A Publication from the International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC)

Submarine Cable Protection and the Environment A Bi-Annual Update from ICPC’s Marine Environmental Advisor, Dr Mike Clare

Editor’s Corner

3

Introduction

4 CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT A Bi-Annual Update from ICPC’s Marine Environmental Advisor

Climate Change PUBLISHER and the Role of The International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC) 7 Submarine

Cables in a Post- AUTHOR COVID World Dr Mike Clare

ICPC Marine Environmental Advisor Powerful Also, Principal Researcher / Marine Geohazards Avalanches in & Sedimentology at the National 10 the Deep Oceanography Centre, UK

Cables are EDITOR Almost Pristine Mr Ryan Wopschall 17 After Nearly Half ICPC General Manager a Century in the Deep Sea DESIGN & LAYOUT Ms. Christine Schinella ICPC Secretariat About the ICPC

& Editorial Staff 21 CONTACT PO Box 150 Lymington SO 41 6WA UK

Website: www.iscpc.org

Further Reading Secretariat: [email protected]

& References LinkedIn 23

2 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT EDITOR’S CORNER

interested in the same goal— safeguarding submarine cables). This newsletter will be produced bi-annually and complements The International Cable ICPC’s monthly “Environmental Protection Committee (ICPC) has a Update” which is written and long-standing commitment to not provided exclusively to Member- only understanding the marine only organisations. environment in which the The ICPC’s MEA has produced submarine cable industry operates, timely and relevant articles in this but also to promote forward- publication that not only ponder thinking scientific research and the relevance of the environment updates for the ICPC Membership. in our daily lives, but also the The marine environment is an ever- sustainability and resiliency of the evolving place with an increasing submarine telecom and power number of stakeholders including cable industries and their marine infrastructure developers, submarine infrastructure. It is our fisheries, seabed mining, shipping, pleasure to have Mike supporting regulatory bodies and policy our organisation and providing a makers, as well as ICPC Members— voice of sound and peer-reviewed submarine cable owners, research that benefits our operators, manufacturers, service understanding of the marine providers and international environment and our submarine governments. While the ICPC has cable community. the designated expertise of a Marine Environmental Advisor Please enjoy the content and (MEA)—Dr Mike Clare—for the consider these topics as only benefit of our organisation and its scratching the surface of very Members, we also recognise the pertinent, timely, and important benefit these continuing efforts can issues the ICPC is putting effort bring to the submarine community towards in our ever-changing world. and wider public. As a result, this is the first open-access “Submarine Sincerely, Cable Protection and the Ryan Wopschall Environment” publication offered ICPC General Manager to the public (i.e., for Media outlet reference, non-Members and those

3 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT INTRODUCTION

Whenever you use your laptop that span a distance of >1.8 million to send an email, check social kilometres across the world’s

media on your smartphone, join a oceans1. video call with your relatives, or This global network of fibre-optic make an internet banking cables, that are typically no wider

transaction, do you think about than a garden hose2, keeps the how that information is transported internet running, providing access around the world? In a new age of to electronic commerce, online lockdowns, remote working and teaching and medical resources, virtual conferences, our reliance on and keeps us in contact with global digital communications has friends, family and colleagues far dramatically grown—yet most and wide. Given our reliance on people incorrectly assume that this global network, it is critical that satellites are responsible for sending it remains as resilient as possible. that data. In reality, more than 99% But global telecommunications are of all international digital data and not the only infrastructure deliver- communications is transferred via ing resilient services through a network of more than 400 cables submarine cables.

4 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT INTRODUCTION

The increasing demand on manufacturers, industry service resilient, diverse, and sustainable providers, as well as governments, power generation and transmission ICPC Members represent approx.- has led to the increasing growth of imately a great majority of submarine submarine cables around the installations across the world for world. both transmission and renewable In this first public ICPC news- energy applications such as wind letter, we put a spotlight on some and hydrokinetic energy recent topical issues, including:

generation3. As global climate has and will likely continue to warm, ► What roles do submarine increased demand for sustainable cables play in a post-COVID energy sources will continue to world and how can they drive the dependence on contribute to a lower carbon submarine power cables which future? need to be protected and maintained to support a resilient ► Understanding the threat power grid. posed to the global telecommunications The International Cable network by powerful Protection Committee (ICPC) was underwater avalanches established for this very purpose— and other natural hazards providing leadership and guidance in the deep sea. on issues related to submarine

cable protection, security, and ► What is the long-term reliability for both sumbmarine environmental effect of telecoms and power cables. cables on the seafloor? Comprised of over 170 members from over 60 nations including

cable operators, owners,

5 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ROLE OF SUBMARINE CABLES IN A POST-COVID WORLD (pages 7-9)

The submarine cable industry rate due to human-induced

recognises ongoing and future greenhouse gas emissions4. The climate change and looks to effects of climate change are felt anticipate emerging threats in a most acutely in the , as the changing : ocean takes up >90% of all the

Earth’s excess heat5. With this ► New networks need to be change comes a range of resilient to future as well as emerging threats to critical present day conditions. infrastructure such as submarine cables and the terrestrial landing ► Submarine cables have a site infrastructure that supports critical part to play in a them. What threats should we reduced carbon future. expect and how is the global Peer-reviewed science shows network designed to stay resilient? that the global climate has been In this article we first tackle these and will highly likely continue points and then look at how the warming at an unprecedented recent spate of lockdowns across

6 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ROLE OF SUBMARINE CABLES IN A POST-COVID WORLD (pages 7-9)

the world has provided a unique chance to stop and observe the effects of reduced human activity. What can we learn from the lockdown and what role do cables play in a reduced carbon future?

