Introduction

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. Though the share of agriculture in the GDP is declining, it continues to be a significant contributor. The share of agriculture in the GDP continues to be lower around 25 per cent (as compared with 30 per cent of industry and 45 per cent of services). The scenario is very different in the developed countries where agriculture forms a very small percentage of the national income (U.K: 2 per cent and U.S.A: 3 per cent). In India it still provides employment to nearly two-thirds of the population, though many of them engaged in agricultural activities are not fully employed. Thus agriculture plays a vital role in Indian economy even now (Agarwal, 2003).

Labour refers to physical or mental exertion of human being, for which wage is the reward (Bright Singh, 1998). In agricultural sector most of the people nearly two third has been employed because agricultural workers are unskilled and semi-skilled. That is why disguised unemployment is found. Disguised unemployment means seemingly the labourers are employed, but contribute nothing to total productivity or marginal productivity is zero.

Agricultural workers constitute mostly neglected class of Indian rural structure. Their income is low and employment is irregular since they possess no skill or training, they have no alternative employment opportunities. Socially, a large number of agricultural workers belong to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Therefore they are an oppressed class. They are not organized and can not fight for their rights. Because of all these reasons their economic lot has failed to improve even them four and half decades of planning. It seems that (excepting pockets in Punjab, Hariyana and Western Utter Pradesh) the planning process has by passed them (Misra and Misra, 2003). 2

One of the most disquieting features of the rural economy of India has been the growth in the number of agricultural workers – cultivators and agricultural labourers – engaged in crop production. The phenomena of unemployment, under-development and surplus population, are all simultaneously manifested in the daily lives and livings of agricultural labourers. They get usually low wages, conditions of work put an excessive burden on them and employment which they get is extremely irregular. What Dr. Pattabi said in 1940 still holds true speaking at the agricultural labourer’s conference he said “The cultivators who spend the day between slush and mud, who work nows with a starving stomach and now with a half appeased appetite who know no rest in storm or sunshine, who often times has no dwelling site which can be called his own, he grows our paddy but starves. He feeds our milch cows but never knows anything beyond Kanjee and Water. He digs our wells but must keep off from them when they are full. He is a perpetual hewer of wood and drawer of water for those who fatten on his labour and raise to wealth and plenty. His condition is appalling and heart-rending” “It was this condition that led the Agrarian Reforms Committee, 1950 to observe that “To leave out problem of agricultural labour in any scheme of Agrarian Reforms as has been done so-far-is to leave unattended a weeping wound in the Agrarian system of the country.”

In view of the over-riding concern to the problems of agricultural labour that the Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawarhal Nehru had stated in 1966 that “we must give special consideration to landless agricultural labour. Although there has been tremendous progress in India since independence. This is one section which has really a very hard time and which is deserving of a very special consideration” (Memoria, 2002).

Agricultural labour conceptual issues Agricultural labour force of a country is different from industrial labour force. They are unorganized and scattered stratum of the country’s labour force. They are usually the most unskilled category of workers and hence have 3 no bargaining power to excise in the labour market. As a result of that low bargaining capacity, they are the most easily available factor of production and most of the countries do not face the problems of scarcity of agricultural labour except very few.

Definitions It is very difficult to give a precise definition of agricultural labour force. This is mainly because of the difficulty in locating and categorizing a worker as agricultural worker by confining to a particular task or activity, in a very broad sense farmers, their wives and fathers and hired workers in agricultural sector compose agricultural labour force.

The first agricultural labour enquiry in India (1950-51) defines agricultural labourers as those people who are engaged in raising crops on payment of wages. The second agricultural labour enquiry in India (1956-1957) enlarged the category to include also those who are engaged in allied occupation like animal husbandry, dairy, poultry etc.

But in present Indian context those definitions are not found to be adequately suitable, as it is difficult to separate working on wages from others because they usually work for wages only for a part of the year. So if more than half of the family labourers’s occupation is wage employment in agriculture then according to the first ALE it is an agricultural labour household.

The second ALE uses instead of occupation as the basis of defining agricultural workers. Accordingly an agricultural household is one whose main source of income is wages from agriculture.

The national commission on labour regards agricultural labour as one who is basically unskilled and unorganized and has nothing but physical labour to exist. So major part of the income is derived from wage for work on land. 4

The decimal population census of India adopted various definitions of agricultural labour from time to time. In the population census 1961 those people were treated as agricultural labourers who work on another’s land and who are paid cash or kind.

The 1971 census followed a sightly different definition. It distinguished labourers from non-labourers on the basis of their main activity. The secondary work was not considered for categorising a worker us agricultural or non- agricultural.

1981 census classified the workers as main workers and marginal workers. The main workers were again classified as cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industrial workers and other workers. Agricultural labour is a person who worked in another person’s land for wage in cash or kind or share of crops. He has no risk of cultivation but merely worked for wages. He has no right of lease or contract of land on which he worked.

Desai (1994) stated that the 1991 census has followed more or less the same definition of agricultural labour. It states “A person who works on another person’s land for wages in money, kind, or share is regarded as an agricultural labourers. He/she has no work in cultivation but he/she merely works on another person’s land for wages. An agricultural labourer no right of lease or contract on land on which he/she works!”.

It is one of the primary objects of the five year plan to ensure fuller employment for workers and better living conditions to all section of the rural community and in particular to assist agricultural labour and backward classes to come up to the level of the rest.

Classification at agricultural labourers Agricultural labour is mostly by economically and socially backward sections. Poor sections from the tribes also swell their ranks. It may be divided into four types. a) Landless labourers who are attached with to the land lords. b) Landless labourers who are personally independent but who work exclusively for others. c) Petty farmers with tiny bits of land who devote most of their time working for others and d) Farmers who have economic holding but who have one or most of their cultivation and dependents working for prosperous farmers.

The first group of agricultural workers has been more or less in the position of serfs or slaves, they are also called as bonded labourers. They do not normally receive wages in cash but are generally paid in kind. They have to work for their master and can not shift from one to another. They have to provide beggar or forced labour. In some cases they have to offer cash and also supply fowels and goats to their masters. Around the other groups mentioned above the second and third are important. The problem of landless labourers is most serious problem in the rural sector.

Conditions of agricultural labourers below poverty line The living conditions of agricultural households continue to be pathetic. The proportion of labour households will normally per capita expenditure of than `100 was about 70 per cent which clearly shows that vast majority of the agricultural labourers are below poverty line.

Statement of the Problem Agricultural sector is still contributing nearly 25 per cent of GDP of Indian economy. The population of India is going on increasing, that is shown in 2011 census. So the excess population is employed in agriculture and allied 6 activities. That shows obviously that the number of agricultural labourers are also increasing in respect to population growth. It is further difficult to define the term “agricultural labour in concise and precise terms. However it will be useful to refer to some of the attempts made by experts in this connection.

In order to know the problem of agricultural labour the definitions are necessary. The First Agricultural Enquiry Committee (1950-1951) defined this as “Those people who are engaged in raising crops on payment of wages.” The Second Agricultural Labour Enquiry Committee (1956-57) enlarged the definition of agricultural labour to include “those who are engaged the other agricultural occupations like dairy farming, horticulture, raising of livestock, bees, poultry etc. These definition have shown clearly the meaning of agricultural labour.

Since the size of agricultural labourers familiar have been large one or big size the family members are not having sufficient income to spend because of monsoon failure and no water flow in river Cauvery had been responsible for unemployment of agricultural labourers. Therefore the cultivable land area has been reduced. Prevailing wage rate `250 for men and 100 for women is not sufficient to get income for sustaining themselves. Since agriculture occupation is a seasonal only 100 or more than 100 or less than 150 days only agricultural labourers are employed. From other sources, agricultural labourers are getting low income. So irregular low income is one of the most important problems of agricultural labourers. Due to decline in cottage and small scale industries, the pressure of population on land has increased, so increased number of agricultural labourers had been the result and employer or large farmers are trying to reduce wage paid to agricultural labourers. Since there is no trade union, the agricultural labourers are not having bargaining power. At present machines have been used for ploughing, transplanting, harvesting, winnowing, packing paddy in bags etc. So there is a fear among agricultural labourers for replacement and this had been ultimately reduced prevailing wage rate and 7 number of agricultural labourers employed in agriculture will be reduced in future. Assets owned by different groups of agricultural labourers is diminishing and indebtedness of all the groups of agricultural labourers are increasing. Due to impossibility of repayment of debt agricultural labourers have been migrating to other states or other big towns. Thus the agricultural labourers have faced number of problems. That is why the researcher has chosen the topic not only that he belongs to agricultural family of Ammapet block, Papanasam taluk.

Objectives of the study The overall objectives of the study is to find out socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers in the study area. 1. To understand the number of working days available in agricultural sector in the study area to agricultural labourers. 2. To estimate the value and types of assets owed by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area. 3. To calculate the annual income earned through agriculture and other sources by agricultural labourers in the study area. 4. To evaluate the pattern of annual expenditure incurred and annual indebtedness of agricultural labourers in the study area. 5. To understand the standard of living, poverty line and unemployment of agricultural labourers in the study area. 6. To focus light on the problems faced by agricultural labourers in the study area.

Hypotheses of the study The above stated objectives are studied with the help of following hypothesis. 1. There is a significant direct relationship between number of working days and annual income of agricultural labourers. 8

2. There is a positive correlation between assets and social and economic conditions of agricultural labourers. 3. Larger the amount of annual income the standard of living of the agricultural labourers is higher. 4. The amount of annual expenditure is greater than annual income so the amount of indebtedness is greater. 5. Lower the number of working days lower with be the standard of living and employment. 6. The problems faced by agricultural labourers must be solved by agricultural labourers themselves and also by central and state government employment generation schemes.

Scope of the study In the concern of agricultural labour suppression and oppression, the study has been very useful to remove all the sufferings of agricultural labourers. In uplifting the economic conditions of agricultural labourers in rural areas also it is more significant for policy making of the government.

Abolition of agricultural bonded labour act was enacted in 1975 in order to free them from the clutches of large farmers and money lenders. Not only that excess land derived from landlords in accordance with ceiling on land holding and Boodan movements, the excess lands were distributed to landless agricultural labourers by the government. At present millions of hectares of cultivable land have been provided to landless agricultural labourers by former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, Kalaignar Karunanithi.

Minimum wage act was passed by the government in 1948 was revised in 1972 and still it has been revised now and then so as to satisfy the needs of the agricultural labourers specifically. Women agricultural labourers have been also treated in a dignified manner because most of the agricultural households are headed by women agricultural labourers. In this aspect also the study has 9 much significance. Hours works of agricultural labourers have been stipulated and also working conditions are not hazardous.

Unemployment and underemployment of agricultural labourers are to a great extent removed by special government employment generation schemes. By this way income and expenditure patterns of the agricultural labourers have been changed. At present conditions the number of people living below poverty line has been declining to a certain extent.

Special importance has been provided by the Central government in all the five years plans. The study has further useful to the policy making of the government for paying more attention to agricultural labourers. Work for food programme, IRDP, TRYSEM, Employment generation guarantee scheme, Jawahar Rojgar Yojana and at present 100 days work programme etc. have been implemented by the government. Even now, the central government has undertaken a number of rural development programmes especially for agricultural labour development.

Different Commissions and Committees are also instituted by the government like Agricultural labour enquiry committee, Rural landless agricultural labour commission, Labour Commission on Rural Labour etc. for knowing the problems faced by agricultural labourers. By knowing the problems, the welfare programmes of agricultural labourers definitely will be implemented by the governments. Agricultural labourers have to make use of the employment opportunities by all means and ways.

As such poor socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers in the society and its impacts on future of agricultural labour families needs a study of this is the much thrust of the study of agricultural labourers socio-economic conditions in Papanasam Taluk, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu. The findings would bring to light the economic gains of agricultural labour sufferings, 10 income, expenditure, indebtedness, wage rate, welfare and employment programmes implemented by the government. In this way, the central and state government would suggest a practical solution to uplift the economic conditions of agricultural labourers in rural areas.

Limitation During the course of conducting a research, one has to constantly guard against bias, subjectivity and inaccuracy. Yet it is difficult to totally avoid them and a minimum of bias and inaccuracy is always present in any research.

This study happens to be no exception with instances of problematic situation where some errors can not be possibly avoided. The agricultural labourers are illiterates and ignorants. So they do not keep any record about wage received, income and expenditure and problems faced by them. The data provided by them from their memory may involve recale bias. The study carefully minimizes such errors by educating their respondents about the scope of the study with all possible cross checks. The comprehensive enquiry schedule helps this cause.

Organisation of the study Chapter I presents introduction, statement of no problem, objectives, hypotheses, scope of the study and limitations of the study.

Chapter II: Review of literature This chapter has two sections. Section 1 deals with theoretical aspects of labour and agricultural labour. Definition of labour, characteristics of labour, normal and real wage, supply curve of labour, efficiency of labour, Keynesian revolution bargaining power of labour, role of trade union and agricultural labour.

Section 2 presents meaning of agricultural labourer, distinguished features, conceptual frame work, agricultural labour classification, unemployment and underemployment, wage rate, size of income, expenditure, indebtedness, findings of rural labour enquiries, employment of rural community, disguised unemployment, magnitude of labour, growth of agricultural labourers, female work participation and female wage differential, agricultural minimum wageact 1948, National Committee on rural labour, role of agriculture in employment generation, bonded labour, abolition of bonded labour, land lords and zamindars, social discrimination, decline in poverty line, employment of labour through SHGs, ministry of labour report 1999, abolish the rural poverty line, bhoodan movement, problems faced by agricultural labourers and employment generation schemes and socio and economic conditions or agricultural labourers.

Chapter III: Profile of the study area This chapter presents introduction, importance of agriculture, structural retrogresism and rise of new landlords, changing structure of Indian agricultural state level picture, wage rate and landlessness of South India, unemployment and underemployment of agricultural labourers in India, state policy towards agricultural labourers, All India labour association, Papanasam Taluk level male and female ratio and literacy rate in urban and rural area male and female, generation description of the district.

Chapter IV: Methodology Primary and secondary data are used. Observation and interview methods are used for collection of primary data through questionnaire was used also primary data are collected and computed. Secondary data are collected from Papanasam taluk agricultural department.

Sampling method: Stratified sampling with 10 percentage methods is used for selection sample from the population Papanasam block agricultural 12 labourers of various categories i.e. landless agricultural labourers, marginal farmers but agricultural labourers and small farmers but agricultural labourers. Papanasam Taluk has two important blocks i.e. Ammapet and Papanasam block. In these two block agricultural labourers of three important categories are found in the study area. By making use of stratified sampling with 10 percentage method sample agricultural labourers are selected. Period of study is only three years i.e. 2010-11 to 2012-13. Tools used in the study are percentage, rank, averages comparison theoretical aspects and deductive method of reasoning.

Chapter V: Data Analysis In order to understand social conditions 25 table are given, analysed and presented with regret to community, religion, age, education, marital status, size of family, betelnut chewing, tobacco chewing and intoxicant drinks taken habit of male. In economic conditions, wage rate in 2010-11 to 2012-13. Asset owning, annual income, expenditure, indebtedness, borrowing, etc. are analysed in a detailed manner saving habit of agricultural labourers are also analysed. The benefit of small savings are also analysed in a detailed manner.

Chapter VI: Findings of the study, implication or recommendations and conclusion of the study are found in this chapter.

Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter has two important sections first sections deals with concepts of labour demand and supply of labour, characteristics of labour, theories of labour. Bargaining power and wage determination in section two socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers i.e., cause for increasing number of landless labourers, magnitude or growth of labourers, minimum wage act, types of agricultural labourers, abolition of bonded labourers problems, wage differential, welfare measures and special employment programmes initiated by central and state governments are death with.

SECTION – 1 Section-1 deals with theoretical dimensions of labour particularly labour includes both physical and mental work undergone for some monetary reward. In this view workers working in factory services decision making minister officers and teachers are all included in labour. Any physical or mental work which is undertaken for getting income is called labour. But simply to attain pleasure or happiness is not labour. According to S.E. Thomas “labour connotes all human efforts of body or mind which are undertaken in the expectation of reward.”

