpa) but also applicable to other EO-bearing plants and EO research topic generally.

- Further studies are required to test EO of all native and naturalized plants of the

UAE that possibility include many potential undiscovered species with rich

bioactive volatiles and biological activities. Exploring EOs of the traditional herbal

plants are promising research directions.

- For each EO-bearing plants, standardization for all parameters that provide the best

quality yield are significantly needed, starting from cultivation, extraction and EO

storage.

- Comparative studies that compare EO (quantitatively and qualitatively) isolated by

different extraction methods (e.g., dry steam distillation, microwave-assisted

hydrodistillation) are required. With particular interest to focus on green and

environmentally friendly technologies (e.g., supercritical CO2).

- Fractionation of EO to isolate and study the biological activity of the bioactive

volatiles is crucially required.

- Clinical (in vivo) studies for the biological activity of EO bioactive compounds are

recommended.

- Critical studies related to severe irrigation regimes (that imitate arid conditions)

are required.

256

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294

List of Publications

This section presents only the list of manuscripts that were accepted or published based on this dissertation in Scopus &/or Web of Science indexed journals as follow:

 Shahin, S., Kurup, S., Cheruth, J., Lennartz, F., Salem, M. (2018). “Growth, yield, and physiological responses of Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. under varied irrigation levels in sandy soils”. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment. Publisher: WFL Publisher Ltd. vol. 16 (2): pp. 124-134.

 Shahin, S., Kurup, S., Cheruth, J., Salem, M., (2018). “Chemical composition of Cleome amblyocarpa Barr. & Murb. essential oil under different irrigation levels in sandy soils with antioxidant activity”. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants. Publisher: Taylor and Francis. vol. 21 (5): pp. 1235-1256. Doi: 10.1080/0972060X.2018.1512422.

 Shahin, S., Salem, M., (2018). “Grasses as Food and Feed”. IntechOpen, UK, London, 2018, ISBN 978-953-51-6272-8, 2018.Status: Accepted Book Chapter for Publication.

 Ajaj, R., Shahin, S., Salem, M. (2018). “The challenges of climate change and food security in the United Arab Emirates (UAE): From deep understanding to quick actions”. The Journal of Current Nutrition and Food Science. Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers. vol. 14, pp. 1-8. Doi: 10.2174/1573401314666180326163009.

 Ajaj, R., Shahin, S., Kurup, S., Cheruth, J., Salem, M. A., (2018). “Elemental fingerprint of agriculture soils of eastern region of the Arabian desert by ICP-OES with GIS mapping”. Journal of Current Environmental Engineering. Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers. vol. 5 (1): pp. 1-23. Doi: 0.2174/2212717805666180507155251.

295

Appendix

Table 39: World essential oil production, consumption and applications

Oil Name Consumption Approximate Major Applicationsb (tons) Value (€ million)a

Orange 50,000 275 Soft drinks, sweets, fragrances

Peppermint 4500 120 Oral care, chewing gum, confectionery,

Lemon 3500 21 Soft drinks, sweets, diary, fragrances, household chemicals

Spearmint 2000 46 Oral care, chewing gum, confectionery

Basil 500 12 Condiments, processed food, perfumery, toiletries

Notes: a: Based on average prices for 2007. b: Almost all of the major oils are used in alternative medicine.

296

Table 40: Prices of selected standard and organic essential oils

Oil Name Standard Quality Organic Quality

(€/kg) (€/kg)

Orange 5.50 35

Peppermint 27.00 100

Lemon 6.00 30

Spearmint 23.00 40

Grapefruit 13.00 170

Table 41: Annual sales of top five essential oil companies

Rank Company Name Country Sales in Million (€)

1 Givaudan S.A. Vernier, Switzerland 2550

2 Firmenich S.A. Geneve, Switzerland 1620

3 International Flavors New York, USA 1500 and Fragrances

4 Symrise AG Holzminden, 1160 Germany

5 Takasago International (Tokyo, Japan) 680 Corporation

297

Table 42: Soil chemical analysis of A. javanica by ICP-OES

mg/Kg (ppm)

Mean±SD

Element Al As Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Mo Na Ni Pb S Sr V Zn

Mean 0.321 <0.009 868.9 0.139 0.064 0.035 0.817 3.407 68.9 4.58 <0.018 125 0.370 0.0974 63.1 6.67 0.04 8.95

SD 0.013 0.000 5.428 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.016 0.20 0.01 0.000 0.776 0.003 0.009 0.2 0.09 0.00 0.01

Absorbance

Concentration (μg/ml)

Figure 63: Proline standard curve

297

298

1.6

1.4

1.2 nm 1 y = -0.0056x + 1.6356 517 517 R² = 1 0.8 0.6

0.4

Absorbance at at Absorbance 0.2

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Trolox Concentration (ppm)

Figure 64: Standard curve of DPPH assay

0.9

0.8 0.7 nm y = 0.0057x + 0.0602 0.6

R² = 0.9975 593 593 0.5

0.4

0.3

at Absorbance 0.2 0.1

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Trolox Concentration (ppm)

Figure 65: Standard curve of FRAP assay

299

0.9

0.8

0.7 nm 0.6 734 0.5

0.4 y = -0.0052x + 0.7812 R² = 1 0.3 at Absorbance 0.2

0.1

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Trolox Concentration (ppm)

Figure 66: Standard curve of ABTS assay

300

Table 43: Soil chemical analysis of C. amblyocarpa by ICP-OES (n=3) mg/Kg (ppm) Mean ± SD Al As Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Mo Na Ni Pb S Sr V Zn 0.357 ± 0.002 <0.009 ± 0.000 866.3 ± 4.845 0.002 ± 0.001 0.017 ± 0.001 0.011 ± 0.001 0.282 ± 0.021 1.77 ± 0.020 67.667 ± 1.626 0.921 ± 0.010 <0.018 ± 0.000 18.667 ± 0.833 0.105 ± 0.002 0.100 ± 0.001 12.6 ± 0.200 7.703 ± 0.050 0.037 ± 0.000 2.297 ± 0.386

Table 44: Chemical analysis of C. amblyocarpa irrigation water by ICP-OES (n=3)

mg/L (ppm) Mean±SD Al As Ca Cd Co Cr Cu Fe K Mg Mn Mo Na Ni P Pb S Sr V Zn <0.010 ± 0.000 <0.009 ± 0.000 18.795 ± 0.163 <0.001 ± 0.000 <0.003 ± 0.000 <0.005 ± 0.000 0.0130 ± 0.000 0.0213 ± 0.001 1.612 ± 0.003 1.561 ± 0.007 <0.009 ± 0.000 <0.018 ± 0.000 33.675 ± 0.024 <0.003 ± 0.000 0.033 ± 0.001 <0.011 ± 0.000 1.293 ± 0.003 0.029 ± 0.001 <0.003 ± 0.0000.007 ± 0.001

300

301

Table 45: The UAE EO-bearing species of Amaranthaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Achyranthes aspera L. (Eng. Prickly chaff S Ch A / P Med, (+) (UAE: "R": for scorpion stings to Misra et al., 1992; flower) (Arb. Saif el-jinn, umdhrese, sehem, ar- EOs, reduce swelling) Srivastav et al., Insec!, 2011 أم ضريس/ سيف الجن/ (ray, mahoot, na'eem, wazer Oth سهم أراي/ ماهوت/ نعيم/ وزير

2 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schul. (Eng. H / S Ch P Med*, (+) (Saudi Arabia: "R": Extract to treat Samejo et al., Desert cotton, snow bush) (Arb. Al ara', twaim, Forg, eye diseases + "R": Roasted pounded 2012; Samejo et EOs, roots as a substitute for eye antimony) al., 2013 توايم/ إفهي / تيرف/األرا (efhe, tirf Lands, Oth (Remedy for toothache) (UAE: "Fl": to pack suppurating wounds after cleaning + "W": As a diuretic & an antidote for arsenic poisoning + "Fl": Mixed with water as a paste to apply on wounds to stop bleeding)

3 Chenopodium album L. (Eng. Lamb's quarters, G / Th A Med, Fod, (+) ("Se": Very nutritious) (Cultivated Kordali et al., melde, goosefoot, fat-hen, white goosefoot) W Nutr, EOs as nutritional edible plant containing 2008; Usman et vitamin C) al., 2010 ُشاله / (Arb. Shulah, 'aifajan, rokab al-jamal) الزربيح األبيض/ رجل اإلوز/ ركب الجمل/ سرمق أبيض

(UAE)

301

302

Table 46: The UAE EO-bearing species of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Ammi majus L. (Eng. Bishop's flower, bishop's H Th A Med*, (+) (UAE: "Sh". "Se": to treat Santos et al., 2005; weed) (Arb. Sannout, sheeh, khilla "khilla EOs asthma & heart diseases. As tonic Santos et al., 2005; Al- digestive) Snafi, 2013 & سانوت/ شيح/ خلة شيطانية (sheitani", nayniya

;H Th A Med, (+) (India) (As aromatic stimulant Kapoor et al., 2002 شبت / (Anethum graveolens L. (Eng. Dill Weed 2 ;FPre, & carminative) Jirovetz et al., 2003 ُمرتَب Flav, Tian et al., 2012 Arom, EOs

3 Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) Boiss. (Arb. Basbaz, F / H Ch B / P Med, (+) (UAE: "L": Eaten to treat Stavri et al., 2003; ;FArom, stomach disorders + "Se": as a Mostafavi et al., 2008 حزا/ باسباز (haza Arom, condiment) Hajhashemi et al., EOs*, 2010; Forg

4 Pimpinella eriocarpa Banks & Sol. (Arb. H Th A / P Arom, Mirza et al., 2007; ;EOs* Askari et al., 2010 ُكسيبِره (Kusaybirah Oran & Al-Eisawi, 2014

5 Pimpinella puberula (DC.) Boiss. (Syn. H Th A Arom, Koul et al., 1993;

EOs* Radulović et al., 2014 الدقيقة (Pimpinella puberula

302

303

Table 46: The UAE EO-bearing species of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

6 Scandix pecten-veneris L. (Eng. Shepherd’s- H / V Th A / P Med, EOs (+) (Iran) (Turkey) Maleki et al., 2008; W Saeed et al., 2012 / ُمشيت (needle, Crib Gwener) (Arb. Mushet

7 Torilis leptophylla (L.) Reichenb.f. (Syn. H Th A Med, EOs (+) Shivanna & Rajakumar Caucalis leptophylla) (Eng. Bristle-fruited et al., 2010; Ku et al., 2013 قميلة دقيقة األوراق (hedge-parsley

303

304

Table 47: The UAE EO-bearing species of Apocynaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (Syn. S He P Med*, EOs, (+) (Water extract: to treat Gebauer et al., 2007; Vinca rosea) (Eng. Madagascar periwinkle) Lands* bleeding, arresting, diabetes, Norton et al., 2009 (fever or rheumatism الفنكا / الونكة / التفتة / الفنكة/ خناق/ قاتل الكلب

("L": Chewed to suppress the sensations of hunger & fatigue)

2 Nerium oleander L. (Syn. Nerium S / T Ph P Med*, EOs, (+) (Jordan) (UAE: "L": Steam Haber, 1984; Derwich mascatense) (Eng. Rosebay, olender) (Arb. Insec, inhaled to relieve sinusitis + et al., 2010 Lands* "L": Paste applied to skin for هبان/الدفلي/الدفلة (Defla, haban itch, ulcers & tumors)

3 Plumeria rubra L. (Eng. Nosegay, frangipan) S / T Ph P Med, EOs, (+) Zhang et al., 2010; Lands* Sobrinho et al., 2013

4 Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton S / T Ph P Med*, EOs, (+) (UAE: Many applications) Okiei et al., 2009; (Eng. Apple of Sodom, Sodom apple, Lands Kumar et al., 2011 stabragh, kapok tree, king's crown, rubber bush, rubber tree, Sodom's apple milkweed) (Arb. 'ushar, shakjr, 'asur, ashkhar "askar") األشخر، العشار الباشق / العشار الباسق / العشر

304

305

Table 48: The UAE EO-bearing species of Boraginaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Arnebia linearifolia DC. H Th A EOs . Doulah et al., 2014; Al- Mazroa et al., 2015

2 Heliotropium europaeum L. (Syn. Heliotropium H Th A Med*, (+) (Iran: As antipyretic, Passalacqua et al., 2007; lasiocarpum Fisch. & Mey.) (Eng. European EOs cholagogue, emmenagogue, Saeedi & Morteza- heliotrope, european turnsole) (Arb. Karee) cardiotonic & anthelmintic. To Semnani, 2009 treat headache & gout. To heal رقيب الشمس االوربي / كاري االوربي wounds & treatment of warts. Has carcinogenic & hepatotoxic effects)

("L": Tea drunk to treat liver pain & as an emetic)

3 Trichodesma africanum (Syn. Trichosdesma H! Th A EOs . El-Moaty et al., 2009; africana (L.) R. Br.) (Eng. African barbbell) Al-Mekhlafi et al., 2013

305

306

Table 49: The UAE EO-bearing species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik. (Eng. H Th A Med, EOs (+) (UAE: Infuson of dried plants Choi et al., 1996; Kim used for uterine bleeding) & Shin, 2005 كيس الراعي (Shepherd's-purse) (Arb. Kis al ra'y

(to stop nosebleeds)

2 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. (Syn. Lepidium H Th P Med, EOs (+) Prabhakar et al., 2002; draba) (Eng. Whitetop, hoary cress) (Arb. lislis) Afsharypuor & Jamali, 2006 قنيبرة حادة

3 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. (Eng. Lesser H! / Th A / B Med, Fod, (+) (Chickballapur, Karnataka & Hashem & Saleh, swine-cress) (Arb. Rashad al-barr) W EOs India: to treat allergies & 1999 wounds)

4 Erucaria hispanica (Eng. Spanish pink mustard, H Th A EOs . Katz et al., 1987; Al- erucaria myagroides) (Arb. Khezaam, saleeh, Mazroa et al., 2015 خردل زهري (kromb al sahra

5 Eruca sativa Mill. (Eng. Salad rocket, rucola, H! Th A Med*, (+) ("Se": yield oil) KIM & Ishii, 2006; rucoli, rugula, colewort, roquette, garden rocket, Fod, Nutr, Marco et al., 2012 (EOs (Vitamin C, heal scorbut جرجير(rocket) (Arb. Girgir, jirjeer (UAE: "Se", "L" & "Fr": used for stimulant, stomachic, diuretic, antiscorbutic, sexual weakness,

hair tonic, antimicrobial,

306

307

Table 49: The UAE EO-bearing species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

antiscorbutic, aphrodisiac, rubefacient)

6 Savignya parviflora (Delile) Webb (Eng. H Th A Med!, (+)! Al-Mazroa et al., Jaljalan, kanad al barr, gulgulan, girgees, small Fod!, EOs 2015; El-shabasy, whorled cheeseweed) (Arb. Khzaymah, al-thee, 2016 jerjees "girgees", gongolan "qunqulan, jaljelan, حالوه، حالوى، رشاد جبلى ("galeigelan, bithman

,.H Th A EOs . Middleditch et al أم روس .Schimpera arabica Hochst. & Steud 7 2012; Al-Mazroa et al., 2015

8 Sinapsis arvensis L. (Syn. Sinapis arvensis L.) H / Th A Fod, EOs . Rad et al., 2013; (Eng. Charlock, charlock mustard, wild W Kordali et al., 2015 خردل بري/ ال ُص ّفيرة / خردل الحقول (mustard

9 Sisymbrium irio L. (Eng. London rocket) (Arb. H Th A Med, EOs (+) ("Se": boiled in water & Nasir, 2005; Al- solution taken as a drink to treat Qudah et al., 2010 قراص (Howairah, shelyat, figl el-gamal, harrah (fevers & cough) (UAE حمار

307

308

Table 50: The UAE EO-bearing species of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Capparis cartilaginea Decne. (Eng. Caper) T Ch P Med*, (+) (for bruises, childbirth, earache, Mothana et al., (Arb. Qubr, sediru, ashflah, lezaf "losef, lusfeh, Fod, EOs headache, paralysis, snakebite & 2009; Yousif swelling) et al., 2012 َل َصف / الشفلح /االسم اإلماراتي: ليساف (ewsawf

("L" & "St": crushed "L" & young "St" heated in water, strained solution applied to bruises, snakebites & swellings) (for headaches & itchy rashes) (Juice considered to be antiseptic)

("L" & "St": made into paste & applied to inflamed joints, sore & paralysed muscles)

2 Capparis spinosa L. (Eng. Caper bush, flinders S Ch P Med*, (+) (In Arabian folk medicine: "L" & "R": Yousif et al., rose) (Arb. Kobar, lasafa, fakouha, shawk mal EOs to treat earache, coughs, expelling 2012; Kulisic- ,.stomach worms and for diabetes + "Bk" Bilusic et al ال َقبَّار / ال َكبَر (homar, shafallah, delayeer, dabayee to treat gout, rheumatism, as a laxative & 2012 / ال َشفَلَّح / ا َأل َصف expectorant for chest diseases + "Bk": in liver affections + "St" & "R": infusion is used for diarrhea & febrifuge + "Fl" & "R": "Fl" buds & "R" are used as renal

disinfectants, diuretic, tonic, for

308

309

Table 50: The UAE EO-bearing species of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

arteriosclerosis, as compresses for the eyes)