WHAT DOES FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE MEAN FOR THE GLOBAL Climate change is also forecast NETWORK OF CABLES? to have many negative imp-

Ongoing and future climate lications for marine life, which may change is likely to affect the not intuitively seem to pose a threat nature, frequency, intensity, and to submarine cables. However, regional character of a range of changes in ocean temperature are hazards that may pose a threat to triggering a migration of

submarine cables6. For instance, commercially-important fishing rising sea levels and the increased stocks, while changes in surface incidence of storm surges in the ocean conditions and formerly ice- Atlantic and elsewhere may covered areas may shift shipping threaten coastal facilities (where routes15-20. As accidental anchor cables connect to shore) that are drops and snagged fishing gear

close to sea level7,8. Increased storminess under continued or more intense El Niño-La Niña events and other climatic cycles means that regions in the Pacific will become more exposed to onshore flooding, higher discharge and underwater landslides that can break cables or threaten their

terrestrial infrastructure9-14.

7 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ROLE OF SUBMARINE CABLES IN A POST-COVID WORLD (pages 7-9)

account for most of the breaks infrastructure is redundant and (>90%) on the global network, it is diverse, there stands a better therefore crucial to understand chance to deliver services in the how the current and future cable event of damage. This may push locations will correspond to future submarine cables into new regions, seabed use and vessel locations, landing in new areas, or simply and in particular—the impact of building out additional cables in deeper fishing which may mean areas where they already exist to cables need to be buried to a ensure redundancy and resiliency. deeper water depth for their

protection2. LEARNING FROM LOCKDOWN TO ENABLE A LOWER CARBON FUTURE Future cable routes and cable landings need to take into account At the start of the pandemic, present day as well as predicted factories closed, air traffic was future conditions when designing grounded, road and rail commutes new infrastructure to ensure that stopped, while strict lockdowns they are as resilient as possible. This kept people in their homes. Several can include a range of analysis new studies show that these such as onshore and coastal changes resulted in widespread flooding including 100-year flood improvements in air quality, events, fishing trends over the including dramatic decreases in lifetime of a cable with increased greenhouse gas emissions such as

depth of burial or burial limit to Carbon Dioxide31-34. It is estimated mitigate any changed fishing that widespread lockdowns behaviour, coastal or onshore triggered a bigger drop in such areas susceptible to sea level rise, emissions than any previous war

as well as ensuring a diversity of or economic downturn31.

routes21-29. In fact, diversity is key to Unfortunately, this drop is likely to mitigating against present and be short-lived, and even the future hazards. By ensuring temporarily reduced emissions will submarine network or transmission be the highest of those over the

8 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ROLE OF SUBMARINE CABLES IN A POST-COVID WORLD (pages 7-9)

past decade. Global warming can

only stabilise once annual emissions FOOD FOR THOUGHT reach net-zero, so a bigger change in pre-COVID living and working Submarine telecommun- practices is needed1,31. ications cables are an Lessons learned from the lockdown will inform how enabler for changing our

businesses operate in future— behaviour away from leading to an increase in virtual, hydrocarbons and climate online meetings compared to those requiring long haul flights, impacting sources. Add- and increased home-working— itionally, submarine power all of which will help in lowering cables that transmit energy greenhouse gas emissions. The harnessed from offshore ICPC estimates that internet traffic increased between 25% and 50% renewable sources are

between November 2019 and the another aspect of important early stages of lockdown in April solutions being developed to 2020, and this will likely continue as reduce this dependency we adapt to the “new-normal”35. Zoom Video Communications and create a more resilient revenue for the quarter ending and sustainable energy July 31, 2020 saw a 355% sector through the use of increase compared to the previous

year36. This is just one indication of submarine cables. the increased video conferencing

occurring as a result of widespread remote work, remote education, and remote personal video communication.

9 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

► Infrequent but powerful were severed, halting commun- sediment avalanches can ications between North America

damage seafloor cables and the U.K.37. According to across large expanses of Maritime Logistics, it took every the deep ocean. available cable ship in the Atlantic nearly a year to fix or replace all of ► Cable breaks provided the the damaged cables63. The reason first knowledge of these for the breaks was not discovered deep sea hazards. until detailed seafloor surveys were

► Advances in technology performed in 1950s38-39. As well as provide new insights into triggering a tsunami, the designing and maintaining earthquake caused a large area of resilient cable routes and seafloor to collapse, displacing 130 3 global connectivity. km of sand and mud40—an equivalent volume to burying the Following a large earthquake whole of in >100 m of

(Mw 7.2) offshore Newfoundland in sand and mud. As it moved down 1929, twelve trans-Atlantic cables the continental slope, the landslide