Characteristics of labour Labour has the following characteristics which are explained as under. 1. Labour is perishable: Labour is more perishable than other factors of production. It means that labour can not be stored. The labour of unemployed is lost forever for that day when he does not work. 2. Labour can not be separable from the labourers: Capital can be separated from their owner. But labour can not be separable from the labourers. Labour and labourers are indispensable for each other. 14

3. Low mobility of labour: As compared to capital and other goods, labour is less mobile. 4. Weak bargaining power of labour: The ability of the buyer to purchase goods at the lowest price and ability of the seller to sell at highest price is called as bargaining power in this context employer are so dominate than. Thus low wage is paid to the workers due to higher power of employers. 5. Inelastic supply of labour: The supply of labour is inelastic in a country at a particular time. At present the educated youth supply is inelastic in nature. Whenever supply is more, demand is less and wage is less. 6. Labourer is a human bring and not a machine. Every labourer has his own tastes, talents and feelings therefore labourers can not be forced to work like machine. 7. Labourer sells his labour and not himself. The workers sell his labour and not himself. 8. Increase in wages may reduce the supply of labourer. The supply of labour increases when the wage increase. 9. Labour is both the beginning and the end of production. Production can be started with the help of labour. 10. Differences in efficiency of labour: Labourer differs in efficiency: Some labourers are more efficient due to their ability, training and skills whereas others are less efficient due to lack of skill and inefficiency. 11. The consumer goods like bread, vegetables, fruit, milk etc. have direct demand as they satisfy our wants directly. But the demand for labourers is not direct. They are demanded so as to produce other goods. 12. Difficult to find out the cost of labour. We easily calculate the cost of production of machine. We know capital is that portion of wealth which is used to earn income. Therefore capital is formulated and accumulated by labour. 13. Labour is an active factor of production. Capital is positive factor of productions because they alone can not start production process. Production from land and capital starts only when a man makes efforts, 15

production begins with the active participation of man. Therefore labour is an active participation of factor of production (JinGan, 2004).

The reward of labour is wage wherever labour is employed in any productive activity, wage is paid to labourer.

Normal and real wage While normal wage is in terms of money, the real wage is measured in terms of goods and services, it will purchase when prices in the economy rise, the same money wage will buy less goods and services. Therefore, rise in prices, money was remaining constant, will lead to the fall in real wage. This real wages are abnormal after adjusting for inflation that is rise in prices in the economy. The real wage is equal to money wage divided by the price level that W is W  i . W stands for real wage W stands for money wage rate and P for the p i general index number.

Supply curve of labour The supply of labour and wage determination based on hours of work. That is shown in the following diagram.

Y S’

P4 P 3 P 2 P1

Wage for Hour S 0 L L1 L L 4 2 3 X Hours of Work

Fig. 2.1 Upward sloping supply curve of labour

From the diagram it is understood that there is a direct linkage between hours of wage and wage for hours of work. It hours of work is less the wage received by the labourer is less. On the other hand if an hour of work is more wages is paid more. That is clearly shown in his diagram (Ahujay, 2008).

Efficiency of labour The concept of efficiency of labour refers to a ratio between output – and input output’ implies not only material products of work but also the pleasure and satisfaction which the worker may derive from his accomplishment. The input involves a complex set of factors. In addition to the transformation of energy, it includes such factors as fatigue, the time taken by the individual, effects on has health, etc. The measurement of total cost of or input is a difficult task parts clearly in money forms similarly it is also very difficult to measure pleasure and satisfaction it is not correct to measure labour efficiency labour efficiency in terms productivity. Labour productivity largely depends on many factors other than labour efficiency in terms of productivity. Because so many factors affecting labour efficiency (Sankaran, 1999). Depending upon efficiency, work and wages are differing.

The Keynesian revolution Where the classical school has concentrated their attention on the general level of wage and the share of wages in the national income. Marshall and his successors have been more concerned with wage paid in a particular industry or occupation. The work of Keynes brought about important changes in emphasis especially in matters relating to wages and employment. The neo- classical writers had argued that firm would supply extra men so long as the amount added the wages bill was less than the increase in the value of total output. Falling marginal productivity meant that rise in wage would cause a tall in the numbers employed subject to some quantification regarding the case of monsoons. Just mentioned, this is true at the level of partial equilibrium 17 analysis. If all other products and factor prices remain unchanged. As do consumer tastes a rise in the wages paid by the firm or industry.

His trouble was that some economists had been too ready to support these arguments to labour market as a whole. It had been argued that if there were unemployment the remedy was to cut wages. But while it is true that if a single firm is also to lower wages, it will ceteris paribus find it move profitable to employ more men when there is a general cut in wage rate, the ceteris paribus assumption is inappropriate. There will be less money in the hands of the general public to spend and meet. Firms will find their products demand curve shifted (and hence the marginal productivity curve of labour.

In the long run, however the revolution engendered by Keynes brought the various under free on another score. By the end of the second world war most governments have accepted Keynes ideas and commands the bargaining power of the trade unions were enhanced and they were blamed for causing cost push inflation especially wages do not rise faster than the supply of goods and services on which those incomes are to be put (Seih, 2008).

The bargaining power of labour The bargaining power of labourers is greater because the workers are skilled labourers and educated. So when the wage cut activities are undertaken by the firm or industry the labourers involved in strikes, lock out and walk out. Then only compromise is brought between employer and employers. But in the case of agricultural sector the employers dominate the employees because of lack of trade union and agricultural activities are not undertaken throughout the year. So wage is less in agricultural sector of the economy.

That is why the labourers are unemployed and under-employed now-a- days the medium and large farmers are applying machines except weeding and 18 pesticide spraying activities. Since the demand for agricultural labourers is low and the wage is also very low. This is due to unlimited supply of labour. Role of trade union and collective bargaining in raising wages For the long time economists argued that trade unions and collective bargaining could not play an important role in raising the wages of workers or effecting improvements in their economic conditions. In other words, they thought, that trade unions as an instrument to raise wages of workers or to improve their overall and superfluous and thus the collective bargaining by them is a futile undertaking.

Therefore, in the leading nineteenth century wage theories such as subsistence theory of wages and wage fund theory the role played by trade unions and collective bargaining in the determination of wages entirely are neglected.

E’ W’ E W Productivity Wage and Marginal Wage and

MRP 0 N’ N X

Quantity of Labour Fig. 2.2 Marginal Productivity Theory

According to the marginal productivity theory of wages with its assumptions of perfect competition and the given supply of labour, trade unions cannot succeed in raising wages or cannot succeed in raining wages without creating unemployment. According to this theory, marginal revenue productivity (MRP) curve is the employers demand curve consider Fig.2.2 where MRP is marginal revenue productivity curve of labour. If ON is the 19 available supply of labour, Ow is the equilibrium wage rate. Now, if the wage rate is increased to Ow by the collective bargaining of trade unions. NN’ number of workers would be rendered i.e., or unemployed. If these NN’ workers are for one reason or the other, not free to compete they will continue to remain unemployed. It is thus clear even according to marginal productivity theory, trade unions are unable to raise wages without creating unemployment.

It is evident from above that in the static marginal productivity theory there was no room for trade unions and collective bargaining in fixing and improving wages of the works. The view about the futility of trade union also prevailed in the early twenties century, even though many theorists expressed doubts about the correctness of this view. It was only in the thirties of the 20th century that role of trade unions and collective bargaining was introduced into the economic theory and significant places was accorded to then in fixing- wages of the workers. The realization of the that perfect competition only prevailed in some exceptive cases in the real world to the reconsideration of whole price and wage theory. Though the marginal productivity approach to the wage fixation was maintained; it was however extended to the conditions of imperfect competition whose scope for unions and collective bargaining in raising wages was shown.

Moreover, these has been the emergence of two kinds of theories known as institutional and psychological theories of wage determination under trade unions. These theories do not try to reconcile the marginal productivity approach with the role of collective bargaining in the wage determination, regardless of the marginal productivity doctrine. Thus in these institutional and psychological theories, trade unions and collective bargaining do not enter through the back door but occupy on central place right from the beginning in the determination of wages in recent years these has been a due recognition of 20 the role which the trade unions and collective bargaining play in the fixation of wages and various theories to bargaining have been advanced.

Rather then being alternative explanation of wages determination under collective barging. These different bargaining theories of wages in fact bring out various factors which play a determining role in the bargaining process; different theories laying stress on different factors.

Marginal productivity theory. Trade unions cannot enhance wages without creating unemployment.

Trade union is not found in unorganized sector like agriculture because agricultural workers are scattered in different villages. The agricultural workers are poor, living below poverty line and have much indebtedness. So the agricultural workers do not have bargaining power, this is why the wage is very low. The large farmers have become, medium farmers, medium farmers have become, small farmers, small farmers have become marginal farmers and the marginal farmers, ultimately become landless labourers. Thus the number of agricultural labourers have increased due to failure of monsoon, selling small bits of land to big landlords etc.

SECTION – 2

The term agricultural labour can not be defined concisely and precisely so it is generally defined as the labourer who is working in agricultural operations or activities. But many economists have defined the concepts in their own parlance so various definitions are given by them.

Meaning of agricultural labour Agriculture labour may be defined as labour, who works in agricultural and allied activities for the whole or past of the year in return for wages (in cash or Kindor both) for full time or part time work. 21

Distinguishing features Agarwal (2008) agricultural labour is marked by some peculiarities which place it in a special category of labour. One can also differentiate it from the industrial labour (it is landless) often turns into non-wage labour when it joins family-farm. In this form it is family-labour and its earnings are related to the family-income. Its income is the average income of the family. When it is part of family-labour, it is not counted wage-labour. Another dominant characteristic of agricultural labour is that it is unskilled. As such it has nothing but physical labour to exits. It is also unorganized. This peculiarity is associated with the fact that this labour is not permanent (like industrial labour). Also because (unlike industrial labour) it is scattered over long distances or in other words it does not work and “one roof.” The national Commission on labour, infact, defined agricultural labour in term of these characteristics, unskilled, unorganised and physical labour.

Conceptual frame work Definitions of concepts and review of literature would help the researchers to understand the present study in its proper perspective. So, in this chapter the researcher has presented the work definitions and reviewed the literature or studies related this research topic.

Labour Labour is a collective name given to the productive services embodied in human physical effort, skill, primary in the sense that their supplies are largely determined by forces outside the economic systems.

Agricultural labour Jeemal Unni (1998) planner may take note of three types of agricultural labour which are frequently encountered in the field by both researchers and programme administrators. They are categorized below.

(i) Very Poor These households have no land or assets nor possess any kind of skill and this may be in a position to anticipate only in employment programmers offering unskilled work. This is most deserving category to receive doles, subsidies and income supplements. Steady support and help would be needed for the households in this category to become strong enough to benefit from asset-cum-skill programmes.

(ii) Poor These households have enough enterprise to make effective use of programmes offering assets and skills. Their primary need is not for subsides and unskilled work but for promotional support including institutional finance, inputs at confessional rates, assistance in marketing and protection through services like insurance.

(iii) Not-so-poor This type of households includes upwardly mobile households with good connection and well-to-do households who are regarded as poor only because they belong to categories like SC and ST. The recent attempts to identity the ‘Creamy Layen’ among the poor recognize the problem of diversion of benefits intended for the very poor to the not-so-poor.

Growth in the number of agricultural labour The number of agricultural proletariat has increased tremendously during the last 90 years. The census report for 1881 put the total number of landless agricultural workers as 7.5 million. This causes of growth of agricultural labour.

The causes operating to bring about the growth of this class may be broadly summed up as follow:

(i) High net growth rate of the population in the country. (ii) Growth of indebtedness due to low income leading to transfer of land from the small owners to the creditors, resulting in the former into becoming agricultural labourers. (iii) Displacement of means of subsidiary occupations whereby existence solely on an uneconomic unit of land becomes impossible. (iv) Growth of absentee of landlordism. (v) The extension of money economy to rural areas in replacement of payment in kind. (vi) Disintegration of village communities of the pre-nine century. (vii) Decline of domestic industries and handicrafts. (viii) Disintegration of the peasantry (ix) A server agricultural depression in the late twenties and (x) Other socio factors such as economic transition through which some of the criminal tribes and castes have been passing all these red to the emergence of a class of landless labourers in the country.

Role of agriculture in employment generation Agriculture is the largest sector in India. It continues to be the main source of livelihood for majority of its rural population. Its performance has set the pace of growth of the economy as a whole. The agricultural growth is substantially more importance for the poor segments of the population (Lingon and Sadoulet, 2008). But during the recent years agriculture has failed to generate sufficient employment opportunities for the rural poor.

Agricultural labour means “those people who are engaged in raising crops on payment of wages.” Agricultural labourers constitute the largest chunk of the labour force, most of the agricultural labour are illiterate, unskilled and hail from depressed communities. They are landless and depend upon wages. Due to seasonality of agricultural operations and recurrence of failure of monsoons, agricultural labourers are the worst affected lot. They 24 suffer from widespread unemployment and underemployment (Singh et al., 1972). The wages are low which permits them hardly to have land to month existence. During the lean period, they have to depend on cultivators and unscrupulous moneylenders who often exploit them. So most of the agricultural labourers are in debts (Mukesh Eswaran et al., 2009).

1. Unemployment and under-employment Three are two kinds of workers, viz. attached workers and casual works. The term ‘attached workers’ refer to those workers employed at least for a month, the casual labourers being employed on daily wages. The attached labour, male was 10 per cent in 1950-51 and in 1956-57 it was 30 per cent. Casual adult male labourers were employed for 200 days in 1950-51 and 197 day in 1956-57 casual adult female labourers were employed for 134 days during 1950-51 and for 141 days in 1956-57. The children were employed for 165 days in 1950-51 and 204 days in 1956-57.

2. Wage rate The daily wage rate for casual male agricultural labourers decline from 109 paise in 1950-51 to 96 paise in 1956-57 for all operation. For female laborer, it declined from 68 paise to 59 paise and for children, from 70 paise to 53 paise. As regards the modes of wage paymentin 1956-57, 48.7 per cent of the man-day worked were paid for in cash, 40.5 per cent in kind and 10.8 per cent, partly in cash and partly in kind. In 1950-51, the figures were 58.9 per cent in cash, 31.3 per cent in kind and 9.8 per cent in cash partly in kind.

3. Size of income The average annual income of an agricultural labourer’s household was `444 in 1951-52 and it declined to `437.47 in 1956-57. The per capita annual income this declined from `104 in 1950-51 to `99.4 in 1956-57. The national per cent capita income in 1956-57 was `295. The per capita income of agricultural labour was only 24 per cent of the national average. 25

4. Expenditure Annual average expenditure of a household was `617 in 1956-57 while the income was only `437.47. Thus creating a gap of `180 in the family budget. The deficit was met out from pas savings, sale of stock and other belongings and party out of cons raised from moneylenders and relative. Both the enquiries revealed that the expenditure on education, good food and medicines were almost negligible.

5. Indebtedness It is not surprising to find that the vast majority of labourers are indebted to moneylenders, relatives, shopkeepers, etc. Table 2.1 indicates the comparative position of indebtedness of an agricultural household as between the periods of the two enquiries.

TABLE 2.1

Agricultural households indebtedness 1950-51 1956-57 1. Percentage indebted households 44.5 93.91 2. Average debt per households 47.00 88.00 3. Average total dept per indebted household 105.30 138.00 Source: First and second agricultural labour enquiry commission. The data furnished by the two labour enquiries, given in the foregoing paragraphs reveal the following: 1. The size of agricultural landless labour has increased 2. The days of employment for agricultural labourers has been decreasing. 3. The child labour is increasing. 4. There is a decline in the wage-rate of all type of workers between the two periods. 5. Percentage of cash payment of wages is declining making the rural sector more and more demonetized. 6. The per capita annual income the labourers are declining. 7. The agricultural labourers are having indebted. 26

8. The planning in India between 1950-51 and 1956-57 had not helped the agricultural labourers in the contrary, their economic status has deteriorated.

Though the data and analysis of the data relate to the period 1950-51, these is no basic change in the above features. On the other head, the conditions are still deteriorating. The sign of deterioration has also been indicated by a study of agricultural labour.

Finding of rural labour enquiries of 1964-65 and 1974-75 The Government of India further conducted two more enquires in 1964- 65 and 1974-75. These enquiries were called rural labour enquires as they covered all labour households in rural area including agricultural labour households. While the first two enquires were called agricultural labour enquiries. (A.L.E.) the third and fourth were called rural labour enquiries (R.L.E).

The main objective of the rural labour enquiries had been to collect vital information on the socio-economic conditions of rural labourers including agricultural labourers so as to formulate policy measure to uplift the economic life of the population in rural areas.

Rural labour enquiries revealed the following i. Agricultural labour houdholds constituted more than 80 per cent of rural labour households. ii. The number of day of employment (full days in a year with wages) decreased from 217 in 1964-65 in 1974-75 with reference a agricultural labour household. iii. It was further revealed that moneylender continues to be the main and traditional sources of borrowing by the rural households. 27

iv. Borrowing were largely made for consumption purposes giant borrowing for production purposes were minimum.

According to the data provided by the census of India 1991, the number of agricultural labourers increased from 27.5 million in 1951 to 74.6 million in 1991, indicating an increase of 191 per cent during the 40 year period. Meanwhile to total workers in agriculture (cultivators plus agricultural labourers) increased from 97.2 million 1951 to 185.3 million in 1997 indicating an increases of 90.5 per cent in the 40 year period. This further substantiates the view of (NCRL) that as the result of the green revolution, marginalization of small farmers, and eviction of tenants have been the major contributing factors to a faster increase in the number of landless agricultural labour. It should be noted that census data is continued with the main workers only and does not include casual workers.

