MORAL DILEMMA IN THE throughout her long history.2 The tale of BODIDSATTVA IDEAL: ARE• the great giving of V essantara, the penultimate life of Prince Sidhatta the READING OF VESSANTARA future Buddha, has been transmitted in the JATAKA TALE Thet Mahachat chant festival throughout the kingdom for centuries. It has been Suwanna Satha-Anand1 popular both among the general populace and among the elite in the royal court. The story of Vessantara's career is also widely Abstract depicted in many temple murals in all regions of the land. As a major narrative in This article offers an analysis of various Thai cultural life for centuries, the general situations of moral dilemma generated by (pre-critical) understanding of this great the Bodhisattva ideal of extreme self• Buddhist tale has been one of awe and sacrifice, with special reference to the admiration for his great self-sacrifice. career of V essantara. The analysis focuses Though there has been some uneasiness on the dilemmas resulting from his expressed in response to the giving away marvelous giving of gifts (dana), as a of wife and children of Vessantara, the prince of a kingdom, as a royal son to his general orientation of responses seems to parents, as a husband and as a father. be one of admiring acceptance, with the Emphasis will be directed to the various importance of the narrative centering on lines of reasoning, both supportive and the generosity of Vessantara? The oppositional to the gift giving, voiced by
the people around him who were directly 2 effected by his generosity. Finally, some Steven Collins. 1998. Nirvana and other Buddhist Felicities. Cambridge: Cambridge possibilities for reconciliation will be University Press, pp.497-498. According to explored. Brereton's research published in 1995, a recent catalog of Lan Na (Northern) Thai manuscripts, Introductory note 396 out of 2,700 (14%) were devoted to the Vessantara Jataka. (Ibid.,p.,498) Also, please take note of K.rompraya Damrongrajanupab. Thai Buddhists in general hold the view B.E.2460. "The Legend of Thet Mahachat", that the ideal of a bodhisattva, a being Mahachat Royal Chant. Bangkok: Rongpim working on becoming a fully-enlightened Thai. one in the future, is more central to the traditions of Mahayana Buddhism than to 3 See an interesting example of research the Theravada School of Thailand. questioning the moral adequacy of many However, many Buddhist scholars have bodhisattvas, including Vessantara in Rassagala pointed out the fact that the story of Seewali Thero. B.£.2542. A Critical Study of Vessantara bodhisattva has been the most Ethical Problems of Bodhisattva s Karuna in Jataka Stories. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkom popular Buddhist tale in Thai society Rajavidyalaya University. See also a defense of Vessantara's gift-giving in Phra Pimonlatham (Chob Anujareemahathera). B.E.2533. Vessantara Jataka Review. Bangkok: K.rongkarn 1 Ph.D., Faculty of Arts Chulalongkom University Moonnithi Hortri (Hortri Foundation Project). In my view, a questioning in the frrst book and a
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dramatic movements of the story are orientation and re-appropriation of the punctuated by each act of giving of story.4 Vessantara, beginning with the auspicious elephant, to his giving the seven Scope ofAnalysis ofa Composite Text marvelous gifts, his children and finally his wife, Madsi. In the middle of the story The term ''jataka , · literally means "birth is the departure from his city and the story. " It indicates a set of birth stories journey toward the forest. At the end, the narrating the previous lives of the Buddha family reunites and everything given away when he was born in human form or is restored to Vessantara. animal performing certain acts of self• sacrifice in order to perfect attributes of a This article is an attempt to "re-read" the bodhisattva. These tales were collected story from other perspectives, namely into one group of texts in the Khuttaka from the perspectives of those around Nikaya, comprising the last section of Vessantara, rather than from Vessantara Sutta in the Tripitaka. It is generally himself. This new center of focus will understood that these stories were form the basis for an analysis of the originally folktales used by the Buddha different reasons voiced by the people of and his disciples for teaching the dhamma Sipi, Ktng Sonchai, Queen Pussadi, Madsi to the people. Later, these stories were and Ganha-Chalie. By turning the center collected and the main characters were of analysis to these people's voices, the infused with the idea of a former birth of different I evels of moral dilemma can be the future Buddha.5 In other words, the clarified and discussed.
The purpose of my analysis is not to See an interesting treatment of similar belittle the great generosity of Vessantara, problems as viewed from within the Confucian but simply to open up a new vista for traditions in Alan Chan. 1984. "Philosophical understanding this important jataka. In Hermeneutics and the Analects: The Paradigm fact, the ethos of moral dilemma is clearly of Tradition", Philosophy East and West. expressed in the text and several Buddhist Vol.34 No.4, October 1984, pp.421-436. Although the "content" of the problem is scholars have pointed out some aspects of different, the need to search for a prope~ the moral conflicts inherent in the text. I transmission of one's tradition is always hope that the bringing forth of the various · pertinent to a people who wish to avoid the levels of moral dilemma would help two extreme positjons of total negation and un• provide an intimate point of contact critical acceptance. In this sense the article by between this great tale and the present Alan Chan is highly relevant to our discussion generation of audience in contemporary in this paper.
life. I also hope that the two extremes of 5 negation of anything traditional on the one Uthong Prasartwinitchai. B.E. 2545. Te Cha hand, and a non-critical acceptance of Su Ne Ma: Roaming the Ten Births Through Mural Paintings. Bangkok: Khanapuggala anything inherited on the other, would be Narnrin, pp.9-12. According to Uthong, better balanced in · this process of re- "During the time of the Buddha, these stories were probably folk tales widely known among defense in the second one indicate a sense of the peoples. The Buddha and his disciples uneasiness with Vessantara's seemingly probably used these tales to teach dhamma. extreme generosity. Later a connection was created to link these stories with the career building paths of the
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Buddhist infusion is a later addition to the her fate of being the wife of an old original folktales, thus creating a genre brahmin as easily as those versions from called "jataka" or birth story. The origins the central region. When a text is of these tales give rise to the question transmitted through so many different oral whether, and to what extent, these birth versions, an analysis which is based on stories could be analyzed as representing one particular version of the text needs to "Buddhist philosophy." If and when we be credited with only relative authority. use these stories as expressing Buddhist philosophy, then do we not need to Third, the particular text used for analysis exercise caution in claiming full in this article is itself a composite text, philosophical authority for the birth collected and selected for reasons of stories, as much as we do for other literary merit and because of the cultural articulations like the Theory of Dependent and political authority oft he c omposers.6 Origination or the Three Characteristics of The book Vessantara Jataka: A Royal Existence? Chant is comprised of 13 chapters composed by distinguished authors like the Second, we must take into consideration royal poet Krompra Poramanuchitchinoros, the fact that the Vessantara Jataka Tale has Chao Praya Praklang, and King Rama IV. been chanted by popular monk chanters in When this text is analyzed, it is analyzed different regions in the country for as a whole, leaving aside the issue of the centuries. As a result, there are several different authorship collected into one hundred versions of the same story with composite text.