10 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

mixed with the surrounding here for a video of relatively slow

seawater to become a powerful turbidity current43). Subsequent avalanche, travelling at high speed studies and instances of cable (up to 20 m/s) over hundreds of damage have shown that turbidity

kilometres into the deep sea39. currents occur in many places Since 1929, several other instances around the world: typically within of cable breaks have been submerged canyons (such as the associated with natural hazards, Monterey Canyon, offshore such as typhoons, river floods and California, USA) that act like the

tsunamis10,11,13,41. Unlike human- of the deep sea and can be

related breaks, where typically only much larger44. A remarkable video one cable is damaged, these large of the Monterey Canyon offshore

events have the potential to break California can be seen here45. multiple cables in one event, such These flows are the primary means as the 22 cable breaks following by which sediment is transported to the Pingtung earthquake offshore the deep sea and it is increasingly

Taiwan in 200641. The ICPC apparent that they play an therefore keenly stays up to date important role in transporting with and supports research into carbon and nutrients that sustain

these hazards, to ensure that important deep sea ecosystems46. lessons are learned to ensure the global network remains as resilient NEW TECHNOLOGY ENABLES THE as possible. FIRST DETAILED MEASUREMENTS

Until recently, scientists have POWERFUL AVALANCHES OF known relatively little about these SEDIMENT IN THE DEEP SEA powerful avalanches, as it has The cable breaks in 1929 been too challenging to make provided the first insights into the direct measurements. The locations existence of these submarine where turbidity currents occur are avalanches of sediment, now often far from shore, in deep water, known as turbidity currents (click and any instruments in their path

11 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA

(pages 10-16)

have been destroyed47. Despite these challenges, recent advances in technology have enabled the first detailed measurements of turbidity currents in the ocean— providing valuable information on how they are triggered, how they evolve as they travel to the deep sea, and to assess the risk they pose to critical seafloor infrastructure such as telecommunication

cables47-51. These new tools include acoustic Doppler current profilers that record the speed of flows, acting like an underwater police  Deployment of a range of sensors on speed gun and hydrophones a deep sea mooring to measure turbidity that “listen” to ocean noises currents offshore , made by events such as Canada. The train wheels in the underwater landslides. foreground are needed to provide the anchor weight to stop powerful flows  One of the turbidity currents from dragging the instruments and floats measured in the deep sea Congo (far side) down the canyon. (Photo by Dr Canyon that reached nearly 100 m Mike Clare). thick and lasted for more than seven days. (Copyright National Oceanography Centre).

12 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

 Illustration of some of the novel sensors and platforms that are now used for

measuring natural hazards such as turbidity currents in the deep sea. (Not to scale47).

WHAT HAVE WE LEARNED ABOUT ► For instance, the Pingtung THESE SEAFLOOR HAZARDS? earthquake in 2006 and Typhoon Soudelor in 2015 ► Events such as that in 1929 triggered powerful turbidity offshore Newfoundland are currents that severed up to relatively rare; however, 22 cables within a submarine major disturbances such as canyon offshore south earthquakes, floods or Taiwan11,13. tropical cyclones can and have triggered powerful ► However, many areas that turbidity currents elsewhere in experience very large

the world41,42. earthquakes—such as

13 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

Japan—often do not down the canyon for more experience many, if any, than one third of a three-

cable breaks42. While the month monitoring period. seismicity of the region is ► Some systems, particularly high, there is little sediment those linked to big rivers, may available on the seafloor to therefore be nearly initiate a large turbidity continuously active; current and the risk is however, many canyons on relatively low. the seafloor are far from ► Turbidity currents are more present-day sediment supply likely offshore from rivers or and may not feature any other areas where a large regular turbidity currents. amount of sediment is These systems would have transferred from land to sea. been more closely In such areas, sand and mud connected to rivers during builds up on the seafloor and lowered sea levels during the becomes progressively less last glaciation (about 20,000

stable, or may settle out from years ago)47. suspended surface plumes of ► The number and velocity of sediment, initiating a turbidity turbidity currents tends to current10,51. decrease further offshore, ► Direct measurements in 2 km although some exceptional water depth in the deep- flows may speed up as they water Congo Canyon, pick up sediment along their offshore West Africa, show path, like a snow

that an individual turbidity avalanche49. Turbidity current may last for several currents have recently been days and can be up to 100 shown to remobilise large

m thick46. Turbidity currents areas of seafloor sediment were observed to be flowing within the upper reaches of

14 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

submarine canyons, such as ► Avoid routing across areas the Monterey Canyon that feature a high sediment offshore California. Such supply from onshore to flows are capable of moving offshore, such as offshore large and heavy (1 tonne) from major rivers. instruments placed in the ► Avoid submarine canyons path of the flow at speeds of where possible but if it is several metres per second48. necessary, route cables

ENSURING THE GLOBAL NETWORK across deeper water and REMAINS RESILIENT TO NATURAL wider sections where HAZARDS turbidity currents are likely

These new measurements and to slow down. historical information from past cable breaks provide key guidance for designing new routes that avoid or can withstand the hazard posed. Cable companies therefore consider turbidity currents alongside other natural and human hazards as part of the route planning and design process and take the following steps to minimise the risk:

► Identify potential turbidity current pathways and other potential hazards during route planning studies and by performing detailed surveys to map the seafloor.