("L" & "R": to reduce swelling & calm the pain of teeth)

("L": powdered & mixed with oil used as ear drops + "L": mixed with "L" of Rhazya stricta to treat diabetes + "R", "Bk" & "L": used to treat cough, worms, gout, rheumatism & as general tonic + "Fl": "Fl" buds used as disinfectant & diuretic + "Fr": have high content of vitami C & are eaten to prevent scurvy + "Fr": powdered & mixed with honey taken to treat sciatica + "Se": taken to treat feminine fertility & menstruation pains + "Se": crushed & applied to ulcers & skin diseases) (UAE)

309

310

Table 51: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cleomaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. (Syn. Cleome H / Ch / A / P Med*, (+) (Djibouti traditional Mazloomifar et al., 2003 W Th Forg, medicine: "L": to make paste for بربران (vahliana Farsen) (Arb. Za'af, mkhaysah Arom, foot problems) Flav, EOs* (India & Pakistan: many applications)

(India & Pakistan: "L": to treat skin problems)

("L": crushed & rubbed on skin as deodorant) (UAE)

2 Cleome droserifolia Del. (Syn. Roridula H He P Med, EOs (+) Khafagi & Dewedar, ,Hashem & Wahba ;2000 ريح (droserifolia Forssk.) (Eng. Cleome herb 2000 البرد/ المشطر /السموة/عفين

3 Cleome gynandra L. (Syn. Gynandropsis H / Th A EOs (+) Nyalala & Grout, 2007; gynandra (L.)Briq.) (Eng. Shona cabbage, W Anbazhagi et al., 2009 african cabbage) (Arb. Abu qarim)

310

311

Table 52: The UAE EO-bearing species of Convolvulaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. (Eng. Kang kong, H / Th A Fod, EOs . Kuebel & Tucker, 1988; water convolvulus, water spinach, swamp W Böhme & Pinker, 2006 السبانخ (cabbage, ong choy, hung tsai, rau muong المائي

2 Ipomoea obscura (Eng. Obscure morning-glory, H Th A / P Med, EOs (+) Maity et al., 1998; Al- small white morning glory) Harbi, 2011

311

312

Table 53: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cucurbitaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Momordica charantia L. (Eng. Bitter melon, bitter gourd, bitter H / S Th A Med, Fod, (+) (for Braca et al., 2008; EOs, reducing blood Coutinho et al., 2010 القرع المر/ كيرال /الكمثرة البلسمية /الخيار الكوري (squash, balsam-pear Arom sugar) (UAE)

2 Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (Eng. Angled luffa, chinese okra, dish V / H Th A Med, (+) Coleman & Lawrence, cloth gourd, ridged gourd, sponge gourd, vegetable gourd, strainer Fod*, 1997; Fernando et al., vine, ribbed loofah, silky gourd, ridged gourd, silk gourd, sinkwa EOs, Oth 2001; Govindarajan et towelsponge) al., 2013

312

313

Table 54: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cyperaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Cyperus arenarius Retz. (Syn. Bobartia indica G Ge P EOs, Eco, . Feizbakhsh & Naeemy, L.) (Eng. dwarf sedge) Lands 2011; Feizbakhsh et al., 2012; Nassar et al., 2015

2 Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. (Eng. Cyperus, G Ge P Fod, . Jongbloed et al., 2003; mali tamachek saad) (Arb. Thenda. Ayzm, Forg*, Feizbakhsh & Naeemy, EOs, 2011 عُشب/ ِس ْعد/ َسمار/ ِديس/ (chadrum, qassis, rasha Fuel, Oth المصاص / أم تك / مصيع

3 Cyperus rotundus L. (Eng. Coco-grass, Java G / Ge P Med*, (+) (Eaten to treat worm Sayed et al., 2008; grass, nut grass, purple nut sedge, red nut sedge, W Forg*, infections, regulate menstrution) Hisham et al., 2012 Khmer kravanh chruk) (Arb. Sa'ed, sa'ed al EOs, ("Se": with oil heated & used for (Insec ear drops to soften ear wax سعده/ سعد مستدير (hammar, hasir (Ingredient in tooth powder to whiten teath)

(Greek: as a diuretic, to break up stones & treat uterine disorders) (UAE)

313

314

Table Table55: The 20 UAE: The EOUAE-bearing EO-bearing species species of Euphorbiaceae of Euphorbiaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Euphorbia helioscopia L. (Eng. Sun H! Th A Med, EOs (+) Rizk, 1987; spurge, madwoman's milk) (Arb. Haleeb Yang et al., al-diba, sa'asa, tanahout, kerbaboosh) 2007; Lone et al., 2013 الفربيون الشمسي / الحلبلوب/ الجيجان / الالعية

2 Euphorbia hirta L. (Eng. Asthma plant, H! / Th A Med*, (+) (Asia traditional herbalism: to treat Dudai et al., asthma weed, pill-bearing spurge) (Arb. W Fod, EOs bronchitic asthma & laryngeal spasm) 1999; Palombo, Ogunlesi ;2006 لبنة (Libbein, demeema, menthra (Asia modern herbalism: to treat intestinal et al., 2009 amoebic dysentery)

(It shouldn't be used without expert guidance, since large doses cause gastro-intestinal irritation, nausea & vomiting)

(as anodyne, antipruritic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, febrifuge, galactogogue, purgative & vermifuge)

("St": taken internally)

(famed to treat asthma, bronchitis & various

other lung complaints)

314

315

Table 55: The UAE EO-bearing species of Euphorbiaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

(The herb relaxes the bronchioles, but apparently depresses the heart and general respiration)

(Used in combination with other anti-asthma herbs, like Grindelia camporum & Lobelia inflata)

(to treat intestinal amoebic dysentery)

("W": decocted to treat athlete's foot, dysentery, enteritis & skin conditions)

(to reat syphilis)

(The sap is applied to warts in order to destroy them, & the treatment needs to be repeated 2 to 3 times/ day over a period of several weeks to be fully effective) (UAE!)

3 Euphorbia peplus L. (Syn. Euphorbia H! Th A Med, EOs (+) (to treat skin cancer) Al-Mughrabi, peplis L.) (Eng. Petty spurge, radium 2003; Lin et al., weed, cancer weed, milkweed) (Arb. (Extract used for liver disorders) (Milky sap 2012 (purgative & diuretic) (Asthma attacks & gout الفرفح/ فربيون ببلوس/ لبينه (Khunaiz

(UAE)

315

316

TableTable 21: The 55 :UAE The UAEEO-bearing EO-bearing species species of Euphorbiaceae of Euphorbiaceae Family (continued) (continued)

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

4 Ricinus communis L. (Eng. Castor oil) S / T Ch / P Med*, (+) (Many medicinal properties & applications) Kadri et al., (Arb. 'Arash, ash'asheh, khasaab, khirwa Ph EOs, 2011; Zarai et Cosm, ("Se": Poinsonous but it's extracted oil "caster al., 2012 الخروع (khurwa'a", junijund, tifsh" Clea, Biof oil" is well-known for it's purgative & lubricating effect)

("L": Dried & smoked to cure bad breath + "L": Crushed & applied to skin ailments + "L": Extract used to treat inflamed eyes) (UAE)

316

317

Table 56: The UAE EO-bearing species of Myrtaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (Syn. T Ph P EOs, . Giamakis et al., 2001; Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn.) (Eng. River Lands Batish et al., 2008 الكافور / الكينا (red gum, red gum, Murray red

2 Eucalyptus pimpiniana Maiden "Eng. Pimpin S . . EOs, . Barra et al., 2010 mallee, red dune mallee" Lands*!

317

318

Table 57: The UAE EO-bearing species of Oleaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. (Eng. V / S Ch / P Med, Arom, (+) (UAE!) Abdoul-Latif et Na EOs*, Cosm, al., 2010; Younis الفل (Arabian jasmine Lands* et al., 2011

2 Olea europaea L. subsp. Cuspidata S / T Ph P Med*, EOs, (+) ("St": resin from "St" mixed with gall, Karousou et al., (Wall. Ex G. Don) ciferri (Eng. Olive Oth ingested to treat cataracts) 2005 شجرة الزيتون (tree) (Arb. 'Itm, mitan ("Bk": macerated "Bk" ingested to treat constipation, but applied to stomach it stops dirrahoea) ("St": twigs chewed to keep gums healthy)

("L": Fresh "L" crushed & used as soap to treat boils)

(L": ash of burnt "L" applied to blisters & ulcers)

("Fr": its juice applied to skin aroung eyes to soothe them) ("Fr": powdered & mixed with salt & dates applied to fractures) ("Fr": it's oil used as antidote against all

poisons) (UAE!)

318

319

Table 58: The UAE EO-bearing species of Plantaginaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. (Eng. Ispaghula, H Th A Med, EOs (+) Al-Mazroa et al., 2015 Plantain, rablat al mistah, lesan al hamal) (Arb. لسان (gerenwa, rabl, aynsum, khannanit an na'ja الحمل متعانق الساق/ ال َر ْب َلة/ ال َر ْبل / ُخ َنا َنة ال َّن ْع َجة

2 Plantago boissieri Hausskn. & Bornm. (Arb. H Th A Forg, EOs . Middleditch, 2012 ال َّر ْب ُل (Rabl, yanam

319

320

TableTable 59: The22: TheUAE UAE EO- bearingEO-bearing species spec ofies Poaceae of Poaceae/ Gramineae/ Gramineae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Cenchrus ciliaris L. (Eng. Buffelgrass, G He P Med*, Forg*, (+) (Zulu traditional medicine: to treat Khan et al., 2003; african foxtail grass, sand-burr) (Arb. EOs body pain, menstrual disorders & urinary Scrivanti et al., Sadat, khadir, thumum, gharaz, drab, infections) (To treat kidney pain, tumors, 2009 sores & wounds) (Used as anodyne "pain حشيش الليبد/ السبط المهدب / السباط (labaytad reliever", & as lactogogue "increase milk المهدب flow") (As diuretic & as an emollient)

2 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Eng. H / Ge A / P Med, Forg, (+) ("R" & "L": Infusion used to treat Artizzu et al., Bermudagrass, dubo, dog's tooth grass, W EOs haemorrhoids, wounds & to treat cough, 1996; Arjunan et bahama grass, devil's grass, couch grass) kidney problems "diuretic") (UAE) al., 2012 (Arb. Thi'il, negil "najiel", najm, sheel, النجيل/ عرق ال َنجيل / مورشيندنت (bizait

3 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf G Na P Med, Biof*, (+) (India) Vasilakoglou et (Eng. Halfa grass, big cordgrass, salt EOs, Oth al., 2013 reed-grass) (Arb. Halfa, hafla & sanaiba) (To treat dysentery & menorrhagia) هلفا / حلفا (As a diuretic)

4 Lolium rigidum Gaudin (Eng. Wimmera G / Th A EOs . Llewellyn, 2009 ryegrass, swiss rye grass) (Arb. W Hayyaban, shilm, ziwan, simbil, rabiya)

الزوان الخشن

320

321

Table 59: The UAE EO-bearing species of Poaceae/ Gramineae (continued) No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

5 Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf G He P Forg, Arom*, . Nentwig, 2003; (Syn. Cymbopogon parkeri Stapf.) (Eng. EOs*, Insec Abu-Rabia, 2014 Incense grass, Rosagrass) (Arb. Alklathgar, sakhbar, hamra, idhkhir, حشيشة ليمىن / حمرا / السخبر/ (khasaab الصخبر

6 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Eng. G / He P Med*, Arom, (+) (Blood disorders, vomiting, skin Shahi & Tava, W EOs problems, unconsciousness & abdominal 1993; Khanuja et إزخر (Oilgrass, iwarancusa grass tumors) al., 2005

7 Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. H He P Med*, Fod, (+) (Mentioned in Quran &/ or Hadith) Ketoh et al., 2005; (Eng. Camel grass, camel's hay, fever Arom*, Katiki et al., 2011 grass, geranium grass, west Indian EOs*, Insec (Tonic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, lemon grass) (Arb. Adlghar, hashmah) intestinal disinfectant, antimalaria) اإل ْذ ِخر المكي / ِت ْبن َم َّكة / َق ش َم َّكة / َح ْل َفاء َم َّكة / (Against Guinea worm, antispasmodic, ال ُس ْن ُبل ال َع َربي األذخر (diuretic ِ

(to treat the cough of infants & children)

(as astringent & febrifuge)

(Oil is used in rheumatism & neuralgia)

(for stomach diseases & fever) ("L":

chewed as aphrodisiac) (UAE)

321

322

Table 60: The UAE EO-bearing species of Polygonaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Calligonum comosum L'Her. (Synonym: S Ph P Med*, (+) (Many applications in the traditional Zouari et al., Calligonum polygonoides subsp. Fod*, medicine) 2012; Samejo comosum (L`Her.) Soskov) (Eng. Fire Forg*, et al., 2013a, bush) (Arb. Arta, waragaat as-shams, EOs, (Saudi Arabia: as antimicrobial) 2013b !Biof األرطا (abal, dhakar' ("L" & "St": dried & chewed to treat toothache)

("Sh": Young "Sh"collected as salad green or powdered to add milk as tonic or flovouring) (used for the tanning of hides) (UAE)

2 Rumex vesicarius L. (Eng. Sorrel, Bladder H Th A Med*, (+) (Saudi Arabia) El‐Hawary et dock, Rosy dock, Ruby dock) (Arb. Fod, EOs, al., 2011; Humayth "hommeid, hummad, hambad", Lands (Stomachic, diuretic & astringent) Elfotoh et al., 2013 الحماض (hambasees ("Se": roasted & eaten for the cure of dysentery)

(Plant juice is used to check toothache, nausea & to promote appetite)

("L": eaten row to treat liver diseases, bad

digestion & constipation)

322

(UAE: as laxative & tonic)

323

Table 61: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rhamnaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (Eng. Chinese date, T Ph P Arom, . Xue et al., 2009; Fod!, Msaada et al., 2009 السدر (jujube EOs, Lands*

2 Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. (Eng. Christ's S / T Ph P Med*, (+) ("L": Cushed & applied to Alighanadi & Mehri- thorn jujube, christ's torn, nabk tree) (Arb. Sidr, Fod*, skin sores & inflamed joints) Ardestani, 2002; EOs, (Ash of wood mixed with Ghannadi et al., 2003 السدر/ النبق (ber, 'ilb, zaqa Cosm, vinegar applied to snake bites) Clea, Oth ("Fr": it is tea treat measles) ("Fr": Eaten to treat chest pains, respiratory problems & as tonic) (UAE)

323

324

Table 62: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rutaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Haplophyllum tuberculatum (For.) A. Juss. H Ch P Med*, (+) (Infusion of plant to treat Al-Burtamani et al., (Syn. Haplophyllum arabicum) (Eng. Sazab, Arom, liver diseases, diuretic & 2005; Al Yousuf et al., zeita, kheisa, mesaika) (Arb. Srayu'u asraw, EOs* abortive) 2005 mekhiseh "Umm musayka", kirkhan, zuqayqah, furaythah, zifra al-tais, sinam al-tais. Khaisa, ("L": Dried powdered as poultice sjaharet al-ba'ud, sjaharet al-ghazal, tafar al- to treat scorpion stings) زفير، فيجل (tays, khokhawot, mekhisat al-hamr ("L": eaten as sedative)

("L": crushed in water drunk to treat painful joints)

(North Africa: to treat many ailments)

(Dhofar: "L": as insecticides) (UAE)

2 Ruta chalepensis L. (Eng. Rue, fringed rue) H Ch P Med, (+) (Against scorpion & snakes Baser et al., 1996; Flav, bites) Mejri et al., 2010 سذاب / فيجل/ صدام Arom, EOs, Lands

324

325

Table 63: The UAE EO-bearing species of Verbenaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. (Eng. S Na P EOs . Das et al., 2003; Li et al., 2012 ياسمين زفر (Vanajai, garden quinine

,S Ch / P Med*, (+) (vulnerary, diaphoretic, Deena & Thoppil النتانا مقوسة (Lantana camara L. (Eng. Tickberry 2 Ph EOs, carminative antiseptic, 2000; Dua et al., 2010 Lands* antispasmodic, tonic, appetizer & vomitive)

3 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene (Syn. Phyla H He P Med, EOs (+) Pascual et al., 2001 nodiflora/ Lippia (Phyla) nodiflora (L.) Greene/ Phylain nodiflora/ Lippia nodiflora (L.) Mychx.) (Arb. Berbin al-jedi, herum dezen, نموس (thayyel sini, lebbia, farfakh

;S Ph P Med, EOs (+) (UAE!) Senatore et al., 1996 كف (Vitex agnus-castus L. (Eng. Chaste tree 4 ;Lucks et al., 2002 مريم Sørensen & Katsiotis, 2000

5 Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (Syn. S / T Ph P Med, (+) ("Bk": boiled in water is Huang et al., 2009 Avicennia marina L.) (Eng. Grey mangrove, Forg, taken orally as an aphrodiasiac) (”EOs, (UAE: “Fr قرم بحري (white mangrove) (Arb. Qurm, gurm Fuel,