Employment of rural community Balasubramaniam (2008) another important feature of the ‘Rural India’ is the massive unemployment and under-employment of the people in the country side. Ofcourse, this is only a refection of the prevailing unemployment problem in India as a whole. The rural unemployment exhibits in two classes viz., seasonal and perennial, apart from chronic disguised unemployment. Three fourths of the total backlog of unemployed at the end of the quinquennium, were in the rural area, what is disguised unemployment? This is a characteristic feature of rural communities in India.

Disguised unemployment This kind of unemployment exists specially in underdeveloped countries and more so in the rural sector. Due to the pressure of population on land and the system of Jain-family many persons may be working on the same family farm with out any consideration, irrespective of the fact whether extra output is being had from extra employment or not. To put in the language of economists 28 marginal output in farming is zero and in some cases, it may be even negative. This virtually means that those workers are unnecessary causing dead-weight, and they can be transferred to other occupations and at the same time the economy can produce the same value, or even more of agricultural output.

This sort of unemployment and disguised unemployment may take two terms, i.e. visible and invisible. In the farmer, the worker will be doing only shorter labour of work then he is capable of producing and in the later, the workers will be working normal time, but he will be earning abnormally low wages as the jobs to not permit full use on his capacity and skill. We do not have precise statistics in determining the extent of disguised unemployment in India.

Many suggestions have been offered for solving rural unemployment and under-employment, such as reorganization of agriculture, establishment of cottage and small-scale industries to reduce extensively the pressure on land, and revolutionary changes in cultivation and irrigation, including crop planning. It the existing land reforms could not deliver goods for solving the unemployment problem in the rural sector, a revolutionary approach of nationalizing agricultural land would have to be considered.

Many progrmames have been launched in the country to solve the unemployment problem and also to mitigate to severity of rural unemployment. These are; national rural employment programme training (NREPT). Integrated rural development programme (IRDP); training of rural youth for self employment (TRYSEM); employment guarantee scheme (EGS), etc. These have been given in detail in chapter on unemployment problems.

National Committee on Agriculture (1972) according to the 1971 population censes, the country’s rural population was estimated at 439.1 million. In the eighteenth round of NSS (covering 1963-64) the average size of 29 the rural household has been estimated at 5.14 and no assumption that the household size would not have changed significantly during the interregnum, the number of rural households in 1971 may be estimated at 85.38 million. Again, according to the 18th round be estimated at 85.38 million again, according to the 18th round of the NSS the percentage of agricultural labour households to the total rural households was 23.9 applying this percentage to the number of agricultural labour households (i.e. 85.38 million), the number of agricultural labour households in 1971 may be estimated at 20.41 million or say 20 million. According to N.S.S enquiries (in 1956-57 and 1963-64) about 60 per cent of the labour households had no land. Accordingly, the number of landless labour households may be put at 12 million. This would indicate the magnitude of the problem causing the country so far as agriculture labourers are concerned. It may be noted that the problem of landless labourer is more acute in Bihar, Andra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharastra, Tamil Nadu and Orissa, where Ryotwari and Zamindari system prevailed. Harsh Deo Malaviya (1975) the followings are the features of agricultural labourers.

Miserable living The life of these labourers is one of object poverty, and desperate existence. This is obvious from the following facts.

Meagre earnings The wages of these workers are very small indeed. As such their incomes are far less then needed for a reasonable minimum standard of living. Those who are landless and depend only upon labour are poor as their wages are low. Those who are small farmers and also work as wage-labourers to supplement their farm income, are no better, because both their farm-income and are small. The wage-rates have, for example, been low and have prevailed 30 and the low level for long and the rise in these has been insignificant. For example, the per capita daily earnings were as low as `4.28 in 1971. These rose of a small figures of `12.3 in 1981, and further to a meager level of `28.2 in 1990-91 and `26.8 in 1994. In some states the wages-rates have been lower still. In terms of real wages rather than the money wage, the rate of growth in the period 1993-94 to 1999-2000 was less then 3 per cent per annum. In comparison the rate of growth of real wages between 1983-1988 rose at the average annual rate of nearly 5 per cent per annum.

As between landless labourers, and small cultivators who also work as labourers, the wage income has been higher in the former case their in the latter. Another aspect of the wage-scenario is inequality of the earnings. It is because in the case of most of the workers, the wage-employment is not a continuous one. The situation in this respect is worse for the temporary or casual labourers who are employed only during the period of heavy work, like harvesting.

Unsatisfactory employment The availability of work is much less then heeded. It is not continuous for many. A large number of workers are landless who work as casual or temporary workers. They get work only during certain periods of farming operations. These are, for example, sowing and harvesting phases of farming. As such their employment is seasonal. They, therefore remain out of work for quite long periods, sometimes extending over tour to five months. They are paid at market rates. And they are tree to work elsewhere. In other words, they face in insecure employment situation.

There are other landless worker who are attached to particular landlords. They are the better ones as they get some regular work on an annual or seasonal basis. Their employment is based on some sort of contract, with wages determined largely by custom or tradition. Most often these wages are less then 31 market wages. These workers also suffer from some other handicaps. For examples, they are not tree to work elsewhere. As such they are often exploited to the extent that they are made to render the services of bonded labour.

As for the working conditions are concerned, these are very bad indeed. They work under the most trying circumstances. They have to do very hard labour in the sun and the rain. The working hours are not fixed these is no provision for holdings or other facilities to which industrial workers are accustomed. All these very adversely affect their efficiency, health and life.

1. Low social status Most of agricultural labourers belong to the depressed classes which have been neglected for wages. The low caste and depressed classes have been socially handicapped and they had never the courage to assert themselves. They have been like dumb driven cattle.

2. Unorganised Agricultural workers are illiterates, ignorants and scattered in villages. Hence they can not be easily organized the workers as unions. In urban areas workers can generally organize themselves and it is convenient for political parties to take interest in trade union activity. This is extremely difficult for the workers to bargain with the landlords and secure good wages.

3. Seasonal unemployment The agricultural workers do not have continuous work. On an average a farm labourer finds employment for about 200 days in a year and for the rest of the year he is idle. Apart from under-employment, there is also unemployment in most of the areas. Unemployment and under-employment are two important factors responsible for low income and consequently low economic conditions of the agricultural workers in India.

Low consumption The low level living of these poverty-stricken people can easily be imagined. Because of small incomes, they are able to meet their consumption needs only to a limited extent. In fact, the incomes are so meagre that they can provide for only a part of the minimum subsistence living and are forced to incur debt to meet a part of their consumption expenditure. Generally they eat jowar, bajra, maize and other inferior cereals. Such items as fruits, vegetables, milk and other nutritive foods do not at all figure in their diet the position regarding other essentials is no better. They do not have even the minimum clothing; education and health facilities are non-existent for them and their “houses” are no more than the places fit for animals which they share with them. A substantial number do not have even such houses. In these grim conditions, many take to gambling, drinking and such like evil activities. They also suffer from many horrible diseases. To meet these expenditures, they take loans and get driven into the clutches of money lenders.

Socially deprived class These economically poor workers mostly belong to socially backward classes like the scheduled castes, tribal people etc. As such they belong to the lowest rank of the social hierarchy. They lead a life of social out castes and are exploited in numerous ways. A majority of these people live below the poverty-line, their life is shorn of any happen we may describe their deplorable existence by quoting a distinguished agrarian export. Harsh Deo Malaviya (2008) unemployment, under-employment and very low wages, combined with social oppression make the life of the agricultural worker miserable.

Female work participation Kapoor, Pramilla (2008) during the planning period the numbers of women and participation in work has considerably increased. We can see this phenomenon in the census report of 1991. The provisional number of total workers with rural-urban, male-female breakup is given in table 2.1. 33

Here we can see that the numbers of female workers are less than male workers. It is lower in urban area compared to rural area Table 2.2 shows the work participation rate in India it can be seen from this table that the rate of work participation of male has been slightly decline in 1991 compared 1981 whereas has been increased for females. Total number of workers in India

TABLE 2.2

Population Persons Male Female workers Population 836, 605, 522, 433, 791, 705, 223, 402, 813, 817, workers 314, 903, 642 506, 153 91, 397, 489 Percentage of 37.64 51.52 22.69 workers Rural Population 621, 267, 297, 320, 066,940, 167, 301, 204, 357, workers 249, 330, 072 822, 985 81, 507, 087 Percentage of 40.13 52.43 27.06 workers Population 215, 338, 225, 65, 113, 728, 765, 55, 101, 609, 460, 9, workers 573, 570 683, 768 890, 402 Percentage of 30.45 48.96 9.73 workers Source: Censes of India 1991.  Excludes Jammu-Kashmir  Workers include both main workers and marginal workers.

TABLE 2.3 Work participation rate 1981-1991

Year Workers Percentage Males Females Total 36.70 52.62 19.67 1981 Rural 38.79 53.77 23.06 Urban 29.99 49.06 8.31 Total 37.68 51.56 22.73 1991 Rural 40.24 52.50 27.20 Urban 30.44 48.95 9.74 Source: Census of India, 1991, paper 30 1991 Note : Excludes Assam and Jammu-Kashmir. Most of the female workers are engaged in unorganized sector. Women engaged in different sectors. Table 2.3 shows women labour in primary, secondary and tertiary sector.

TABLE 2.4 Women labour in employment

Categories of women workers 1971 1981 1991 2001 Primary sector 1. Cultivators 29.84 34.20 31.07 30.08 2. Agri. labourers 50.86 45.18 41.26 40.09 3. Lives took, Forestry 1.76 1.06 1.02 0.94 4. Mining of Working 0.40 0.36 0.0 0.26 Total 82.86 79.80 73.65 71.37 Source: Census of India 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001. Papanasam Taluk, Records 226, 569, 2010.

The table shows that more people are rural workers and employed in agricultural and allied sector. Table 2.3 has shown percentage of women agricultural workers employed in 1971 census to 2001 census is going on deckling.

The nation commission on labour narrated the following characteristics to unorganized sector (a) Small size of establishments with low investment per employed person. (b) Casual nature of employment (c) Ignorance and illiteracy (d) Scattered nature of establishment (e) Superior strength of employers operating singly and in combination

The ILO-UNDP mission to Kenya (1972) mentioned the following characteristics of the informal sector. (1) Case of entry of new enterprise (2) Family ownership (3) Small size of operation (4) Unregulated and competitive market (5) Labour intensive technology (6) Informally acquired skills of workers through the job training (7) No state support (8) Deplorable working conditions and low wages.

Male-female wage differential global scenario According to Mazumdar (1991) male-female wage differentials is a world wide phenomenon. American women face discrimination of the job. According to U.S. Bureau of census in 1980, median income of white males was of 13,328 dollar and of white females of 4947 Dollar. This was of 8009 dollar of Black males and of 4580 dollar of black females. This suggested deeper wage differential in America. The female labour force participation has considerably increased 37.7 per cent in 1966.

But females earning remained for behind than males from 1955, to 1985, women who worked full time the year round earned about 60 per cent to every dollar men working year round, full time earned. 36

The soviet labour code of 1922 and the constitutions of 1935 and 1978 firmly guaranteed to women for equal pay for equal work. Labour force participation of women of prime working age, between 20 and 40 has sometime been close to 90 per cent. The proportions of women in transportation in construction and in socialist agriculture are 24, 29 and 44 per cent respectively. Moreover 7 out of 10 physicians are women. 4 out of 10 engineers are again women.

But females earnings in relatively less than of males most of the women are engaged low paid occupations. According to estimate, earning ratio of the USSR was 70.0 between 1960 and 1980. In the mid 1960s the gross earnings of women in voviet agriculture were between 55 per cent and 70 per cent those of man.

In Sweden antidiscrimination legislation and the act of quality between men and women was passed in 1980. Sweden is the first country of the world which succeeded in raidly reducing the earning gap between male and female.

The hourly wage of women industry has risen to 90 per cent of those of men. The ratio of the annual earnings of all full time year round female to male workers was only 81.2 per cent of men in 1980.

In Belgium, anti discriminatory laws (1978) relating to employed women have promoted equality in working conditions. Wages, employment promotion, self employment, vocational guidance, training etc. According to this law, equality of treatment as between men and women should ensure the absence of any discrimination based on sex either directly or indirectly by reference, inter-alia, to marital or family status.

Above type of law enforced in Denmark on 12 April, 1978 accountings to this act every employs to treatment and women a like to the purpose of employment.

Same type of now more enforced in Germany, Greece, Nether land, United Brittan, Australian, New Zealand, Malaysia, Srilanka and many other country.

Verma (1994) this is the other major anti-poverty programme aimed at lifting the rural poor above the poverty line. It main difference from NREP lives in this that is seek to provide self-employment as distinguished from wage employment to the rural poor by endowing them with income-generating assets, such as milch cattle, through availability of credit. While credit is arranged from bales, the Government give a handsom subsidy to meet the cost of such assets. The IRDP has been deaf with in detail in another subsequent chapter on rural development.

Indigenous people of minority groups Research carried out in March 2006 by the India NGO mine labour protection Campaign (MLPC) documented a high incidence of bonded labour amongst the three million mineworkers in Rajasthan and estimated that ninety five per cent of them were delilts or indigenous people. This pattern is repeated in many different industries throughout India. Scheduled castes (dalits and low castes) and make up twenty four per cent of the India population (2001 census). However, the Government itself accepts that more than eighty six per cent of bonded labourers are from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. This clearly shows these minority groups are disproportionately subjected to bonded labour.

Landlords or Zamindars Research by a non-governmental organisation, estimated the total number of sharecroppers in debt bondage in 2006, would be over 1.8 million people. A further 6.8 million people are subjected to compulsory labour for the landlords on their farms or houses, a practice known as beggar.

The agricultural labourers who are in debt bondage or completed to provide beggar are almost exclusively from minority groups other industries follow the same practice.

Societal discrimination The information provided above shows that virtually all the victims of bonded and forced labour in India are either dalit, low caste, indigenous people or other minority group. This indicates that the use of this form of slavery is based no and maintained through societal discrimination against these minority group.

Empowerment of women through SHG in Tirunelveli district Indra and Thorpe (1990) attempted to analyze and understand farming systems included the identification of the contribution made by women. The study shows that in the study area that is in Trinidad both man and women make similar labour contributions to agriculture. It was found that men were older and more educated than women and many had off-farm employment land was mostly jointed onwards. But the husband assumed responsibility of the farm and crop selection. In general, men and women farmer at the same times and worked the same hours per day and per week. However, women worked longer hours in animal husbandry and men in sugarcane production. Recognizing the role of women in agriculture. Their study concludes that extension services, agricultural benefits and credits, appropriate training and other national benefits which are normally given to men only should equally be available to the women also.

Ministry of Labour Report (1991) agricultural labour enquiries and their finding The problem of agricultural labourers was increasing year after year and in order to evaluate the economic conditions of this class, the first agricultural labour enquiry was conducted in 1950-51 by the ministry of labour. The 39 enquiry was spread over a period of 12 months and it covered a sample of 3696 villages. The planning commission, while formulating the second five year plan, recommended to have the second agricultural labour enquiry with a view to perceive a complete picture of agricultural labourers between 1950-51 and 1956-57. According, the second enquiry was with a view to perceive a complete picture of agricultural labourers between 1950-51 and 1956-57. Accordingly, the second enquiry was conducted in 1956-57 covering a sample of 1,303 village in the C.d and N.Es blocs.

The agricultural labour enquiries conducted in 1950-51 and 1956-57 revealed the condition of agricultural labures regarding. (a) The extent of unemployment and under-employment (b) Wage-rate of the labourers (c) income of the labourers (d) pattern of expenditure (e) indebtedness of labourers.

Raniit Das Gupta (1992) traces the socio-economic setting number of growth of plantation enterprise in Jalpaiguri district of Bengal. The introduction and growth of the tea plantation enterprise in the district took place with the active assistance of the colonical state. The author argues that the phenomenal growth of tea plantation enterprise which took place in the lane 19th and early 20” centuries was essentially in the nature of creation and consolidation of an enclave economy which failed to generate any broad-based and dynamic transformation process. Since the plantation system was a superimposed one, it has very tenuos links with the hinterland and extremely limited spread effects. A great deal of the income generated flowed out, and the growth of the industry did not lead to the setting up of any manufacturing industry. Considering the features of the growth of the town, it is established that no organization process has taken place in the district due to plantation development. 40

Chandhari and Ganorkar (1992) pointed out the farm women who faced some of the difficulties in agricultural activities. Majority of the farm women participated in the activities like storage of produce, uprooting of seedlings, transplanting, weeding, hoeing, harvesting, picking, threshing, winnowing and cleaning. Besides this farm women played active role in decision-making regarding areas of crops to be sown. Major difficulties of farm women are low compensation, insufficient loans, and insufficient well irrigation; do not get the skilled labour. They came to the conclusion that the majority of the farm women faced difficulties even though their contribution to agriculture is high.