15 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT POWERFUL AVALANCHES IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 10-16)

Between 65-75% of all telecom-

unication cable faults occur in FOOD FOR THOUGHT water depths shallower than 200m Collaborations between the and result from fishing and shipping cable industry and marine activities2. In comparison, damage caused by natural hazards scientists have provided accounts for less than 10% of important insights into how

faults2. However, these relatively dynamic the ocean floor can low likelihood events do happen be and continue to stimulate and when they do, they can new research into the impact numerous submarine processes that occur at the cables in one event. As a result, deepest parts of our planet. cable owners and operators This underscores the import- typically develop mesh networks ance for cable owners and consisting of multiple cables that operators to understand the provide redundant paths to the marine environment in which same locations in the event of cable damage. However, mesh their infrastructure is routed networks are only one way to to adequately plan for and provide resilience. Diversity in protect these assets from cable routes and landing sites potential damage or are also an important aspect to otherwise devise ways to ensuring protection of submarine build in redundancy or cables against regionally specific protection in the event of a natural hazards. natural hazard.

16 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CABLES ARE ALMOST PRISTINE AFTER NEARLY HALF A CENTURY IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 17-20)

More than 1.8 million kilometres environment. A recent study led by of submarine telecommunication the Universities of Wellington and

cables cross the world’s oceans, Southampton53, investigated providing essential connections several decommissioned cables

between continents1,2. As new that had sat on the seafloor for up fibre-optic technology permits to 44 years to answer this question. higher capacity networks to keep up with global demand for bandwidth, older legacy systems  A recovered cable being spooled become redundant or are simply on-board the recovery vessel after put out-of-service due to the age having lain on the seafloor in the of the cable system. In many cases, central Pacific at almost 5 km water these cables are left on the depth since 1974. Note the almost seafloor, which begs the question pristine condition of the cable. regarding their chemical and (Image courtesy of Alcatel

physical stability in the marine Submarine Networks 53).

17 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CABLES ARE ALMOST PRISTINE AFTER NEARLY HALF A CENTURY IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 17-20)

► The plastic outer sheath was intact, apart from a few patches of scuffing incurred during recovery operations. No degradation of the inner conductors was apparent, and the stranded steel that provides the strength to the cable was free of corrosion.

► Independent laboratory  Recovered coaxial cables that studies that subjected new lay on the seafloor for between 38- and recovered cable 44 years. The well-preserved sections to a range of condition of the components is simulated environmental clear. (Image courtesy of Dr Lionel conditions confirmed that

Carter53). lightweight cables (the type that is laid in international

waters, which accounts for ► Telephone era coaxial >85% of the ocean and cables that had lain on the cable length) are chemically seafloor for up to 44 years inert. were retrieved from more ► Laboratory analysis of cables than 4 km water depth in the with protective metallic central Pacific and North armour (the type installed in Atlantic oceans and the shallower water) were found . to temporarily release very ► Visual inspection showed low concentrations of zinc; that the cables were this release being most prone remarkably well-preserved on intentionally damaged and physically intact. sections of cables. Zinc

18 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CABLES ARE ALMOST PRISTINE AFTER NEARLY HALF A CENTURY IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 17-20)

naturally occurs in seawater, process that disturbs the largely being introduced substrate, which still recovers

from the atmosphere and over weeks to years66; rivers (17,000-66,000 tonnes ► construction from materials per year55). The very low concentrations observed that are stable over several (<11 parts per million) decades and hence recorded in the small, underpin a recycling industry contained experiment would when cables are be significantly further diluted decommissioned; within the open ocean, ► small electromagnetic fields particularly due to the action (where cables are powered of currents that sweep across – that is typically indiscernible the seafloor. from the Earth’s magnetic field) that have not yet These findings agree with other observed to affect the independent studies that conclude abundance and diversity of telecommunication cables exert a marine organisms. nil to minor effect on the seafloor environment . due to their: 2,57-62 An example of cable/ environmental research comes ► placement on the seabed from Southern California. Repeat surface in waters deeper surveys of the Pioneer Seamount than 2,000m; and MARS cables show they

► small physical footprint that is became naturally buried along equivalent to a domestic much of their lengths within eight garden hose; years of its installation. Furthermore, there was no statistically significant ► for depths less than 2000m, difference detectable in seafloor cables may be buried fauna near or far from the

beneath the seabed – a cables57,64,65. This is important

19 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT CABLES ARE ALMOST PRISTINE AFTER NEARLY HALF A CENTURY IN THE DEEP SEA (pages 17-20)

because the MARS cable is a hybrid system comprised of fibre- optic cables and a 10 kv power cable with a significant electromagnetic field.

 A variety of life living near theFOOD Pioneer FORSeamount THOUGHT cable. The cable is just over 3 cm in diameter and was often found buried due to the effects of seafloor currents. Fauna include anemones, sea stars, sponges, and corals. (Copyright

MBARI64).