Eco*, Oth

325

326

Table 64: The UAE EO-bearing species of Zingiberaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw (Eng. Greater galangal, H . P Med, (+) (UAE) De Pooter et al., 1985; Arom, Charles et al., 1992 خولنجان / (thai galangal, blue ginger, thai ginger *EOs ادخم / جولنجان / جلنجال /غرنجال

2 Zingiber officinale Roscoe (Eng. Ginger) H Cr P Med, (+) (UAE!) Connell, 1970; Onyenekwe ;Flav*, & Hashimoto, 1999 الزنجبيل / الزنجبيل الطبي EOs Vendruscolo et al., 2006

326

327

Table 65: The UAE EO-bearing species of Zygophyllaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Peganum harmala L. (Eng. African rue, Syrian F / H He P Med, EOs (+) (Toxic effects if over doses) Saini & Jaiwal, 2000; rue, wild rue, harmal shrub, harmel, isband, / S (UAE!) Abdellah et al., 2013 الحرمل الشائع / غلقة الذئب (ozallalk, steppenraute

2 Tribulus parvispinus Presl (Syn. Tribulus H / Ch / A / B Med, (+) Fraga, 2006; Hamed et terrestris) (Eng. Puncture vine, Land caltrops, W Th / P Nutr*, al., 2017 puncture vine) (Arb. Shershir, kuteb "qatb", EOs, *Lands القطب (hisek, badl, shuraysah, shiqshiq, dreiss

327

328

Table 66: The UAE EO-bearing species of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Sesuvium portulacastrum L. (Syn. Sesuvium H Ch P Med, Fod, (+) Magwa et al., 2006; verrucosum Raf.) (Eng. Shoreline purslane, sea EOs, Slama et al., 2007 *Lands رجلة الزهور/ رُحاما /جُويفا (purslane, sesuvium

Table 67: The UAE EO-bearing species of Anacardiaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

;S / T Ph P Med, Fod, (+) (Bakhtiari folk medicine: to Taran et al., 2009 بطم كينجوك .Pistacia khinjuk Stocks 1 Arom, treat indigestion & toothache. Pirbalouti & Aghaee, EOs Used as a tonic & astringent) 2011

328

329

Table 68: The UAE EO-bearing species of Arecaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Phoenix dactylifera L. (Eng. Date palm, date T Ph P Med*, (+) (UAE: "Fr": green dates as Podda et al., 2012; Fod*, aphrodisiac, tonic + "Fr": Saganuwan, 2009 شجرة النخيل (palm tree) (Arb. Nakhl, amm-amm Nutr*, laxative properties + "Fr" : date Lands*, kernels ground & poultice EOs, Oth* applied to genital ulcers & ash of kernels in eye lotion to heal blepharitis + "Bd": eaten to heal intestinal problems)

Table 69: The UAE EO-bearing species of Bignoniaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Con (Eng. Jacaranda, T Ph P Arom, . Padin et al., 2013 ,EOs شجرة (blue jacaranda, black poui, fern tree ,Cosm السرخس/ البرازيلي روز وود/ األبنوس الخضراء

Lands*

329

330

Table 70: The UAE EO-bearing species of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (Eng. H Th A Med, Fod, (+) (Whole herb collected between May and July, Pieroni et al., Chickweed, common chickweed, Forg, EOs when it is in the best condition, and dried in the 2002; chickenwort, craches, maruns, same manner as Groundsel. It is used both fresh Jovanović et winterweed, lawn weed) (Arb. Meshit, and dried) (Canada folk medicine) al., 2003 حشيشة القزاز (hashishet el-qizaz, qizaza ("L": crushed are rubbed on joints to ease rheumatic pains & an essence of fresh plants is used for treatment of psoriasis, wounds & ulcers)

Table 71: The UAE EO-bearing species of Casuarinaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Value Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Casuarina equisetifolia (Syn. Casuarina T Ph P Med, EOs, Lands* (+) (India) Bandaranayake et L., equistetifolia J.R. & G. Forst.) (Eng. Rhu, 2002; Ogunwande et

al., 2011 الكازوارينا (casuarina tree

330

331

Table 72: The UAE EO-bearing species of Cistaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Value Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Helianthemum kahiricum Delile (Eng. Rock S Ch P Med, Forg*, Arom, (+) (Libya) Pazy, 2000 rose, sun rose) (Arb. Ragroog, qsasah, hashma) EOs*, Eco, Lands خشين ) ُخشين(/ رعل ) َر َعل(/ رعله ) َر ْعله( /) َجضيم( جضيم

Table 73: The UAE EO-bearing species of Combretaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Terminalia catappa L. (Eng. Indian almond- T Ph P EOs, Ko et al., 2002; Kloucek & Lands* ET et al., 2005; Nair هليلج (wood, bastard almond, andaman badam Chanda, 2008 هندي

331

332

Table 74: The UAE EO-bearing species of Frankeniaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Frankenia pulverulenta L. (Eng. European H Th A Med, EOs (+) (Saudi Arabia) Saïdana et al., 2010; Frankenia, European sea heath) (Arb. Molleih, Chaieb, 2011 ُملّيح/ ِملِّيح / ُغبَّيره/ (hamra (hmaira), Umm thurayb ِخيّت / ُحمره/ ُغبَّ ْيره

Table 75: The UAE EO-bearing species of Geraniaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Erodium cicutarium (L.) L Her. Ex Aiton (Eng. H Th A EOs . Lis-Balchin, 1993; Lis- Redstem filaree, redstem stork's bill, common Balchin & Hart, 1994; stork's-bill, pinweed) Damien Dorman, 1995

332

333

Table 76: The UAE EO-bearing species of Hypericaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Hypericum perforatum (Eng. St.John’s wort) H He P Med*, (+) (Potential plant for curing Weyerstahl et al., 1995; ;Eos, Forg, many diseases: cancer, tumour, Gudžić et al., 2001 العرن المثقوب/ سانت جونز/ سيدي يحيى/ عشبة العرن /عشبة Fuel, Oth AIDS) (UAE!) Schwob et al., 2004 القلب

Table 77: The UAE EO-bearing species of Iridaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Gynandriris sisyrinchium (L.) Parl. (Syn. Iris H Ge P EOs, . Al-Qudah et al., 2015 sisyrinchium L., Moraea sisyrinchium (L.) Ker Lands Gawl.) (Eng. Barbary Nut, mountain iris) (Arb. العنصيل (Khowais, su'ayd, 'unsayl

333

334

Table 78: The UAE EO-bearing species of Liliaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Dipcadi erythraeum Webb & Berth. (Syn. H Ge P Fod, EOs . El-Shabrawy et al., Dipcadi serotinum (L.) Medik.) (Eng. Brown 2016 Lily, Hyacinthus serotinus, mesailemo, besailemo) (Arb. Busalamo, ansel, misselmo, shkal).

Table 79: The UAE EO-bearing species of Lythraceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Lawsonia inermis L. (Eng. Egyptian Privet-the S / T Ch! / P Med, (+) (Mentioned in Quran &/ or Rahmat ET AL., Ph! Arom, Hadith as: astringent, 2006; Chaudhary et الحنا (henna tree, mignonette tree EOs*, antihemorrhagic, intestinal al., 2010 Cosm* antineoplastic, cardio-inhibitory, hypotensive & sedative effects, amoebiasis, headache, jaundice

& leprosy) (UAE)

335

Table 80: The UAE EO-bearing species of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks. (Eng. H Ch P Med, EOs (+) (India) Ahmad, 2007 Mulakhiyah al bar, sutaih, rukbat al jamal) (Arb. Matara, seluntah, mulukhia el bar, waikai) سطيح

Table 81: The UAE EO-bearing species of Ranunculaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Nigella sativa L. (Eng. Black seed, black cumin) H Th A Med*, (+) (UAE) El–Dakhakhny,1963; EOs Erkan et al., 2008 حبة البركة

335

336

Table 82: The UAE EO-bearing species of Rubiaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Galium tricornutum Dandy (Eng. Rough corn H Th A EOs . Mitova et al., 1996; bedstraw, roughfruit corn bedstraw & corn Jan et al., 2015 cleavers)

336

337

Table 83: The UAE EO-bearing species of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Salvadora persica L. (Eng. T Ch P Med*, (+) (Many medicinal uses) (North Africa) Alali et al., Toothbrush tree, mustard Fod, 2005; Sofrata tree, mustard bush) (Arb. Arom, ("St": twigs "miswaak" are chewed to clean teeth & treat gum et al., 2011 Suwak, rak, ('arak, EOs*, diseases) ,Clea الراك / (yeharayk, ehereek ("L": crushed & applied to swellings & sore joints) *Oth السواك / األراك / المسواك / لشلش ("L": dried, powdered & applied to blisters, ulcers & scorpion stings)

("L" & "Fr": dried & made into drinks to treat constipation) ("Fr": dried & cooked with sugar & spices to regulate menstruation) (UAE)

337

338

Table 84: The UAE EO-bearing species of Solanaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Eng. S Th P Med*, (+) (Poisonous & medicinal Perry et al., 2000; Ashwagandha, Indian ginseng, poison EOs plant) Mehrotra et al., 2017 gooseberry, winter cherry) (Arb. Babu "ebab", sumal far, haml balbool, morgan, simm, frakh) ("R": extracts are in great demand in the crude drug عبعب منوم market)

("L": pounded & used as poultic to treat burns & sunburns)

(to reduce swellings or mixed with garlic to treat stings & bites)

(to treat inflamed udders in livestock)

("R": powderd & taken as treatment for infertility & as a sedative)

("L": crushed & berries in water, strained & given to ease difficult

childbirth) (UAE)

338

339

Table 85: The UAE EO-bearing species of Tamaricaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) Bunge (Syn. S / T Ph P Med*, (+) (Egypt: to treat fever, Abouzid et al., 2008 Tamarix mannifera (Ehrenb.) Bunge (h) / Fod, EOs, headaches, aperient, sudorific, Tamarix arabica Bunge) (Eng. Nile tamarisk) Oth ulcer) طرفة (Arb. tarfa', "terfat", athl) (Virucidal effect against HSV.)

("Bk": boiled in water added to vinegar to treat lice infestations) (To treat various ailments) (expectorant, carminative, astringent, diuretic) (UAE!)

339

340

Table 86: The UAE EO-bearing species of Violaceae

No. Botanical Name Form Life Life Economic Folk Medicine References

Form Cycle Value (Syn. / Eng. / Arb. Names)

1 Viola odorata L. (Eng. Sweet Violet, Garden H Th A / P Med, (+) (UAE) Hammami et al., ,.Arom, 2011; Akhbari et al بنفسج/ (violet, common blue violet, viol, viotea EOs, 2012 البنفسج الحلو Lands

340

341

Table 87: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Amaranthaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Achyranthes aspera L. (AD) (SL) (Roc) (Oas, Plat, Dec. to Apr. (CO) (NC) Jongbloed et al., Hil, Mou) 2003; Brown and July to Sep.! Sakkir, 2004

2 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) (AD) (Ain, NE) (San, (Rod, Dun, Through the (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Juss. ex Schul. Roc, Wad, Apl, year. Dec. to Karim, 1995; Sal) Mou, DS) May & Jongbloed et al., Beyond. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Aspinall, 2005; ZCHRTM, 2005; Handa et al., 2006; Mousa and Fawzi, 2009; Sakkir et al., 2012

3 Chenopodium album L. (AD, Du, F) (Ain) (San) (Oas, Plat, Jan. to Apr. (FC) (NC) Western, 1989; Gar, FF) Sometimes Jongbloed et al., through the 2003; Brown and summer. July Sakkir, 2004 to Oct.!

341

342

Table 88: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Ammi majus L. (AD, F, RAK, (HM) (Roc) (Oas, Wad, Feb. to Apr. (C) (C) Western, 1989; S) Plat, Mou) Jongbloed et al., June to Oct.! 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

2 Anethum graveolens L. (RAK) . . (Plat) Feb. to Apr. (RA) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., Mar to June 2003

3 Ducrosia anethifolia (DC.) (AD) (SL) (San, (Dun, Apl, Feb. to Apr. (CO, NC) (RA) Western, 1989; Boiss. Roc) Hil, Mou) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

4 Pimpinella eriocarpa (F, RAK, S) (HM) . (Wad, Plat) Feb. to June (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; Banks & Sol. Jongbloed et al., 2003

5 Pimpinella puberula (DC.) (RAK) . . . . (NC) Western, 1989; Boiss. Jongbloed et al.,

2003

342

343

Table 88: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

6 Scandix pecten-veneris L. (RAK, F) (RA) . (Wad, Plat, Feb. to Apr. (RA) (RA) Western, 1989; FF) Jongbloed et al., 2003

7 Torilis leptophylla (L.) (RAK, F) (RA) . (Wad!, Feb. to Apr. (RA) Jongbloed et al., Reichenb.f. Plat!) 2003

343

344

Table 89: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Apocynaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Catharanthus roseus (L.) . . . . . Western, 1989 G. Don

2 Nerium oleander L. (Syn. (F, RAK, S, (HM) (Roc) (Oas, Mou) Sep. to (FC, CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed Nerium mascatense) AD) Mar. et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., Feb. to 2012 Oct.!

3 Plumeria rubra L...... Western, 1989

4 Calotropis procera (Aiton) (AD) . (Roc) (Plat, Mou) . (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003; W.T. Aiton Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

344

345

Table 90: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Boraginaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Arnebia linearifolia DC. . . (Roc) (Mou) Feb. to (RA)! Jongbloed et al., 2003 Apr.

2 Heliotropium europaeum (AD) (SL) . (Plat, Wat, Feb. to (RA) (NC) Western, 1989; L. Gar) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

3 Trichodesma africanum (F, RAK) . (San) . . (NC) Western, 1989

345

346

Table 91: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Capsella bursa-pastoris (AD) (SL) (San) (Plat, Gar) Feb. to Apr. (CO, NC) (RA) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., (L.) Medik. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

2 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. (AD, RA) (Ain) . (Plat, Feb. to May. (RA) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown Wat) and Sakkir, 2004

3 Coronopus didymus (L.) (AD) (Ain) (Roc) (Mou) July to Sep.! (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown Sm. and Sakkir, 2004

4 Erucaria hispanica (F, RAK) (HM, EE) (Roc) (Mou) Feb. to May. (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., 2003

5 Eruca sativa Mill. (AD) (SL, EE) . (Plat, Feb. to May. (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., Rod) 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

6 Savignya parviflora (AD, F) (CC) (San, (Cos, Jane to May. (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., (Delile) Webb Roc, Dun, Plat, 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004 Sal) Mou)

7 Schimpera arabica . . (San!) (Dun!) Feb. to Apr.! (FC) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al.,

Hochst. & Steud. 2003

346

347

Table 91: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

8 Sinapsis arvensis L. (RAK, . . (AF, FF, Feb. to Apr. (CO, RA) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., UAQ, Rod) 2003 Du) June to Sep.!

9 Sisymbrium irio L. (F, RAK) (EE) . (Plat, Jan. to May. (CO, NC) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Sakkir et Wad, FF) al., 2012

Table 92: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Capparis cartilaginea (AD, F, S, (HM, JH, (Roc) (Mou, Cli, July to Oct. (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., Decne. RAK) RA, SL) Off) 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

2 Capparis spinosa L. (AD, Du, (HM, RA, (Roc) (Off, Mar. to Nov. (CO, NC) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., F, S, RAK) J, H) Wad, Hil) 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004;

Jul. to Sep.! Sakkir et al., 2012

347

348

Table 93: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cleomaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Cleome brachycarpa Vahl (AD) (SL) (San, Sil) (Dun, Off, Feb. to Jun. Dec. to (CO) Western, 1989; ex DC. Mou "low") Mar. Jongbloed et al., 2003 Aug. to Sep. Through the year

2 Cleome droserifolia Del. . . (San!, (Dun!, . . Western, 1989 Roc!) Wad!)

3 Cleome gynandra L. (Du) (EC) (Sal) (Cos, Gar, Dec. to Mar. (CO, RA) Jongbloed et al., Plat) 2003

348

349

Table 94: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Convolvulaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. (AD) (Ain) . (Wat) Nov. to (RA) Jongbloed et al., Apr. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

2 Ipomoea obscura (F) . . (Hil "low", Plat "edges") Feb. to (RA) Jongbloed et al., Apr. 2003

Table 95: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cucurbitaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Momordica charantia L...... ZCHRTM, 2005

2 Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. (AD) ......