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presumed to exist in the translation• Situations of Moral Dilemmas in the composition of the 13 chapters. That will Text need much more effort and perhaps will answer a different set of questions which Before offering an analysis of the moral are beyond the scope of this paper. dilemma in the career of Vessantara, it is necessary to highlight certain passages Moral Dilemma Defined from the text to illustrate the various situations of moral dilemma, both for The term "moral dilemma" in this article Vessantara himself as well as for those indicates self-contradictory moral around him who are directly effected by requirements established within one and his great gift giving. We begin with the the same particular ethical system. Both moral dilemma generated as a prince and moral requirements are "good," and a thus putting King Sonchai, his father, into negation of either choice would be equally a moral dilemma; then the moral dilemma unsatisfactory. In this sense, a moral generated as a royal son to his mother, dilemma is more problematic than a moral Queen Pussadi, then as husband to Madsi, conflict as the latter indicates different sets then as a father to his children; and lastly, of moral requirements in different ethical as himself in an interesting episode of universes. A negation of 9ne choice would emotional inner-fighting with Vessantara not create a problem for the whole himself. particular ethical system. It is a matter of choosing one ethical system over another. As a Prince While in the case of a moral dilemma, one could still be self-contradictory, if one After Vessantara gave away the auspicious follows the moral requirements of one and elephant to Brahmins from a foreign land, the same ethical system. For example, as a the people of Sipi created an uproar and bodhisattva V essantara needs to give away came m large crowds to petition King his children, so as to perfect himself to Sonchai. become enlightened in the future. However, as a father, it is immoral of him _All the peoples of the land, from to create such suffering for his children, the city and the up-country, the carriage simply to fulfill his own wish to be masters, the craftsmen, the military, enlightened in the future. Both being a gathered in the plaza, started to speak in a loving father and being a bodhisattva are ~'good" in the Buddhist ethical system. Thus we have a moral dilemma, not just Buddhism itself. If they do, the occasion already moral conflict.7 constitutes a moral dilemma in my definition. I will therefore, stick to the definition outlined in the article until there is more time to explore 7 I wish to thank Dr.Warayuth Sriwarakul for this point further. (Dr.Warayuth gave this this observation that there is no mo.ral dilerruna comment for the presentation of this paper in in Kantian ethics as there is always a "way out" Thai at the Philosophy Department Seminar in of a situation of "moral conflicts." In his view, honor of Dr.Wit Witsadawes and Dr.Sunthom Vessantara's acts of giving do not posit a NaRangsi's 6th cycle commemoration at the "moral dilemma" as he does have a choice. Faculty of Arts, Chulalongkorn University, 14- However, it is still not clear to me why 15 November 2002.) Vessantara 's choices do not in a very impprtant sense violate other moral requirements within
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loud voice to King Sonchai: Your Royal "Where else can one find such a Highness, Lord of Sipi, now, your son fine son? Your heart is pure, set only to Vessantara has committed wrong, has give." violated a royal tradition of old. This "You are all duly cultivated in the elephant should have been kept for the different arts." kingdom. He has created this rage among "Your glory is recognized in all the people. If you were top rotect h im, it directions. Other heads of kingdoms all could prove dangerous for yourself accept your glory and pay you their Upon hearing those words, the tributes in abundance. " King was very angry, as if engulfed in fire. "The kingdom is wealthy, the He thus said to all the peoples, "My son peoples are all happy. " has committed wrong, has violated a royal "Why is it that the peoples are tradition of old by giving the auspicious jealous and accuse you to your father and elephant to the begging Brahmins. You use cause such anger in him? "9 that to accuse him in such anger. However, it would be inappropriate to As a Son: A Mother's Defense with execute him with a wooden plank (of King Sonchai aromatic wood), neither is it suitable to use a weapon. " The peoples then s aid to "Our young son has violated the King, "In that case, he should be 8 (ministerial) protocol in his giving away expelled from the city. " the auspicious elephant. The penalty is expulsion from the kingdom. " As a Son: A Mother's Defense with "The auspicious elephant cannot Vessantara and Madsi be found in any other land. It was found in our land where our glorious son is. Even if "0 Vessantara, my beloved son! we expel our son from the kingdom, it does You never have had to face a punishment. not mean that we will have the elephant You always try to create great benefits. back. " Days and n ights, you never overlook one "How could you listen to foul beggar. What is it with the peoples? It is words from the peoples. They accused our not their business to be so angry with you, son and your anger could only create accusing you so loudly, disturbing the more trouble. " whole palace. How could your father "You m us t exercise great caution listen to them? now. When there is an emergency the "My son, ifyou are to be expelled peoples can be of no help. Neither can the from the palace, every day I will hold tight elephant. Only your family could sacrifice my breasts. I wilf. hang myself to death. their lives for you. " (Or your family could You are not guilty at all. Why all this face death because ofyou/with you. ") anger in the whole city?" "Our store of marit might yet find us another elephant so auspicious for our kingdom. But where can we find another son so dear?" 8 Vessantara Jataka in I 3 Chapters. Bangkok: Bannakarn. B.E.2521, pp.29-30. (All translation of the text into English is done by the author.) 9 Ibid., pp.46-4 7.
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"Once your s on is departed from forest? Is it possible for a prince to depart Your Royal Highness, who else could act for the forest all by himself? " as your eyes and ears? Our kingdom will "Whichever deep jungle your be as deserted as a crow 's nest (once the highness ventures into, I, your faithful chicks are gone.) " servant, will follow you. I will not stay "You yourself are advanced in behind. I will spend my life and my body age. Your throne will be thrown into serving your highness in gratitude, until chaos." the end ofmy day. " "It is like a mango tree with fruits "Even when the food is scarce, plentiful. The ripe, sweet-smelling fruits having to live only on fruits, I am willing will only drop to the ground, without to endure the hardship in your service. " anyone having even to look up the tree and "I think nothing of using up my ask for the fruits. The crowds of peoples life for you, serving you as golden shoes would just pick them up and eat them all. under your royal feet. " All your treasures will be gone as you are "If you were not to allow me to without an heir. " follow you, I, Madsi, will set up a fire and "As for the court officials, it is jump into it. Death looks better. " difficult to rely on their loyalty. When we "Death would be better than are in power, they come to us, asking to be facing the gossip of the peoples, who of use, chorusing words of glory day and would judge me a wife only in time of night. Once we make mistakes, they would comfort. When it is a time of trouble, the only make things worse. We would be like wife only enjoys her I ife ofI eisure in the a royal swan with broken wings falling palace. " into a ditch. The crows would come and "If there were to be a danger of eat on us." death, I, in front of your highness, will rush toward death as a token of gratitude "If you are displeased with me 11 and choose to believe the peoples, then for you. " please punish me to death. Only then you expel our son from the kingdom. Even if In other passages, we find a continuation our son were guilty, I am beyond blame. of Madsi's reasons to follow Vessantara Please have mercy on me, your loyal wife. into the jungle. The following are said to Please forgive our dears on, just for this Madsi's parents-in-law. One time. "10 "Nobody cares about my royal husband in trouble. How could I rest in As a Husband: Madsi Insisting to comfort in the palace? The peoples would Depart for the Forest with Vessantara only laugh at me. I, Madsi, would not know how to look at anyone in the eyes. It The followings are Madsi's reasons is better to endure the hardship in the expressed to Vessantara. forest. I will !fSe my hands and legs as knives thrashing clear the bushes in the "Is there a tradition of letting a Himavat. Your royal feet will noi be royal husband living in isolation in the