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Submarine cable technology has come a long way since such legacy

cables were first installed on the seafloor; however, modern fibre optic

cables are composed of very similar raw materials as their predecessors

with today's cables having ultra-high strength steel wires, copper

sheathing, polyurethane insulation, and galvanized wire armouring. While

this core construct has not changed much over time, submarine cables

have innovated by increasing the fibre count in short- and long-haul

cable systems, as well as increasing the speed of data transmission

resulting from greatly enhanced terminal equipment, fibre performance

and repeater technology.

20 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Please visit www.iscpc.org for further information.

Sharing the seabed in harmony with others

The International Cable Protection Committee (ICPC) was formed in 1958 and its primary goal is to promote the safeguarding of international submarine cables against human made and natural hazards. The organisation provides a forum for the exchange of technical, legal and environmental information about submarine cables and, with more than 170 MEMBERS from over 60 NATIONS, including cable operators, owners, manufacturers, industry service providers, and governments, it is the world’s premier submarine cable organisation. The ICPC comprises of an 18 Member Executive Committee (EC)-led organisation voted in by its Full Members. In addition to the Marine Environmental Advisor (MEA), General Manager (GM) and Secretariat team, the ICPC also has an appointed International Cable Law Adviser (ICLA) as well as a United Nations Observer Representative (UNOR).

Prime Activities of the ICPC:

• Promote awareness of submarine cables as critical infrastructure to governments and other users of the seabed.

• Establish internationally agreed recommendations for cable installation, protection, and maintenance.

• Monitor the evolution of international treaties and national legislation and help to ensure that submarine cable interests are fully protected.

• Liaison with UN Bodies.

Recommendations:

• Taking into account the marine environment, the ICPC authors Recommendations which provides guidance to all seabed users ensuring best practices are in place.

• Educating the undersea community as well as defining the minimum recommendations for cable route planning, installation, operation, maintenance and protection as well as survey operations.

• Facilitating access to new cable technologies.

Advancing Regulatory Guidance:

• Promoting United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) compliance.

• Championing uniform and practical local legislation and permitting

• Protecting cable systems and ships.

• Aiding education of government regulators and diplomats.

Working with Science: To learn how to become • Supporting independent research into cables.

• Publishing reviews for governments and policy makers. of Member organisation

• Working with environmental organisations. of the ICPC, please click

• Effective public education via various media. on join here.

21 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT EDITORIAL STAFF

Author: Dr Mike Clare Editor: Ryan Wopschall

Ryan is the General Manager for Mike is the Marine the ICPC. He has spent the last 14 Environmental Advisor for the years in the telecommunications International Cable Protection industry with a focus on inter- Committee (ICPC) and is a national undersea and terrestrial backhaul telecommunications. Principal Researcher at the

National Oceanography Centre,

UK, where he works as part of the

Ocean BioGeoscience Research

Group. His research focuses on

better understanding the dynamic

seafloor, the implications of past

and future climate change, Design & Layout: Christine Schinella

impacts of human activities, and As part of her Secretariat role, quantifying risks to critical Christine coordinates marketing

infrastructure. Prior to his research activities for ICPC. With a background in graphic design and role at NOC, he worked for ten publishing, Christine has been years as a geohazard consultant to working in the telecommunications a range of offshore industries. industry since 2000.

22 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT FURTHER READING & REFERENCES

Further information on submarine 9. Kossin, J.P., Emanuel, K.A. and Vecchi, G.A., 2014. The poleward migration of the cables and the marine environment location of tropical cyclone maximum intensity. Nature, 509(7500), p.349. can be found in the references and 10. Pope, E.L., Talling, P.J., Carter, L., Clare, text within the peer-reviewed UNEP- M.A. and Hunt, J.E., 2017. Damaging WCMC report via: "Submarine Cables sediment density flows triggered by tropical cyclones. Earth and Planetary Science and the Oceans: Connecting the Letters, 458, pp.161-169.

World" as well as: https://www. 11. Carter, L., Milliman, J.D., Talling, P.J., Gavey, iscpc.org/publications/. R., Wynn, R.B., 2012: Near-synchronous and delayed initiation of long run-out submarine sediment flows from a record-breaking river flood, offshore . Geophysical CITED REFERENCES: Research Letters 39: L12603.

