The United States Asserts Its Political Independence from Europe

II. DIPLOMACY DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY ERA The French Alliance The Treaty of Paris Era of Articles of Confederation (1776–1788)

1776 a ‘‘Royal Brute,’’ Paine’s essay declared there were neither natural nor religious reasons to justify his January 10, 1776 right to rule. The English king’s hereditary rights derived only from the historic fact that William the Thomas Paine’s ‘‘Common Sense’’ is published Conqueror (1066), a ‘‘French bastard landing with an in Philadelphia. armed banditti,’’ had made himself king against ‘‘the Urging a demand for American independence, consent of the natives.’’ ‘‘Common Sense’’ argued that King George had no Paine’s essay also described America’s relation- legitimate right to rule the American colonies. ship to England and Europe in terms that later writers Moreover, Paine asserted, the colonial economy would call ‘‘isolationism.’’ He claimed America would would prosper by severing its political connections flourish economically when it gained independence with Great Britain. from Britain. ‘‘The agricultural products of the colo- Paine’s pamphlet found a receptive audience in nies,’’ he wrote, will ‘‘always have a market while eat- America because independence or complete submis- ing is the custom of Europe. . . . Our corn will fetch its sion to the British government appeared to be the only price in any market in Europe.’’ Moreover, Paine alternatives in early 1776. Following the Stamp Act stated, American commerce would prosper best if crisis of 1765, political disagreements between the there were no political alliances with any European British government and the 13 American colonies country. ‘‘As Europe is our market for trade, we grew, finally bursting into intermittent warfare begin- ought to form no partial connection with any part ning at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. Before of it.’’ America’s true interest is to ‘‘steer clear of 1775 ended, colonial forces undertook an expedition European contentions. . . . Europe is too thickly to invade Quebec, and British troops under General planted with kingdoms to be long at peace, and when- Henry Clinton prepared to invade the southern colo- ever a war breaks out between England and any for- nies. eign power, the trade of America goes to ruin, because Thus, appearing after nearly nine months of hos- of her connection with Britain.’’ Paine’s proposal that tility, ‘‘Common Sense’’ gave the colonists, now clas- America should pursue peaceful commerce with all sified as rebels by the king, justification for declaring nations while making political alliances with none their independence, a definitive act of revolution became the essence of American political isolationism against King George’s government. Calling the king for over a century after independence was attained.

7 8 March 3, 1776

Correspondence instructed Lee to go to Paris because an agent of Vergennes in America, Achard (or Archard) de Bonvouloir, assured the committee of French interest. Lee was also assisted by Caron de Beaumarchais, the author of The Barber of Seville, who had some influence at the French court. Vergennes was eager to aid any enemy of Great Britain because France had fought the British and lost most of its empire as a result of the Treaty of Paris of 1763, and he was desirous of restoring the balance of power in Europe. In offering aid to the American, Vergennes wanted to restore the balance of power in Europe. To fulfill this plan, he persuaded Charles III of Spain to give 1 million livres to the American inde- Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, first published on January 10, pendence movement in June 1776. 1776, urged colonists to seek independence. Library of Congress Beaumarchais became the middleman in purchas- ing the military supplies for America. Under the name of the Rodrique Hortalez Company, Beaumarchais profited from his connections to the French govern- March 3, 1776 ment by providing 40 vessels carrying a substantial amount of French goods to the American insurgents. The Continental Congress sends Silas Deane to France to seek friendship and aid for the American cause. June 7, 1776 A defeated member of congress, Deane had no diplo- Independence is proposed. matic experience. Although he was not fluent in Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a resolution French, he helped create methods for securing mili- to the Continental Congress, that the United Colonies tary aid and funds from France. ‘‘are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent See July 27, 1777. states.’’ Lee’s resolution included two other important clauses: one stated ‘‘it is expedient forthwith to take April 6, 1776 the most effectual measures for forming foreign alli- ances’’; the second asked that ‘‘a plan of confederation Congress opens American ports to all nations be prepared.’’ except Britain. Lee’s resolution resulted in the appointment of By opening all of its seaports to foreign trade, three committees: one, to prepare a declaration of Congress rejected Britain’s Navigation Acts and independence; the second, to propose a treaty for approved a de facto act of commercial independence. use by a diplomatic commission to Europe; and the The decree permitted French, Spanish, Dutch, and third, to prepare a constitution for governing the new other nations’ ships to trade with the American colo- United States. nies. See July 2–4, 1776; September 24, 1776; and November 15, 1777. May 2, 1776 King Louis XVI of France orders 1 million livres July 2–4, 1776 to be used secretly to supply munitions for the On July 2, Congress votes for an American army. independence declaration by 12-0, New York abstaining. This assistance resulted from discussions between Arthur Lee and the French foreign minister, the Two days later, Congress approved the committee Count de Vergennes. Soon after its founding on report prepared by Thomas Jefferson, with the assis- November 29, 1775, the Committee on Secret tance of John Adams and Benjamin Franklin. This April 17, 1777 9

trals to trade in noncontraband items; (3) a restricted contraband list not including foodstuffs and naval stores. Particularly regarding possible treaties with France and Spain, the committee report hoped to make these only commercial treaties, involving no political or military alliances. It asked France to treat American imports on the same basis as those of French citizens and agreed to give France the most-favored-nation status in American trade.