349

350

Table 96: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cyperaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Cyperus arenarius Retz. (AD) (NC, WC) (San, (Cos, Off) . (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sal) Sakkir, 2004

2 Cyperus conglomeratus (AD) (AC) (San, (Cos, Dun) Dec. to June (FC) (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., Rottb. Sal) 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

3 Cyperus rotundus L. (AD) (NC) (San, (Cos, Oas, Early spring. (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., Sal) Off, Gar, 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Plat, Urb) Sakkir et al., 2012

350

351

Table 97: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Euphorbiaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Euphorbia helioscopia L. (AD, S, F, (Ain, HM) (Roc) (Mou) Feb. to Apr. (RA) Jongbloed et al., 2003; RAK) Brown and Sakkir, 2004

2 Euphorbia hirta L. (AD, S, F, (HM, EC, (Sal) (Cos, Oas, Plat, Jan. to May. (RA) (CO) Western, 1989; RAK) WC) Gar, Rod) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

3 Euphorbia peplus L. (AD, S, F, (HM) . (Plat, Wat) Feb. to Apr. (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003; RAK) Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

4 Ricinus communis L. (AD, S, F, (HM) (Roc) (Oas, Plat, Gar, Jan. to May. (CO) (NC) Western, 1989; RAK) Wad, Mou) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

351

352

Table 98: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Myrtaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Eucalyptus camaldulensis . . . (Rod, Wat, . C Western, 1989 Dehnh. Plat)

2 Eucalyptus pimpiniana . . (Red San) (Dun, Plat, May to C Western, 1989 Maiden FF!) Oct.!

Table 99: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Oleaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. (S!, F!, RAK!) (HM!) . . . (RA) C Western, 1989

2 Olea europaea L. subsp. (Du, S, F, (HM) (Roc) (Mou May to (CO) Jongbloed et al., Cuspidata (Wall. Ex G. RAK) ">800 m") Aug. 2003 Don) ciferri

352

353

Table 100: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Plantaginaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Plantago amplexicaulis (F, S, RAK, (HM, RA) (San, Roc) (Dun, Feb. to (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et Cav. . AD) Hil, FF!, May. al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, Mou) 2004

2 Plantago boissieri (RAK, . (San, Roc) (Dun, Jan. to (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et Hausskn. & Bornm. UAQ, AD) Mou) Apr. al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

353

354

Table 101: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Poaceae/ Gramineae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Cenchrus ciliaris L. . (NE) (Roc) (Oas, Plat, Feb. to May & (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Rod, Off, Mou, beyond. Through Jongbloed et al., DS) the year. 2003

2 Cynodon dactylon (L.) (AD) (Ain, EE, (San, (Oas, Off, Plat, Through the year. (FC) (CO) Western, 1989; Pers. NE) Roc) Gar, DS) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

3 Desmostachya bipinnata (S) (K) . (DS, AF) . (RA) (RA) Western, 1989; (L.) Stapf) Jongbloed et al., 2003

4 Lolium rigidum Gaudin (AD) (Ain, EC, (Sal) (Cos, DS, Plat, Mar. to May (CO) Western, 1989; WC) Gar, Rod) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

5 Cymbopogon commutatus (AD, S, F, (HM, EE) (San, (Wad, Mou Feb. to May (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; (Steud.) Stapf RAK) Sil, "<1000m") Jongbloed et al., Roc) 2003; Brown and

Sakkir, 2004

354

355

Table 101: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Poaceae/ Gramineae (continued) No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

6 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (F, RAK) (RA) . (Rod, AF) . . Jongbloed et al., 2003

7 Cymbopogon schoenanthus (AD, S, F, (HM, EE) (Roc) (Wad, Mou) Mar. to June (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; (L.) Spreng. RAK) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

355

356

Table 102: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Polygonaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Calligonum comosum (UAQ, AD) . (San, Roc) (Dun, Rod, Dec. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; L'Her. FF!, Mou) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

2 Rumex vesicarius L. (UAQ, F, RAK) (HM, RA) (Roc) (Wad, Hil, Feb. to (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Mou) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

356

357

Table 103: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rhamnaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Ziziphus jujuba Mill...... Western, 1989

2 Ziziphus spina-christi (AD, S, F, (HM) (Roc) (Plat, Wad, Mou Sep. to Nov. (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et (L.) Willd. RAK) "< 1500 m") & Mar. to al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, May 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

Table 104: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rutaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Haplophyllum (AD, S, F, (HM) (Roc) (Wad, Plat, Hil, Feb. to (CO) (NC, CO) Western, 1989; tuberculatum (For.) A. RAK) Mou) May Jongbloed et al., 2003; Juss. Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

2 Ruta chalepensis L. (AD) . . . . . Brown and Sakkir, 2004;

357

ZCHRTM, 2005

358

Table 105: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Verbenaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Clerodendrum inerme (L.) ...... Western, 1989 Gaertn.

2 Lantana camara L. (Eng...... Western, 1989 النتانا مقوسة (Tickberry

3 Phyla nodiflora (L.) (AD, S, F, (HM, NC) (Sal) (Wad, Cos, Through (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; Greene RAK) Plat, Gar) the year. Jongbloed et al., 2003

4 Vitex agnus-castus L. (AD) (Ain) . (Plat, Gar, Dec. to (CO) Jongbloed et al., Wad) May. 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

5 Avicennia marina (Forssk.) (AD, S) (K, EC, WC) (Roc, Sal) (Oas, Cos, May to Jun. (CO) (CO) Western, 1989; Vierh. Mou) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

358

359

Table 106: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Zingiberaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Alpinia galanga (L.) Sw ...... ZCHRTM, 2005

2 Zingiber officinale Roscoe ...... ZCHRTM, 2005

Table 107: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Zygophyllaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Peganum harmala L. . . (Roc, Sal)! (Cos, . . ZCHRTM, 2005 Mou)!

2 Tribulus parvispinus Presl (A, RAK, S, F, (K, HM, EC) (San, Roc, (Cos, Plat, Through (RA) (NC, CO) Western, 1989; AD) Sal) Dun, Wad, the year! Jongbloed et al., Rod, FF!, Feb. to 2003

Urb, Mou) July!

359

360

Table 108: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Sesuvium portulacastrum (AD) . (Sal) (Oas, Rod, Oct. to (CO) Jongbloed et al., L. Cos, DS) Mar.! 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

Table 109: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Anacardiaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Pistacia khinjuk Stocks. (WL) (Cli) . (RA) Jongbloed et al., 2003

360

361

Table 110: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Arecaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Phoenix dactylifera L. . (AC) (Sal) (Plat) Late Spring. (CO) Western, 1989; Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Sakkir et al., 2012

Table 111: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Bignoniaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Con ...... Western, 1989

361

362

Table 112: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. (AD) (Ain) . (Oas, Plat, Feb. to (RA) Western, 1989; Gar) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003

Table 113: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Casuarinaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Casuarina equisetifolia . . . (Plat) Feb. to Apr.! . Western, 1989

362

363

Table 114: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Cistaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Helianthemum kahiricum (AD, F, RAK) (JH, RA) (Silt, Lim, (Mou) Jan. to Apr. (NC) Western, 1989; Delile Roc) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

Table 115: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Combretaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Terminalia catappa L. . . . (Plat) . C Western, 1989

363

364

Table 116: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Frankeniaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Frankenia pulverulenta L. (AD, F, RAK) (HM, EC, (San, Roc, (Cos, Plat, Feb. to (CO) (CO) Jongbloed et al., 2003; WC) Sal) Wad) May Brown and Sakkir, 2004

Table 117: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Geraniaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Erodium cicutarium (L.) L ...... Jongbloed et al., 2003 Her. Ex Aiton

364

365

Table 118: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Hypericaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Hypericum perforatum . . . . May to Aug.! . Hurriez, 2013

Table 119: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Iridaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Gynandriris sisyrinchium (RAK, F) (RA) (Roc) (Mou "high Feb. to (NC) (CO) Western, 1989; (L.) Parl. elevations") Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003

365

366

Table 120: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Liliaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Dipcadi erythraeum Webb . (EC, WC) (San, Sal) (Dun, Feb. to (CO) Western, 1989; & Berth. Cos) Apr. Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

Table 121: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Lythraceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Lawsonia inermis L. (AD) . (Roc) (Oas, Plat, . (NE) C Western, 1989; Mou) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et

al., 2012

366

367

Table 122: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Corchorus depressus (L.) (F, RAK, AD) (JH, EC) (San, Roc, (Cos, Dun, Jan. to May (LC) (LC) Western, 1989; Stocks. Sal) Plat, Mou) Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004

Table 123: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Ranunculaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Nigella sativa L...... ZCHRTM, 2005

367

368

Table 124: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Rubiaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Galium tricornutum Dandy (F, RAK) (RA) . (Wad, Hil, Feb. to (NC) Jongbloed et al., FF!) Apr. 2003

Table 125: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Salvadora persica L. (AD, Du, RAK) (SL) (San) (Plat, Rod, Mar. to (CO) (NC) Western, 1989; Hil) July Jongbloed et al., 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; ZCHRTM, 2005; Sakkir et al., 2012

368

369

Table 126: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Solanaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Withania somnifera (L.) (S, F, RAK) (K, HM) . (AF, Rod, Through (NC) (NC, CO) Jongbloed et al., Dunal. Gar, Plat) the year. 2003

Table 127: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Tamaricaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Tamarix nilotica (Ehrenb.) (AD) (WC, CC) (San, Sal) (Wat, Through the (CO) Western, 1989; Bunge Cos) year, except Jongbloed et al., Jan. & Feb.! 2003; Brown and Sakkir, 2004; Dec. to Feb. Sakkir et al., 2012

369

370

Table 128: Location of the UAE EO-bearing plants of Violaceae

No. Botanical Name Emirates Important Soil Habitats Flowering Wildlife Status References

Locations (Past) Vs. (Present)

1 Viola odorata L...... ZCHRTM, 2005

Table 129: Details of EOs isolated from species of Amaranthaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Achyranthes St / L . . SD (Long chain alcohol: 17-pentatriacontanol)Sh [AF / MR] Misra et al., aspera L. / Sh 1992; (AF: Aspergillus Srivastav et carneus)Sh al., 2011

(MR/ LA/ OA: Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus)L/St, SD

2 Aerva javanica St / (Light (0.1)L/St/ HD / (hentriacontane, nonacosane, heptacosane, . Samejo et al., (Burm. f.) Juss. ex L / yellow color DSD pentacosane, octacosane, triacontane, 2012; Samejo

Schul. / Distinctive Se, hexacosane)L,DSD et al., 2013

370

371

Table 129: Details of EOs isolated from species of Amaranthaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

Fl! / odor)L/St/Se DSD/HD (nonacosane, heptacosane, hentriacontane, Se ,DSD/HD octacosane, triacontane, squalene)St,DSD (Heptacosane, 3-allyl-6-methoxyphenol, pentacosane, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, tricosane, α-farnesene, dodecanal, octacosane)Se,HD

(heptacosane, pentacosane, nonacosane, tricosane, octacosane, tetracosane)Se,DSD

3 Chenopodium L . (0.64)L,H HD (Hydrocarbon & oxygenated [AI] Kordali et al., album L. D monoterpenes)L,HD 2008; Usman (AI: 12-O et al., 2010 (p- cymene, ascaridole, pinane-2-ol, α-pinene, tetradecanoylphorbol-13- β-pinene, α-terpineol)L,HD acetate (TPA)– induced ear edema in mice)

371

372

Table Table130: Details 24: Details of EOs of EOsisolated isolated from from species species of Apiaceae/ of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae Umbelliferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant(continued) Physical (continued)Family(continued) Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Constituents Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Ammi majus L. Sh . . . (Diterpenes)Sh . Santos et al., 2005; (ammimajane)Sh Santos et al., 2005; Al- Snafi, 2013

2 Anethum Se (Pleasant (3.8)Se,HD HD (Monoterpenoids) [AB / AF/ AM / AA / AO] Kapoor et graveolens L. odor)Se,H (3.5)Se, HD al., 2002; D (n-decanal, α-pinene) (AB: Staphylococcus Jirovetz et aureus)Se,HD al., 2003; (d-carvone, d-limonene)Se,HD Tian et al., (AB: Bacillus cereus) 2012 (carvone, bylimonene, dillapiole, andlinalool) (AF: Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus niger) (AF: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger, Alternaria alternata)Se, HD

(AM againt the mold: Aspergillus niger, AM againt the yeasts: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans)Se,

372

373

Table 130: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apiaceae/ Umbelliferae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant(continued) Physical (continued)Family(continued) Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Constituents Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

3 Ducrosia St / . (1.5)Sh,HD HD (Hydrocarbons, aliphatic compounds, [AB / AF/ AM / AA] Stavri et al., anethifolia (DC.) L / (2)Sh, HD oxygenated hydrocarbons)Sh,HD 2003; Boiss. Sh (AA in mice)Sh,HD Mostafavi et (α-Pinene, myrcene, limonene, decanal, al., 2008; whilen-decanal,n-dodecanal,n- (AB: against gram-positive Hajhashemi decanol,trans-2-dodecenal, andcis- bacteria)Sh,HD et al., 2010; chrysanthenyl acetate)Sh,HD (AB: Staphylococcus aureus) (decanal, a-thujene, decanol, sclareol, liinonene)Sh,HD (AF: against yeasts)SH,HD (AM)Sh,HD (α-Pinen, Citronellal, Limonene, Linalool, Myrcene)

(Decanal or decyle aldehyde, α-pinene)

4 Pimpinella Sh / . (5.7)Se,HD HD (Pregeijerene, Limonene, . Mirza et al., eriocarpa Banks & Se (1.3)Sh,HD Elemicin)Sh,HD 2007; Askari Sol. et al., 2010; (Limonene, Elemicin)Se,HD Oran & Al- Eisawi, 2014

5 Pimpinella St / L (Green to (0.31 to HD (Limonene, pregeijerene, [AB/ AM] Koul et al., puberula (DC.) / Fl / dark green 6.94)Sh,HD geijerene)Sh,HD 1993; Boiss. Sh / color, light (AB: G+: Bacillus subtilis, Radulović et Se yellow al., 2014 color) Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus Sh/HD luteus, Staphylococcus aureus.

G-: Yersinia entrocolitica,

373 Klebsiella oxytoca, Serratia

marcescens, Escherichia coli,

374

Part Properties Method

Pseudomonas aeruginosa)Sh,HD

(AF: Candida albicans)Sh,HD

6 Scandix pecten- R / . (0.08 to HD (Alkane fraction)Sh/R/Fr,HD [AB] Maleki et al., veneris L. Sh / 0.12)Sh,HD (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons) 2008; Saeed Fr (0.15)Fr,HD (AB: Gram-negative bacteria: et al., 2012 (0.16 to (Long-chain esters of isomeric Proteus vulgaris, Salmonella 0.18)R,HD butanoic, pentanoic acid) enteriditis. G+: Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus (tridecane)Sh,HD subtilis)Sh,HD

(AF: yeast Candida albicans. mould Aspergillus niger)Sh,HD

7 Torilis leptophylla Sh . . HD / MW (Spathulenol, trans-a-bergamothene, [AB] Shivanna & (L.) Reichenb.f. germacrene D)Sh,MW Rajakumar (AB: G-)Sh,MW et al., 2010; (Spathulenol, trans-a-bergamotene)Sh, Ku et al., HD 2013

374

375

TableTable 131: 25Details: Details of EOs of EOs isolated isolated from from species species of Apocynaceae of Apocynaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties (%) Method

1 Catharanthus L / St . (0.05)L, HD (Monoterpenes, diterpenes)L . Gebauer et roseus (L.) G. Don / Fl / HD al., 2007; Sh (0.07)Fl (Diterpenes, sesquiterpen)Sh,HD! ((E,E)-2,4- Norton et al., , HD hexadienal, citronellol, geraniol, p-cresol, 2009 (Z,E)-pentadecanal, hexadecanoic acid, palmitic acid, phytol)L,HD (heneicosane, tricosane, tetracosane, docosane)Fl,HD

(Bisabolol or α-(−)-bisabolol) (manool, manoyl oxides, α-bisabolol)Sh,HD! (limonene)L,HD!

(limonene, α-bisabolol, methyljasmonate, cis-jasmone, 2-phenylethanol, phenylacetaldehyde, trans-2-octenal, benzylic alcohol, 2-isobutyl-3 methoxypyrazine)Fl,HD!

(methyl & propyl esters of fatty acids, mono- & disaturated, trans-phytol, carotenoid derivative compounds, hydrofarnesylacetone, methylanthranilate, manool, epi-manool oxide)!L,HD!

(volatile aldehydes, such as hexanal, octanal, cis-2-nonenal, cis-2-decenal, cis, trans-2,6- nonadienal, trans, trans-2,4-decadienal, cis,

trans-2,4-decadienal)!St,HD

375

376

Table 131: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apocynaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties (%) Method

2 Nerium oleander R / Fl . (1.76)Fl HD (nériine, digitoxigénine, amorphane, 1.8- [AB / AO / AT / AM]Fl Haber, 1984; L. (Syn. Nerium , HD cineole, α-pinene, calarene, Limonene, β- Derwich et mascatense) Phellandrene, Terpinene-4-ol, sabinene, (AB: Escherichia coli, al., 2010 Isoledene, 3-Carene, Humulene, β-Pinene, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Cymen-8-ol)Fl,HD Staphylococcus aureus)Fl,HD

3 Plumeria rubra L. Fl / . (5.8927 HD / SD / Alkanoic acids, linoleic acid absent) Fl,HD . Zhang et al., Sh! ) SFE SDE / SFE 2010; (Non-terpene esters, alkanoic acids) Fl,HD Sobrinho et al., 2013 (Fatty acid, terpenoid)Fl

(Fatty acid: Hexadecanoic acid, Dodecanoic acid, Linoleic acid. Terpenoid: trans- Nerolidol,β-Linalool, trans-Geraniol)Fl

(Linalol, phenylacetaldehyde, trans,trans- farnesol, β-phenylethyl alcohol, geraniol, α- terpineol, neral, geranial )Fl,SDE

(β-Phenylethyl alcohol, phenylacetaldehyde and methyl cinnamate)Fl,SDE

(β-Linalool, cis-Geraniol, trans-Nerolidol)SD

(1, 6, 10-dodecatrien-3-ol, 3, 7, 11-trimethyl, benzoic acid, 2-hydroxy-, phenylmethyl ester, 1, 2 benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-

methylpropyl) (2-methylpropyl) ester)SFE

376

377

Table 131: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apocynaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties (%) Method

(benzyl salicylate & benzyl benzoate & rich in alkanoic acids)Fl,HD

(Non-terpene esters: benzyl salicylate, benzyl benzoate, 2-phenylethyl benzoate. Alkanoic acids. (E)-nerolidol, geraniol) Fl,HD

(Phenylethyl benzoate, dodecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid)

(Hexadecanoic acid)Fl

(β-Phenylethyl alcohol, phenylacetaldehyde, methyl cinnamate) (geraniol estersgeraniol of terpenoids, fatty acids, alkane)Fl,SD

4 Calotropis procera L / St (Characteri (0.133) HD (Long chain fatty acids and amides, sulfurate, [AB / AM]Fl Okiei et al., (Aiton) W.T. Aiton / Fl / stic L, HD halogen compounds, carbonyls like 2009; Sh pleasant (0.09)St ketones)St/L,HD [MR]L,HD Kumar et al., odor)L/St, , HD 2011 HD (tyranton, 1- pentadecene, 1- (AM: Enterobacter cloacae, heptadecene)L,HD Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, (Z-13-docosenamide, isobutyl nonane, Streptococcus faecalis, 2,7,10-trimethyldodecane)St,HD Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata (Phytol & it's isomers 3, 7, 11, 15- (Cochliobolus lunatus), tetramethyl-2-hexadecene-1ol, 6, 10, 14- Drechslera tetramera trimethyl-2-pentadecanone)L,HD (Cochliobolus spicifer),

(tetradecanal, isophytol, 1-docosanol)L,HD Fusarium moniliforme

377

378

Table 131: Details of EOs isolated from species of Apocynaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties (%) Method

(Gibberella fujikuroi), Candida albicans)Fl

(MR: against malaria)L,HD

378

379

Table 132: Details of EOs isolated from species of Boraginaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method Components (%)

1 Arnebia Se . (0.2)Se,H HD (β-copaene, octyl acetate, cis-β- [ AB / AF /AM]Se,HD Doulah et al., 2014; linearifolia DC. D ocimene, α-pinene, β-cedrene, osthol, Al-Mazroa et al., clovene)Se,HD (Moderate AB: G+: Bacillus 2015 subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis; G-: Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli)Se,HD (Moderate AF: A. niger, C. albicans, S. cerevisiae)Se,HD

2 Heliotropium Sh (light yellow (0.1)Sh,H HD (Phytol, cis-Linoleic acid methyl ester, [AB / AM]Sh,HD Passalacqua et al., europaeum L. color)Sh,HD D Silphiperfol-6-en-5-one, (E)-β-Ionone, 2007; Saeedi & Phytol acetate, Alloaromadendrene (AB: G+: Bacillus subtilis; G- Morteza-Semnani, epoxide)Sh,HD :Salmonella typhi)Sh,HD 2009

3 Trichodesma Sh . (0.2)Sh,H HD (α-pinene, sesquiterpene [AF / AB / AM] El-Moaty et al., africanum D hydrocarbons)Sh,HD 2009; Al-Mekhlafi et al., 2013 (caryophyllene oxide, γ-eudesmol, α- muurolene, elemol, carvone, β- caryophyllene)Sh,HD (caryophyllene oxide, 10-epi-γ-eudesmol, cadina-1, 4- diene, β-gurjunene, 2-pentadecanone, 6, 10, 14-trimethyl, β-caryophyllene)

379

380

Table 133Table: Details 26 :of Details EOs isolated of EOs fromisolated species from of species Brassicaceae of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae/ Cruciferae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Capsella bursa- L / R . . SD / (Hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, . Choi et al., pastoris (L.) SDE / esters, acids, miscellaneous 1996; Kim & Medik. SPM / H compunds)L/R,SDE/SPM Shin, 2005 (Hydrocarbons)L/R,H

2 Cardaria draba R / . . HD (3-butenyl isothiocyanate, 4- [AF / AB / AM]Sh,HD Prabhakar et al., (L.) Desv. Sh / methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate)Sh,HD 2002; Fl / Afsharypuor & Fr / (4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate, Jamali, 2006 W heptadecane, hexadecane, octadecane)Fr,HD

(4-methylsulfinylbutyl isothiocyanate, hexadecanoic acid, isobutyl isothiocyanate, 3- butenyl isothiocyanate, α-pinene)R,HD

(4-(methylsulfanyl)butyl isothiocyanate, 5- (methylsulfanyl) pentanenitrile)Sh,HD (hexadecanoic acid, phytol, dibutyl phthalate, glucosinolate degradation products)Sh,HD

3 Coronopus Se . . DSD (benzyl nitrite, n-Tetradecane, n-Pentadecane, . Hashem & didymus (L.) Sm. n- Hexadecane, n-Heptadecane)Se,DSD Saleh, 1999

4 Erucaria hispanica Sh . (0.04 SD (palmitic acid, cyclohexanol dodecyl, 1,14,17- . Katz et al., “fresh Eicosatrienoic acid methyl ester, Linolenic 1987; Al- weight acidM phytol)Sh,SD Mazroa et al.,

2015

380

381

Table 133: Details of EOs isolated from species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

basis")Sh, SD

5 Eruca sativa Mill. L (Yellow (0.007)L, HD (4-methylthiobutylisothiocyanate, 5- . KIM & Ishii, color)L,HD HD methylthiopentanonitrile. High contntent from 2006; Marco et Sulfur & nitrogen containing al., 2012 compounds)L,HD

6 Savignya Sh (Yellow (0.13 SD (palmitic acid, Phytol, eicosane, . Al-Mazroa et parviflora (Delile) color)Sh,SD “fresh tetratetracontane)Sh,SD al., 2015; El- Webb weight shabasy, 2016 basis")

7 Schimpera arabica Sh . (0.18 SD (palmitic acid, linolenic acid, tetradecanoic . Middleditch et Hochst. & Steud. "fresh acid, undecanoic acid)Sh,SD al., 2012; Al- weight Mazroa et al., basis")Sh, 2015 SD

8 Sinapsis arvensis Sh / (Light (0.01)Sh, HD / SD (dimethyl trisulfide, heptadecane, [AB / AM] Rad et al., 2013; L. St / yellow color SD methylpentadecane, 6,10,14- Kordali et al., Fl / Sulfury trimethylpentadecane-2-one, dimethyl (AB: G+: 2015 odor)Sh,SD tetrasulfide)Sh,SD Staphylococcus aureus; (Light G-: yellow color (Benzyl isothiocyante, Cubenol, dimethyl P.aeruginosa)St/Fl,HD / Sulfury odor)St/Fl, trisulfide, 6,10,14-trimethylpentadecane-2- HD one, indole, dimethyl tetrasulfide, 1-butenyl

isoithiocyanate, Thymol, octadecane,

381

Spathulenol, Hexadecane, 1-epi–Cubenol,

382

Table 133: Details of EOs isolated from species of Brassicaceae/ Cruciferae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

Octadecanal)St,HD (Dimethyl trisulfide, Dimethyl trisulfide, Dimethyl trisulfide, Thymol, Indole, 2-Phyenyl isothiocyanate, δ- Cadinene, Spathulenol, 9- Methylthiononanonitrile, Hexadecane, 1-epi– Cubenol, Cubenol, Octadecane, 6,10,14- Trimethylpentadecane-2-one, Nanodecane, Octadecanal)Fl,HD

9 Sisymbrium irio L. Sh / (Yellow (0.08 HD / SD (palmitic acid, menthol, Pentacosane, n- . Nasir, 2005; Al- Fl color)Sh,SD "fresh heptadecanol)Sh,SD Qudah et al., weight 2010 basis")Sh, (dioctyladipate, N-(n-proyl) acetamide, SD isopropyl isothiocyanate, isobutyl isothiocyanate, 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2- hexadecen-1-ol)Sh,HD

cis-8,11,14-eicosatrienoic acid, heptacosane, palmitic acid, n-butyl isothiocyanate & dimethoxyacetophenone)Sh

382

383

Table 134: Details of EOs isolated from species of Capparaceae/ Capparidaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Capparis Sh / . (0.1)Sh, HD (Compounds including nitrogen & sulfur . Mothana et al., cartilaginea Fl HD containing compounds, oxygenated sesquiterpens, 2009; Yousif et Decne. monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,HD al., 2012

(methyl isothiocyanate, isopropyl isothiocyanate, isobutyl isothiocyanate, 3-p-menthene, occidol, carissone, ethyl isothiocyanate)Sh,HD

2 Capparis spinosa R! / . (0.04)Sh, HD / SD (Compounds including nitrogen & sulfur [AO/ AC]L/Fl,HD Yousif et al., L. Sh / HD containing compounds, oxygenated sesquiterpens, 2012; Kulisic- Fl / monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,HD Bilusic et al., Fr 2012 (isopropyl isothiocyanate, methyl isothiocyanate, butyl isothiocyanate, 3-p-menthene, 2-butenyl isothiocyanate, & 3-methylthio-1-hexanol)Sh,HD

((Z,Z)-9,12-Octadecadienoic acid, Hexadecanoic acid, Octadec-9-enoic acid, 1,2-Benzene dicarboxylic acid-bis(2-methylpropyl) ester, Di- (2-ethylhexyl)phthalate, 2-methoxy-Phenol, Tetradecanoic acid, Dodecanoic acid, (Z,Z)-9,12- Octadecadienoic acid-methyl ester, Z-11- Hexadecenoic acid, 1-(1H-pyrrol-2-yl) Ethanone, Hexadecanoic acid-methyl ester)Fr,SD

(Methyl isothiocyanate)L/Fl,HD

383

384

Table 135: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cleomaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Cleome Sh (Light (0.2 "on HD (Diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, AM Mazloomifar brachycarpa Vahl yellow fresh monoterpenoids, phenylpropanoid)Sh,HD et al., 2003 ex DC. color)Sh,HD weight basis")Sh, (thunbergol, α-eudesmol, elemol, 3Z-cembrene HD A, 10-epi-γ-eudesmol)Sh,HD

2 Cleome Sh (Light (0.43)Sh, HD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated [AB / AM]Sh,HD Khafagi & droserifolia Del. yellow color HD monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, Dewedar, / Fragrant oxygenated sesquiterpenes, nitrogen- & sulfur- (AB: G+: Micrococcus 2000; odor)Sh,HD containing compounds, aldehydes, ketones, luteus; G-: Escherichia coli, Hashem & alcohol, acids, esters)Sh,HD Salmonella Wahba, 2000; typhimurium)Sh,HD Muhaidat et ((E)-3,7,11-trimethyl-1,6,10-decatrien, carotol, al., 2015 δ-cadinene, β-eudesmol, benzyl isothiocyanate)Sh,HD

3 Cleome gynandra Sh . (0.2)Sh,H HD (high amount of Carvacrol, trans- phytol, [IS]Sh,HD Nyalala & L. D linalool, trans-2-methylcyclopentanol, b- Grout, 2007; caryophyllene, m-Cymene, nonanal, 1-a- (IS: Rhipicephalus Anbazhagi et terpineol, b-cyclocitral, nerol, trans-geraniol, appendiculatus)Sh,HD al., 2009 carvacrol, b-ionone, trans-geranylacetone, nerolidol)Sh,HD

384

385

Table 136: Details of EOs isolated from species of Convolvulaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Ipomoea aquatica . . . (hytol, palmitic acid, (Z)-3-hexen-l-ol, α- . Kuebel & Forssk. humulene, n-hexacosane, bis(2-ethyl-hexyl) Tucker, 1988; sebacate) Böhme & Pinker, 2006

2 Ipomoea obscura Sh / . . HD (Rich in sesquiterpene hydrocarbon, . Maity et al., Fl monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated 1998; Al- sesquiterpenes, others (including phenyl Harbi, 2011 derivatives and long chain hydrocarbons) oxygenated monoterpenes)Sh,HD

(α-bulnesene, α-humulene, seychellene, aguaiene, β-caryophyllene, γ-terpinene, hexadecanoic acid, β-elemene)Sh,HD

385

386

Table 137: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cucurbitaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Momordica Sh / (Colourless (0.012)Se, HD / SPM (Sesquiterpenes, phenylpropanoids, [AB / AM]Se,HD [MR / IS]L,SD Braca et al., charantia L. L / Fl )Sh!,HD HD / SD monoterpenes, transnerolidol is the [AM]Sh!,HD 2008; Coutinho / Se (2.8mL/K major constituent)Se,HD et al., 2010 g)L,SD (AB: G+: Staphylococcus (0.80)Sh!, (terpenes, hydrocarbons, oxygenated aureus)Se,HD HD terpenes)Fl,SPM (MR & IS: against malarial fever (linalool, 2-aminobenzaldehyde, 1H- by Anopheles stephensi)L,SD indole, methyl anthranilate)Fl,SPM (AB: Klebsiella pneumoniae, (Momordenal, Momordicins, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus Momordicilin, Erythrodiol)L,SD subtilis, Proteus mirabilis, Eschrichia coli, no activity against ((Z)-3-hexenol, (E)-2-hexenol, phytol, Pseudomonas aeruginosa)Sh!,HD monoterpenoid: Linalool)Sh (AF: Aspergillus favus, Trichoderma spp.,

Aspergillus niger)Sh!,HD

2 Luffa acutangula Fl . . SPM (Terpenes, hydrocarbons, oxygenated . Coleman & (L.) Roxb. terpenes)Fl,SPM Lawrence, 1997; Fernando et al., (trans-β-ocimene)Fl,SPM 2001; Govindarajan et

al., 2013

386

387

Table 138: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cyperaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Cyperus arenarius Sh / . (1.2)Sh,HD HD (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated . Feizbakhsh & Retz. Fl sesquiterpenes)Sh,HD Naeemy, 2011; Feizbakhsh et (Cyperene, cyperotundone)Sh,HD al., 2012; Nassar et al., 2015

2 Cyperus Sh / . (1.2 to HD (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated [AB / AF / AM]Rz Jongbloed et al., conglomeratus Fl / 1.5)Sh,HD sesquiterpenesm small amount of 2003; Rottb. Rz monoterpenes)Sh,HD (AB & AF moderate Feizbakhsh & activity)Rz Naeemy, 2011 (Cyperene, cyperol, cyperotundone, isorotundene, α-cubebene, α-cyperone, mustakone)Sh,HD

(eugenol, α-cyperone, cyperotundone)Rz

3 Cyperus rotundus R / Tu (Yellow (0.5)Tu,SD HD / SD / (High amount of sesquiterpenes, low [strong AO / CP / AP / MP] Sayed et al., L. / Rz color)Rz,HD (0.16 to SFE / proportion of oxygenated monoterpenes, [AB / MP]Tu,SD 2008; Hisham et (Light yellow 0.2)Rz,HD SPM monoterpene compounds) al., 2012 color / (0.2)Tu,HD (AB: G+: Staphylococcus Distinctive (0.7)Tu,SD (high amount of sesquiterpenes)R/Tu,SPM aureus. G-)Tu,SD odor)R/Tu,HD (1.82)Rz,S (cyprotene cypera-2,4-diene, a-copaene, (Pleasant FE (MP: against Aflatoxin B1 odor)R/Tu,SP cyperene, aselinene, rotundene, valencene, M ylanga-2,4-diene, g-gurjunene, trans- in Salmonella strains, calamenene, d-cadinene, g-calacorene, epi- Escherichia coli strain. a-selinene, a-muurolene, g-muurolene, Agaist nifuroxazide in

cadalene, nootkatene, cyperotundone,

387

388

Table 138: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cyperaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

mustakone, cyperol, isocyperol, a- Escherichia coli cyperone) strain)Tu,SD

(New sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: (-)- (AM: AB: Bacillus subtilis, isorotundene, (-)-cypera-2,4(15)-diene, (-)- Escherichia coli, norrotundene. New ketone: (+)- Pseudomonas aeruginosa, cyperadione) (Cyperene, a-cyperone, Staphylococcus aureus. AF: isolongifolen-5-one, rotundene, Candida parapsilosis, cyperorotundene) Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus fumigatus, (high content of sesquiterpenes: high Fusarium amount of cyperene)R/Tu,SD oxysporum)R/Tu,HD

(α-Cyperone, caryophyllene oxide, β- pinene, α-pinene, myrtenol, α- selinene)Rz,HD

(oxo-isolongifolene, α-gurjunene, (z)- Valerenyl acetate, α-salinene)R/Tu,HD

(α-copaene, valerenal, caryophyllene oxide, cyperene, nootkatone, trans- pinocarveol, α-copaene, cyperene, valerenal, caryophyllene oxide, trans- pinocarveol, valencene)R/Tu,SPM

388

389

Table 139: Details of EOs isolated from species of Euphorbiaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Euphorbia IF (Colourless)I (0.16)If,H HD (phytol, trans-caryophyllene, docosanoic acid . Rizk, 1987; helioscopia L. f,HD D methyl ester)If,HD Yang et al., 2007; Lone et al., 2013