10 Ibid., pp.50-52. Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM 88 via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva soiled. If I were to stay behind, I feared "My dear father, are you disowning me? being a widow. " How could you remain so calm and silent, "A widow left behind by the letting that despicable Brahmin hit me and husband is a sorrowful existence. It would drag me on, right in front of your eyes. be natural for h er to feel the passion for Was I born daughter of a slave? That love inside. " Brahmin is no I onger a Brahmin, he hits "Having a husband is like having me so hard. This old man is so evil. a crystal tiered umbrella above one's Perhaps he was a demon disguising head, constantly enhancing one's honor. himself as a beggar. His beatings cause Being a widow still young can never rest me unbearable pain. He threatens me, he in peace. It is like a deserted gem, soiled shouts at me, he causes me pain. He will with dots of stain, even at low price, it tear me up into pieces and eat me up. But would not attract a buyer. Even if there he cannot do that right away, so he were a buyer, he would be embarrassed to pretends to beat me with the stick until you put the gem on. " cannot see me anymore. Then he will "Where else could I ever find a break my neck, throw it on the ground. He husband like your highness? Even a will tear me to pieces, drink my blood and hundred deaths would not find me another eat me up. My father, my lord, if you n o sage like Vessantara. "12 longer love me, I will bid thee farewell. Don't feel sad ifI were to say to you let us As a Father: Beseeching Wails from not be reborn father-daughter again. Have Chalie-Ganha no doubt that my blood and flesh will be food for this foul Brahmin. "13 Chalie suggests to his sister Ganha to hold their breath in embrace, and die together. Vessantara 's Dilemma with Himself "Ganha, my dear sister, why "My two beloved children are like should we live on to face these sufferings a calm water, provoked into unsettling inflicted by this Brahmin. He only hits us, waves by the contemptuous beatings of the giving us pain. A drop of milk never Brahmin. Vessantara 's calm mind is reaches our lips. Ganha my dear sister, let rudely awakened from his equanimity. us embrace, hold our breath and die Ignorance clouds his wisdom. He is together as an escape from this evil frustrated with anger and delusion. His · Brahmin." anger ignites immediate intention of violence. He threatens the Brahmin: "Hey, Ganha wails to her father. you foul brahmin, you have overstepped your boundary. How could you beat up my "How could you remain so calm, children, right in front of me, their father. so silent in the midst of my plea for your You Brahmin, I did not come here in the help to save my-life?" forest empty-handed. I brought with me my Of What a pitiful sight! Royal sword, bow and arrows. " He took up the Ganha cries so hard, her tears snaking weapons in his hand, trembling with down her cheeks, beseeching her father, anger, saying to himself, "Shall I kill this 12 Ibid., pp.68-71. 13 Ibid., pp.230-232. 89 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 Brahmin?" He feels great frustration accepted the reason put forth by the within. people. As a bodhisattva with intent on Later on, he reflects on the great future enlightenment, V essantara's giving tradition ofpast buddhas and comes to the of the elephant is "natural." As a prince of realization that, "I am here to build my the kingdom, he is supposed to protect the career by perfecting the great children• interests of the realm, and not to give away giving. " When his wisdom is regained, he the elephant. Is itbeyond reason to suggest says to himself, "Behold, Vessantara, do that in the eyes of the peoples, the elephant not hesitate. You and I are fighting each does not belong to V essantara in his other. This should not be. I already gave personal capacity? The elephant belongs to my children away, how is it possible to the kingdom, and therefore, it is not for claim them back?" The Lord Vessantara Vessantara to give it away. Is it not re-establishes his mind, suppressing his reasonable to conclude that when King sorrow. When his sorrow wanes, his face Sonchai accepts the proposal of the people becomes radiant and pure. He then looks to expel V essantara, he is also accepting golden, as ifwith body molted ingold by the anger of the peoples? Thus, is he, by someone, having been put there in the implication, accepting the reason why the ashram. "14 peoples are so angry with Vessantara? On the other hand, if Vesantara considers the Different Faces of Moral Dilemma in elephant his own personal belonging, why Vessantara Jataka is it that the people got the wrong idea the elephant belongs to the kingdom? Even so, Vessantara's g1vmg away of the it does not necessarily mean that the auspicious elephant to brahmins from a elephant belongs to the people. It could foreign land has created great anger very well belong to the royal household, among the peoples of Sipi. 15 The text tells not the people. If this were the case, why us that people from the city, from up• is it that King Sonchai seems to give in to country, the military, the craftsmen all the reasoning of the people? gathered in the city to show their anger, reasoning with the King that Vessantara This moral dilemma of Vessantara has has "violated royal tradition of the past." created a situation of moral dilemma for Judging from the response of the King, it his father as well. As a father, he naturally seems fair to say that the King himself wishes to protect his own son. As a king, his kingdom's interest is paramount. When King Sonchai "agrees" with the people 14 Ibid., pp.228-229. that Vessantara has violated a "royal tradition" of the past, he has decided to be 15 There are attempts to justify Vessantara's king first, not first as father to V esssantara. action of giving away the elephant as indicating It is important to note that the penalty of his practical wisdom of protecting his own capital punishment came from the mouth kingdom in light of a dangerous situation of inter-state competition for dominance. It shows of the King, not the people. He said, "To his "political prowess." See, for example, Phra execute (Vessantara) with sandal wood Pimontham (Chob Anujaree-rnahathera). plank is inappropriate, neither so with B.E.2533 . Prarithat Vessantara Jataka (A weapon." The focus here seems to be that Review Of Vessantara Jataka). Bangkok: it is the methods which are inappropriate, Krongkam Moonnithi Hohtri, pp.35-41. not the death penalty itself. The people 90 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva then said, "In that case, (Vessantara) Vessantara's glory, both worldly and should be expelled from the city." King dhammic, that "the kingdom is wealthy, Sonchai seems to accept the verdict, the people everywhere happy." If the well• without expressing any protest, or being of the people is due to Vessatara's disagreement. He only said, "It is now glory, then the angry expulsion of quite late, let's wait until tomorrow. We Vessantara would certainly indicate a will ask him to leave tomorrow." King severe lack of gratitude on the part of the Sonchai' s verdict on Vessantara is a people. In this sense, the people are guilty, judgment of a king, who needs to protect not Vessantara. royal tradition of the past. That royal duty seems to carry more weight than to protect It is interesting, however, to notice the his son as a father. The best he could do as different reasons used when Queen a father was to mitigate the punishment, Pussadi is talking to Vessantara and Madsi from the death penalty to expulsion. In the and when she is reasoning with King text, there was no description of his doubt, Sonchai. The speech to her husband king or reluctance or sorrow as a father. In this started with admission of their "young" situation of moral dilemma, King son's guilt. But the phrase for the violation Sonchai' s choice IS clear. As for has been changed from "royal tradition of Vessantara, the choice between being a the past" to "violation of some ministerial royal prince and practicing generosity by regulation." This initial saying emphasizes giving the elephant is also clear. The aim the fact that their son is still "young" and for future enlightenment is paramount. his guilt is far from grave, as the admitted violation is one of violation of some The situation is very different when we administrative regulation, not the sacred listen to Queen Pussadi's reasons to royal tradition. Then Queen Pussadi brings protect her son. She is adamant that up the problem of the future of the throne, Vessantara is innocent. It is "none o f the the foreseeable danger which could business" of the people to put forth such confront the King himself and his family, accusation against Vessantara. "King the untrustworthiness of the court officials, Sonchai only too readily accepted the and the uselessness of losing the son after allegation." In the eyes of the Queen having already lost the elephant, the Mother, Vessantara is