1. https://www.submarinecablemap.com 12. Daloz, A.S. and Camargo, S.J., 2018. Is the poleward migration of tropical cyclone 2. Carter, L., 2010. Submarine cables and the maximum intensity associated with a oceans: connecting the world (No. 31). poleward migration of tropical cyclone UNEP/Earthprint. https://www.unep- genesis? Climate dynamics, 50(1-2), pp.705- wcmc.org/resources-and-data/submarine- 715. cables-and-the-oceans--connecting-the- world 13. Gavey, R., Carter, L., Liu, J.T., Talling, P.J., Hsu, R., Pope, E. and Evans, G., 2017. 3. Weiss, C.V., Guanche, R., Ondiviela, B., Frequent sediment density flows during 2006 Castellanos, O.F. and Juanes, J., 2018. to 2015, triggered by competing seismic Marine renewable energy potential: A and weather events: Observations from global perspective for offshore wind and subsea cable breaks off southern Taiwan. wave exploitation. Energy conversion and Marine Geology, 384, pp.147-158. management, 177, pp.43-54. 14. Kossin, J.P., Emanuel, K.A. and Camargo, 4. IPCC, 2019: Summary for Policymakers. In: S.J., 2016. Past and projected changes in IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and western North Pacific tropical cyclone Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.- O. exposure. Journal of Climate, 29(16), Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, pp.5725-5739. P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, 15. Roessig, J.M., Woodley, C.M., Cech, J.J. and B. Rama, N. Weyer (eds.)]. Hansen, L.J., 2004. Effects of global climate change on marine and estuarine fishes and 5. Karl, T.R. and Trenberth, K.E., 2003. Modern fisheries. Reviews in fish biology and fisheries, global climate change. Science, 302(5651), 14(2), pp.251-275. pp.1719-1723. 16. Cheung, W.W., Watson, R. and Pauly, D., 6. O’Neill, B. C. et al. IPCC reasons for concern 2013. Signature of ocean warming in global regarding climate change risks. Nature fisheries catch. Nature, 497(7449), p.365. Climate Change 7, 28–37 (2017). 17. Le Quesne, W.J. and Pinnegar, J.K., 2012. 7. Sweet, W.V., Kopp, R.E., Weaver, C.P., The potential impacts of ocean Obeysekera, J., Horton, R.M., Thieler, E.R. acidification: scaling from physiology to and Zervas, C., 2017. Global and regional fisheries. Fish and Fisheries, 13(3), pp.333-344. sea level rise scenarios for the United States 18. Munday, P.L., Dixson, D.L., McCormick, M.I., 8. Carnell, R.E., Senior, C.A. and Mitchell, J.F.B., Meekan, M., Ferrari, M.C. and Chivers, D.P., 1996. An assessment of measures of 2010. Replenishment of fish populations is storminess: simulated changes in northern threatened by ocean acidification. hemisphere winter due to increasing CO2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Climate dynamics, 12(7), pp.467-476. Sciences, 107(29), pp.12930-12934.

23 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT FURT HER READING & REFERENCES

19. Dixson, D.L., Munday, P.L. and Jones, G.P., twenty-first century using CMIP6 forcing 2010. Ocean acidification disrupts the scenarios. Environmental Research Letters. innate ability of fish to detect predator 29. Tebaldi, C., Strauss, B.H. and Zervas, C.E., olfactory cues. Ecology letters, 13(1), pp.68- 2012. Modelling sea level rise impacts on 75. storm surges along US coasts. Environmental 20. Morato, T., González‐Irusta, J.M., Research Letters, 7(1), p.014032. Dominguez‐Carrió, C., Wei, C.L., Davies, A., 30. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/ Sweetman, A.K., Taranto, G.H., Beazley, L., 146362/airborne-nitrogen-dioxide- García‐Alegre, A., Grehan, A. and plummets-over-china Laffargue, P., 2020. Climate‐induced changes in the suitable habitat of cold‐ 31. https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis- water corals and commercially important coronavirus-set-to-cause-largest-ever- deep‐sea fishes in the North Atlantic. Global annual-fall-in-co2-emissions change biology, 26(4), pp.2181-2202. 32. Le Quéré, C., Jackson, R.B., Jones, M.W., 21. Kopp, R.E., Horton, R.M., Little, C.M., Smith, A.J., Abernethy, S., Andrew, R.M., De- Mitrovica, J.X., Oppenheimer, M., Gol, A.J., Willis, D.R., Shan, Y., Canadell, J.G. Rasmussen, D.J., Strauss, B.H. and Tebaldi, and Friedlingstein, P., 2020. Temporary C., 2014. Probabilistic 21st and 22nd century reduction in daily global CO 2 emissions sea‐level projections at a global network of during the COVID-19 forced confinement. tide‐gauge sites. Earth's future, 2(8), pp.383- Nature Climate Change, pp.1-7. 406. 33. Forster, P.M., Forster, H.I., Evans, M.J., 22. Mengel, M., Levermann, A., Frieler, K., Gidden, M.J., Jones, C.D., Keller, C.A., Robinson, A., Marzeion, B. and Winkelmann, Lamboll, R.D., Le Quéré, C., Rogelj, J., R., 2016. Future sea level rise constrained by Rosen, D. and Schleussner, C.F., 2020. observations and long-term commitment. Current and future global climate impacts Proceedings of the National Academy of resulting from COVID-19. Nature Climate Sciences, 113(10), pp.2597-2602. Change, pp.1-7.