September 26, 1776 Congress appoints a diplomatic commission to negotiate treaties with European nations. The three appointees were Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Thomas Jefferson. After Jefferson declined, Arthur Lee replaced him.

December 26, 1776 American troops defeat the British in a battle at Trenton. Franklin, Jefferson, Adams, Livingston, and Sherman drafting the Declaration of Independence. National Archives Crossing the icy Delaware River at night and attacking from the north and northeast, Washington’s soldiers surprised the British troops camped near Trenton, report provided the text for the Declaration of New Jersey. Independence. The vote on July 4 was, again, 12-0. Washington’s victory came after a series of defeats and retreats by the American armies. In June, the Northern Army retreated from Canada. Later, it lost July 19, 1776 engagements to the British at Lake Champlain Congress votes to have the Declaration of (October 11) and Split Rock (October 13). Independence engrossed for formal signature Washington’s army lost New York City (September by the 55 delegates. 12) and retreated across New Jersey to Pennsylvania By this time, the Provincial Congress of New York had by December 11. Thus, Washington’s attack on voted (July 9) to endorse independence, making the Trenton gave the Continental Army one happy note declaration unanimous, without abstention. after six months of defeat.

September 24, 1776 Model treaty for negotiating with European 1777 countries is approved by Congress. April 17, 1777 This ‘‘Plan of 1776’’ contained basic concepts of mar- itime law and neutral rights that the new nation pur- Congress reconstitutes the Committee of sued throughout its history. Following international Secret Correspondence as the Committee for Foreign Affairs. ideas frequently used in 18th-century Europe, the Model Treaty’s main points were (1) the contention The committee had no secretary or clerk, however, that free ships make free goods; (2) freedom of neu- and its scope of activity was strictly limited. 10 July 27, 1777

July 27, 1777 tually, the French Alliance of 1778 was made less dif- Two famous foreign military officers, the ficult by the events of October 17, 1777. Marquis de Lafayette and Baron Johann de Kalb, arrive in Philadelphia. These and other European military experts had been November 15, 1777 recruited by Silas Deane. Together with two other Articles of Confederation are adopted by foreign officers, Tadeusz Kos´ciuszko (commissioned Congress. October 18, 1776) and Baron von Steuben (commis- sioned May 5, 1778), these generals aided the colonial These articles came from the committee originated war effort. Deane’s recruitments, occasionally over- in June 1776 as part of Lee’s resolution. The com- zealous, were assisted by the charm, popularity, and mittee reported to Congress in July 1776, but the renown as a scientist of Benjamin Franklin, who delegates intermittently debated the 13 clauses of the reached Paris on December 21, 1776, and quickly articles for more than a year. After approval by endeared himself to French public opinion. Congress on November 15, they were sent to each state for ratification, a process not completed until March 1, 1781.

October 17, 1777 The Northern American Army wins the Battle of December 17, 1777 Saratoga. France recognizes American independence. British forces under General John Burgoyne invaded Louis XVI’s council of state agreed to recognize the northern New York in an attempt to gain control of independence of the United States. the region from the Hudson River to Canada. The American victory prevented this region from falling to British rule. In addition, it caused Lord North to form the Carlisle Commission to attempt to obtain a reconciliation with the colonists in 1778 and to pre- 1778 vent the formation of a French-American alliance. Most writers consider the Battle of Saratoga a turning February 6, 1778 point in the war. American agents in France noted The Franco–American Treaty of Alliance is that Frenchmen reacted as if their troops had defeated approved. the British. Obtaining French assistance and, even- The treaty was signed by French Foreign Minister Vergennes and American Commissioners Deane and Franklin. The agreement culminated in nearly two years of French aid to the American cause. On February 6, two treaties were signed: one, of alliance; the second, of amity and commerce. France recognized American independence, granting it the rights to Bermuda as well as all British colonies on the mainland of North America. The French were free to acquire all British territory in the West Indies. Both parties agreed not to make a truce with Britain with- out the other’s consent. The commercial treaty gave each ally the most- favored-nation status. The alliance would be ‘‘for- ever,’’ a unique clause; no one knows how it got The surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga. Copy of inserted in the treaty. For the U.S. ratification of the painting by John Trumbull, 1820–1821. National Archives treaty, see May 4, 1778.