well-trained in the possibility of finding another elephant, but arts and sciences of a prince. His honor perhaps not another son (especially one and glory are for all to see. Lords of like Vessantara). All her reasons are different minor kingdoms all come to pay crucial and sound, especially for the royal their tributes. For this reason, it is household, which needs to exercise great unacceptable for the people who are caution against possible adversity and "jealous" of Vessantara to put forth that instability. The expulsion of a prince accusation against him. In the eyes of the would only create great uncertainty and Queen mother, it is not the "right" of the . instability for the future of the throne. If people to judge Vessantara. We should the king has to balanc~ out the small guilt also notice that the only guilt of King or mistake of his young son against the Sonchai was to "give in" to the people's great possible calamities against the throne allegation. Moreover, not only do they not and the kingdom as a whole, how should have the "right" to accuse him, they are he decide? Wouldn't it be mqre reasonable even "ungrateful," as it is due to to forgive the mistake of Vessantara than 91 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 to execute the expulsion penalty? It is very As for Vessantara, it seems that the interesting to note that at that point the possible risk of chaos in the kingdom does King remains silent, does not utter a word not sway his determination in the least. It of agreement or disagreement. But the might be more accurate to say that the text expulsion p enalty has b een earlier a greed does not give evidence of Vessnatara's upon between the King and the people. A anxiety or concern here. The next scene in King does not go back on his word. Even the text takes place in the early morning of if all the possible calamities were to pass, the next day. After Vessantara is bathed the expulsion must take place. and properly-dressed, the text describes him thus, "His face is pure for building up Vessantara's giving away ofthe elephant the career for future enlightenment. He to the brahmins from a foreign land has came out to the "Dana-Pavilion" (Pavilion created a tense and risky situation in his for Charity), he gives command to give own kingdom. It led to the confrontation away the money, the clothes, All the between the King and the people. King Magnificent Gifts of Seven Hundreds." 17 Sonchai had to leave aside his being a This same stem determination to perfect father, had to decide against the reasoning the virtue of Vessantara's giving will plea from his Queen, had to face imminent become evident again and again in his danger for himself and his family. In time further giving. of crisis, Queen Pussadi warned her husband, "Would the elephant help us? This expulsion penalty of Vessantara has Your wife and children could die (because become a nightmarish storm which blows of) with you." 16 The dangers are everything asunder in the life of Madsi. threatening at every comer, the danger to Madsi herself insists on leaving the city to the family, to the throne, to the kingdom, live in the forest with Vessantara. Early on loss of loyalty from the court officials. both King Sonchai and Queen Pussadi King Sonchai seems to accept all these forbid Madsi to follow Vessantara to the possible calamities when he gave his word forest, especially with the two royal to the people of Sipi that the expulsion children. But Madsi is adamant that she penalty for Vessantara is imminent. and the children have to go with Vessantara. She begins her reasoning with the necessity to uphold a husband• wife tradition. "Whence possible to find a 16 Ibid., p51. It is interesting to note the customary practice of letting a royal ambiguity here in the text. It says, "Once in time person live alone in the forest?" Then she of great risk and imminent crisis, would the gives further reasons to follow Vessantara: people or the elephant help us? Only your wife to take care of him, to show him gratitude and children could die with (or because of) to the extent that she would gladly you." In Thai the last phrase could mean both sacrifice her life for him. She says, "I "Your wife and children could die because of think nothing of sacrificing my life for you," as well as "Only your wife and children could die with you." The context here seems to you. I will use my life as golden shoes put a stronger indication to the latter meaning. That is, if we were to understand that because 17 Ibid, p59. The Magnificent Gifts of Seven neither the elephant nor the people would be Hundreds indicate seven types of fantastic gifts, around to offer help, therefore, only the family seven hundred each, to be given freely to all. would die together." They are: elephants, horses, carriages, court ladies, cows, male slaves, female slaves 92 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva protecting your royal feet." If they would Although Madsi insists on being a loyal not let her go, she would consider it better wife who strictly follows the rules of to, "set a fire, jump into it and die." This tradition, she does admit to having a death would better than what? The jataka natural sexual need, even as a widow. She tells us that for Madsi, death would be, says, "A widowed woman left lonely by "better than staying behind and letting the herself, would only yearn for passion of people gossip about her regarding her love." But this natural desire carries no clinging to her husband only in time of weight when it confronts her "real comfort. Once in time of trouble, (in (cultural) life" as dictated by tradition. As Madsi's perception) in the eyes of the a traditional wife, she must serve and people, Madsi just refuses to share the protect her husband everywhere he goes. suffering and would only enjoy her Madsi declares, "Even if there were royal existence in the palace." For Madsi, extreme suffering or grave danger, I would this possibility of contemptuous gaze from rush forward to die first as an illustration the people would be a life much more of my gratitude for you." This great. horrible than to die in a fire. Madsi's real sacrifice on Madsi's part would be nothing life lies in the "gaze" of the people. If she compared to much greater sacrifices she were to have to endure such harsh would make later on as events unfold in judgment from the people, she no longer the story. Later she would submit to the wishes to continue her physical existence. children-giving of Vessantara as well as the giving away of herself to Lord Indra in In the midst of the tense situation disguise. All these "anumothana-dana" or V essantara does not forget to grant Madsi "bless-the-giving" of Madsi are so great permission to remarry another prince in even the gods in the heavenly spheres his absence. This gracious gesture could not remain still. "They all clasped suggests that V essantrara does not plan to their hands, sang words of praise for come back. It could be a journey with no Madsi and showered her with heavenly return. V essantara says this to his Queen, flowers. "19 It would be interesting to pose "If there should be a prince who wishes a hypothetical question here.What would you to be his Queen, be sure to serve him have happened if Madsi refused to bless well in every way. Do not yearn for me."18 the giving of Vessantara both in the cases Madsi responds: of children-giving and wife-giving? How would the Jataka proceed? How could an "For me, having a husband is like explanation of Vessantara' great giving be having a crystal umbrella over my head possible? constantly enhancing my honor. A young widow can only be restless, like a soiled So far the difficult confusion has not precious jewel which would not fetch a resulted in any emotional turmoil in good price. Even if there were someone who would be willing to buy it, it would only create shame. A woman with two 19 Ibid., p.267. Please see an analysis.ofMadsi's husbands is not pure." great sacrifices without due credit in Suwanna Satha-Anand. 1997. "Madsi: A Female Bodhisattva Denied?" in Virada Somswasdi and Sally Theobold (eds.). Women, Gender and 18 Ibid, p.36. Development vol.l. Chiangmai: Chiangrnai University Women' Studies Center, pp.245-256. 