23. Nerem, R.S., Beckley, B.D., Fasullo, J.T., 34. Wang, Q. and Su, M., 2020. A preliminary Hamlington, B.D., Masters, D. and Mitchum, assessment of the impact of COVID-19 on G.T., 2018. Climate-change–driven environment–A case study of accelerated sea-level rise detected in the China. Science of the Total Environment, altimeter era. Proceedings of the National p.138915. Academy of Sciences, 115(9), pp.2022-2025. 35. https://www.iscpc.org/documents/?id=3299

24. Oppenheimer, M. and Alley, R.B., 2016. How 36. https://www.macrotrends.net/stocks/charts high will the rise?. Science, 354(6318), /ZM/zoom-video-communications/revenue pp.1375-1377 37. https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/be 25. Ruggiero, P., 2012. Is the intensifying wave nchmarks-november-18-1929-turbidity- climate of the US Pacific Northwest currents-snap-trans-atlantic-cables increasing flooding and erosion risk faster than sea-level rise?. Journal of Waterway, 38. Heezen, B.C. and Ewing, W.M., 1952. Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering, Turbidity currents and submarine slumps, 139(2), pp.88-97. and the 1929 Grand Banks [Newfoundland] earthquake. American journal of Science, 26. Strauss, B., Tebaldi, C. and Ziemlinski, R., 250(12), pp.849-873. 2012. Sea level rise, storms & global warming’s threat to the US coast. Climate 39. Piper, D.J., Cochonat, P. and Morrison, M.L., Central. 1999. The sequence of events around the epicentre of the 1929 Grand Banks 27. Wang, Z., Silberman, J.A. and Corbett, J.J., earthquake: initiation of debris flows and 2020. Container vessels diversion pattern to turbidity current inferred from sidescan trans-Arctic shipping routes and GHG sonar. Sedimentology, 46(1), pp.79-97. emission abatement potential. Maritime Policy & Management, pp.1-20. 40. Schulten, I., Mosher, D.C., Piper, D.J. and Krastel, S., 2019. A massive slump on the St. 28. Wei, T., Yan, Q., Qi, W., Ding, M. and Wang, Pierre Slope, a new perspective on the 1929 C., 2020. Projections of Arctic sea ice Grand Banks submarine landslide. Journal of conditions and shipping routes in the Geophysical Research: Solid Earth.

24 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT FURTHER READING & REFERENCES

41. Carter, L., Gavey, R., TALLING, P.J. and Liu, 51. Hage, S., Cartigny, M.J., Sumner, E.J., Clare, J.T., 2014. Insights into submarine M.A., Hughes Clarke, J.E., Talling, P.J., geohazards from breaks in subsea Lintern, D.G., Simmons, S.M., Silva Jacinto, telecommunication R., Vellinga, A.J. and Allin, J.R., 2019. Direct cables. Oceanography, 27(2), pp.58-67. Fmonitoring reveals initiation of turbidity currents from extremely dilute river 42. Pope, E.L., Talling, P.J. and Carter, L., 2017. plumes. Geophysical research Which earthquakes trigger damaging letters, 46(20), pp.11310-11320. submarine mass movements: Insights from a global record of submarine cable breaks? 52. Covault, J.A. and Graham, S.A., 2010. Marine Geology, 384, pp.131-146. Submarine fans at all sea-level stands: Tectono-morphologic and climatic controls 43. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=43Hp2 on terrigenous sediment delivery to the ETgIXM deep sea. Geology, 38(10), pp.939-942. 44. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/201707 53. Carter, L., Collins, K., Creese, C., 06-the-mystery-of-the-massive-deep-sea- Waterworth, G. 2020. Chemical and rivers physical stability of submarine fibre-optic 45. Talling, P.J., Wynn, R.B., Masson, D.G., Frenz, cables in the Area Beyond National M., Cronin, B.T., Schiebel, R., Akhmetzhanov, Jurisdiction (ABNJ). SubOptic 2019 A.M., Dallmeier-Tiessen, S., Benetti, S., 54. https://www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/p Weaver, P.P.E. and Georgiopoulou, A., repcom_files/ICC_Submarine_Cables_&_BB 2007. Onset of submarine debris flow NJ_August_2016.pdf deposition far from original giant landslide. Nature, 450(7169), pp.541-544. 55. Jickells, T., 1995. Atmospheric inputs of metals and nutrients to the oceans: their 46. Azpiroz-Zabala, M., Cartigny, M.J., Talling, magnitude and effects. Marine P.J., Parsons, D.R., Sumner, E.J., Clare, M.A., Chemistry, 48(3-4), pp.199-214. Simmons, S.M., Cooper, C. and Pope, E.L., 2017. Newly recognized turbidity current 56. Weber, T., John, S., Tagliabue, A. and structure can explain prolonged flushing of DeVries, T., 2018. Biological uptake and submarine canyons. Science reversible scavenging of zinc in the global advances, 3(10), p.e1700200. ocean. Science, 361(6397), pp.72-76.