2 Euphorbia hirta L. L . . HD (3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, [IS / MR]L,HD Dudai et al., 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 1999; hexadecanal, phytol, n-hexadecanoic acid, 2- (IS & MR: against Palombo, butoxyethanol, tetradecane, phthalic acid, butyl Anopheles mosquito 2006; Ogunlesi species, thus potential for et al., 2009 tetradecyl ester, oleic acid, 13-heptadecyn-1-ol, Malaria control)L,HD 2-methyl-1-hexadecanol and 1,2-benzene dicarboxylic acid diisooctylester)L,HD

3 Euphorbia peplus ...... Al-Mughrabi, L. 2003; Lin et al., 2012

4 Ricinus communis Sh . (0.32)Sh, HD (High amount of monoterpenes: monoterpene [strong AO]Sh,HD Kadri et al., L. HD hydrocarbons & oxygenated 2011; Zarai et monoterpene)Sh,HD al., 2012

(α-thujone, 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, camphor, camphene)Sh,HD

389

390

Table 140: Details of EOs isolated from species of Myrtaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Eucalyptus L / Sh . (1.3 to HD / SD (High monoterpene hydrocarbons)L,HD [AN]L [IS / MR / LA / AB / Giamakis camaldulensis / Fr 1.6)L,HD / SFE AF / AM /NM] [OT!] [PP] et al., 2001; Dehnh. (0.2 to (high sesquiterpenes, light oxygenated [LA]L,HD [AO / AD]L,HD Batish et 0.5)Sh, compounds, heavy oxygenated compounds, [AO]L,SFE al., 2008 monoterpene hydrocarbons)L,SFE SD (AO: Good (0.71)Sh,H (high monoterpene hydrocarbons, low activity)L,HD/SFE D (0.57)L, sesquiterpene contents)L,HD (AO)L,SFE HD (aldehydes)Sh,SD (0.254)L,H (LA: against Aedes aegypti, D (1,8-cineole, β-pinene, y-terpinene, p-cymene, Aedes albopictus)L,HD (0.6)L,HD terpinen-4-01, globulol)L,HD (1.04 to (MR: against Aedes aegypti) (1,8-cineole (cineole), β-pinene)L (Eucamalol, 1.70)L (PP: against Amaranthus 1,8-Cineole, Cineole, α-pinene, p-cymene) (1.1)L,SFE hybridus, Portulaca oleracea)Sh,HD (p-cymene, 1,8-cineole, β-phellandrene, spathulenol, cryptone. aldehydes: cuminal, [AO / AF]Sh,SD phellandral)Sh,SD [strong AB]L,HD (ethanone, eucalyptol, -caryophyllene, carvacrol )L,HD (MR: Repels adult females of Culex pipiens) (spathulenol) (p-cymene, a-pinene, o- cymene)Sh,HD (LA: Egg mortality in Tribolium confusum &

(a-pinene, p-cymene, a-phellandrene)L,HD Ephestia kuehniella) (AM:

390 Penicillium digitatum)

(Dermatophytes:

391

Table 140: Details of EOs isolated from species of Myrtaceae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, (Z)-β-ocimene, α- Microsporum canis, pinene)L (p-cymene, 1,8-cineole, 1-(S)-α- Microsporum gypseum, pinene, R-(+)- limonene)L,HD Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton schoenleinii, (New compound: Eucamalol) (1,8-cineole, p- Trichophyton cymene, a-pinene)L,SD mentagrophytes, Epidermophyton floccosum. (spathulenol, β-pinene, p-cymene)Fr Kills 1–7 days adults of: Callosobruchus maculatus, (1,8-cineole)L (β-phellandrene, higher amount Sitophilus oryzae, Tribolium of p–cymen-7-ol than HD, cryptone, castaneum. Seed-borne spathulenol, thymol)L/SFE fungi: Colletotrichum (β-phellandrene, p–cymen-7-ol, cryptone, graminicola, Phoma spathulenol, thymol)L,HD sorghina, Fusarium moniliforme of sorghum (1, 8-cineole, p-cymene)L (p-cymene, ciyptone, without any negative effect terpinen-4-ol, spathulenol, cuminaldehyde)L on Sorghum)

(NM: mortality & hatching of second stage-juveniles (J2) of Meloidogyne exigua of coffee) (excellent AB: G+ Staphylococcus aureus. G-: Escherichia coli)L,HD

2 Eucalyptus L . . VD (α-pinene, α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, p-cymene, . Barra et al., pimpiniana aromadendrene, trans-pinocarveol, β- 2010

Maiden eudesmol)L,VD

391

392

Table 141: Details of EOs isolated from species of Oleaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Jasminum sambac L! / (Clear (0.025 to HD / SD (benzyl acetate, indole, E-E-α-farnesene, Z-3- [AO / AB / AF / Abdoul-Latif et (L.) Ait. Fl yellow 0.35)Fl, / SPM / hexenyl benzoate, benzyl alcohol, linalool, AM]L!/Fl!,HD [GP / DP / al., 2010; color)Fl,SFE SD H-SPM / methyl anthranilate)Fl,H-SPM AI / SP / ASP / ST] Younis et al., (Red-brown (0.19)L!/F SFE 2011 color) l!,HD (citronellol, phenyl ethyl alcohol, geranial, (AM: weak activity (0.021, eugenol, farnesol, geranyl acetate, citrinyl against yeast)L!/Fl!,HD 0.033, acetate, 2-phenyl ethyl acetate, citral (mixture 0.128, of cis and trans), benzyldehyde)Fl,SFE (AB: Bacillus cereus, 0.012 Streptococcus pyogenes, "fresh (cis-3-hexnol, cis-3-hexenyl acetate, linalool, Salmonella enterica, weight benzyl acetate, methyl anthranilate, methyl Escherichia coli, Shigella basis")Fl, salicylate, β-elemene, cis jasmone, α-franasene, dysenteria, Listeria SFE γ-cadinene, cis-3-hexnyl benzoate, α-murolol, innocua)L!/Fl!,HD α-cadinol, Benzyl benzoate, indole)Fl,SD (linalool, acetic acid-phenyl methyl ester,alpha- (AF: Candida famesene,benzamide,N,N-dipropyl and Acetic albicans)L!/Fl!,HD acid,2-propenyl ester)SPM

2 Olea europaea L. L / Fr . . HD / Monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes)L,HD . Karousou et subsp. Cuspidata HD-SPM (aldehydes, terpenoids)Fr,HD-SPM al., 2005 (Wall. Ex G. Don) ciferri ((E)-2-hexenal, n-nonanal, (E)-β-damascenone, (E,E)-α-farnesene, kongol, (E)-β-damascone, theaspirane, phenylacetaldehyde)L,HD (aldehydes: (E)-2-hexenal. Terpenoids: (E,E)-α- farnesene, linalool, β-caryophyllene,

valencene)Fr,HD-SPM

392

393

Table 142: Details of EOs isolated from species of Plantaginaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Plantago Sh (Turned (0.07 SD (palmitic acid, 3-mathylundecane, l-ethyl-2- . Al-Mazroa et amplexicaulis Cav. "after few “fresh methylcyclohexanol)Sh,SD al., 2015 . minutes" to a weight waxy-like basis")Sh, material at SD room temperature) Sh,SD

2 Plantago boissieri Sh . (0.2 "fresh SD (Bicyclo-2,2,1-heptane,2-(2-propenyl), l- . Middleditch, Hausskn. & weight dodecane-3-ol, phenol, 3-ethyl phenol, 4- 2012 Bornm. basis")Sh, methyl, nonacosane, 2,3,6-trimethyl hepta-6-en- SD l-ol, benzoic acid)Sh,SD

393

394

Table 143: Details of EOs isolated from species of Poaceae/ Gramineae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Cenchrus ciliaris Sh . (0.08 SD (palmitic acid, phytol, tridecanol, 2-ethyl-2- . Khan et al., L. "fresh methyl, 3,9-dimethylundecane)Sh,SD 2003; weight Scrivanti et basis")Sh, al., 2009 SD

2 Cynodon dactylon . . . . . [AM / DR] Artizzu et (L.) Pers. al., 1996; Arjunan et al., 2012

3 Desmostachya Sh . . HD (camphene, isobornyl acetate, tricyclene, (+,-) [AB / AM]Sh,HD Vasilakoglo bipinnata (L.) trans-2,6-gamma-Irone, Caryophyllene u et al., 2013 Stapf) diepoxide, β-eudesmol, Eseroline, Calarene. Small amounts of: Diphenyliodinium bromide, 1.limenone, 2-cyclohexene-1-one and 8-nitro- 12-tridecanolide)Sh,HD

4 Lolium rigidum . . . . (trans-anethole, thymol, linalool, carvacrol, [PP] Llewellyn, Gaudin carvone, fenchone, thujone, eugenol, trans-2- 2009 decenal, decanal, estragole, methyl cinnamate, (PP: inhibit germination of eucalyptol, ocimen, limonene, myrcene, α- rigid ryegrass) pinene, β-pinene or p-cymene)

5 Cymbopogon Sh . (0.45!) HD (geraniol, geranyl acetate) [AF]HD Nentwig, commutatus 2003; Abu- (Steud.) Stapf (piperitone, germacrene-D, santolinyl acetate, Rabia, 2014

alpha-eudesmol)Sh,HD

394

395

Table 143: Details of EOs isolated from species of Poaceae/ Gramineae (continued)

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(Alcoholic terpenes rich, nerolgeraniol) (strong AF: Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia orizea, Fusarium oxysporum)HD

6 Cymbopogon L / R . (0.50 to HD (Terpenoids) [AF / AM] Shahi & jwarancusa 1.64)L,H Tava, 1993; D (rich oxygenated sesquiterpenes) (AF: Against rice pathogens: Khanuja et (sesquiterpenoid composition)R (piperitone, Rhizoctonia solani, Bipolaris al., 2005 geranial, neral) oryzae)L,HD

(piperitone, elemol, 8-2carene)L,HD (agarospirol)R

(piperitone, α-phellandrene)L,HD (piperitone)

7 Cymbopogon L / R . (3)L,SD HD / SD ( Monoterpenes rich, sesquiterpenes)L,HD (rich [AO]L,HD [IS / LA]L,SD Ketoh et al., schoenanthus (L.) (1.1 to / SFE oxygenated monoterpenes)L,SD [NM / AH]L 2005; Katiki Spreng. 2.6)L/R, et al., 2011 HD (2-undecanone, limonene) (IS & LA: against (2.78)L, Callosobruchus SFE (piperitone, 2-carene, elemol)L,SD maculatus]L,SD

(limonene, β-phellandrene, δ-terpinene, α- (NM & AH: against terpineol)L/R,HD Haemonchus contortus)

(Monoterpenes: piperitone, δ-2-carene)L,HD

395

396

Table 144: Details of EOs isolated from species of Polygonaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Calligonum Sh / (Light yellow (0.96)Fr, HD (Rich: oxygenated monoterpenes, . Zouari et al., comosum L'Her. St / color / Pleasant HD oxygenated sesquiterpenes at fructification 2012; Samejo et Bd / odor)Fr/St,HD (0.87)St, stage. Low amount: Phenolic al., 2013a, 2013b Fr / HD derivatives)Sh,HD R (terpenoids, hydrocarbons, phenolic compounds, acid derivatives, ketones)Bd/R,SD

(lauric acid, myristic acid and palmitic acid, linoleic acid, pentacosane, tricosane, camphor, borneol, linalyl acetate, T- cadinol)Sh,HD

(ethyl homovanillate)Bd,SD (drimenol)R,SD ((Z,Z)-9,12- octadecadienoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, nonacosane, tetradecanoic acid, heptacosane, hentriacontane, dodecanoic acid, pentacosane)Fr,HD

(hexadecanoic acid, (Z,Z)-9,12- octadecadienoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, (R)-massoia lactone,

nonanoic acid, pentadecanoic acid)St,HD

396

397

Table 144: Details of EOs isolated from species of Polygonaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

2 Rumex vesicarius Sh! (Light brown (0.02 to 0.1 HD / SD (Monoterpenes)Sh!,HD [AO]HD El‐Hawary et al., L. color / No odor "fresh 2011; Elfotoh et / Turned "after weight (nonacosane, pentatriacontane, palmitic (AO: strong)HD al., 2013 few minutes" basis")Sh!, acid, 3,8-dimethylundecane, 2-ethyl-2- to a waxy-like SD methyl-l-decanol, phytol, 9,12,15- material at (0.8578) octadecatrienoic acid, 9,12-octadecadienoic room Sh!,HD acid)Sh!,SD (monoterpenes: α-thujene, temperature)Sh limonene, fenchon, estragole, ,SD (Brown anethole)Sh!,HD color)Sh!, HD

397

398

Table 145: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rhamnaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Ziziphus jujuba Se . . SDE (Carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, ketones, [AI]Se Xue et al., 2009; Mill. alcohols, heterocyclics, hydrocarbons, Msaada et al., phenols)SDE 2009

(dodecanoic acid, n-hexadecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, decanoic acid, (Z)-11- hexadecenoic acid, myristoleic acid, octanoic acid, 2-octenoic acid, nonanoic acid, heptanoic acid, acetic acid, hexanoic acid, furfural, phytone, cis-11-tetradecen-1- ol)SDE

2 Ziziphus spina- L . (0.1)L,HD HD (Neutral hydrocarbons, Methyl esters, [AF] [AM] Alighanadi & christi (L.) Willd. (0.01)L,H Glycosides)L Mehri-Ardestani, D (AF: Candida albicans) 2002; Ghannadi (geranyl acetone, methyl hexadecanoate, et al., 2003 methyl octadecanoate, farnesyl acetone C, (AM: food deterioration hexadecanol, ethyl octadecanoate)L,HD microorganisms: Aspergillus niger, (α-terpineol, linalool. Glycosides: beta- Escherichia coli, Sitosterol, oleanolic acid, maslinic acid. Salmonella Neutral hydrocarbons: n-pentacosane forms. typhimurium)L,HD Methyl esters: methyl palmitate, methyl stearate, methyl myristate)L

398

399

TableTable 146 27: Details: Details of ofEOs EOs isolated isolated from from species species of ofRutaceae Rutaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Haplophyllum Sh (Light (0.21)Sh, HD (Rich in Monoterpene hydrocarbons)Sh,HD [AF / AB / AM / MR / IS / Al-Burtamani tuberculatum "you yellow HD LA]Sh,HD [NM]Sh,HD et al., 2005; (For.) A. Juss. ng" / color)Sh,HD (0.35)Sh, (β-phellandrene, limonene, (Z)-β-ocimene, β- Al Yousuf et Fl HD (0.03, caryophyllene, myrcene, α-phellandrene)Sh,HD (NM: against Meloidogyne al., 2005 0.04)Sh,H (trans-p-menth-2-en-1-ol, cis-p-menth-2-en-1- javanica)Sh,HD D (0.2 to ol, myrcene, δ-3-carene, β-phellandrene, 1.5)Sh,H limonene, cis-piperitol)Sh,HD (LA: weak activity)Sh,HD D (AB: Escherichia coli, (0.02)Sh, (linalool, α-phellandrene, limonene, α-pinene, Salmonella choleraesuis, HD δ-3-carene, myrcene, δ-3carene) (limonene, a- Bacillus subtilis)Sh,HD pinene)Sh,HD (AF: Curvularia lunata, (Rich in: α-phellandrene, β-caryophyllene, β- Fusarium pinene, limonene, δ-3-carene. linalool, linalyl oxysporium)Sh,HD (MR acetate, β-caryophyllene, α-terpineol)Sh,HD & IS: repellent to the yellow fever mosquito (linalool, α-pinene, limonene)Sh,HD "Aedes aegypti")Sh,HD

2 Ruta chalepensis Sh (Yellow (1.13)Sh, HD / SD (Monoterpenes, alcohols)Sh,HD (Rich in [MR / IS / LA] Baser et al., L. color)Sh,HD HD / H oxygenated compounds: ketones, alcohols, [AF]Sh,HD [AB/ strong 1996; Mejri et (5.51)Sh, acetates)Sh(L,St,Fl),HD AF / AM]Sh,HD [MR / IS al., 2010 HD / LA]Sh,HD (Rich in ketones)Sh,HD (2.46 to (MR & IS & LA: against 1.73)Fr, (Rich in aliphatic ketones)Sh,HD Aedes aegypti L., Anopheles HD (Rich in aliphatic ketones: 2-undecanone, 2- quadrimaculatus)Sh,HD

nonanone)Sh,HD

399

400

Table 146: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rutaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(0.39 to (2-undecanone, 2-nonanone)Sh,SD (2-nonyl (AF: strong against 0.57)L, acetate, 2-nonanone)Sh!,HD! Trichodrema viride)Sh,HD (AM: HD (0.49 (2-undecanone, 2-tridecanone, elemol, Candida albicans)Sh,HD to 0.66)St, beudesmol)Sh!,HD! (AB: strong activity HD against: Salmonella (Major compound: 2-Undecanone. 2-nonanone, thyphimirium, Listeria (0.99 to 2-nonyl acetate, 2-dodecanone)Sh,HD monocytogenese)Sh,HD 0.70)Fl, (linalool, thymol, carvacrol) (2-undecanone, 2- (AB: against Micrococcus HD decanone, 2-dodecanone)Sh,HD luteus, Escherichia coli, (0.27)Sh, Enterococcus (2-Undecanone: unique component)Fl HD! faecium)Sh,HD (MR & IS (Pulegone: unique component)St (camphor: & LA: Good activity for (0.9 ± unique component)L wild & cultivated grown 0.04)Sh, (2-undecanone, 2-nonanol and 2- plant against Asian tiger HD dodecanone)Sh,HD (β-phellandrene, 2- mosquito "Aedes methyloctyl acetate)Sh,HD! albopictus Skuse", which is currently the most (Rich in ketones: 2-undecanone, 2-nonanone, 2- invasive mosquito methyloctyl acetate, 2-methyldecyl worldwide) acetate)Sh,HD! (AF: strong against: (rich: nonan-2-one)St,HD Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, (rich: undecan-2-)Fl/L,HD Alternaria Sp., Trichoderma Sp., Candida (Octyl acetate, 2-undecanone, 2- albicans)Sh

nonanone)L,HD/H

400

401

Table 146: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rutaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(Minor components: hexadecanoic acid, di(ethylhexyl) phthalate)L,H

(2-Undecanone, 2-decanone)Sh

(2-undecanone, 2-nonanone, 2-nonyl acetate)Sh,HD

(Rich 2-Nonanone)Sh,HD

(2-Undecanone, 2-Nonanone, 1-Nonene, a- Limonene)Sh,HD

401

402

TableTableTable Table28 147: D29: etails30Details: Details: Details of of EOs of EOs of EOs isolated EOs isolated isolated isolated from from from speciesfrom species species species of of Verbenaceae of Verbenaceae of Verbenaceae Verbenaceae Family (continued) (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Clerodendrum St / L (Distinctive . LE (Rich in esters, fatty acids)St/L/R,HD [AO]R/LE Das et al., inerme (L.) Gaertn. / R odor "due to 2003; Li et ferruginol") (Dibutyl phthalate, linoleic acid, ferruginol)St/L/R,HD (AO)R,LE al., 2012 R,LE (rich esters, fatty acids)St/L,LE (meroterpene)R,LE

2 Lantana camara L. L / St . (0.23)Sh HD / (Rich sesquiterpenes)L,HD [AF / AB / AM]Sh Deena & (Eng. Tickberry) / Fl / (0.2)L,HD SFE Thoppil, Sh (0.6)Fl,H (Oxygenated diterpenes)HD [IS/ SP]L,HD 2000; Dua et النتانا مقوسة D [AB]L,HD [PP]HD al., 2010 (0.04)HD (Davanone, sesquiterpenes)Sh,HD (0.01 to (PP: on the (high content in terpenic compounds & lower amount 0.09)L,H seedlings growth of in oxygenated compounds)Sh,HD D the weeds: Amaranthus (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons)HD (triterpenoids)Sh hybridus, Portulaca oleracea)HD (Terpenoids) (AB: Escherichia (b-caryophyllene, geranyl acetate, terpinyl acetate, coli, Staphylococcus bornyl acetate, D-limonene)Sh (Caryophyllene, aureus)L,HD (SP: eucalyptol, α-humelene, germacrene)L,HD highly toxic: LC50 (3β,19a dihydroxy ursan-28-oic acid, 21,22β- epoxy- value of 0.01)L,HD 3β-hydroxy olean-12-en-28-oic acid)R,HD (AB: Moderate (oleanolic acid, oleanolic acid acetate, oleanonic acid, activity against: lantadene A, camaric acid, β-sitosterol & its glucoside, Candida albican,

pomonic acid)R,HD (1,8-cineol, sabinene, β- Bacillus subtilis,

402

caryophylene)L,HD (germacrene-D, γ-elemene, β- Staphylococcus

403

Table 147: Details of EOs isolated from species of Verbenaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

caryophyllene, β-elemene, α-copaene, α- typhi, Pseudomonas cadinene)L,HD! aeruginosa, Bacillus aureus)L,HD (IS: (β-elemene, germacrene-D, α-copaene, α-cadinene, β- against maize grain caryophyllene, γ-elemene)Fl,HD! (sabinene, β- weevil: Sitophilus caryophyllene, 1,8-cineole, bicyclogermacrene, α- zeamais)L,HD humulene)L/Fl,HD/SD (bicyclogermacrene, isocaryophyllene, valecene, germacrene D)L,HD (IS: adulticidal activity against (traces of monoterpenes: bisabolene. Sesquiterpenes: b- different mosquito: curcumene, E.-nuciferal, Z.-nuciferol, y.-ar-curcumen- Ae. aegypti, Cx. 15-al, g-curcumene, ar-curcumene, y.-epi-b-bisabolol, quinquefasciatus, y.-g-curcumen-15-al) An. culicifacies, An. fluvialitis, An. (b-caryophyllene, a-humulene, g-muurolene. stephensi)L,HD Curcumene compounds: a-curcumene, g-curcumene, b- curcumene)HD (AF: strong activity against: Aspergillus (zingiberenol, caryophyllene oxide)HD (limonene, a- niger, Fusarium phellandrene, germacrene-D, b-caryophyllene, solani, Candida sabinene)L/St,HD albicans. Moderate: Aspergillus (germacrene-D, germacrene-B, b- parasiticus, caryophyllene)L/St,HD Rhizopus oryzae, (g-curcumene ar-curcumene, a-zingiberene, a- Rhizoctonia humulene)L/St/Fl,HD oryzaesativae, Colletotrichum (Sabinene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, β-caryophyllene, α- musae, Alternaria

humulene, β-bisabolene, γ-cadinene, ar curcumene, brassicicola)Sh

403 caryophyllene oxide, davanone)Fl,HD (AB: strong against:

Pseudomonas

404

Table 147: Details of EOs isolated from species of Verbenaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(sabinene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, β-caryophyllene, α- aeruginosa. humulene, β-bisabolene, γ-cadinene, ar-curcumene, Moderate: Bacillus caryophyllene oxide, davanone)Fl,HD megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, (Davanone: linalool, 1,8-cineole. Sesquiterpenes: β- Escherichia coli, caryophyllene, β-bisabolene, γ-muurolene)Sh,HD Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus (germacrene D, biciclogermacrene, spathulenol, vulgaris, eremophilene, valecene, viridiflorene, 1,10-di-epi- Xanthomonas cubenol)L,HD campestris)Sh ((E)-nerolidol, δ-cadinene, α-humulene, β- caryophyllene)L

(caryophyllene, α-caryophyllene, germacrene D, isocaryo-phyllene, γ-muurolene, γ-elemene)L,HD

(Sabinene, 1,8-cineole, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene. Rare sesquiterpenoids: humulene epoxide III, 8- hydroxybicyclogermacrene)L/Fl,HD

3 Phyla nodiflora . . . . (Monoterpenes, Sesquiterpenes) (Monoterpenes: 2- . Pascual et (L.) Greene phenethyl alcohol, 1-octen-3-ol, linalool, 2,6- al., 2001 dimethyloctane, methyl salicylate, p-cymen-8-ol. Sesquiterpenes: Calamenene, β-caryophyllene, α- copaene, α-bergamotene, δ-cadinene, β-bisabolene)

4 Vitex agnus-castus L / Fl . (0.8 to HD / (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpene [AB / AF/ Senatore et L. / IF / 1.8)L/IF/ HD-MD alcohols)L,HD AM]L/Fr,HD al., 1996;

[AB]L,HD [IS / Lucks et al.,

404

2002;

405

Table 147: Details of EOs isolated from species of Verbenaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

Fr/ Fr,HD / SDE / (diterpenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes) LA]L,HD Sørensen & Se (0.76)Fr, SH / SFE (hydrocarbon, oxygenated monoterpenes)L,HD [AB]Se,HD Katsiotis, (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes)L/Fl (monoterpene 2000 HD hydrocarbons, oxygenated compounds)Fr,HD (AB: Salmonella (0.72)Fr, enteritidis, HD ((monoterpenes, sesquiand diterpenes)Fr Pseudomonas (0.56)Sh, (Hydrocarbon, oxygen-containing components, aeruginosa, good HD monoterpene hydrocarbon)L/IF/Fr,HD activity: (0.023)L, Staphylococcus HD (1.8-Cineole, a-terpineol, sabinene, β-caryophyllene, β- aureus, Bacillus (0.11)Fr, selinene, cis-β-farnesen. Monoterpenes: sabinene, α- & subtilis)Se,HD (IS HD β-pinene)L/IF/Fr,HD & LA: against Spilosoma (0.33 to (1,8-cineole, sabinene, α-pinene, β-farnesene, β- obliqua)L,HD 0.52)L/Fl caryophyllene, α-terpinenyl acetate)Fr/L (1,8-cineole, (0.8)L,HD (E)-β-farnesene, sabinene, α-pinene, α-terpenyl acetate, (AB: G+ : (0.26)L, β-caryophyllene, bicyclogermacrene)L/Fr/Fl,HD Micrococcus flavus, HD Bacillus (sabinene, 1,8-cineole, a-pinene)Fr,HD subtilis)L/Fr,HD (0.15 to 1.0)Fr,HD (1,8-cineole, sabinene, a-pinene)Fr,HD (1,8-cineole, a- (AF: stronger than pinene)L,HD (1, 8-cineole, sabinene, α-pinene, AB, against: terpinen-4-ol, p-cymene, limonene, α-terpineol)L,HD Alternaria alternata)L/Fr,HD (1,8-cineole, sabinene, α-pinene, β-phellandrene and α- (AB: moderate terpinyl acetate, trans-β-farnesene, activity: bicyclogermacrene)L/Fr Escherichia coli, (sabinene, 1,8-cineole, (E)-β-farnesene, α-pinene, β- Pseudomonas caryophyllene)Fr,HD aeruginosa, Bacillus

subtilis,

405

406

Table 147: Details of EOs isolated from species of Verbenaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(α-pinene, limonene, 1,8-cineol, β-caryophyllene, Staphylococcus trans-β-farnesene,α-humulene, spathulenol)Fr,SFE aureus)L,HD

(monoterpene: Sabinene, 1,8–cineole. Sesquiterpene: β-Caryophyllene)Fr,HD (Caryophylle oxide, n- hexadecane, α-terpenyl acetate)Se,HD

(monoterpene: limonene, cineole, sabinene, α- terpineol. Sesquiterpenes: β-caryophyllene, β- gurjunene, cuparene, globulol)L/Fl

(β-pinene, viridiflorol, α-pinene, cisocimene, 1,8- cineole, β-farnesene, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, β- phellandrene)L,HD

(1.8-cineole, limonene, sabinene, α-pinene)L/Fl,HD

5 Avicennia marina Fr . . SD (methyl palmitate, methyl p-vinylbenzoate, methyl . Huang et al., (Forssk.) Vierh. ester(9Z,15Z)-9,15-octadecadienoic acid, 3,5- 2009 difluorophenyl ester 2,6-difluorobenzoic acid, methyl ester octadecanoic acid, methyl oleate, n- caproaldehyde,methyl ester 9-oxononanoic acid, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone, phytol, diethyl phthalate, eicosane)Fr,SD

406

407

Table 148Table: Details 31: Details of EOs of isolated EOs isolated from speciesfrom species of Zingiberaceae of Zingiberaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Alpinia galanga L / (Distinctive (0.1)Rz/L, HD / SD (Monoterpenes, monoterpene alcohols & esters, [XN]Rz,HD [AO / De Pooter et (L.) Sw Rz odor)Rz/L/ HD sesquiterpenes)Rz AM]Rz,HD (AM: against al., 1985; St/R (0.09)L, Staphylococcus aureus, Charles et SD (monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes)Rz/L/St/R,SD Streptococcus suis, al., 1992 (Strong (0.1)St,SD Erysipelothrix Eucalyptus, (0.23)Rz, ((E)-methyl cinnamate)Rz/L/St/R,SD rhusiopathiac, pinene & SD Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (1,8-cineole & β-pinene)Rz,HD camphor (0.08)R, Escherichia coli, notes with SD (1,8-cineole, β-pinene, camphor)L,HD Pasteurella multocida, herbal side (methyleugenol, eugenol acetate, chavicol (4- Actinomyces notes)L/St, allylphenol), chavicol acetate)Rz pyogenes)Rz,HD (XN: SD (myrcene)Rz/L against toxigenic strain Aspergillus flavus (Strong (1,8-cineole, camphor, β-pinene, (E)-methyl "aflatoxins")Rz,HD Eucalyptus cinnamate, bornyl acetate, guaiol)L,SD & camphor notes with (1,8-cineole, camphor, (E)-methyl cinnamate, intense guaiol, bornyl acetate, β-pinene, α- fresh-spicy- terpineol)St,SD herbal side notes)Rz,S (1,8-cineole, α-fenchyl acetate, camphor, (E)- D (Strong methyl cinnamate, guaiol)Rz,SD fresh-spicy with (α-fenchyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, borneol, bornyl camphorac acetate, elemol)R,SD eous,

eucalyptol (zerumbone)Rz

407

408

Table 148: Details of EOs isolated from species of Zingiberaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

& borneol (limonene, 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-terpineol, α- notes)R,SD fenchyl acetate, & (E)-methyl cinnamate)Rz

(α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, 1,8-cineole, camphor)L

(1,8-cineole, 4-allyphenyl acetate, β- bisabolene)Rz,HD

2 Zingiber officinale Rz (Light (2.4)Rz,H HD / (Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, carbonyl [AO / AF / AB / Connell, Roscoe yellow D SFE MW-HD compounds, alcohols, monoterpene AM]Rz,HD [IS]!Rz,SD 1970; color / / SD / hydrocarbons, esters)Rz,HD [AF / AO]Rz Onyenekwe Pleasant SH / & odor)Rz,H SFME / (hydrocarbon, oxygenated hydrocarbon)SFE [AI/ GP]Rz,SD Hashimoto, D (Citrus- SFE [AB]Rz/L,HD (AF: strong 1999; like odor) (Geranial, a-zingiberene, (E,E)-a-farnesene, against Fusarium Vendruscolo (lemony neral, ar-curcumene)Rz,HD (zingiberene, oxysporum)Rz et al., 2006 odor)Rz,S sesquiphellandrene, 2,6-dimethyl hepten-l-ol, α- D gurjunene, linalool oxide, isovaler-aldehyde, 2- (AF: strong against: pentanone, cadinol, α- and γ-calacorene, Fusarium moniliforme, eremophyllene, t-muurolol, α-himachallene, α- spergillus flavus, cubebene acetic acid, pinanol, α-santalene, Aspergillus solani, geranyl propionate, geranoic acid, (E,E)-α- Aspergillus oryzae, farnesene, n-methyl pyrrole, geranic Aspergillus niger)Rz,HD acid)Rz,HD (AB: Proteus vulgaris, (high proportion of geranial, neral) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: zingiberene, ar- Klebsiella curcumene, β-bisabolene, β- pneumoniae)Rz,HD (AM:

sesquiphellandrene)Rz,SD Acinetobacter baumanii,

408

Aeromonas sobria,

409

Table 148: Details of EOs isolated from species of Zingiberaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

(ar-curcumene, zingiberene, β-bisabolene, Candida albicans, cadina-1,4-diene)Rz Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella (α-zingiberene, gingerols, shogaols)SFE (ar- pneumoniae, Pseudomonas curcumene, β-myrcene, 1,8-cineol, citral, aeruginosa, Salmonella zingiberene)Rz,SD typhimurium, Serratia marcescens, (neral, geranial, zingiberene, α-bisabolene, β- Staphylococcus aureus) sesquiphellandrene)SFE (G+ : Bacilluslicheniformis, Bacillus spizizenii, (α-zingiberene, camphene, ar-curcumene, β- Staphylococcus aureus. G- : phellandrene)Rz Escherichia coli, Klebsiella (β-caryophyllene)L,HD pneumoniae, Pseudomonas stutzeri)Rz/L,HD (monoterpenoid: camphene, geranial, geranyl acetate)Rz,HD

409

410

Table 149: Details of EOs isolated from species of Zygophyllaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Peganum harmala L / . (2.3)Sh, HD (1-hexyl-2-nitrocyclohexane, Z-2-octadecan-1- [LA / IS]L,HD Saini & Jaiwal, L. Sh HD ol, 3,5,24-trimethyltetracontane, 2-octadecyl- 2000; Abdellah 1,3- propane-diol, E-2-tetradecen-1-ol, 11,14- (LA & IS: Schistocerca et al., 2013 ecosadienoic acid methyl ester, eugenol, gregaria)L,HD 2,6,10,15-tetramethyl-heptadecane, 11- [AB]Sh,HD (AB: tricosene, 2-piperidinone,N-(4-bromo-N-butyl), Strong activity againt: L-(+)-ascorbic acid 2,6-dihexadecanoate, 14- Bacillus cereus, heptadecenal, E-9-tetra decenoic acid , 1,1- Staphylococcus aureus, dodecanediol, diacetate, 2-methyl-7- Salmonella indica, octadecyne)Sh,HD Escherichia coli)Sh,HD

2 Tribulus . . SFE SH / SFE . . Fraga, 2006; parvispinus Presl Hamed et al., 2017

410

411

Table 150: Details of EOs isolated from species of Aizoaceae/ Ficoidaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Sesuvium L . (0.15)L,HD HD (α-pinene, camphene, β-pinene, α- [AO / AF / AB / AM] Magwa et al., portulacastrum L. terpinene, O-cymene, limonene, 1,8- 2006; Slama et cineole, α-terpinene, bornyl acetate, (AO: Threshold of 15.9mm) al., 2007 tridecane, trans-caryophyllene, α- (AF: Candida albicans, humulene)L,HD Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium notatum) (AB: Acetobacter calcoacetica, Bacillus subtillis, Clostridium sporogenes, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhii, Staphylococcus aureus & Yersinia enterocolitica)L, HD

411

412

Table 151: Details of EOs isolated from species of Anacardiaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Pistacia khinjuk L / . . HD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpene [AH/ AE] Taran et al., Stocks. Sh / alcohols, no sesquiterpene alcohols)L,HD 2009; Pirbalouti Fr (Phellandrene, α-pinene, 1, 8 – Cineole, 1, 5 - (AH: Protoscoleces of & Aghaee, 2011 Heptadien-4- one, 3, 3, 6 trimethyl, Camphor, Echinococcus β-Selinene, β-pinene, Myrcene, beta- granulosus)L,HD caryophyllene, Germacrene B, Spathuleno)Fr,HD (AE)L

(1, 8 – Cineole, 1, 5 - Heptadien -4- one, 3, 3, 6 trimethyl, Camphor, β-Selinene)Fr (Spathulenol, Germacrene B, Aromadendrone, α-Eudesmol, Zizanol, β-caryophyllene, Myrcene, α-pinene, Cymene, Limonene)L, HD

412

413

Table 152: Details of EOs isolated from species of Arecaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Phoenix L . (0.05)L, HD (3,4-dimethoxytoluene, 2,4-dimethoxytoluene, [MR] Podda et al., dactylifera L. β-caryophyllene, p-cresyl methyl ether, 2012; Spathe HD caryophyllene oxide)L,HD (MR: Against yellow Saganuwan, / Fr fever mosquito: Aedes 2009 (alcohols, aldehydes, esters, ketones, lactones, aegypti)L,HD terpenes)Fr

(Alcohols: 2-propanol, isoamyl alcohol, phenylethyl alcohol. Esters: Isoamyl acetate, hexyl isovalerate. Aldehydes: (E)-2-decenal & tridecanal. Terpenoids: 1,8-cineole, a-thujone, camphor. Hydrocarbons: (Z)-2-tridecene, (E)-2- tridecene, n-undecane, n-pentadecane. Ketone: (E)-geranylacetone, 2-methyl-2-nonen-4-one. Lactone: butyrolactone)Fr

413

414

Table 153: Details of EOs isolated from species of Bignoniaceae No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Jacaranda Sh (Green . H (Ethers, high amount of . Padin et al., mimosifolia D. color! / aldehydes,alchohols,esters, hydrocarbons)Sh,H 2013 Con Jasmin odor)Sh,H

Table 154: Details of EOs isolated from species of Caryophyllaceae/ Illecebraceae No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Stellaria media . . . . (apigenin, 6,8-di-C-glucopyranosyl apigenin, . Pieroni et al., (L.) Vill. quercitin 3-Ο-α-L-rhamnoside, querctin, 2002; Jovanović daucosterol) et al., 2003

414

415

Table 155: Details of EOs isolated from species of Casuarinaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Casuarina L / (Light (0.09)L, HD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, . Bandaranayak equisetifolia Fr yellow oxygenatedmonoterpenoids, sesquiterpene e et L., 2002; color)L/Fr, HD hydrocarbons, oxygenated derivatives, Ogunwande (0.10)Fr, aliphatic, non-terpenoid)L,HD et al., 2011 HD HD (sesquiterpene hydrocarbon)Fr,HD (pentadecanal, 1,8-cineole, high amount of apiole, high amount α-phellandrene, α- terpinene)L/Fr,HD

Table 156: Details of EOs isolated from species of Cistaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Helianthemum Sh (Yellow (0.01)Sh, HD (hexadecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, linoleic . Pazy, 2000 kahiricum Delile color)Sh,HD HD acid, dodecanoic acid)Sh,HD

415

416

Table 157: Details of EOs isolated from species of Combretaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Terminalia L (Fruity, L,SFE SD / SFE (High amount ketones, aldehydes responsible [AO]L,SD/SFE Ko et al., 2002; catappa L. floral for odour)L,SFE Kloucek ET et odor)L,SFE (AO)L,SD/SFE al., 2005; Nair & (6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanoic)L,SD Chanda, 2008

(1-(2,3,6-trimethyl phenyl)-(E)-3-buten-2- one)Lyellow,SD (geranyl acetone)L,SD

(ethyl acetate, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2- pentadecanone, phytol)L,SFE

416

417

Table 158: Details of EOs isolated from species of Frankeniaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Frankenia Sh . (0.16)Sh, SD (Fatty acids, fatty acid esters, hydrocarbons: [AB] Saïdana et pulverulenta L. alkanes, alkenes. Terpenoids: oxygenated al., 2010; SD sesquiterpenes. Aromatic compounds)Sh,SD (AB: Staphylococcus Chaieb, (Hexadecanoic acid, methyl linoleate, (E, E)- aureus, Micrococcus 2011 farnesyl acetate, (E)- nerolidol, benzyl luteus, Salmonella benzoate)Sh,SD typhimurium)Sh,SD

417

418

Table 159: Details of EOs isolated from species of Geraniaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Erodium W (Yellow (0.014)W, HD (isomenthone, citronellol, geraniol, methyl [AB]W,HD Lis-Balchin, cicutarium (L.) L color / HD eugenol) 1993; Lis- Her. Ex Aiton Strong (0.01)W, (AB: moderate Balchin & distinctive HD (Fatty acids and fatty acid derived compounds, susceptibility)W,HD Hart, 1994; green-grassy carotenoid derived compounds, Damien odor / Semi terpenoids)W,HD Dorman, 1995 solid)W,HD (hexadecanoic acid, hexahydrofarnesyl acetone)W,HD

418

419

Table 160: Details of EOs isolated from species of Hypericaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

1 Hypericum L / St (Yellow (0.33)L, HD / SD (2-methyloctane, b-caryophyllene, a- [AB / AF / AM]Sh,SD Weyerstahl et perforatum / Fl / color)Sh,HD pinene)L,SD al., 1995; Sh (Light SD (AM: Bacillus cereus, Gudžić et al., yellow (0.12)Fl, (a-pinene, 2-methyloctane, a-terpineol)Fl,SD Micrococcus luteus, 2001; color)Sh,HD (monoterpene hydrocarbons: acetates. Sarcina lutea, Schwob et al., SD oxygenated monoterpenes. sesquiterpene Staphylococcus aureus, 2004 (trace)St, hydrocarbons. oxygenated sesquiterpenes)L Agrobacterium (Ishwarane, α-cuprenene)L tumefaciens, Escherichia SD coli, Proteus mirabilis, (caryophyllene oxide, b-caryophyllene, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (0.058 to spathulenol, 1-tetradecanol, b-funebrene, 1- Pseudomonas tolaasii, 0.092)Sh, dodecanol, c-muurolene)Sh,HD Salmonella enteritidis, HD Candida albicans)Sh,SD (β-caryophyllene, 2-methyl-octane) (0.07 to 0.092)Sh, (α-pinene, 2-methyl-octane) HD (oxygenated sesquiterpene fraction, low amount (0.03 to monoterpenes)L/Fl,HD 1.93) (0.03 to (caryophyllene oxide high in L, spathulenol, 0.1)Sh, viridiflorol, high in Fl:dodecanol, spathulenol, viridiflorol, carotol, tetradecanol)Fl/L,HD HD (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpenoids: (0.1)Sh, α-pinene)Sh,HD

HD (sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, monoterpene

hydrocarbons)Sh,SD

419

420

Table 160: Details of EOs isolated from species of Hypericaceae (continued) No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method

((-)-a-pinene, b-pinene, (Z)-bfarnesene, germacrene D)Sh,SD

(β-caryophyllene, caryophellene oxide, spathulenol, α-pinene)Sh,HD

(2-methyloctane, germacrene D, α-pinene) (high content of non-terpene compounds, low content of monoterpenes)Sh,SD

(a-pinene, allo-aromadendrene, germacrene-D, n-octane, a-selinene, b-selinene)Sh,HD

Table 161: Details of EOs isolated from species of Iridaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Gynandriris L / . . HD (3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, [AB]L/Bl,HD Al-Qudah et sisyrinchium (L.) Bl ledene oxide (II), furfural, trans-sabinol)L,HD al., 2015 Parl. (phenylacetaldehyde, 8,9- (AB: G+: Bacillus cereus, dehydroneoisolongifolene, 8S,14-cedranediol, Bacillus subtilis)L/Bl,HD

furfural)Bl,HD

421

Table 162: Details of EOs isolated from species of Liliaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Dipcadi . . . . (Méthyle 3,6-octadecadiynoate, Myristate . El-Shabrawy et erythraeum Webb d'éthyle, Carvone, 6-Methyloctadecane, al., 2016 & Berth. Linalool)

Table 163: Details of EOs isolated from species of Lythraceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Lawsonia inermis L / Fl (Light (0.23)L, HD (1,8-cineole, α-pinene, p-cymene)L/Fr,HD [AO]! [CP]! Rahmat ET AL., L. / Fr yellow HD (ethyl hexadecanoate, (E)-methyl cinnamate, 2006; color)L/Fr, (0.47)Fr,H isocaryophyllene, (E)-β-ionone, methyl Chaudhary et HD D linolenate)L al., 2010

(β-ionone & its derivatives, 2-phenylethanol, benzyl alcohol, C6 alcohols, aldehydes)!Fl!

421

422

Table 164: Details of EOs isolated from species of Malvaceae/ Tiliaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Corchorus R . . SD! (2,3,3-trimethyloctane, n-butyl acetate, cis-9- [AO]R Ahmad, 2007 depressus (L.) hexadecenal)R,SD! Stocks. (AO: excellent)R

422

423

Table 165: Details of EOs isolated from species of Ranunculaceae

No. Botanical Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Name Part Properties Method

1 Nigella Fr / . (0.41)Se, HD / SD / (Monoterpenes)Se,SH-SD (monoterpenes)Se,SD [AO / AI]Se,SH-SD El- sativa L. Se SH-SD / [AB]Se,HD Dakhakhny SH-SD SPM-H / (monoterpenes rich, oxygenated derivatives)Se ,1963; (0.44)Se,HD MW / SFE (thymoquinone rich, carvacrol, t-anethole, 4- [AB / AM / AC]Se,HD Erkan et (1.7)Se,HD!/ terpineol)Se,SH-SD al., 2008 SPM-H! [AI / GP]Se,SD (p-cymene, γ-terpinene, α-thujene, carvacrol, α- (0.18 to pinene, β-pinene, new compounds: cis-4- [IS / LA]Fr,HD 1.4)Se (0.4 methoxythujane, trans-4- to 0.5)Se,SD methoxythujane)Se,HD/SPM-H [CP / AT]Se,SD (0.54 to (IS & LA: against stored- 0.57)Se, (Monoterpenes rich: p-cymene, thymol)Se,HD (p- product beetle Tribolium MW cymene, a-thujene, a-pinene, b-pinene, c- castaneum)Fr,HD (0.4)Se,SD terpinene, thymoquinone)Se

(p-cymene, thymoquinone, α-thujene, longifolene, (thymoquinone existance β-pinene, α-pinene, carvacrol)Se (Major plays significant role in oil's components: linoleic acid, thymoquinone, biological activities) palmitic acid, p-cymene, longifolene, carvacrol)Se (AC & strong AB: against (para-cymene, thymoquinone)Se,SD various clinical cariogenic bacteria: S. mitis, S. mutans, (p-cymene, α-pinene, β-pinene)Se S. constellatus, G. haemolysans)Se,HD

423

424

Table 165: Details of EOs isolated from species of Ranunculaceae (continued) No. Botanical Plant Physical Yield (%) Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Name Part Properties Method

(trans-anethole, p-cymene, limonene, carvone)Se (AM: Bacillus cereus, (carvacrol, 2-methyl-5-Prop-2- Bacillus subtilis, enyldihydroquinone, dihydrothymoquinone, Staphylococcus aureus, terpini-4-en-1-ol)Se,SD Pseudomonas aeruginosa)Se

(p-cymene, thymoquinone, α-thujene, 4-terpineol, (G+ : S. aureus. G-: E. carvacrol)Se,MW coli)Se,HD

Table 166: Details of EOs isolated from species of Rubiaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Galium Fr . . HD (oleic acid, eicosyl ester, 9-octadecanoic acid (Z)-, [AB / AF / AM]Fr,HD Mitova et tricornutum Dandy tetradecyl ester, hexadecanoic acid, 9-octadecanoic al., 1996; acid (Z), 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl) ethyl ester, (AB: Escherichia Jan et al., hexadecanoic acid, 1-(hydroxymethyl)-1,2-ethanediyl coli)Fr,HD (AF: 2015 ester, 4H-1-benzopyran-4-one,2-(3,4- Candida dihydroxyphenyl)-6,8-di-a -D-glucopyranosyl-5,7- albicans)Fr,HD dihydroxy-(3.6%)myrtenol, 9-octadecanoic acid (Z)-,

tetradecyl ester)Fr,HD

424

425

Table 167: Details of EOs isolated from species of Salvadoraceae/ Salourloruceae

No. Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method Botanical Name (%)

1 Salvadora persica St / R (Yellow (0.6)St,H HD (Monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated [AB / AF / AM]St,HD [IS] Alali et al., L. color / D monoterpenes, sesquiterpene (AB: strong against: 2005; Sofrata Pungent (0.1)R,HD hydrocarbons)St,HD Pseudomonas aeruginosa, et al., 2011 odor)R,HD Staphylococcos (1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), α-caryophellene, β- aureus)St,HD (AF: pinene, 9-epi.-(E.)-caryophellene)St,HD Candida albicans, (benzyl isothiocyanate, limonene, a- Trichosporon pinene)R,HD cutaneum)St,HD

(a-pinene, limonene, citronellol, citronellal, thymol, camphor)

(rich on benzyl isothiocyanate, benzyl nitrile, carvacrol, benzaldehyde, aniline, naphthalene)St,HD

425

426

Table 168: Details of EOs isolated from species of Solanaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Withania R (Light . . (Terpenoids, Phenolics) Perry et al., somnifera (L.) brown color 2000; Mehrotra Dunal. / Pungent et al., 2017 odor)R

Table 169: Details of EOs isolated from species of Tamaricaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Tamarix nilotica L / (Yellow (0.1)Sh, HD (Bicyclo Octane-2-one, 1-Hexanol, 6-Hepten-3- . Abouzid et al., (Ehrenb.) Bunge St / color / HD One, 2-Ethyltetrahydrofuran, 4-Methyl, 3- 2008 Sh Distinctive Heptanone. Minor components: 2,3,4,4- pungent Tretrapropyl-1-(Trimethylsilyl), 1-(3,5- odor / Dimethyl-4-Hydroxyphenyl)-6-Hydroxy- Soluble in 1,3,3,5,7-Pentamethyl, n-Nonadecane, ether & Tetradecamethyl-Heptasiloxane)Sh,HD ethanol, insoluble in

water)Sh,

426

427

Table 170: Details of EOs isolated from species of Violaceae

No. Botanical Name Plant Physical Yield Isolation Main Chemical Groups/ Components Biological Activity References

Part Properties Method (%)

1 Viola odorata L. L / Fl . (2.3)Fl, HD (butyl-2-ethylhexylphthalate, 5,6,7,7a- [AO / AB]L,HD Hammami et tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-2(4H)- al., 2011; HD benzofuranone)L,HD [AF]Fl,HD Akhbari et al., 2012 (Phenyl butanone, linalool, benzyl alcohol, α- (AF: strong activity against: cadinol, globulol, viridiflorol)Fl Botrytis cinerea "Grey mould

disease")Fl,HD

427

428

24.786 25.101

23.381

15.595 15.244 15.783

Figure 67: The chromatogram of A. javanica fresh leaves’ EO

429

12.182 12.868

20.563 17.251 20.248 15.783 18.791 21.076 14.666 16.418 18.482 15.243 17.030

Figure 68: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried leaves’ EO

430

17.030 19.074 17.117 17.781 2 17.478 16.814 18.415 17.248

Figure 69: The chromatogram of A. javanica freeze-dried leaves’ EO

431

20.654

18.953 17.618

Figure 70: The chromatogram of A. javanica fresh flowers’ EO

432

19.388 16.169 19.044 16.677 18.595 17.11818.537 17.031 20.251

Figure 71: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO

433

21.075 0.659

Figure 72: The chromatogram of A. javanica freeze-dried flowers’ EO

434

Figure 73: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO of spring

435

21.888

Figure 74: The chromatogram of A. javanica air-dried flowers’ EO of summer

436

24.776 26.092

16.168

1 17.774

20.653

Figure 75: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 1.7

437

18.364 18.912 17.548 21.071 20.653

Figure 76: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 1.9

438

Figure 77: The chromatogram of C. amblyocarpa essential oil at pF 2.1