93 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 Vessantara. When he realizes that he will yet from another perspective, these acts of be expelled from the city after giving away great generosity are part of a "tradition of the auspicious elephant, his reaction is: Buddha-to-be." All bodhisattvas whq aim at future enlightenment need to go through "Not only the auspicious elephant this?2 I would give. Even internal gifts which are much more difficult to give, I would All the moral dilemmas so far illustrate certainly do it. If there were to be a limited emotional drama. Intensive beggar begging for my arms and legs, my emotional elements are highlighted for heart, my eyes, I would willingly cut them Vessantara himself and probably for the off or cut them out for him. This is in audience as well, only when it comes to exchange for future enlightenment. The the greatest giving of all, . namely, the expulsion penalty is nothing. Even if the g1vmg away of his children. The people were to be so angry that they overwhelming agony of Ganha and Chalie demanded my life, I would not hesitate to are well depicted in this saying of the devote myselfto giving. "20 brother to his younger sister in the following. "Let's tightly embrace, hold our It looks like V essantara is not worried in the least about the prospect of great calamities which are to befall him. But it is the necessity of the first type of morality, as indicated in the life of Prince Siddhatta, who important to note that his concern does not had to leave his family and court life behind to include the grave consequence for the search for the truth .of enlightenment. This is lives of his parents, for his wife and achieved so that all peoples of all times could children. The merit of giving the elephant benefit from his great achievement. On the away is evaluated as something of lower other hand, Buddhism does not negate the value than the greater merit of giving parts tentative necessity of the second type of of his body or his own life away. The morality to keep the "normal" course of a recipient could be any one who would society possible. Please see a very interesting simply ask. From one perspective, it could article on this distinction in Patrick Olivelle, be said that V essantara's c oncem is very "Amrta: Women and Indian Technologies of Immortality," Journal ofIndian Philosophy vol.25 limited, so limited that it could be no.5, October 1997, pp.427-449. paradoxically viewed as being selfish in Please see a systematic evaluation and his great self-sacrifice. When viewing his categorization of different acts of giving of a acts from the perspective of a traditional bodhisattva, from external gifts of things society, it could be impossible to see any material, to internal gifts of bodily organs, to moral value in his great generosity.21 And life of a bodhisattva in V en.Rassagala S eewali Thero. 1999. A Critical Study of Ethical Problems of Bodhisattava 's Karuna in Jataka Tales. . Bangkok: Mahachulalongkorn• 20 Op.Cit., pp.33-34. Rajavidyalaya University, pp.38-41. 21 Some scholars explain this paradox as 22 Please investigate the question of King indicating two systems of morality. One is Menander to Venerable Nagasena on the reasons based on the idea of a "self' as an individual, why a bodhisattva needs to do what Vessantara the other is based on the idea of a "person" does in this Jataka in Bhikkhu Pesala. 1998. The whose existence is intrinsically inter-twined Debate_ of King Milinda. Delhi: Motilal with other human beings in webs of Banarsidass Publishers, pp.82-83. relationships. In a way, Buddhism highlights 94 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva breath and die together. This is the way to This brahmin might have been the devil escape this evil old man. " Even at this who disguised himself to beg for me from moment, Vessantara remains calm. The you. He hits me so hard, it hurts so badly I father's calmness in the face of this could die. He shouts, he yells, he inflicts impending tragedy proves too much to pain, he might mutilate me and eat my bear for the children. Ganha the daughter flesh ... He pretends to hit me with a stick, wails unceasingly to her father, but to no but when we are no longer in your view, avail. She finally pronounces a severing of he will be break my neck, throw me on the their father-daughter relationship in (this ground, rip my body apart and drink my and?) future lives. She announces, "Father, brood ... 23 please hold no grudge against me. Have no doubt that we will not be reborn father• The virtue of generosity, a key virtue in daughter in future lives." The pathetic Buddhism, when performed to the utmost, depiction of the pain and suffering the two beyond the common practice of cuitom children have to go through under Jujaka's and convention, painfully brings about harsh treatment is gradually intensi~ed chaos in all kinds of human socio-political when the depiction of Jujaka himself is relationships. These conflicts and this gradually changed. Jujaka has been chaos could bring about great dangers, so transformed from a rather "poor" husband catastrophic that Vessantara could lose whose wife makes demands for domestic everything, including those so dear and help otherwise she would leave him, to a close to him. Please note that the acts of despicable old man (depicted as an ugly giving, in all these cases, do not, in elderly), to a pain-inflicting old brahmin themselves, indicate a giving up of life. whose heart is hardened with malice, to a But the tragic consequences of the giving "devil", to a "ghost" who is ready to break has led to the contemplation of suicide by the necks of the children and then eat them Vessantara's mother, Madsi and the two up. This depiction of a gradual children. King Sonchai had to face the transformation of Jujaka the poor husband possibility of great danger in confrontation to Jujaka the dark devil on the verge of with the people of Sipi. Queen Pussadi has becoming a cannibal "naturally" increases challenged the King to "please kill me first the level of sympathy solicited from the before you expel Vessantara." Madsi heart and mind of the audience who by protested to the parents i f not allowed to this time would be despising Jujaka and follow Vessantara to the forest, "I, Madsi pouring out their hearts to Ganha and will set up a fire, jump into it and die. That Chalie. At this point the jataka wrenches would be better for me." Ganha and Chalie our tears thus: said to each other, "You and I, let's embrace tightly, hold our breath and die "Oh! Woe to Ganha! She cries so together. This is the only escape from this hard her tears trail down her cheeks. She old despicable brahmin." And yet, it is beseeches her father 'Father, my dear Clear from the jataka that Vessantara's father, have you cut me off? How could calmness becomes emotional turmoil only you be.so calm and silent? How could you after the children were given away, when let this despicable old brahmin hit me and drag me away right in front ofyour eyes? 23 It is as if I were born daughter of a Op.Cit. (footnote no.l2). slave ... Father, he is no longer a brahmin. 95 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 Jujaka still kept hitting them in full view "children of royal blood." It is a violation of the father. This is an act of serve not only oft he physical body, but also a disrespect. Ganha and Chalie are children transgression of the cultural taboo. The of royal brood. They need to be treated misery from the physical pain is increased, properly. In the jataka, one of the most is added to the dark contempt expressed emotional scenes is depicted thus: (symbolically) on the royalty of the children. Thi~ intense anger is elevated to "His (Vessantara 's) calm is ill intent, so unbearable that Vessantara, disrupted. Avijji clouds his wisdom. He who has remained so calm throughout the becomes agitated, angry and throws these narrative, rushes forward to grasp his words at Jutaka, Hey! Hey! Jutaka! This weapons with an intent to kill Jujaka. And Brahmin is contemptuous. " How could then, his wisdom regains its control you hit my children right in front of me? (Earlier the text told us that Vessantara's Eh!Hermit! I did not come to the forest calmness could be compared to still water unarmed. I brought with me the sword and which was agitated and thus disturbing the the bow. He then grasps the bow and the fish in the pond). At this time, arrow tight in hands with intent on killing Vessantara's humanity as a father has been the Brahmin ... Moments later, he takes transformed by his "knowledge" of hold of himself reflecting on the noble traditions of past buddhas. Vessantara, of tradition of past buddhas. Then he human flesh and blood, who is still realizes, "I am building up this career (of capable of anger and emotional agitation a bodisattva) of children-giving. " Once he of a moment earlier, has been transformed regains his wisdom, the royal hermit into a human golden Buddha. In other begins teaching himself, " Look, words, this intricate depiction has pointed Vessantara, neither waiver nor hesitate. to the transformation of a human person 25 You and I fighting each other? That is not into a human-like gold statue. desirable. " At that moment, he regains tranquility, letting go of his sorrow. When Perhaps this is the scene with ultimate he is calm a gain, h is face becomes pure, dramatic effect in the entire jataka tale. his body looks as pure as a pure gold Later on, when Vessantara gives away his Buddha, exquisitely designed and finely wife, who willingly accepts his great vow cast, having been put there in the to achieve enlightenment in the future, his hermitage (by an unseen artist/ 4 last act of giving does not solicit the same · emotional intensity as this one. The image Vessantara's intense conflict with himself of Madsi's willing acquiescence to her at this moment is expressed in a situation husband's wish depicts a pure and intense where a father has to witness the beating dignity. This female dignity is so of his own children. This is not merely a complete, all the gods in heaven could not matter of the physical pain inflicted on the children. It implies a feeling that Jujaka is 25 Given the time frame of this particular jataka a dark devilish old brahmin who does not tale, technically, one cannot say that Vessantara have the "rights" to inflict verbal abuse on has become a golden buddha statue. As Vessantara has yet to be reborn Prince Siddhatta who then would become enlightened and thus 24 Op.Cit. (footnote no.l3) become the Buddha. 