47. Clare, M., Lintern, D.G., Rosenberger, K., 57. Kogan, I., Paull, C.K., Kuhnz, L.A., Burton, E.J., Clarke, J.E.H., Paull, C., Gwiazda, R., Von Thun, S., Greene, H.G. and Barry, J.P., Cartigny, M.J., Talling, P.J., Perara, D., Xu, J. 2006. ATOC/Pioneer Seamount cable after and Parsons, D., 2020. Lessons learned from 8 years on the seafloor: Observations, the monitoring of turbidity currents and environmental impact. Continental Shelf guidance for future platform Research, 26(6), pp.771-787. designs. Geological Society, London, 58. Kogan, I., Paull, C.K., Kuhnz, L., Burton, E.J., Special Publications, 500(1), pp.605-634. Von Thun, S., Greene, H.G. and Barry, J.P., 48. Paull, C.K., Talling, P.J., Maier, K.L., Parsons, 2003. Environmental impact of the D., Xu, J., Caress, D.W., Gwiazda, R., ATOC/Pioneer seamount submarine Lundsten, E.M., Anderson, K., Barry, J.P. and cable. Report prepared Monterey Bay Chaffey, M., 2018. Powerful turbidity currents Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) in driven by dense basal layers. Nature partnership with NOAA-OAR (National communications, 9(1), pp.1-9. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration- Oceanic and Atmospheric Research) and 49. Heerema, C.J., Talling, P.J., Cartigny, M.J., NOAA-NOS (National Ocean Service). Paull, C.K., Bailey, L., Simmons, S.M., Parsons, D.R., Clare, M.A., Gwiazda, R., Lundsten, E. 59. Taormina, B., Bald, J., Want, A., Thouzeau, and Anderson, K., 2020. What determines G., Lejart, M., Desroy, N. and Carlier, A., the downstream evolution of turbidity 2018. A review of potential impacts of currents? Earth and Planetary Science submarine power cables on the marine Letters, 532, p.116023. environment: Knowledge gaps, recommendations, and future 50. Talling, P.J., 2014. On the triggers, resulting directions. Renewable and Sustainable flow types and frequencies of subaqueous Energy Reviews, 96, pp.380-391. sediment density flows in different settings. Marine Geology, 352, pp.155-182.

25 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT FURTHER READING & REFERENCES

60. Kraus, C. and Carter, L., 2018. Seabed 4. Page 6: iStock by Getty Images credit, recovery following protective burial of MLiberra. Description: Icebergs floating in subsea cables-Observations from the Jokulsarlon glacier at sunset in south continental margin. Ocean . Engineering, 157, pp.251-261.

61. Sherwood, J., Chidgey, S., Crockett, P., 5. Page 7: iStock by Getty Images credit, Gwyther, D., Ho, P., Stewart, S., Strong, D., TonyLMoorePhoto. Description: Waves Whitely, B. and Williams, A., 2016. Installation splash against sandbags at northern end of and operational effects of a HVDC island. The sandbags are there for erosion. submarine cable in a continental shelf Also, credit, lavizzara. Cyclone Fani heading setting: Bass , . Journal of towards in 2019. Elements of this Ocean Engineering and Science, 1(4), image furnished by NASA. pp.337-353. 6. Page 9, 16 & 20: iStock by Getty Images 62. Carter, L., Burnett, D. and Davenport, T., 2014. The Relationship between Submarine credit, JuSun. Description: Earth map comes Cables and the Marine Environment. from public domain www.nasa.gov. In Submarine Cables (pp. 179-212). Brill Nijhoff. 7. Page 11: iStock by Getty Images credit, Kyle Bedell. Description: Sunny summer day over 63. https://www.maritimeprofessional.com/blog rocky coastline cliffs of Canadian National s/post/the-1929-grand-banks-earthquake- Historic site Fort Amherst, St John's 13645 Newfoundland. Cape Spear in background. 64. https://www.mbari.org/life-on-the-line- studying-the-environmental-effects-of-a- 8. Page 12: Credit, Clare, Mike; ICPC MEA and deep-sea-communications-cable/ also National Oceanography Centre.

65. Kuhnz, L.A., Buck, K., Lovera, C., Whaling, 9. Page 15: iStock by Getty Images credit, P.J., Barry, J.P., 2015. Potential Impacts of Damocean. Description: Small canyon the Monterey Accelerated Research System underwater carved by swell into the reef, (MARS) Cable on the Seabed and Benthic Huahine island, Pacific Ocean, French Faunal Assemblages. MARS Biological Survey Report. Monterey Bay Aquarium Polynesia. Research Institute, p. 33. 10. Page 17: Credit, Alcatel Submarine 66. Kraus, C. and Carter, L., 2018. Seabed Networks (ASN). Description: A recovered recovery following protective burial of cable being spooled on-board the subsea cables-Observations from the recovery vessel after having lain on the continental margin. Ocean seafloor in the central Pacific at almost 5 km Engineering, 157, pp.251-261. water depth since 1974.

11. Page 20: iStock by Getty Images credit, Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute COPYRIGHTED PHOTO CREDITS: (MBARI).

1. Cover Image: iStock by Getty Images 12. Page 22: Credit, Schinella, Christine E., ICPC credit, Damocean. Description: Underwater Secretariat; Humpback whale off the coast coral reef with water surface and cloudy of Provincetown, Massachusetts, USA. blue-sky horizon split by waterline. 13. ICPC Logo; Copyrights/content appearing 2. Page 3: iStock by Getty Images credit, in this newsletter (images and text) belong Allexxandar. Description: Underwater blue to ICPC or third parties granting ICPC ocean, sandy sea bottom, underwater permission to use the copyright written background. and/or visual material and cannot be altered or repurposed for your own use. 3. Page 4: iStock by Getty Images credit, Written permission is required. ktsimage. Description: Globalised world, the future of digital technology. Connections and cloud computing in the virtual world. Connectivity across the world.

26 A PUBLICATION FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CABLE PROTECTION COMMITTEE (ICPC) SUBMARINE CABLE PROTECTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT