Western University Scholarship@Western Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository 7-26-2012 12:00 AM Outside Influences: Great War Experiences along the Canada-U.S. Border Brandon R. Dimmel The University of Western Ontario Supervisor Dr. Jonathan Vance The University of Western Ontario Graduate Program in History A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the equirr ements for the degree in Doctor of Philosophy © Brandon R. Dimmel 2012 Follow this and additional works at: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd Part of the Social History Commons Recommended Citation Dimmel, Brandon R., "Outside Influences: Great War Experiences along the Canada-U.S. Border" (2012). Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. 666. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/666 This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Western. 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OUTSIDE INFLUENCES: GREAT WAR EXPERIENCES ALONG THE CANADA- U.S. BORDER (Spine title: Outside Influences) (Thesis format: Monograph) by Brandon Richard Dimmel Graduate Program in History A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies Western University London, Ontario, Canada © Brandon Richard Dimmel 2012 THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies CERTIFICATE OF EXAMINATION Supervisor Examiners ______________________________ ______________________________ Dr. Jonathan Vance Dr. Thomas Klug ______________________________ Dr. Keith Fleming ______________________________ Dr. Robert MacDougall ______________________________ Dr. Adam Harmes The thesis by Brandon Richard Dimmel entitled: Outside Influences: Great War Experiences along the Canada-U.S. Border is accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ______________________ _______________________________ Date Chair of the Thesis Examination Board ii Abstract This dissertation provides a history of three border regions along the Canada-U.S. international boundary during the First World War era (1914-1918), including Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan; St. Stephen, New Brunswick, and Calais, Maine; and White Rock, British Columbia, and Blaine, Washington. It examines the development of cross- border economies and border-crossing cultures in these communities before this period and reveals how the war–and specifically U.S. neutrality–affected such transnational relationships. Furthermore, it investigates local reactions to wartime legislation designed to better monitor the cross-border movement of enemy aliens, undesirable immigrant groups, enlisted men, and, following the introduction of the Military Service Act in 1917, men of military age (18 to 45). The three case studies included in this dissertation reveal that attitudes toward the international boundary’s permeability varied widely across Canada. In communities where the war was preceded by several generations of intense cross-border economic and social relations, such as at Windsor and St. Stephen, the conflict failed to disrupt the continued growth of distinct border-crossing cultures. In fact, in many cases residents of these communities used various local channels to express their belief that the federal government should better accommodate transnational traditions when implementing legislation affecting travel across the international boundary. Furthermore, the language used to formulate these protests reveals that many residents of Windsor and St. Stephen believed that they resided in a distinctly international community. By contrast, the White Rock case study reveals that where settlement at the border did not pre-date the introduction of a centralized immigration apparatus, there were far fewer protests against changes to the boundary’s permeability. The White Rock and Blaine example also demonstrates that concerns about the movement of certain goods and people–including alcohol and undesirable racial groups–factored into local conceptions of the international boundary and an extranational neighbour. Together, these three case studies provide insight into how Canadians in border communities interpreted the war, nationalism, and the Canada-U.S. relationship. Keywords: Boundaries, Borders, Great War, Canada, Border Security, Immigration, Customs, Nationalism, Immigration and Naturalization Service; Transnationalism iii Acknowledgments I am very grateful to a number of incredibly capable and professional people for their help and support in completing this project. First of all, I must thank Dr. Jonathan Vance for his guidance throughout, from the application process to coursework, comprehensive exams, the thesis proposal, and then researching and writing the dissertation. I am also indebted to Dr. Vance for helping coordinate a research assistantship opportunity and travel funding on a number of occasions. Western University, the Department of History, and the Government of Ontario provided further financial assistance necessary to pursue the research for this project. I would also like to thank a number of archivists for their assistance, including Ryan Gallagher of Surrey Archives, Hugh Ellenwood of White Rock Museum & Archives, Michael Fish of the Windsor Public Library Archives, and Janice Fairney of the Charlotte County Archives. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the reference and librarian staff at the D.B. Weldon Library, particularly David Murphy and Elizabeth Mantz. My MA supervisor, Dr. Miriam Wright of the University of Windsor, also offered substantial guidance as this project progressed. Finally, local historians John Cunningham and Doug Dougherty must be acknowledged for relating their intimate knowledge of the St. Croix Valley during and after my visit to the region in 2009. Of course, the support of friends and family was also crucial in keeping this project moving forward. My greatest thanks go to Rachael Griffin, Ian McColl, Russell Ready, Dorotea Gucciardo, Liam Van Beek, Marian and Dale Creighton, Donald and Sylvia Dimmel, Larry and Jackie Dixon, Stephanie Dimmel, and my parents, Richard and Laurie Dimmel. Without your support this would not have been possible. iv Table of Contents CERTIFICATE OF EXAMINATION ........................................................................... ii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v Glossary ............................................................................................................................. vi Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Dissecting a Continent: A History of the U.S.-Canadian Border to 1914 ...... 23 Contact and Beyond ..................................................................................................... 25 Central Canada and the East ........................................................................................ 46 The Northwest .............................................................................................................. 52 The Pacific Coast ......................................................................................................... 56 The Bureaucratization of the Border ............................................................................ 62 Chapter 3: Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan: An Introduction............................ 68 Chapter 4: Relations between Windsor and Detroit during the First World War ............. 89 Chapter 5: The Windsor-Detroit Border during the First World War ............................ 118 Chapter 6: St. Stephen, New Brunswick, and Calais, Maine: An Introduction .............. 155 Chapter 7: Relations between St. Stephen and Calais during the First World War ........ 177 Chapter 8: The St. Stephen-Calais Border during the First World War ......................... 206 Chapter 9: White Rock, British Columbia, and Blaine, Washington: An Introduction.. 224 Chapter 10: Relations between White Rock and Blaine during the First World War .... 246 Chapter 11: The White Rock-Blaine Border during the First World War ...................... 266 Chapter 12: Conclusion................................................................................................... 284 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 301 Curriculum Vitae ............................................................................................................ 325 v Glossary 9/11 September 11, 2001 AL American Legion CBSA Canada Border Services Agency CBWG Cascadia Border Working Group CEF Canadian Expeditionary Force CPF Canadian Patriotic Fund DP Dominion Police DST Daylight Saving Time GAR Grand Army of the Republic GNR Great Northern Railway INS Immigration and Naturalization Service IODE Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire IR Imperial Reserve IWW Industrial Workers of the World LAC Library and