96 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva remain still. They all appear and sing The other group includes studies of the songs of praise for the great devotion of Vessantara Jataka Tale as part of a larger Madsi. The atmosphere of pain, suffering body of bodhisattva literature, with special and misery so prominent in the giving of focus on the question of moral conflict or the children is conspicuously absent here. moral inadequacy of the bodhisattvas in The next great moment of emotional the stories.27 As the scope of this article is intensity in the story will recur only when more closely related to the issues raised in the whole family reunite in the forest this second group of works, I will relate before they all return home to the city. my discussion more closely with works produced under this category. A Critical Reflection of the Bodhisattva Ideology In this second category of works, there are basically three main academic positions. In the Thai and international scholarship First, the work by Ven.Rassagala Seewali on moral issues relating to the V essantara Thero points to the moral inadequacy of Jataka Tale, there are basically two groups many actions performed by bodhisattvas in of scholarly works. the jataka tales. He has selected 1 0 from the over 500 stories for special analysis. One group includes studies of the His observations are that there are Vessantara Jataka Tale as a literary work instances of obvious lack of compassion of religious, cultural, historical or political on the part of the bodhisattvas, although significance. Some works relate this tale compassion is the central virtue not only in with the Thai political culture, some with Buddhism, but especially in the practice of 28 court rituals, others with the history of the all bodhisattvas. He cites several Bodhisattva ideal in Buddhism.26 instances of moral wealmess of bodhisattvas, but only two will be given 26 Please see outstanding examples of works in here. In the Chullapatum Jataka, there is the this category in the followings. Krompraya story of a bodhisattva whose 7 brothers got Dhamrongrajanupab. B.E.2460. "The Legend of lost in the forest. When out of food to Th et Mahachat ", Mahachat Royal Chant. Bangkok: RongpimThai. Also see, Sombat Chantomwong. B.E.2523. "The Political Meanings of Mahachatkumluang." in Sombat 27 Please note the following works in this Chantomwong and Chaianan Smudavanich. second category. Reiko Ohnuma. 2000. Political Thoughts and Thai Society. Bangkok: "Internal and External Opposition to the Thammasat Univeristy. Also see Suwanee Bodhisattva 's Gift of His Body ", Journal of Chuansanit. B.E.2519. A Cultural A nalysis of Indian Philosophy. Vol.28 no.l February 2000, Vessantara Jataka Tale. An M.A. thesis of the pp.43-75; Ven.Rassagala Seewali Thero. Department of Thai Language, Graduate B.E.2542 (AD.l999). A Critical Study of School, Chulalongkom University. Also, Ethical Problems of Bodhisattva's Karuna in Patrick Jory. 1996. A History ofthe Thet Maha Jataka Stories, Bangkok: Mahachulalongkorn Chat and Its Contributions to a Thai Political Rajavidyalaya University. Steven Collins. 1998. Culture. . A Ph.D. thesis submitted to the Nirvana and Other Buddhist Felicities: Utopias Australian National University. And lastly, of Pali Imaginaire. Cambridge: Cambridge Prapod Assavavirulhakam. B.E.2546. The Way University Press. of Bodhisattva: A Way for the Many. Bangkok: Faculty of Arts Publication Project, F acuity of 28 Ven.Rassagala Seewali Thero. Op.Cit., p.4. Arts, Chulalongkom University. 97 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 sustain life, the 7 brothers agree among are falling short of what an "ordinary" themselves that they will kill one of the person would do in the same situation.33 wives each day and share the food with the However, we can see that the ana}ytical rest. They start with the wife of the approach of his work sees certain actions youngest brother first. The bodhisattva, of the bodhisattvas as themselves an when he receives his portion, keeps his "ethical problem." How could these portion and eats only from the portion of actions be those of a bodhisattva, as they his wife. When the time comes to the are supposed to be filled with a higher killing of his wife, he distributes the saved quality of compassion than others? The portions of earlier days and thus saves the ethical problem here is that the life of his wife. In the middle of the night, bodhisattvas are "not good enough," as he and his wife run away.29 The critical they have violated the most basic virtue in observation of Ven.Rassagala is that as a Buddhist ethics. bodhisattva, why not sacrifice his own life first as food for the rest? Why partake of Another ~hought-provok:ing approach is the flesh from the wives of his brothers to used by Professor Reiko Ohnuma whose save his own life and then cheat on the article focuses on the giving a way o f t he agreement when it comes to his wife's body (body parts or lives) of the tum?30 In his analysis this is a clear bodhisattvas. She points out that "giving" example of moral weakness. is a basic virtue in Buddhism, but if the giving is conducted to the extreme, like In the case of V essantara, Ven.Rassagala the giving of flesh and blood, of bodily makes the observation that the giving of parts or of lives to others, the "virtue" of the children is highly problematic because giving could create many problems for "Madsi holds equal rights to the two those closest to or related to the children."3 1 Moreover, the giving away of bodhisattvas. From this perspective, the children has caused extreme misery extreme giving becomes an ethical and suffering for his wife and children. He problem, when the giving is too extreme asks how it is possible for a bodhisattva for a society. She uses a poignant not show any compassion in this kind of comment by Professor Har Dayal from the situation.32 widely-quoted The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature (1932), as It is interesting to note that Phra Seewali a starting point for her own analysis. Thero's critical observation of the bodhisattvas' actions is not only that they "The heroes and heroines oft hese are violating the principle of compassion, stories give away wealth, limbs, life, wives which is the core of Buddhist ethics, but and children in a spirit ofexagg erated and oftentimes, the bodhisattvas themselves fantastic philanthropy. The lack of a sense of proportion and harmony is the f atal flaw of the Indian temperament as 29 A summary of a longer version by this author from Ibid., pp.87-88. exhibited in literature and religion. The Indian thinkers and writers often push a 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid., p.96. 33 Ibid., p.87. 32 Ibid. Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM 98 via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva good idea to such extremes that it becomes of a city-gate, the deity of a grotesque and ridiculous "34 tree, or the deity of a pleasure• park). The teaching on the Middle Path is a corner stone for a system of practice which When we analyze the arguments or avoids extremes, both of self-indulgence criticisms put forth by these four groups of and self-torture. In this sense, it is odd to people, we could detect that the basis of see that all the acts of giving of their arguments is a particular benefit for a bodhisattvas must include extreme particular time, for a specific group of generosity as indicated in the theory of people or beings. They could be a "The Five Givings:" namely, the giving of particular benefit for a group of women wealth, children, wife, body-parts and life. close to the bodhisattva, or a particular In the Sivijakata, King Sivi thinks to benefit for a kingdom, or a particular himself: "There is not a single external benefit for a people, or a particular benefit object that I have not given, ()'et) external for a local deity. All the while, the gifts 34 Reik;o Ohnuma, Op.Cit., pp.43-44. Professor 37 Ibid., pp.57-64. It is interesting to note the Ohnuma 's analytical approach has served as an different opinions of those past masters of inspiration for the approach used in this article. exegesis of the acts of gift-giving of the bodhisattva. Professor Ohuma brings out these 35 Ibid., p.45. different voices both from within the tales or the texts themselves, as well as those voices 99 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 Thus it becomes an act of kindness which of the worst possible recipient among all results in extreme suffering for the the possible "equal" recipients. bodhisattva as well as for those people around him. Moreover, oftentimes, the At this point one might wonder if there recipient of the gifts is so undeserving. could not be possibilities of reconciling The most obvious case is that of Jujaka in these different moral dilemmas as put the Vessantara Jataka Tale. On this point, forth by the people around Vessantara. Professor Ohnuma provides an interesting Professor Ohnuma has pointed out three observation that the more undeserving the possibilities. First, it could be argued that recipient (that is, he is greedy, evil, ugly), these extreme acts of kindness which the more obvious is the greatness of the involve intense emotional dimension are gift-giving. 38 necessary as acts . of. sympathetic identification of the bodhisattva with the This point of the need for an imbalance or rest of human beings. The emotional deliberate dissonance of the moral polarity intimacy is necessary to illustrate the of the gift giver and the recipient could be "closeness" of the bodhisattva with the viewed from two angles. First, from the people, not the emotional detachment of perspective of the dramatic effect of the an arahat. Second, these tales of extreme tale, it could be said that when the moral generosity could be viewed as an degradation, the physical ugliness, the illustration of a mental deed not actual devilish intent of Jujaka are juxtaposed to physical giving of gifts. These tales are the great sacrifice, the lavish generosity allegorical tales to be grasped as a fictional and the high royal standing of Vessantara, story to make a nioral point. They are not a feeling of disgusting dissonance could be meant to be taken literally. They merely created in the audience. It could be a illustrate the giving up of the self of the feeling of strong a version for Jujaka, a bodhisattva, when the "self' is expressed feeling of strong moral support for through the bonds or ties of relationships Vessantara, a feeling of condemnation of with people around him as well as his own evil and approval of good. From another body and life. Lastly, the tales are meant angle, it could be said that the undeserving to illustrate the stories ofbodhisattvas who nature of the recipient confirms the are "special" beings, who are different principle of giving without discrimination. from us. These tales are to be The universality of the principle is "worshipped" not to be "emulated" by the explicitly manifest when the most audience?9 Another possibility of undeserving (someone like Jujaka) compromise or reconciliation might be to recipient receives the most valuable view these acts of bodhisattvas as "moral (namely the royal children) gift, from the experiments" through their journeys in most generous Vessantara. This possibility different lives. They need to try out indicates the "anyone" element of the different moral possibilities to the extreme universal principle. This principle is truly possibilities of those acts before they come "universal" as J ajaka is the manifestation to the realization that only wisdom can lead to enlightenment, not extreme self• from the exegetical literature. My article deals sacrifice. It is relevant to point out here the only with the voices from within the tale of V essantara. 39 Ibid.,. . pp.64-66. 38 Ibid., pp.60-61. 100 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva in the life of Siddhatta, he leaves his wife perspective, the audience should feel great and child, and does not "give" them away. empathy with and sympathy for the There is also no giving of body parts or the sufferings of different people in the story. life of the Buddha. These various The feelings need to be grounded in the experiences of moral experiments finally "reality" of the story of people with flesh lead a bodhisattva to the Middle Path. The and blood who go through pain and "Middle" is not easily or readily found. suffering. On the other hand, these "realist" dramas need to be understood as It could be said that the explanation and allegory as well. This is because the analysis of Professor Ohnuma indicates a sufferings of the people are "believable" critique of the giving of the body of the and "real," but the decision of extreme bodisattva from the view that these acts of generosity of Vessantara illustrates a extreme generosity are actually "too narrative technique in presenting a good."40 Unlike the analysis of Venerable "morality p lay."42 I tis this ambiguity in Rassagala Seewali Thero, who focuses on the story itself which makes the story so the acts of bodhisattva which are not powerful as a religious narrative. One "good enough," Professor Ohnuma's could imagine that the feelings of moral analysis points to the opposite. In the uneasiness could pose a challenge to a following investigation we can see a "normal" common sensical feeling of possibility of explaining the dilemmas conventional morality. Professor Collins expressed in these two approaches. We points out the fact that this highly would begin with the question: Is there emotional jataka tale forces the audience any possibility of other "good" which is to face the dilemma of one of the key beyond the "good" defined in a society virtues of Buddhism, namely that of giving through the various forms and levels of or dana. When this most highly valued relationships? virtue is performed to the extreme, it seems to become other than virtue, An eminent Buddhist scholar, Professor creating pain, suffering and chaos for Steven Collins suggests that in order to everyone in the whole political entity. The evaluate the "right" or "wrong" of the acts political entity itself is threatened. This is of V essantara, one needs to make a a challenge to all the "goodness" (of distinction between two levels of morality, people performing their moral duties in one "mundane," the other "ideological• their different roles in their different transcendental."41 Professor Collins sees relationships) in a common social world. the Vessantara Jataka Tale both as a All this goodness is inevitably related to realist drama and an allegory. From one familial, social and political relationships.43 40 Although Professor Ohnuma begins her If the audience were to consider Vessatara analysis with the cases of body-giving of "wrong" in his great generosity, they different bodhisattvas, her analysis includes the would have to admit that the moral case of Vessantara, in the sense that wrongness of Vessantara is not a Vessantara's giving is an extreme act of generosity performed for a most undeserving recipient, that is, someone like Jujaka. 42 Ibid., p.528. 41 Steven Collins, Op.Cit., pp.528-529. 43 Ibid. 101 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 "criminal" act. It is not an evil act with an It is interesting to note that all three intention to hurt or destroy others. On the analytical approaches outlined above contrary, the tragedy of the whole story utilize a common criterion as a conceptual lies precisely in the goodness of the act, framework to "evaluate" the acts of giving put to extreme. If, on the other hand, the of Vessantara and other bodhisattvas. That audience were to consider that Vessantara criterion is developed from a temporal is "right" in his generous gesture, the view basis which lies beyond the text itself. In has to come from another level of other words, the use of the Middle Path as consideration. Professor Collins names a critique of extreme giving of the this level "ideological-transcendental." bodhisattvas, actually indicates a principle This level of "goodness" is necessary for which was discovered by the Buddha, who the achievement of future enlightenment. is the future birth of Vessantara m It is interesting to note that while Phra particular and other bodhisattvas m Rassagala S eewali Thero emphasizes that general. One other criterion of many of the bodhisattvas' acts are not "wholesome" giving is giving which does "good enough," and Professor Ohnuma not incur suffering neither for oneself nor indicates that other acts (of extreme giving for others, is a teaching which was of body) are "too good" for society to developed by the Buddha only after his tolerate, Professor Collins' analysis points enlightenment. All these criteria belong to to the paradox that an act which is "too a different time frame, namely, the future good" is a necessary wrong, so that a time framework, which is yet to come. "higher" good is possible in the future. These criteria maybe familiar for the This "higher good" might not be readily reader in her/his world, but certainly they perceivable from one particular point in have yet to come into existence in the time or from a particular view from any textual world of the jataka tales. 45 In this member of the society in the story, but that sense, the historical truth of the Buddha's is not so important when a future greater enlightenment in the future (of the text) good demands these smaller sacrifices. which is a fulfillment of the ardent wish of From this analysis then, there is no need to the bodhisattva, especially of Vessantara, "defend" the moral feasibility of has become a crucial reference or a key Vessantara's acts, as they are actually condition m explaining the moral necessary to a chi eve a higher goal in the dilemmas of Vessantara. But this future. Although at the end of the story, possibility lies in the world of the reader, everything given away by Vessantara is not in the world of the people who are retumed to the entire royal family at the directly affected by the acts of Vessantara. final reunion, this could be seen as a All three authors whose works are "compromise" with the audience, more discussed here assume this post-story than a suggestion that "actually", at the reader's world. These authors already end of the day, Vessantara did not give possess one important piece of anything to anybody.44 45 See the complicated relationships between Possibilities of Reconciliation? the textual world and the reader world as conditions for discussing the truth and meaning of religious narratives in Gary 44 See an interesting analysis ofthe end of the Comstock. 1993. "The Truth of Religious story ofVessantara in Ibid., pp.526-527. Narratives", Philosophy of Religion (34). 102 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva lmowledge which is not in any of the texts, his wish for future enlightenment. The namely, that the Buddha did actually attain giving of the children and the giving of enlightenment. The Buddha's Madsi herself are accepted by Madsi, enlightenment has actually, throughout ultimately because she shares the value of Buddhist history, helped innumerable Vessantara's future pursuit. Madsi's people alleviate or get rid of their devotion is total as she gives up all there is suffering. This enlightenment (presumed of her present life, for a vision of her in the reader's world of the three authors) husband. Perhaps in this we could say that was a "direct" result of life of the Madsi is the only one in the entire story bodhisattvas under study. From this who "shares" his hope of future perspective, the meanings of the suffering enlightenment. In this sense, Madsi's of those in the jataka tale, whether those of acceptance and understanding of the people of Sipi, or those of Queen Vessantara's great giving, offers his giving Pusadi, or those of Mudsior those of the possibility ofjustification and perhaps Ganha and Chalie, all present an additional reco~tciliation from within the story itself. layer of meaning from the point of view of Her total devotion to her husband thus the audience or the reader's world. That creates the possibility of moral additional layer of meaning helps provide justification within the time frame of the a basis for understanding the "necessity" text itself. This is different from other of those sacrifices. Those sacrifices did possibilities of reconciliation which need work. They did produce the intended to take into account the future of results, namely, the enlightenment of the V essantara, and use that future time frame Lord Buddha. to re-work moral consideration back into the narrative. However, if we consider the meaning of the text by focusing merely on the Moreover, it is interesting to note that the temporal framework of the text itself, we analysis of Professor Collins ultimately will see that the future possibility of leads to the transformation of Vessantara' s enlightenment is only a possibility. It is moral dilemmas into a moral paradox.In still merely an ardent wish of a bodhisattva other words, if the criteria for moral who is still on the path. It is not yet a evaluation of Vessantara' s generosity "lmowledge" that enlightenment will needs to posit two levels of moral result. There is no prior lmowledge of the consideration, one mundane, the other enlightenment of Prince Siddhattha. A key ideological-transcendental as discussed question here is then: Do the people earlier, the one act which is "wrong" at the around Vessantara share this strong . mundane level is actually "right" from the "hope" with him? If we consider the perspective of the transcendental, then arguments and criticisms put forth by King perhaps the question of moral dilemma as Sonchai, Queen Pusadi, the people of Sipi, self-contradictory rules of moral judgment, and the children, all do not indicate the needs to be re-understood under a different sharing of that hope. They all criticize him concept. If the wrong of an act at one level (in the. case of King Sonchai, the people is necessary for the right of the same act at and the children) or defend him (as in the another level, then we have a paradox, not case of Queen Pusadi) on the basis of a moral dilemma. From this angle then, the conventional morality. It is only Queen extreme giving of Vessantara needs to be Madsi who explicitly joins Vessantara in wrong, in order for it to be right. The 103 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities 7.2, 2004 wrongness of the act becomes the locus Which questions are fair and legitimate? for the rightness of the same act. In this Which are not? Which questions do the sense then, perhaps a reconciliation is no present readers have the "right" to ask and longer called for because a moral dilemma which are anachronistic? All these has been transformed into a moral questions require further reflection. paradox. Perhaps one strategy is useful, namely, the attitude of "challenge with respect.'>47 This Our next question is if we accept that the attitude, which does not belittle or bedevil a future success of enlightenment justifies text and its tradition, and yet does not rest the suffering and pain of the people around content with conservative transmission of Vessantara, including himself, then the message, needs to be adopted so that a perhaps it means we also accept that cultural and religious text and tradition so Buddhist ethics is utilitarian in nature. rich as the Vessantara Jakata can live on (The greater happiness of a greater number and provide a meaningful cultural cosmos of people is the criterion for moral right for people in Thai society who are braving and wrong.) As the number of people who the future now. follow the Buddha's path and alleviate their suffering is larger than those who References suffer in thejataka tale, then Vessantara's moral act is justified. However, if we Assavavirulhakam, Prapod. B.E.2546. The follow this line of logic, will we not incur Way of Bodhisattva: A Way for the for Buddhist ethics the same criticisms Many. Bangkok: Faculty of Arts leveled against Utilitarianism? In other Publication Project, Faculty of Arts, words, even if larger numbers of people actually benefit from the Buddha's Chulalongkom University. enlightenment, where lies the possibility Chan, Alan. 1984. "Philosophical Hermeneutics ahd the Analects: The of justice for those fewer people around Paradigm of Tradition", Philosophy the life of Vessantara? East and West. Vo1.34 No.4, October 1984. One last point, which can not be dealt with here, is the question: How should people in this 21st century interpret the meanings of this complicated and controversial Thailand. " Mphil Degree Thesis, Cambridge jataka tale? How should we interpret the University. rich and confusing messages put forth in this national text? There are new questions 47 Please see a discussion of the attitude of posed by human rights advocates, by "challenge with respect" as a basis for inter• feminist scholars who see the acts of religious dialogue and for a dialogue between Vessantara as perhaps unacceptable.46 philosophy and religion which could be applicable to the study of ancient religious narratives which have been transmitted to later 46 Please see an example of constructive generations for centuries, like Vessantara engagement with Vessantara Jataka and others Jataka in Suwanna Satha-Anand. B."E.2545. in Uthong Prasartwinitchai, Op.Cit. Also see Faith and Wisdom: A Philosophical Dialogue an interesting analysis of the cultural meanings with Religion. Bangkok: Chulalongkom of giving in Thai society in Mukhom University Press. Wongthes. 2000. "The Gift of the Body as the "Gift of Knowledge": Body Donation in 104 Downloaded from Brill.com10/06/2021 09:47:10PM via free access Moral Dilemma in Budhisattva Olantomwong, Sombat B.E.2523. '1be Political Phra Pimontham (Chob Anujaree- Meanings of Mahachatkumluang." in mahathera). B.£.2533. Prarithat Sombat Chaniomwong and Chaianan Vessantara Jataka (A Review · Of Smudavanich. Political Thoughl.s and Vessantara Jataka). Bangkok: Thai Society. Bangkok Tharmnasat Krongkam Moonnithi Hohtri. Univeristy. Satha-Anand, Suwanna. 1997. "Madsi: A Chuansanit, Suwanee. B.£.2519. A Female Bodhisattva Denied?" in Cultural Analysis of Vessantara Virada Somswasdi and Sally Jataka Tale. An M.A. thesis of the Theobold (eds.). Women, Gender and Department of Thai Language, Development vol.I. Chiangmai: Graduate School, Chulalongkom Chiangmai University Women' University. Studies Center. Collins, Steven. 1998. Nirvana and other Satha-Anand, Suwanna. B.£.2545. Faith Buddhist Felicities. 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