Kelin Devan (1992) women play an important role in the development of human society. According to opinion of Swedish scholar Gustar Geogor, the dignity of women in society. Out fate former Minister Honourable Jawaharlal Nehru has observed that to awaken the people it is the women who must be awakened, once she is on the move, the family mores, the village mores, the nation more.

Sen (1993) studied the role of women in agriculture and they act as transition model, majority of them are involved in many agricultural related activities and they are wage earners, some of the constraints faced by them in farm activities. Out of these constraints, policy interventions made by 36 the Government particularly to women to reduce the drudgery and give importance to them.

Bhalla (1993) in her paper has examined the wage determination and labour absorption in Indian agriculture. The study reveals that the labour absorptive capacity of India agriculture as a whole has declined. The real wages of agricultural labourers has shown a upward climb. The study concludes that there is plenty of scope for expansion of employment within agriculture in certain regions and in the production of particular crops like paddy, jowar and cotton. 41

Shaktikak (1994) identified those women participation rate in economic activity is a function of socio-economic conditions interlinked with the stage of development. So in an economy differentiated along social and economic categories, no generalized features of female labour can be drawn up. Moreover he argues that education, skill formation relegate them to the lower rungs of the job market as unskilled casual workers.

Santhakumar and Narayanan (1996) attributes the revival in agricultural growth witnessed in the mid eighties to the shift in cropping pattern favouring higher-valued crops. The price factors and profitability determined by the national and international market, the changes in land holding pattern and the agro-climatic factors have been influential in determining the present cropping pattern of the state.

Rammohan (1996) seeks to lay bar the important element in the making of development in the peripheral society of Thavancore during the time period 1800-1845. The Khor describes the important changes witnessed in the economy of Tiruvitamkur during the latter part of the 19”C as an outcome of the process of intense conimercialization concomitant to be the integration of the region into the world market. As plantation products assumed greater importance in the world market, agriculture began to be oriented with emphasis on plantations. The plantation sector, the highly cash rich segment of agriculture was alniost entirely under the control of metropolitan capital till the period of first world war. The pre-capitalize social character of workforce helped to maintain low wage levels in the various realms of production. The large profits siphoned out by the firms formed a drain on the state’s economy. The study concludes that the hegemony of the metropolitan capital over trade and production restricted the space for development of Tiruvitemcore capitalist except as functionaries to the former.

Vasanth Gandhi (1996) maintains that agriculture plays a substantial role in the economic development and growth in India. Agriculture has been 42 found to have among the strongest linkages and multiplier effects with employment incomes. The product contribution of agriculture still remains of substantial importance given the high share of food in consumer expenditure. Further agriculture contributes substantially to domestic demand and export earning of the country, which reflects the importance of agriculture in India’s future economic growth and development.

Tripthy (1996) bonded labourers form the lower strata of the class of landless labourers which constitute 20 to 30 per cent of rural population of India, bonded labour mainly stems from the inability of the poor agricultural labourer to meet his inescapable social obligations from his meager economic reaches. This consequently compels him to incur debts beyond his repaying capacity, leading him to enter in to a state of never ending bondage and serfdom.

Laximi Devi (1996) the agricultural and rural development in India is to raise the per capita real income with equity so as to raise the standard of living in the country via, achieving full employment in the rural areas. The Government had been giving major emphasis on dairying for all the poor in particular.

Jeemol Unni (1997) discussed the trends in the employment and wage- earnings status of women and men in rural labour households. It was observed that both male and female was increasing in the rural labour market. The nature of the employment undertaken by the women and men in these households was also undergoing a change. The proportion of wage 37 earners in these household was declining. In the labour households the total number of days of employment in the year per worker increased over time, the percentage of wage employed days declined. The percentage of wage employed days of women increased, and that of man declined. The stagnation real wages in the agricultural sector are relatively unfavourable to the condition of women 43 workers in agriculture and increase in the proportion of women workers in the primary sector, reversing the earlier trend, indicates that the option of diversification to non-agricultural employment is increasingly limited for women.

Haque (1998) analyzed the regional trends, patterns and determination of wages of agricultural labour in India and the relationship between wage rates and rural poverty in various NSS regions. It was observed that in the wake of economic liberalization, there is a declining trend in real wages in many state. In every state, there are some districts where the wage rates are much lower than the state average wage rates and these districts include high productivity as well as low productivity areas. An improvement in real wage rate is a necessary if not a sufficient condition for enabling the agricultural labour households to cross poverty lines. Wage discrimination against women labour exists in many places even for similar type of work being performed by men and women. The adult-child wage ratio is very high in most parts of the country.

Ramachandran (1998) considers the distinction between the three regions Travancore, Cochin and Malabar as important in the history of Kerala’s social, economic and political development. In respect of agrarian relation, education and health, modern administrative reforms, transport and communication, and in respect of the commercialization of an agriculture the growth of trade and commerce, Travancore and Cochin pushed for ahead of Malabar. The difference between Malabar and Travancore was between regions where the Janmi system was alniost total and another where a circumscribed Janmi system existed with a growing and Illore dynamic sector that was dominated by new forms of capitalist landlordism.

Sunil K. Devan (1998) there are no reliable estimates of bonded labour even though the system has existed for centuries. Gandhi Peace Foundation (GPF) and National Labour Institute (NLI) conducted a survey of bonded 44 labour for 10 major states of India for 1978-79. The major findings of the GPF- NLI survey are as under. (i) The total number of bonded labourer in the 10 states surveyed was estimated to 25.12 lakhs. (ii) Uttar Pradesh had the highest number of bonded labourers 5.5 lakhs, followed by Madhya Pradesh: 5.0 lakhs, Orissa 3.5 lakhs and Andra Pradesh 3.25 lakhs. These low states accounted for 17.25 lakhs of bonded labourer that is about 66 per cent of the total bonded labourer in the country. (iii) For India as who 5.7 per cent of the total agricultural labourers constituted bonded labourers. This obviously, takes besides bonded debt, the denial of the right of freedom of occupation and geographical mobility. However this proportion was as high as 18.4 per cent in Orissa and as low as 2 per cent in Maharashra. (iv) About 87 per cent of the bonded labourers belonged to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and Adivasis.

The international labour organization (ILO) estimated the number of bonded labourer in India to be around 150 lakhs, out of which 50 lakhs are children. As against in, the Government of India has estimated bonded labour to be of the order of 3.53 lakhs ILO estimate has been based on the survey’s by “independent agencies” while the estimate of bonded labour of the Government of India is base on the date provided by national sample survey.

Efforts were made in the past to abolish bonded labour. The earlier effort was the law passed in 1933 by the British pertinent to abolish slavery through out the British empire. Unfortunately it did not have any impact in India as the different states felt that there was no slavery in India. After Independence, the constitution prohibited slavery, beggar and other forms of forced labour.

Hague (1998) the socio-economic status of agricultural labourers who constitute nearly one-third of the total rural work force depends largely on wage paid employment. Unfortunately, the wage rates as well as the levels of agricultural employment are so low in many regions of the country and that agricultural labourers are forced to live below the poverty line. According to the 50th Round of National Sample Survey (RNSS) for 1993-41, nearly 57 per cent of agricultural labour households live below the poverty line, while the average rural poverty ratio in the country is 37 per cent.

Subramaniaym (1999) in his study found that state has highest female work participation rate while male work participation rate declined due to mechanization introduced along with HYVs. Godavari Krishna zone has the highest intensity of cropping with high concentration of paddy and there is employment for females. The share of female labour in rice cultivation increased from 30 per cent to 47 per cent.

Bhagrinathi Das (2000) studied women are the major contributors in agriculture production and they played an important role in agriculture such as livestock, reading, beekeeping, sericulture, decision-making on farm activities and they are the mostly agriculture labour then cultivators, modern technology in agriculture displayed the women in traditional activities and reduce the demand for female employment in agriculture.

Rjula Devi (2000) studied the relation of production and household reproduction in two different regions that is wet and fry areas of Tamil Nadu, caste appears to be major influence on landless women’s participation in rice agriculture due to not and dry areas, decreasing real wages for agricultural labour which in turn results poverty and it leads to landless households is rice agriculture.

Singh and Singh (2000) have made a comparative study of contractual and casual labour arrangements in agriculture in the total region of Uttar Pradesh based on data collected from 75 labour households. The study revealed that both males and female workers as casual labourers in various activities. The group of labour that consists of 5 to 8 male and female workers of a village and the family engaged themselves under the contractual arrangements. They ever found to be engaged in inter-culture, earthling and harvesting of sugarcane of sugarcane, transplanting, harvesting and threshing of paddy crop and harvesting and threshing of wheat crop. For the harvesting and threshing of wheat, kind payment is made on the basis of produce while in sugarcane and other crops cash payment is made on per acre basis her study shows that wages earned through contracted arrangements are higher (40 and 138%) in the case of male and female workers as compared to casual employment on form.

Singh et al. (2000) have conducted a study in 12 sample villages in Gwalior district with a view to examine the employment behaviour or rural labour and its effects on rural labour market. The study revealed that, as a consequence of farm mechanization and rural development programmes more male labour started moving from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations obtaining higher wage rate earnings per annum and more employment. The scarcity of male labour this resulted in higher demand.

Jain and Singh (2000) have conducted a study on the trends in tenancy and labour use pattern in Punjab Agriculture. The study revealed that human labour employed on per cultivated hectare showed a decline in all the size- classes except the marginal farms and so was the case of casual mired labour. Female and child labour employment on the farm for crop production also showed a decline and its employment for crop production declined with the increase in farm size major share of women and child labour used in the farm was supplied by family itself since the migratory labour mostly consists of male labour. 47

Ghanekar (2000) has made an attempt in her paper to examine the characteristic of agricultural labour market and the economic status of the labourers. After the starting of lift irrigation scheme in 1980s, the village exhibited a trend towards increased commercialization and monetization, structural changes such as increased numbers of female workers as agricultural labourers and increased individual bargaining capacity of the labourers.

Muguntha Raj and Bharathi (2001) have examined the factors which determine the active participation of small farm women in agriculture and allied activities in one of the taluk of Chintamani, Kolar District Karnataka. The study has revealed that women were fully engaged in some test or which directly or indirectly contributed to the family economy. Mechanization of agriculture, rural development programmes and market oriented economy has accelerated the active participation of rural women at home and also in agricultural and allied activities. But her status has hot changed either in the family or in the community since she is not economically empowered.

The small farmers are not in a position to avail loans from the back the greatest tragedy is that none of the rural development programs except few have so far identified the ‘farm women’ as beneficiaries. The various financial institutions also do not advance loans to them, this trend forces the small farmers to run to the local money tenders for their dad-to-day urgent requirements, and this adversely affects the women in the households, since the principals and the interests of loans advanced is collected by the village money lenders from the women in an unethical manner. Most of the times they are made to work for a longtime in the money lenders households for less payment or no payment, they are also physically assaulted and sexually abused, forcibly raped, the public and the police also keep silent over the issue, one in a rate situation it is reported to the press.

Padmanabhan (2001) argued that women are engaged in agriculture and allied activities and their role are managers to landless labour. Migration of male labour leaving women in rural areas and they are the income earners in agriculture in rural areas. To empower rural women in agriculture through effective training and extension services and welfare schemes to improve the working conditions of agricultural women.

Sobha (2001) pointed out that mainly rural women depending on agriculture, women are belonged to backward classes and their economic position is not good. Caste plays a dominant role to provide employment of women as agricultural labour belonged to lower caste and the upper caste women supervise the work in farming to other women engaged as wage labour. Socio-economic conditions play a dominant role on women.

Celladurai (2002) agricultural labourers continue and constitute to be one of the most important factors of production, in spite of the significant technological advancement in the sector. The human labour continues and has to continue to be a more preponderate factor in the agricultural economy. This is because of the simple fact that machine can not be a perfect substitute for labour in the proceed of farm production. Thus it is understood that machines can not replace agricultural labourers, moreover machines are operates by man who knows the strategy.

Sobha and Reddy (2003) argued that women’s work is increased in agriculture and allied activities in Andhra Pradesh and the data collected from two villages on sample basis. The main content in their paper was women belonged to different landholdings (Lendless, marginal, small, large) categories and occupational group, their work force participation rate way very high as compared to men. But there is discrimination of work in terms of employment and wages as compared to men. Women in agriculture must be given equal importance with men even through they are engaged in household activities. 49

Sathyasundaram (2003) in his paper titled “India’s Economy and Rural Women Worker’s, discussed about the policies introduced by Government of India towards the women in agriculture and allied activities. Even though policies introduced towards women, they are lagging behind in employment opportunities because of lack of education, training and skills but when compared to men, women work load is heavy and they earn low income and these is discrimination towards women particularly in wages.

Kumar et al. (2003) in their paper have examined the shifting employment pattern in the rural India. The study revealed a declining trend in rural farm sector employment, with continuing population pressure, small and fragmented agriculture holdings, highly unequal land distribution structure, increasing application of labour saving farm production technologies etc. Agriculture alone cannot provide the ultimate answer for rural unemployment and under employment. Non farm as well as off farm activities have backward as well as forward likkages, which can enhance the overall productivity as well as income and employment in rural dress.

Elumalai and Sharma (2003) in their study on non-farm employment for rural households in India have found that the employment of wage labour has been declining in agriculture, while it is increasing in non-agricultural activities. The non-farm activities provide opportunities to earn income during the slack season in agriculture. The study also revealed the multi activity nature of the workers. About 62.13 per cent of the person days spent in agriculture as principal activity by the rural male, also spent 3.35 per cent and 4.34 per cent of the person days as self employed and wage labour in non-agriculture respectively.

The per cent distribution of male workers in non-farm employment in 1999 was the highest in Kerala followed by Himachal Pradesh and the per cent distribution of rural female workers in non-farm activities was the highest in 50

West Bengal followed by Kerala. The study concludes that augmenting rural investment in the development of non-farm sector will increase the income or rural households and thus reduce poverty.

Pai Sudha (2003) in her paper finds that in the traditional system of division of labour between male and female have resulted in women is being kept out of the more important job in the agricultural sector which resulted in the greater control of men in mode of payment among male and female workers.

Saraswathi Rajan (2004) studied that women in rural areas are depending on agriculture which is the major unorganized sector in India, rural women in India are classified into four categories namely landless women, near landless women, small peasant women, and rich peasant women, women are mostly the agricultural labour 50 per cent agriculture operations and activities are done by women. Women face a lot of problems in agriculture like women labour displaced by technology, physical strenuous labour, illiteracy etc. women are the major contributors, in agriculture. So, the Government of India introduced some schemes towards women to reduce drudgery of the women in agriculture and allied activities.

Thresia (2004) conducted a study of women agricultural workers in Kodumba village of Palakkad district, the study revealed that due to under- employment problems in agriculture, women had to seek alternative employment opportunities for a major par of year. Almost 70 per cent of the women had no other means of income than agriculture. The rest 30 per cent workers depended on work at construction, site, tile making, fire wood lifting, fence. Making and milking, preparation and sales of edible item and bangles etc. They got job ranging from 15 to 100 days a year.

Jaivir Singh and Meenakshi (2004) pointed out that changing the nature of worker’s work in casual labour market works as daily wage and piece rates 51 in agriculture, leads to increase in working hours of both adult and child female, gender-based was difference are there inspite of same work done by women along with men, males received high wage rats, it also deals with increased presence of women in the agricultural labour force.

Vipa (2005) in her paper “Feminization of agriculture and marginalization of their economic stack”, examines the declining economic stake of women in agriculture and the increasing contribution of women to agriculture. But unfortunately women wage labour not only receive, lower wage than men wage labour but also their opportunity for education, skill formation and shifting better paid work are very low.

Singh, Anilkumar and Singh (2005) discussed to work out differences in labour wages paid to male and female agricultural labour at their work place in the rural society from different part of the country. The study revealed that the drudgery of women in over all activities as well as household works was higher than men in all the selected states. It was lower in agriculture as compared to the males. Wages disparity was found to be higher among men and women in agriculture where men enjoyed with higher wages than women while in case of on farm activities.

Meers Parhiar (2005) in his research article entitled “Understanding poverty in Rural Sindh” that rural women do all on term /of/ farm works. Her day begins from pre-dawn with crushing. Their traditional role of housekeeping has been extended to collect fire wood, toddes, and working on farms, owing to social taboos, ignorance, financial constraints, inadequate education facilities, and non-availability of lady teachers in rural girls, school have not opened the doors of literacy for them. Agriculture dependent rural people have struggled to improve their economic conditions of the contrary, shortage of water, dry spell cycles, decrease in cultivable area due to soil deterioration, extension of town and villages, contraction of infrastructure, rising cost of input, non-availability 52 of high yield quality varieties seeds to small farmers, unchecked population growth, etc. have together adversely affected the lives of rural people.

Alam and Zenith (2006) has pointed out in his article entitled ‘production hazards, marketing risks’ mentioned that majority of women is self-employed and work in dangerous environments. Their daily tasks include keeping and caring for the livestock at farms. They grow grains, cotton, fibers, trait and vegetables. The crop farmers plants, tills, fertilize, sprays, harvests, packs, and stores the product. The livestock former feeds and arcs to animals. While the horticulture farmers produce ornamental plants and nursery products. The per capita income of the millions of agricultural workers is les than half a dollar per day. These workers are deprived of basic human needs like health, food, education, clean water, and shelter. In addition, their women are frequently fortuned by the landlords and their thugs. Farmers, particularly women, face a high degree of economic, legal and institutional uncertainties when investing in their land and other resources. Successful implementation of such programs stem from in the motivation and attitude of individual farmers and newly instituted government policies providing incentives to farmers to manage their natural resources efficiently and in a sustainable way.

Krishnan (2007) bonded labour in India is not just an economic issue, but, a social issue linked with caste, unless we associate bonded labour with caste. We won’t understand bonded labour, and we won’t find a solution.

Victims of slavery and slavery-like practices frequently belong to minority group, particularly racial groups or categories of people who are especially vulnerable to a wide of discriminatory acts, including women, children indigenous people, people of low caste status and migrant worker.

This is certainly the case for millions of bonded and fugue labourer in India, the vast majority of whom are dalits of low caste, indigenous people or 53 other minority group. The following are the vital reason for the bonded labourers.

Nisha (2008) in her study conducted on “Women Labour in Agriculture – An Economic Analysis” finds that the women labour gots maximum employment in agriculture during Khariff season. The labourers got maximum number of days of employment in weeding followed by harvesting and postharvest operations. The women labour had maximum unemployed days in summer as this is the off season for agriculture in the study area which compelled the women labourers to seek employment opportunities like NREGS activities, construction work, file making etc. the study also comes to the conclusion that women unemployment in agriculture has caused a server impact on the income of labourers, family expenditures, their saving and debt position. It also caused migration of labourers to other activities and place. Increase workforce participation rates do not always indicates increase in the level of welfare. So, it must be accompanied by higher educational stabilities and asset and income.

Subramanan (2011) the United development project (UNDP) has supported a range of activities to eradicate women poverty directly in some projects. The projects and programmes focus on micro credit schemes, technical training, organization of set help group on-pro-poor social mobilization programmess and long tern capacity building programs. In India, the project has been under the implementation since 1994. The main focus of activity of the SHGs is to generate savings for income generating projects, providing confidence to women, thereby releasing the women from the clutches of moneylenders.

In several parts of the country, poor women are being organized in SHGs in large numbers. SHGs are usually informal association of people who join together to the lifestyle. One of the most important roles of SHG is to 54 provide opportunities to save and borrow with low rate of interest and availing the benefits of subsidies from Government and other financial institution.

Selva Maheshwari (2011) this study conducted in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu, has identified the problems being faced by dairy farmers due to scarcity of farm labour for agricultural and livestock production. The study is based on the data collected from 40 selected respondents involved in crop production and dairying in the study area during the year 2008-09 through primary survey. The study has revealed that the implementation of Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) has provided employment opportunities to rural workers and has checked the migration of farm labour from villages to cities and nearby industrial townships. All the eligible family member of landless dairy farmers had the job cards, but medium and large dairy farmers possessing agricultural land, prefer to work at their own farms. These farmers have reported that they were facing acute shortage of labourers during peak paddy planting and harvesting due to MGNREGS. The labour wages have increased significantly from `60 to `110 per day since the implementation of MGNREG scheme. It has been observed that milch animals of some landless small dairy farmers are being maintained by the children or aged family members, as majority of adult family members prefer the MGNREGS jobs to earn wages. These adult members have complained about not getting 100 day wage employment as per provisions of scheme. The wage payments are also delayed after completion of work and they face problems in getting the job cards. The study has concluded that the minimum wages under MGNREGS should be increased cautiously keeping in view its impact on agricultural livestock activities.

Roshan Lals et al. (2011) India is developing country. The main occupation is agricultural, because 70 per cent of the population is involved in this occupation. Many women in developing countries are occupied in agriculture women occupation in agriculture in low income countries, the 55 number of women employed in agriculture as a percentage of the economically active population is higher. Long standing obstacles faced by rural women in terms of limited access to productive resources (Land, credit, inputs, transport, extension services, storage and technical assistance) prevent them from adopting new technologies or encoring them economics of scale. This paper examines the ways in which greater integration through agriculture impact women and men differently and ensure implication for growth. This paper finds that agriculture creates many jobs for women in agricultural sector. Jobs that bring many household resources under women control leads to greater earnings in the family. Although, women are more than ever finally employed, differences in wages earned by women and men persist in all countries. Women also have less access to productive resources specially in developing countries. Due to these reasons and women as labour education level compel the women have a greater tendency to remain in subsistence agriculture. Professional women continue to discrimination in hiring and promotion. The impact of liberalization and globalization on women is important not only because they represent almost half of the total population, but also because they face constraints, which make them less beneficial from the liberalization. Once different impacts are ascertained well designed policy responses may aid women in taking advantage of greater openness to agriculture.

Devender Domatis et al. (2011) women suffer from a multiple burden on their time due to their home making child reading and income earning responsibilities. When they work the whole day in fields and forest, they need appropriate support services like crèches and child care centers. A Gram Panchayat Mahila fund should be established to enable SHGs and other women’s group to undertake community activities that help to meet essential gender specific needs. The feminization of agriculture, due to male out migration, needs specific attention with reference to gender sensitive farm and credit policies. All research, development and extension programmes in agriculture and all services most be engendered. 56

Roshanlal and Asok Khurana (2011) in his analysis of gender division of labour revealed that failure to acknowledge the importance of woman multiple contribution to rural survival indicates that practical policy intervention are frequently determental both to women themselves and to their communities. Common do not enter into the labour market on equal terms when compared to men. Their occupational choices are also limited due to social and cultural constraints, gender bias in labour market and lack of supportive facilities such as transport and accommodation in the formal sector of the formal labour market. As a result of discrimination against female labour, women are concentrated in the secondary sector of the labour marked. This work is low paid low status casual and lacks potential upward mobility. The majority of women in the urban sector work is low paying jobs.

An expert paper titled ‘Empowering women in the Rural labour force with a focus on Agricultural Employment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)’ prepared by Abdelali Malika, Matini highlighted that in Arab’s state male dominated rural area women farmer are not recognized on equal basis as men. Their work, contribution are regarded as a form of help to their husband in such male dominated societies.

Geetha and Chandrasekar (2011) both the lackdawala committee and planning commission estimates show a decline in poverty level between 1973- 74 and 1987-88 through the former estimates the drop at 15.6 percentage public far less the latter estimate of 21.6 percentage points. Both estimates suggest that the decline is visible in every state as well as in rural and urban areas. A separate study made by Tendulkar Sundaram and Jain (2010) estimating poverty for different socio-economic groups like agricultural labour, casual non-farm labour in rural areas, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and children have shown that there had been a virtual decline in poverty ratio in all these categories during the period from 1983 to 1987-88.

Though the decline in poverty level is a welcoming sign for the Indian economy, there is a long way to go before one can be complacent about it. The seventh plan enviged a reduction on the poverty ratio from 36.9 per cent of the total population in 1985 25.8 per cent by the end of the plan. The long term envisaged reduction of poverty ratio to less than 10 per cent by 2000 A.D. After 50 years of independence, if we are able to bring down the number of people living below the poverty line at least to 18 per cent 16.

Krishnaji (2012) there is no case to construct a single poverty line based on a colorieor expenditure norm; all such lines are arbitrary and do not take into account the different dimensions of poverty. It is far better to focus on disaggregated information on a variety of parameters – education, housing, clothing, health etc. which can give as unambiguous information abut the different facts of poverty over the course of time.

The poverty line as corresponding to an attainable minimum bundle of goods and services for a normative subsistence level is a best lose concept and non-operational except in a very crude sense. Since the question, who is to set the norm and it has to be done can not be answered to the satisfaction of all, any poverty line referring to a minimal bundle has to be subjective and arbitrary. It is arbitrary moreover because in practice the normative minima are never clearly specified, indeed it is difficult to do so even if we restrict ourselves to say food, clothing, shelter and access to education and healthiness. Consequently all procedure to describe a poverty line inevitably artificial based on controversial statistical manipulation.

Laxminarayan (2013) changing conditions of agricultural labourers, Laxminarayan in his paper attempts to throw light on the changes which have taken place over a period of time in the socio-economic condition of agricultural labour households in three villages in Punjab, Haryana and Eastern UP, Attention has been focused one the demographic characteristics of these 58 households and changes in their income employment, indebtedness, asset formation etc.

One of the most basic problems of the present century in the third world countries is rural poverty. The rural labour households form the hard core of rural poor and the most of the socially backward classes, such as scheduled castes and schedules tribes tall in this category. Most of the population is depending upon agriculture that is contributing about one-fourth of the national income in the country. The most important features of them are that they have very little or low productive assets and the major part of their income is derived from casual or irregular employment available in villages in Andhra Pradesh. The dimension of poverty among the rural labour households are reflected by the extent of indebtedness among the households and low consumption levels. The basis of findings of the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers. The improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the agricultural labour, the large segment of work force would promote economic welfare in general and ultimate lead the Indian economy on the path of growth with stability.

Bhoodan movement It is a well reorganized fact in India the land problem is a complex one and it suffers acutely from maldistribution. It has been found by the national sample survey (Eight round) that hearly 75 per cent of India’s farming population shares about only 16 per cent of the cultivated area. In Telangana in Andhra Pradesh, some people possessed thousands of acres while some could not even own a single acre. Hence, inspired by revolutionary ideas sponsored by the communities, a violent revolt broke out in that region resulting in mass murders, confiscation of land and a reign of terror. Acharya Vinoba Bhave, the disciple of Mahatma Gandhi undertook a Padha Yatra of this area in order to find out a peaceful settlement to this problem and the result was “Bhoodan movement.’ This was started to give practical shape to simplicity and 59 wantlessness. The essence of the Bhoodan movement is the moral appeal to the landowning class in the country to donate a part of their holdings to the less fortunate landless labourers of the society.

The basic principles of the movement are; (a) Land is gift of God and its use should be us universal as that of other of God, viz., sunshine, air, water, etc. The individual ownership of land should be reduced to the minimum, it not altogether abolished (b) people possessing land over and above what they could cultivate, should share it with the landless desiring to cultivate it; (c) the land owners should be appealed to share their lands with their less fortunate brethren (d) the whole process should be done in an atmosphere of amity, ahimsa and peace by appealing to the good sense and generosity of the land owning class and their fraternal feeling, and not by compulsion or legislation which would create discord and dissatisfaction.

According to Vinoba Bhave’s calculation, if everybody voluntarily donated one sixth of his land, of his free will, for free distribution among landless labourers the land problem of the country would be solved. Besides, there will be moral regeneration of society because the land is parted with willingly. Vinoba fixed his target at 50 million acres which was roughly one- sixth of the cultivable land.

On April 18, 1951 Vinoba reached Pochampalli in Nagonda district of Telangana and got the first gift of one hundred acres from Mr. V.R. Reddi and those Bhoodan Ushered in a new chapter in socio-economic reconstruction of the country. Acharya Vinoba stated “if land owning is not created, the third alter native would be a bloody revolution. My attempt is to prevent such a development and I am convinced that peaceful methods can succeed.” He called the movement Bhoodan Yagna or the land gift mission.

Agricultural labour and Rural indebtedness Though there is some confusion about who exactly constitution the class of agricultural labour, a broad definition to serve our purpose is the people who work in the agricultural sector on wages for the entire or the large part of the year may be called agricultural labourers.

The National Commission on labour classifies agricultural workers into two main sections. (i) Landless labourers and (ii) very small farmers whose main source of income, because of very small, holdings is wage employment. The first group has two main categories (a) permanent labourers attached to agricultural households and temporary or casual labourers.

Problems Agricultural labourers do not set work on a regular basis and for large periods remain unemployed. Their workings conditions are very tiring and exhaustive in nature. So, in the long run, their efficiency diminishes because poor health and food.

The average income of agricultural labourers is very low since almost for a quarter of the year remain unemployment. Even when they are employed their wages are so meager that they lead a hand to month existence.

Why number of agricultural labourers has increased The continuous and enormous increase in the number of agricultural labourers is due to the following.

Reasons (i) The population of India has increased very rapidly since 1921, but development has proceeded at a very slow rate employment has not diversified to absorb the increasing population in areas other than agriculture. 61

(ii) The rapid decline of cottage industries and village handicrafts during the British period has not been compensated for by8 setting up modern industries to absorb labour. The pressure on land has thus become very heavy. (iii) Even though after independence, the government adopted various measures of land reforms the Zamindors and big Landlords evicted a number of tenants on the pretext of “personal cultivation” thus forcing majority of people to seek employment as agricultural workers. (iv) Subdivision and fragmentation of holdings uneconomical farmers working on these lands find it difficult to make both ends meet and they are forced to work on the farmers of Zamindors and big Landlords as agricultural labourers to supplement their incomes. (v) Increasing indebtedness of small farmers in rural areas in also responsible for the increasing number of agricultural workers. Unable to pay the interest, leave alone capital, the debtor gradually sells off land and it forced to become a labourer. Land is often mortgaged with the moneylenders who sooner or later grab it under the pretext of non repayment farmers to the position of agricultural labourers. (vi) The spread of use of money and development of the exchange system has changed the ground realities of agricultural. Earlier land has often given to the tenants to activate against a portion of the produce as rent; now the practice is to employ agricultural workers to do the work on wages. Thus workers are how being separated from land to become wage labourers. (vii) Abolition of intermediaries, technological developments in agricultural, cheap policy of the government have all created conditions favorable for the development of capitalist agricultural. The farmers-turned- entrepreneurs have adopted capitalist farming on a large scale and have started affricating workers from for-off palaces. Capitalist agricultural attracts wage labourers.

Causes Poverty is a major cause. Incomes are low, agricultural/ activities in case of small and marginal farmers are uncertain and even basic necessities sometimes require loans to fulfill. The loan used on consumption is hard to return as incomes do not go beyond subsistence level.

Inherited debt forms a substantial part the present debt the enjoin them to spend heavily on marriages, deaths, births and other ceremonies even if they cannot afford to do so. Litigation over land and other disputes increases rural indebtedness. Many a small agricultural finds it difficult to pay land revenue without a loan.

The very backwardness of agriculture with its dependence of rainfall, low technological inputs and uncertain nature causes default in repayment of loans taken to invest in agriculture. Thus even credit for productive purposes becomes a problem.

Consequences Indebtedness creates a feeling of burden and frustration that acts as an inhibitor to development preprived of a major portion of his produce in the payment of interest that too at low prices, the cultivators loses the incentive for efficient farming and more production. Often the cultivator is compelled by the terms of the loan buy his needs and shell his produce to the money-lender. In the process of paying exorbitant interest and selling his produce at low prices, the cultivator often ends up losing his land the become a landless cultivators and his land goas to a non-agricultural who has stake in agricultural production. The economy is the sufferers.

Measures for improvement The government has initiated certain steps to improve the position of agricultural labour. The fixation of minimum wages for this sector is difficult 63 as productivity is lows, holdings are small, a variety of conditions of employment exist and rural workers lack organization. However, growing prosperity of farmers gravelly made labourers restive for better wages, and land reforms gave them more aspirations. A present, most states have fixed minimum wages for agricultural labourers. But the benefits have not truly reached the labourers as they lack collective bargaining power and do not often insist on correct wages. The practice of bonded labour which has been condemned by the constitution has also been abolished by act of parliament in 1976. However, there are reports of bonded labour existing even now, mainly because poverty force the agricultural labourers to voluntarily enter into bonded labour with moneylenders or landlords.

Resettlement of landless labourers by providing them with land is another step taken by the government. Lands obtained on enforcing ceiling laws and those given as Bhoodan and Gramdan were to be used for setting landless labourers. But the results are not too happy, as most of the new owners of the land have no resources to develop it and use it for economic betterment.

Legislation has been enacted in several states for providing house sites in villages to agricultural workers. The minimum needs programme (MNP) and the 20 point programme save a high priority to the rural house-site-cum-house- construction scheme.

In the eights plan it was suggested that subsidy assistance be gives in kinds: there be encouragement to self-help: innovative financial schemes be arranged to mobilise rural saving to facilitate credit.

A number of employment schemes have been initiated for the rural poor, special agencies like the Small Framers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Development Agency (MFAL) were created. Under the MFAL scheme, farmers with and holdings below 2.5 acres 64 were defined as marginal farmers and rural households deriving more than 50 per cent of their income from agricultural were designated as agricultural labourers. Forty-one projects in different districts all over the country were adopted under in the fourth five year plan. Some of the important schemes included under the programme were irrigation, land leveling, soil conservation, dairy development, poultry breeding piggery development etc. The fifth plan abolished the distinction between SFDA and MFAL and merged them into a single programme. A special programme was initiated for drought-prone areas known as the drought-prone areas programme (DPAP) during the fourth plan.

This programme also sought to provide employment to agricultural workers in areas such as irrigation schemes, soil conservation, afforestation, drinking water supply, construction of roads etc.

Some other measures adopted by the government have either directly or indirectly served to improve the condition of agricultural workers. For example, promotion of small and cottage industries and village handicrafts and development of industrial estates in rural areas have created alternative job opportunities for agricultural workers.

The situation of agricultural workers can improve only if legislation are sincerely implemented further more, innovative steps like encouragement of cooperative farming would overcome the difficulty of developing the lard allotted to the landless of agricultural workers. Should be improved their standard of living should be raised through provision of social security services like drinking water, education, hospital, etc. There most be some attempt at providing insurance on marginal contribution and an old-age pension scheme for agricultural labourers.

SUGGESTION Special programmes for agricultural labourers Memoria (1985) India rural working population consists mainly of small farmers and landless agricultural labourers. The N.S.S. in it 17th round found that during 1961-62, of about 49.8 million operational holdings in the country, a little over 40 per cent were less then one hectare in size and many as 62 per cent were less than 2.02 hectare landless agricultural labourer consisted 25.8 per cent of the total rural working force in 1971. The problems of the small farmers and the agricultural laborers vary from area to area but the more common problem being fragmented and small holdings, insecurity of tenure, inadequate and untimely supply of agricultural inputs, lack of adequate credit facilities and marketing facilities all of these have immensely hindered the development of agriculture on a sound basis and also stood in the way of improving the economic and social conditions of these people. Therefore, with a view to enable the weaker sections of the rural population on take advantage of the benefit of economic growth in the rural areas through spread of new technology, certain well-defined programmes were launched during the fourth plan period, particularly to increase employment opportunities and the productive potential of the economically weak farmers and landless agricultural labourers.

Such programmes are small farmers, development 1. Agencies (SFDA) and programmes for marginal farmers and agricultural labours (MFAL); 2. Crash scheme for rural development (CSRD), 3. Integrated land redistribution and drought prone area programme (Formerly known as rural workers programme); and 4. Tribal area development agency (TADA) 5. Hill area development project (HADP) Small farmers development agencies and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers (SFDA and MFAL). 66

The all-India rural credit review committee, while considering the problem of small holding, came to the conclusion that by proper state support and appropriate institutional changes, it would be possible to tacky effectively the problems of what it called “potentially viable farmers.” These farmers were small farmers whose agricultural viable if there was support in terms of irrigation, supplied of input and services of fair prices, etc. It, therefore, recommended institutional setup in the form of small farmers development agency and suggested measures to expanding the flow of institutional credit and other state assistance to the small farmers in an integrated effect to raise their economy to surplus level.

Accordingly, the planning commission initiated during the fourth five year plan, two schemes in the nature of pilot projects in central sector of the one was the scheme for small farmers development agencies (SFDA) and the other for marginal farmers and agricultural labourers (MFAL). The SFDA project were to be kept distinct from MFAL projects, because the account on programme in these two project differed. But it was realized that their areas of operation might coincide in certain case. Therefore, it was contemplated that it might be possible to use the SFDA as the instrument for escorting the MFAL scheme.

During the fourth five year plan 46 SFDA and 41 MFAL project were initiated to improve the economic conditions of the weaker section and generate better self employment opportunities. In the firth year plan (1978-83), all the SFDA/MFAL projects have been made composits and each agency required to assist small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers in its are of operation. The number of projects has been increased from 87 160 in the fifth plan. Each new agency is expected to cover 50,000 beneficiaries while agencies continues from the fourth plan will extend coverage upto 30,000 beneficiaries during the extended period of three years that is 1976 to 1979, the outlay for each SFDA/MFAL project period. 67

For the purposes of these programmes, a small having and land holding of 2.5 to 5 acres and the marginal farmer below 2.5 acres of dry land. In the case of irrigated lands the limits of land holding are generally 50 per cent of those indicated above. The landless agricultural labour is taken as pre who does not have any land holding but her a permanent homestead and deriving more then half of his income from agricultural pursuits.

Farmers has vest success from system that needs less Water In a region that has been famous for generous use of the Cauvery water. (Whenever available), farmers are increasingly adopting a cultivation method that requires less water. The method, which helps reduce water consumption by 25-50 per cent and promises better yield, has been adopted in over 60 per cent adopted in over 60 per cent of the area covered. Under ‘Kuruvai’ paddy in the district this year the coverage of Kuruvai had come down to 8,500 acres in the district against the normal area of 16,000 areas given the prolonged dry spell.

The state government had to implement a special package to help farmers in the filter point areas in the delta to take up the cultivation the package included three phase power supply for 12 hours a day, supply of bio- fertilizers, micro nutrients and pesticides tree of cost. Besides pipes were given to farmers tree to help them pump water from Berewells shortage of laboursers and rising wages, the farmers say.

In fact the entire ‘Kuruvai’ paddy crop in Manakkal village, according for about 260 acres, has been raised under SRI this year. This is one of the six villages where we implemented the 1 whole village concept to promote the SRJ said Gururaj Singh join director of agriculture.

The department plans to adopt the ‘whole village concept to promote SRI in as merry as 84 villages across the district for ‘Kuruvai’, ‘thaladi’ and 68

‘samba’ crops, according to R. Chandrasekaran, deputy director (central schemes, agricultural). With ‘samb’ ‘coverage expected to touch 1.50 lakh crores (making up district this year in the wake of release and water for irrigation and good storage of the method reservoir, the department is gearing up to promote in 90,000 areas. According to Prabu Hindu corresponds 2013 small farmers, landless labourers too can near goats From time immemorial Indian peasants have always been rearing animals for extra income. But now all this is with shrinking pasture hands and scarcity of green fodder, rearing farm animals is being considered un-re-munerative. To en courage small farmers and landless labourers to take up goat cultivation without having to spend much. Scientists from Peruvannamuzhi Krishi Visyan Kendra of the Indian Institute of species research (IISR) have fine tuned a technology.

Carefully Planning “Our veterinary experts through careful planning and breeding Charts have been also to fully exploit the reproductive efficiency of female goats. In a large herd, synchronization of estrus cycle by administering alpha injection and timely breeding by using good quality Frozen Semes or natural service by superior male enhances not only conception rate for a females goat, but also the farmers can bring most of the females in a herd to deliver (kidding) at a specified period in a herd of 50 animals, we can bring 10 (or) 20 goats to deliver in about 150 days at a time by this method. It is a boon to the farming community” says Dr. M. Anandaraj, Director of the institute.

The institute has also for mutated a technique for raising the goats kids. After 15-30 days the kids are housed in side a shed that is made of sunlight and ventilation for 120-140 days before being sold. 69

Once of month Once in a month the kids are also allowed to suckle from its mother 2-3 times a day before completely weaning them away. Animals grown under this method attain 25-33 kg of body weight in 4-5 months compared to those animals grown under conventional method that attain only 10 kg in six months. Shiftily the kids after being weaned away from their mother are fed small quantities of concentrated feed prepared specifically by the institutes exports. Depending on the consumption, the feed quantity is slowly increased. Additionally liver tonics mixed with fish oil are also given to increase appetite and aid good healthy growth. Clean water is made available all through the day. The expense for feeding one kid comes to about `1,200 a month and a net income of `5,000 to `7,000 can be got in some months by selling the kids. This feed is also available in the market in some commercial brand names and farmers can also make then by mixing rice, wheat, maize, horse gram etc…

Contact “Farmers can contact the institute at the address given below to clarify their doubles and learn more about this,” says Dr. S. Shanmughavel, animals science specialist of the institute. Various women self help groups and several individual farmers in Kozhi Kode district, Kerala, have stated to rear goats in this method for the past few years. Low cost, better return and easy management are some of the favorable factors that motivate farmers too take up this technique. This has become a flagship programme of our Kendra because it helps rear more number of goats in a short span of time. 70

“The biggest advantage is that those who have only few centers of land can also grow goats. We need not spent much time grazing them out in the open. Managing a dozen goats is not big task now for Landless workers or small farmers” says Dr. Shanmughavel.

Success The success of this technology is not confined to Kerala alone farmers from other states like Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat are visiting the institute to Learn more about this method. For more details readers can contract Dr. S. Shanmughavel, subject matter specialist (Animal sciences) Krishivigyan Kendra, Peruvannamuzhi Post, Kozhikode, 673 528 Kerala.

Improving the condition of agricultural labour The following suggestions have been made for the improvement of agricultural labours. (i) Removal of Serfdom Agricultural Serfdom which exists in many part of the country should go. I fact, according to the constitution of India, the practice of shivery in any form is prohibited. But agrarian serfdom which has been iv rogue for centuries cannot disappear so easily. This is so because the labourers are helpless, ignorant and illiterate, education of the rural masses and better appertaining are some of the remedies for the removal of the system of slavery. The abolition of boded labour and control of the activities of the money benders, provision of house sites for landless labourers etc, under the 20-point economic programme are deplorable steps, if they are honestly implement.

(ii) Better implementation of minimum wages in agriculture Agricultural workers have been getting very low wages except in Punjab and Kerala. Measures should be taken to raise the wages of term workers. Unless this is done it is impossible to raise the economic condition of the 71 agricultural workers. Minimum wage legislation alone is not sufficient but steps should be taken to enforce it. In the Indian context with unchecked growth of population, it is almost impossible to enforce such legislation.

(iii) Rehabilitation of landless agricultural worker In order to improve the conditions of agricultural labourers, the landless workers should be Bo vided with land, many wages. One way is that the new ordained lend may be dotted only to them. The Bhoodes movement is another method through which those who have land contribute voluntarily for those who have not.

(iv) Improvement in agriculture The agricultural labourers do not have full-time employment because of seasonal character of Indian agriculture. Both intensive cultivation and extension of irrigation are very much needed to increase agricultural work by those methods, there will be double multiple cropping and employment will be available to the whole year round.

The setting of such industries will help agricultural labours in many way, as for instance. (a) Seasonal unemployment will be reduced. (b) Surplus labour power will be diverted to these industries (c) The pressure of population on agricultural (d) Those unable to find employment in agricultural may be readily employment and thus help to supplement the income of the family.

(v) Peasant union for Agricultural labour Wherever labour unions have been organized workers, their wages have been protected and their exploitation by powerful landlords and moneylenders can be eliminated. Hence, greatest emphasis should be placed on the formation 72 of farm labourers and the government should help activity in the formation of such unions.

(vi) Public works programme One very good method of providing employment to rural labour and of utilizing it fully is the construction of public works by the government.

Government measures pestering to agricultural labour Since independence the centre as well as the state government have taken some measures to improve the economic (addition of agricultural labor. They include the passing of legislation to fix minimum wages to agricultural labour, the revolve of disabilities the ceilings on holding and the redistribution of land among the landless laboures.

1. Indian constitution The India constitution has declared the practice of serfdom an offence. It has abolished agrarian slavery including forced labour by law but it will take some time before it is removed in practice.

2. Minimum wages act The minimum wages act was passed in 1948, according to which every state government was asked to fix minimum wages for agricultural labour within three year. The minimum wages are fixed keeping in vew the total costs and standard of living.

3. Other legislative measures The Zomindari system has been abolished by low in all the states and with that all the system has been removed besides, tenancy lens have been passed in most of the states protecting the interests of the tenants and labourers, and enabling them to acquire the lands they cultivate many states have passed legislation fixing ceiling on agricultural holdings by which the maximum amount land which 9 Rason can hold has been fixed by low. 73

4. Organization of labour co-operatives. During the second five-year Plan, efforts were made to encourage the formation of labour co-operating. These co-operatives whose members are workers undertake the contract of government projects, such as, construction of roads, arising of canals an takes, of forestation etc.

They provide employment to agricultural workers during iff – season and also eliminate the possible exploitation of workers by the private contractors. The basic idea of the movement is commendable. The movement in the areas.

5. Employment government scheme The government of Maharastra introduced in 1977 the employment guarantee scheme under which any able bodies person in rural areas can apply for a job to the collector of his district or to his authorized subordinate officials and the lather will provide him employment with in 5 kilometers of his place of residence.

6. 20 Point programme In July, 1975 the government introduced 20- point economic progamme which included a number of measures to improve the economic condition of the landless workers and other weaker sections of the community in our village. These measure were, (a) Speedy implementation ceiling legislation and distribution of surplus land among landless labours and small peasants. (b) Provision of labourse sites for landless labourers and conferment of ownership rights of the houses it they have been occupying them period. (c) abolition of bundle labour (d) Liquidation or rural indebtedness and moratorium on recovery of debts from landless labourers, artisans and small peasants.

Rural landless employment guarantee programme (RLEGP) Started in 1983, this is another major programme to improve and expand employment opportunities for the rural landless with a view to providing guarantee of employment to at least one member of every landless labour household upto 100 day in a year (For details see the later chapter on unemployment). It is proposed now to merge together the NREP and RLEGP.

Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS) Maharashtra state started in 1976 a new scheme in which guarantee of work is extended to rural unskilled labour (Again see the subsequent chapter on employment for details of the scheme).

Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) This progamme was launched on April 28, 1989 by merging into in employment programmes such as NREP and RLEGP. It seeks to generate employment for about 44 million unemployed and under-employed. Scheduled cast and scheduled tribe families living below the poverty line. As a result, the agricultural workers will be molt benefited by this programme. See the details in the subsequent chapter on unemployment.

Agricultural minimum wages (1948) The State Govenrment has taken the initiative to fix up wages for agricultural labour. It has been fixed up as high as `19 in Assam and as low as `8 in Andhra Pradesh. In advanced agricultural state of Punjob, it has been fixed up at `18.50.

It is all very good to have various employment programmes but much depends on how for they succeed in their arrowed objective providing sustained employment to the teeming millions of rural labour. Although a modest measure of success of these programmes may be conceded, yet the problem of their unemployment cannot be said to have been solved 75 commensurate with the magnitude of the problem. There is that a great scope yet to reaching their operational goals and that in a satisfactory manner.

National Commission on rural labour The union ministry of labour constituted in Guesist 1987. In the union but set for 1988-89 anathe insurance scheme was announced for the rural poor. It is called the rural hut insurance scheme when fire destroys all, all is not lost. GIC pays upto `1000 for huts and upto `500 for blongings in huts destroyed by fire to people like landless labourers, small and marginal farmers, traditional craftsmen and other in rural areas whose total annual family income does not exceed `4.800 premium cost is entirely borne by the Government of India. The schemes is administered by the four subsidiary companies of GIC with the active involvement of state Government, union territories.

Occupational health problems of agricultural workers The major occupational health problems of farmers are pesticide exposure, exposure to various biological agents, extreme climatic conditions etc. The equation of producing more food is confounded by the need to address several environmental and occupational health issues these uses include the need to prevent pollution and soil depletion, new ways to control pests, markings farming sustainable.

Health hazards in agriculture Human energy is predominantly used in almost all the agricultural operations starting from seedbed preparation to threshing out of total power available for agriculture, human power contributes about 11 per cent human labour is the single contributing to major part of total cost of cultivations.

Environment The environment problems are those, which are external to the farm workers. These include heat and cold stress, noise, vibration and problems of 76 field dust in agricultural. For problems between man and the environment, changes in the external environment are the obvious choice. But due to its limitation of practicality. Some degree of human adjustment may also be possible.

Pesticides Agricultural workers are exposed to many risk factors one of the most significant health hazards in developing countries. The toxicity of these chemicals is further aggravated by high prevalence of malnutrition and infections diseases in the third world countries.

Dust The agricultural workers are exposed to organic dusts micro organisms, fungi and hazardous gases in their working environment and frequently develop respiratory diseases. However, because of lack of awareness among the physicians. Occupational respiratory diseases of agricultural workers are rarely diagnosed and as a consequence result in the chronic from of disease.

Poor design of tools and equipment Poorly designed equipment or implements or products of ten require workers/users to compensates or exert themselves unnecessarily. All too often such over exertion leads to both job related errors and an increased levels of risk-and then the stressors transmit the stress onto the workers directly reducing their ability to do their job safely and effectively.

Insect bites and free stings Field workers are at an increased risk of insect bites and bee stings. Placing hands and fingers into the plant canopy to select and grasp ripe fruits increases the exposure to bees and insects that may be foraging or resting in the canopy.

Infections One of the most common injuries suffered by workers is a cut or puncture either from Thomas on the plants tools or trellis (support structures) such open wounds are always subject to infection from many bacteria, viruses or ineffectual agents present in the field. Such infections can cause serious complications even loss of limbs of life.

The farmers need to be educates about the hazards involved in using the newer techniques and the methods of prevention.

Rural wage growth rate lowest in six years An unexpected tall in rural wage growth could give the united progressive alliance reason to worry that the rural rate, which it was relatively more confident of, may slip away. Essentially, high consumer price inflation for agriculture workers has eroded real wage growth rate to more 1.4 per cent.

The average nominal rural wage growth slowed to 14 per cent (year-on- year) in July. The lowest since March 2009, according to an analysis of labour Bureaus data by Neelkanth Mishra and Ravi Shanker, research ale grits at credit Susie with rising consumer price inflation to agricultural labourers, this works out to 14 per cent growth in real wage, for below the analysis expectation of 4-5 per cent, and the lows seer in six years.

The congress has been arguing that rural wage increase (caused partly by MGN REGA) has put more money in the hands of rural voters. Consequently party insiders say they are hoping to counter anti incumbency in rural area. But latest was data may suggest otherwise.

Between 2007-08 and 2011-12 nominal rural wages grew at 15 per cent and real rural wages grew at an average of 6.8 per cent average of 6.8 per cent an valley a rate that Ashok Gulat, chair person of the committee for 78 agricultural, costs and prices who first analysed this trend, say is unprecedented, at least since the economic reforms began in 1991. The congress, which is expertly to face a tough tight for urban votes, was counting on increased rural prosperity giving it some electoral security in rural India.

What drove this rise in wages is a matter of some dispute among economists. Mr. Gulati said the raid increase in real farm wages was primarily driven by ‘pull’ factors of growth of the overall economy of construction and agriculture in particular. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employee Guarantee Act brought in by the has been credited by economists Elrond Berry of the Oxford University and others for raising rural wages, but M. Sulati disagrees. MGNREGA employment overall at all India level in less that 5 per cent of the rural employment sort cannot more the wage rates of remains 95 per cent of work force he says.

The credit Suisse analysts believe that it is too early to assume that wage growth will keep falling for two reasons. The first is that non form rural wage growth has continued to grow a pack, “That is not to say these wages can hold up even if overall agricultural wages were to tall significantly for several months, but they are clearly not leading the decline, Mr. Sistra and Mr. Shenkar say. The second is the nearly a third of the fall in wage growls was from Cane-Crosio’s, most pronounced in Uttar Pradesh and as a result of a general slowdown in the sugar industry.

“The nominal farm wages are still growing at 15 to 20 per cent is most states. But it cannot go an ad-infinitum… very soon a time will come when overall growth rate will start decelerating but, sitar no major signs here appeared Mr. Gulati said.

Agricultural wages now range by activity from `120 a day for herdsmen `218 to ploushing for men according to the labour Bureau data. They range by 79 state form `147 a day for ploushing for men in Madhya Pradesh and `162 in Gujarat at the lowest and `341 a day on Tamil Nadu and `588 in Kerala at the upper

Agricultural labourers and minimum wages After the minimum wages act, 1948 was passed, pressure was brought upon the Government to extend. The act to labour agricultural labors. The act was subsequently extended but these are still some states which have not brought large section of agricultural labour within the ambit of the act. Even where the act is implemented, the machinery for the taxation and enforcement of minimum wages is not uniform. In some states, it is the reserve Department which implements the act and in some others this is done by the labour department, but generally speaking. (i) The act has been a deal letter in every states. (ii) Minimum wages in agricultural are not being revised over long periods. (iii) almost every where, the actual wages, rule higher then the minimum wage during the peak season and tend to tall in slack seasons. (iv) The machinery for enforcement is hopelessly inadequate to hope with the task of effective implementation the institution of proceedings order the act is almost negligible and successful prosecution even more disappointing and (v) Other difficulties in the implementation of the act arise mainly from poverty and illiteracy of agricultural labour, absence of knowledge of the existence of legislation, scattered nature of agricultural farms, casual nature of employment, unorganized character of agricultural labourers.

The labour ministers conference held in August 1981 on the question of minimum wages under the minimum wages act decided that.

1. Minimum wages should not fall below the poverty line. 2. Mechanism should be devised to link minimum wages with the consumer price index numbers as has been done by some states, so the extend possible and 3. To introduce a comprehensive legislation to amend the minimum wages act to remove the detects and to make it more effective.

In pursuance of these recommendation, a new concept of general minimum wages was devised which would a provide for the necessities like food, fusel an shelter in respect of workers in general who may not be covered under the minimum wages act.

According to a notification issued by the government of India in December 1988, the central government has directed all stare government and union territories not to fix the minimum wages for workers in the unorganized sector.

Recommendations of the National commission on rural labour NCRL The present agrarian structure has fostered inequality of land-ownership and forced small and marginal farmers to sell their land to big peasants. This has accelerated the process of proletariannization of the marginal farmers. NCAL clearly states “The new technology, being market oriented and capital intensive, has mainly devoured the big peasants; the small farmers not possessing the required resource base or requisite knowledge and risk-bearing capacity have lagged behind in the adoption of technology small and marginal farmers, are therefore, placed of a disadvantage Vis-à-vis the big. Owners and sometimes economic pressures might have forced them and to join the swelling range of agricultural labour.

There is no hope of offering the distribution of land-owenership in India. It would be totally unrealistic to expect that the rural poor can be absorbed in 81 agricultural as owner-cultivators. This being the stark reality, has proposed the following measurers to alleviate the lot of the agricultural labourers.

The commission is of the view that the strategy capable of making the poor agricultural labourers viable has necessarily to be multidimensional. The first thing is to create and/or strong then infrastructure of irrigation, drainage and flood control and rural electric supply as well as introduction of dry farmers technology which will result in increasing agricultural productivity and employment.

The commission endorses the provision for enabling formation of trade unions and agricultural labourers to carry on their activities under applicable laws.

The commission recommends the establishment of agricultural laboures welfare fund to provide assistance to women agricultural labour for maternity leave for two surviving children, old age pension at the rate of `100 per month and death and injury compensation. The resources to the fund will comprise of contribution of the employers, say a cess on land, and a nominal contribution from agricultural labour and the rates to be prescribed by the government. However these are not to general adequate funds and the commission is, therefore, of the view that these must be a sharing of a contribution to the fund by central government and state government atleast on 50:50 basis after the central government meeting 100 per cent expenditure for first three years.

To sum up, it may be stated that agricultural labour constitutes the poorest section of the rural population. The NCRL records that as against the general (Rural) poverty ratio of 33.4 per cent in 1987-88, the poverty ratio for the rural labour households (NCRL) would be around 57 per cent consequently, the commission has made recommendations, so that steps may be initiated to 82 bring this group suffering from deprivation to centuries, above the poverty level.

It is true whereas agricultural labour has contributed to green revolution significantly, it has not benefited in terms of the betterment of its conditions, except for marginal gains by way of increased wages in some states. To help agricultural labourers, the commission has emphasized on the one hand an employment oriented strategy of development and on the other, suggested the organization of agricultural labourers in to trade unions to improve their bargaining strength. To supplement those efforts, the commission had indicated that the central government should initiated legislation on introduce a scheme of social security following the recommendations of NCRL the central government has prepared draft central legislation for agriculture workers and circulated it at the 42nd conference of state lobour ministers held on 7-8 July 1998 to elicit their comments. It is hear tenting that the central government has been awakened by the NCRL to take steps to improve the economic condition of the poorest of the poor in our society.

Agricultural labourers (100 days work programme) “Labour is defined as any mental or physical exertion lender gone partly of wholly with a view of earn good wither than pleasure derived directly from the work.” It is one year the primary objective of the five year plan to create fuller opportunity for work and better living of the to all section at the rural community and particular to agricultural labourers and backward classer to come up to the level of rest.” Government of India has implemental number employment guarantee programme so as to lift up the standard of living or of agricultural labourers. Recently agricultural labourers are affected severely due to lack of agricultural activities. Especially in cauvery delta area agricultural labourers have not found any agricultural sector and no water is released by Karnataka Government from Krishnasakar.

Key words: Agricultural, Public expenditure, 100 days work programme.

Introduction The government of India likes to provide job opportunity by he scheme i.e. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). This scheme enacted by legislation on 25 August 2005. This scheme provides a legal guarantee for a 100 day of employment in every financial year to adult numbers of any households willing to do public work rated unskilled manual work of the states for a minimum work of `120 (US. $2.10) per day in 2009 prices, it they for the scheme was `4,000 billion (US. $69 billion) in FY 2010-2011.

The act was introduced with an aim of improving the purchasing power of rural people, primarily. Semi or unskilled work to people living in rural India whether or not they are living below the poverty line around one third or the stipulated work force is women. The law was initially called as the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and was renamed as on 2 October 2009. In 2011 the programme was widely criticized more to more effective than other poverty reduction programmes in India. Despite it’s best intentions is based controversy about corrupt officials deficit financing as the source of further poor quality of infrastructure built unclear the program and an in ten deal destructive effect on poverty.

Political background The act was brought about by the UPA-1 coalition government supported by the left parties. In has been labeled as one of the causes for voting UPA back into power as UPA-2 Dr. Jean Dveza a Belgan born economist at the Delhi School of economist has been a major influence on MGNREGA. A verity of people’s movement and organization activity companied for the act. 84

The plan was launched in February 2006 in 200 districts and eventually extended to cover 593 district 44940870 rural households were provided jobs, under NREGA workers shave faced in 2008-09 with national average of 48 working days per house holds. In recent times (NREGA) workers have faced delays in payment or wages. Some of which have been pending for months. In July 2012 the Government admitted that programme is played with corruption and it needs to be dealt with meaningfully.

Employment under NREGAS in 2010 Indian minister of state for rural development Pradeep Jain said I a written reply to a question in Raju, Sabhr that as 30 June 2010, 17923189 families have been provided employment under MGNREGS.

Work/Activities The MGNREGA activities with objectives of rural development and employment. The act stipulates that work must be targeted towards a set of specific rural development activities such as water conservation and harvesting. After station; rural connectivity, flood control and protection, such as construction and repair of embankments, etc. Protection digging of new late /pools; check attains, demes are also given importance. The employers are given work such as land devellincy, tree plantation etc.

First a proposal is given by the panchayat to the block office and than the office decides whether the work should be sanctioned. In tang areddy district Manchal Mandal the dry land horticulture and plantation of trees on the bonds of the fields taken up under MGVN programme is taken up in a big way. The sustainability of the subsidy scheme – India’s fiscal deficit is expected to reach 56 per cent GDP this year compared with 5.1 per cent last year. The MGNERGA programme has been found to distort labour markets and has helped along with faced and fertilizer subsidies-to balloon India’s federal fiscal deficit. 85

Yet another criticism is the unintended effect of MGNEREGA in terms of skill growth. A review published by India in September 2011 conceded that the lack of skilled technicians at almost every sites under MGNREGA programme, along with rules banning the use of machinery of contractors. Such bureaucratic regulations mean that the labourers learn to new spill and that the ponds, roads and drains and other assets built with manual labour are often of wretched quality. The idea behind MGNEREGA pragramme is to create as many jobs as possible for unskilled workers. In practice, critics say it man to one learns new skills only basic projects get completed and the poor stay poor- depended on government cheeks. Chapter III PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

Introduction Agriculture in India is the vertical backbone of the country and is regarded as the largest sector of the country’s economic activity. It is the major sector of the state economy, in which the majority of people earn their livelihood. Though the share of agriculture in the aggregate economy has declined rapidly during the planned development of the country. It assumes a pivotal role in the rural economy. The contributory share of agriculture in GDP has declined from 55.4 per cent in 1950-51 to 18.5 per cent in 2006-2007 (Anom, 2007).

Agriculture also plays a very important role in industrial development of our nation as it is the source of raw materials for many industries. India’s foreign trade is deeply associated with agriculture. Agriculture accounts for about 14.7 per cent of the total export earnings. Agriculture and its related goods contribute 38 per cent in total export of the country (Anon, 2007). Expanding agricultural production increases the demand for other sectors notably fertilizers, pesticides, machineries, transportation and communication varying with the level of technology. Indian agriculture continues to be a gamble on the monsoon.

Labour is one of the primary factors of production. It is considered to be important not only because it is productive but also because it activates other factors and makes them useful for production purposes. The size of labour force in a country is determined by the number of people in the age group of 15-59 years generally children below 15 years and old people above 59 years do not participate in production activity. Indian labour force consists of 459.1 million workers (2004-05), growing at the rate of 2 per cent annually. Out of 87 the total work force 268.1 million workers are employed in agriculture as cultivators and labourers (Nagaraj, 2007).

Agricultural labour, mostly landless constitutes the poorest segment of the Indian agricultural population. They belong to economically backward and oppressed section of the society. They mainly belong to the scheduled castes and other backward communities. They are basically unskilled and unorganized and work in farms of prosperous (big) farmers as casual workers on wages for a larger part of the year (Padhi, 2007). One of the most disquieting features of the rural economy of India during the past several decades has been its constantly increasing trend in the number of landless labourers. Factors like rapid growth of population, law of inheritance, rise in cost of agricultural inputs and decline in small scale industries have been responsible in this increase (Sajjad, 1998). The phenomenon of under-employment, unemployment and surplus population are simultaneously manifested in the daily lives and living of agricultural labourers.

This formulation is based on the results of available studies on the topic of labour absorption in agriculture. Before going into details it would be useful to make explicit the meaning of the term ‘labour absorption’ as used in this study, since this term is too ambiguous and may convey different meaning used under different contexts. The term ‘labour absorption’ means the total labour that is being ‘utilized’ or ‘used’ in the production process. Here, these three terms ‘absorption’, ‘utilization’ and ‘use’ are variously used to refer to the labour actually employed rather than the labour required in agriculture. Labour ‘required’ is the amount of labour needed for the optimum production, whereas labour demand is often referred to labour employed. If one assumes that farmers have a precise idea about how much labour is to be used in order to maximize profit, and they get the same amount of labour irrespective of season, than all the above terms means the same. But this is not plausible. Moreover, it is a weak assumption. First of all, unlike in the industrial sector the input- 88 output ratios are not clear to determine the right amount of input required to obtain maximum profit in the agricultural sector. Farmers often tend to maximize output instead of profits. Besides, due to the seasonability factor farmers may employ less than the requirement of workers in the peak season consequent to labour shortage and more in the lean season because of social obligations, if any, that would force, the farmers to accept extra hands. In other words, the theoretical and the agriculture are not the same. So, it is necessary to make explicit that the terms labour ‘absorption’, ‘utilization’, ‘used’ and ‘demand’ are all used as synonyms and they connote labour actually employed on farms rather than required.

Structural Retrogression and rise of ‘New Landlords’ in Indian Agriculture: An Empirical Exercise Rural economic structures in India have been undergoing changes, largely due to various public policies and the consequent changes in the decision making process of individual economic agents. During the initial phase, the public policy orientation was directed mainly at restructuring agriculture through a series of land reform measures followed by reforms in trade and credit. The attempt was to eliminate the influence of agent who are other than cultivators and who were perceived to have an adverse effect on the cultivating agents. The second phase in public policy was to induce changes the production function with public provision of the knowledge, the inputs needed in production and purchase of the output produced. This is popularly known as the green revolution phase. The third phase of public policy was to encourage industrialization and urbanization. The result of these policy interventions was a growing agriculture sector and the consequent demand for non-farm services in terms of trading of the inputs and output services. The process can be visualized as a growth-induced generation of non-farm activities.

At the other end, urbanization and industry encouraged the formation of the informal sector in the economy, as was modeled in the Harris-Todaro 89 models, leading to part-time temporary migration of rural labour to urban areas are certain non-farm activities like development of dairy and poultry that are gaining importance. These processes have changed the rural economic structure from the traditional/feudal structure that existed earlier. But is the evolving rural structure conducive for growth or is there a structural retrogression with the rise of a new class of intermediaries in the rural economy? This paper is an empirical exercise attempting to provide evidence of the changing economic structure over time. Based on the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) rounds an assets and liabilities and a village study conducted in nine villages in Andhra Pradesh with the rise of a new class of intermediaries christened as non-cultivating “peasant” households, i.e., households who own land but do not cultivate land in the rural areas. To rise of the new class of intermediary necessitates the importance of tenancy as a method for cultivation. Hence evidence on the lease market is also provided.

The rural economic structure has two parts: the farm sector and the non- farm sector. The farm sector consists of individuals who take part in the agricultural production process and the non-farm sector consists of individuals who might facilitate production (artisanal community on input traders) or facilitate transfer of good over space from rural and urban or urban to rural or between rural sector (output traders) or might be reenters (landlords). The nature of expansion of the non-farm sector and its implications on decision- making in the farm sector are important for the long-term growth of the agrarian sector. For instance, it is important to know whether the agricultural labour households are migrating from the farm sector (Lewis, 1954) dual economy models or whether the cultivating households are shifting from cultivation to the non-farm sector.

Changing structure of Indian Agriculture: State-level picture One of the empirical regularities observed in the developed countries is the decrease in the share of households dependent on agriculture (farm sector) 90 for a livelihood and a decrease in the share of income originating in agriculture as income per capita increases (Kuznets, 1966; Chenery and Syrquin, 1975). In the Indian context, with an increase in per capita income the significant decline. But the Indian Economy has not witnessed a corresponding decline in the share of households in the agricultural (farm) sector. In this content, these are three issue which are being addressed in this section. First, there has been a trend decrease in the share of households dependent on the farm sector and is the trend consistent over all the states? Second, a decrease in the share of households dependent on the farm sector can imply either a decline in the organizers of production (cultivators) or a decline in the share labour supplying households, or both. The implication for growth and development will differ accordingly. An analysis of the changes in the composition of the farm sector over time and space is conducted to identify the nature of households who are migrating of the sector. A decline in the farm sector would imply a change in the non-farm sector an attempt is made to identify the occupational groups in the non-farm sector which are increasing in importance.

TABLE 3.1. Initial stock and change in share of farm sector state-wise in the rural sector (1981 to 2002)

Share of FS in Change in FS Change in FS State 1981 1991 over 1981 2002 over 1991 Andhra Pradesh 84.1 -8.5 -11.7 Bihar 92.3 -3.3 -6.9 Chhattisgarh Snf Snf - Gujarat 90.6 -12.3 -6.1 Haryana 69.6 -5.5 1.5 Jharkhand Snf Snf - Karnataka 88.2 -4.1 -4.9 Kerala 95.05 -13.35 -25.5 Madhya Pradesh 89.5 -6 2.2 91

Share of FS in Change in FS Change in FS State 1981 1991 over 1981 2002 over 1991 Maharashtra 83.4 -3 -5 Orissa 92.2 -11.7 -1.8 Punjab 80.6 -16.8 0.8 Rajasthan 87.5 -2.2 -6.7 Tamil Nadu 84.6 -14.1 -13.1 Uttar Pradesh 87.2 -3.2 -2.3 West Bengal 87.4 -8.4 -7.5 All India 87.6 -7.3 -6.2

Source: 37th, 48th and round of NSSO Reports on household assets and liabilities in India. FS = Farm Sector.

FS refers to farm sector; 1991 over 1981 figures refer to change in value over the period 1981 to 1991, 2002 over 1991 figure refer to change in value between 1991 and 2002. Snf refers to state not formed.

Bonded labour is the outgrowth of circumstances of the family and the poor economic conditions of the nation. In a leleological sense, bonded labour is the outcome of the two interacting parallelograms of forces – internal and external. The internal force is the rural penuriousness and stagnation of the rural economy. The external force is nothing but the policies, politics and parameters of action of the administration. The system of bonded labour is a cruel and rapacious system in which these workers are worst off with the lack of rights, dignity and individuality and as such, are oppressed by the masters. The bonded labourers are paid wages below the prevailing rate or even without any wages other than the minimum subsistence food. A bonded labour is the one who pledges himself against an advance (loan). Such a person is required to work for his creditor against nominal wage till the creditor declares that the 92 loan is fully repaid. He loses the risk to sell his labour or the product of his labour in the open market at market value.

Caste and landlessness in South India In 1956, there were 16.3 million agricultural labour households in India, roughly one out of three for India agriculture as a whole their number has been rapidly increasing in 1900 only 12 per cent of the agricultural population were landless labours. It is tempting to see the creation of this huge landless class as yet another verification of a general theory of development which seems to apply to Japan and too much of South East Asia, as well as to a great deal of western experience. Such a theory would explain the growth of this class in term of the weakening of village communities, The breaking down of traditional patterns of land tenure, the spreading on indebtedness on the consequent dispossession of the peasantry, and it would find the chief cause of these changes in the monetization of the economy.

Determination of key correlates of agricultural labour migration of less resources endowed areas of Tamil Nadu, with the following objectives: (i) To identify the major causes and empirically determine the key correlates of agricultural labour migration in the study area. (ii) To identify the causes for rural out-migration. The study has been conducted by taking landless (group I) and landed (group II) respondents. The Garatte ranking of the causes of migration has revealed that of the ten push factors and ten pull factors (both economic and non- economic), lack of continuous employment at place or origin is at the first bank with mean score of 77 and 78 per cent for group I and group II respectively, followed by low wages at place or origin and economic condition of the family. On the pull side also, economic reasons, viz., availability of job at destination has achieved the first rank with mean score of 75 for group I and 74 for group II, followed by hope of getting a job and higher wages. In the case of non-economic reasons, surplus 93

labour availability at place of origin has received maximum scoring in the push side and skill development on the pull side. The study has concluded that through both economic and non-economic reasons are responsible for migration of agricultural labour, economic reasons are stronger. Not only that, push force of migration have been identified more stronger than pull force in catalyzing migration.

The study was conducted in Kollam district of Kerala and Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. A labour efficiency scale was developed by functional approach and the same was used to measure the labour efficiency of women agricultural labourers. Using cluster analysis, the items were grouped into different dimensions and labeled based on the content of the items. In general, majority (63%) of the women agricultural labourers were low in labour efficiency. The analysis revealed significant difference between the women agricultural labourers of Kerala and Tamil Nadu with respect to their overall labour efficiency level. The difference was mainly due to labour attachment practices and increasing demand for non-agricultural works. Dimension-wise analysis of labour efficiency showed that majority of them belonged to the high group under the dimension adjustability and competency, whereas majority had low efficiency with respect to dimensions such a determination in work situation, inter-personal relationship, team spirit, commitment, work environment, socio-economic and institutional. The respondents were observed to have neither high nor low efficiency in case of confidence dimension.

Manorama Year Book 1997 indicates that the income was not sufficient to maintain the minimum standard of living. The per capita income of India for the year 1993-94 was `6929.

Bhattacharya (2008) observed that in all-India level, there was a declining trend in the male work force in the Primy, mainly agriculture, and an increase in the work force in the secondary. 94

State policy towards agricultural labour The agricultural labourers particularly the landless ones, belong to backward communities and they suffer from social disabilities and are prone to economic exploitation. Their living levels are low and their earnings are generally on the poverty like uncertain and meagre for sustenance. Therefore, the first plan observed that landlers agricultural labourers are poor people in the society.

Agricultural labour population are concentrated west in areas, where population presses heavily on the land and the development is sectors of the economy other than the agricultural has been retarded. By selecting such areas to special programmes such as C.D.P. – it should be possible to make a distinct contribution to the problem of rehabilitating agricultural labourers, for increase in the tempo of development is the effective answer to the problem of unemployment and under-employment.

The first five year plan suggested for (i) Fixation of minimum wages and low wage pockets and intensive development areas. (ii) Conferment of occupancy rights on the landless workers in regard to house sites. (iii) Organisation of labour co-operatives and (iv) The resettlement of the landless workers on newly reclaimed lands.

During the first plan period, minimum wages to agricultural labourers were fixed throughout Punjab, Orissa, Rajasthan, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Tripura and Kutch. Provision of `1.5 crores was made to schemes to resettlement of landless labours, and 32 crores were envisaged for the welfare of the backward classes.

The second five year plan was of the opinion that under the agricultural labourers were property rehabilitated in suitable occupations, the whole programme of accelerated economic growth would suffer. It, therefore, suggested substantial increase in agricultural production including animal husbandry; increase in employment opportunities through extensive development of village and small industries, improvement in the social status, efficiency, initiative and ability of the agricultural labourers by means of redistribution of land and extension of educational facilities, and improvement in the living conditions. Through these measures the plan emphasized for fuller employment and a larger measure of social justice for this class.

In the third five year plan proposed to improve the conditions of this section of the population through extension in irrigation and soil conservation and village industries programme. `7 crores were allotted to resettlement scheme of landless labourers. As a result of which about 7 lakh families were to be settled on 50 lakh acres of land.

The fourth plan stated: “In most part of the country the benefits of development have not reached the bulk of agricultural workers to any appreciable extent. A large section of agricultural labour faces not only economic difficulties but also social disabilities. Adequate remedies for the present condition of agricultural labour lie on the one hand, in fundamental changes in agrarian structure, including development of co-operative farming and land resettlement programmes and on the other, in industrial and economic growth, and more especially the diffusion of industry into small towns and rural areas. It is hoped that the rural worker programme will bring significant relief in a number of areas. The programme to provision of house sites for Harijans, agricultural workers and small peasants has to be implemented with a sense or urgency.”

The little plan too has special programmes of helping agricultural labourers. As part of the “special programme of Rural Development”, it envisages the uplift of the lowest 30 per cent of the rural population.

Efforts are being made in three directions: (a) Reorientation of the general programmes of Agricultural development with a view to ensuring that the mass of small and marginal farmers and agricultural labourers are increasingly enabled to benefit from these programmes which are to be developed, such as animal husbandry, fishery etc. Structure and policies of cooperative credit societies are also to be titled in favour of these people. (b) Special assistance is to be given to the small farmers in the Area Development Programmes, particularly through then development of selected irrigation projects and development of special drought-prone areas; and (c) Intensification and enlargement of special programmes specially designed for the weaker sections like SFDA/MFLL.

All India Agricultural Labour Association (AIALA) The hoarding announcing the employment guarantee act, outside government offices in Delhi spill out with portraits of the Congress Central leadership. In states, where congress is not in power, the rating party, Spin UP or BJP in Rajasthan have made announcements that are louder and greater, undoubtedly to put to scheme the UPA for its stinginess in assuring employment to the rural poor. Yet, apart from the credit that each wants for itself, there is little difference in the claim or the acts at the various ruling dispensations. And they stand united in the sheer callousness and complete disregard for the crisis tacked by the rural poor and the agrarian labour in the crisis ridden rural India. AIALA (All India Agricultural Labour Association) gave a call to hold a public hearing or NREGA on 17th August while the monsoon session of the Lok Sabha was in full swing, AIALA is working in 97 over 20 states of India and presently has a membership of over 2 million members. Although this is the leanest period of the year and there are all sorts of travel difficulties due to the rains, over 10,000 poor agri-labour from 18 states and 110 districts responded to the call. Jantarmanta (the venue in Delhi) witnessed thousands of laboring man and women from some of the poorest remotest and backward districts of India, marching into Delhi, head held high, shouting their demand, carrying placards and banners and with determination to get justice. These activists braved attacks by police who bead and threatened them, tried to forcibly remove them from the trains they were traveling in and somehow stop them from reaching Delhi. Undeterred, they came in large numbers to till the whole area with their warm and enthusiastic presence and full-throated slogans. The public hearing (Jan.Sunvai) became an urgent necessity as it became obvious that the NREGA had failed to assets starvation deaths and even scratch the surface of the twin evils of poverty and unemployment in the countryside. Not only is the art flawed, vague and partial, its implementation (or the non-implementation in many cases) is ridden with wholesale violation and irregularities. Yet in his independence day address, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh shamelessly clowed from the ramparts of Lal Qila regarding the miracle effects of great achievements on the front of rural employment guarantee. The record therefore needed to be put straight. This was done by the thousands of men and women of the public hearing who exposed the realities at ground level. Speaker after speaker uncovered the true state of affairs – no job-cards, no work, corruption and bribery everywhere, poor, women and children drying from hunger, terrible rural distress, meagre payments delayed payments, impossibly high tasks, indifference and insensitivity of the government and the callous discriminations of major political partiesin their games of one upmanship.

On 17th August, as the sun mercilessly beat down in Delhi, outside the Parliament hundreds and thousands had gathered to all the cruel bluft played by the government and to attend the Jan Sunwai on the NREGA; the claim and 98 ground realities; price-like dismantling of PDS and the UPA Government. The Jan Sunwai (public Hearing) started at around 11 a.m. and continued through 5 p.m. The Jury of the Public Hearing was comprised of noted economist Jan Dreze, Prof.Menoranjan Mohanti of Delhi University, Prof. Amit Bhaduri of Journalist Anil Chamaria, General Secretary of Swapan Mukherjee, CPI, Central Committee Members, Rajasthan and Srilak Swaminathan, AIALA Vice President Pawn Sharma from Jharkhand Bahadur Ordon, people from 18 states and more than 110 districts including Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal, etc. attended the public hearing programme before the parliament, and expressed their strong resentment against the non- implementation of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The gathering was marked by a considerable participation of labourers women. The experiences and suggestions of thousands of participants were conveyed to the Rural Development Minister Raghvyansa Prasad Singh through two Memoranda. AIALA General Secretary Dhirendra Jha initiated the proceedings of tabling the report which was a compilation of experiences activities from across the country at the hearing. From state after state came reports of the administration refusing to accept applications, or of political and social discrimination in issuing job cards or of job cards not being issued months after registration is complete. Participants in the Jan Sunwan; were of the opinion that the NREGA is being mocked in spirit and in actuality by both the Central and State Government Rural poor suffer starvation land chronic hunger and yet, the job guarantee is being to them.

The participants heard the heart-rending tales of women, like Sarupriya Devi and Sagunia Devi of Darbhanga district, who did hard manual labour for 40 day, and died of hunger an lack of medicines, waiting in rain for the wages that came too little too late. People from Rohtas district in Bihar recounted how four people who had been issued job cards, died of hunger since they were denied jobs. Representations from Karbi Anglong district total of how over 1.5 lakh applicants from remote tribal areas of Assam have not been issued job 99 cards for 3 months, since they are being asked to produce recommendation letters from local congress leaders political discrimination by gram phdoms in UP and Mukhiyas in Bihar, as well as communal denial of minimum wages and unreasonably heavy criteria of manual labour as a basis for wages were common complaints. The decision to remove the food grain components of wages under NREG scheme was condemned, given the rampant hunger and rising prices of essential commodities. The gathering demanded immediate restoration of the good-grain components of wages under NREG Scheme.

In the context of developing countries, agricultural development is a necessary adjunct of economic development. In these economies, the pace of economic development largely brings out the accelerated development of agricultural sector. Adam Smith in his “Wealth of Nations” argued almost two centuries age, that agricultural output, in its widest sense, is the basic working capital of the nation in its critical stages of growth. This proposition is still true in the case of all less-developed countries. Agriculture is ever destined with the law of diminishing returns. As such, agriculture is ever destined with the law of diminishing returns. As such, one cannot develop very fast by putting more and more of additional doses of capital and other kinds of inputs. Yet, the element of labour has its own proverbial say to cause and effect radical returns and is ever crucial in revolutionizing the total average and marginal productivity of agriculture.

It is therefore, the drive of labour, which really initiates the process of development in agriculture and raises total agricultural production either to earn foreign exchange through increased savings in terms of agricultural goods or to provide additional food to feed the growing population. It is obvious that agricultural labour has a vital role in the building of any modern nation through its contribution to the total development of agriculture.

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Agricultural labour constitutes and continues to be one of the most important factors of production in spite of the significant technological advancement in this sector. Thus, human labour continues and has to continue to be a more preponderate factor in the agricultural economy. This is because of the simple fact that machine cannot be a perfect substitute for labour in the process of farm production.

TABLE 3.2 Provisional population literates totals – Papanasam Taluk – Census 2011

Child population in the age group Population Literates Place 0-6

Persons Male Female Persons Male Female Persons Male Female

Urban 62539 30192 32347 5957 3061 2896 49199 24790 24409

Rural 210332 103622 106710 20135 10349 9786 149220 80033 69187

Total 272871 133814 139057 26092 13410 12682 198419 104823 93596

Source: Secondary data, Papanasam taluk, 2011. 101 102 In the above table urban total population of males and females are given. Among them female population is greater than male population. But child population is concerned male population is greater. With regard to literacy rate is concerned more male population has been educated than female population. The same trend is found in rural population.

General description of the district Thanjavur being the foremost district of the Cauvery delta occupies an important position in the agricultural map of Tamil Nadu state. Since its formation, the district is called as the rice bowl of Tamil Nadu. It was bifurcated and a new district named Nagapattinam was formed during 1993. Nagapattinam district was again bifurcated into Nagapattinam and Tiruvarur district in 1997. Thus, the erstwhile district of Thanjavur had been trifurcated into Thanjavur, Nagapattinam and Tiruvarur district.

Thanjavur is one of the thirteen coastal districts of Tamil Nadu in the production of marine fish which accounts for about 5 per cent of the total marine fish catch in the state. The district is famous for its exquisite ancient handicrafs-making of bronze icons, Thanajvur art plates, bell-metal castings, bowls, and napkin and powder boxes of metal with beautiful and artistic in- kying and engraving work of motifs well known as Tanjore Swami work. It is equally well known to pith work, ornamental tans, mats and making of musical instruments out of Jackwood. It is also a flourishing sentres of handloom silk and cotton sarees.

Thanjavur attained prominence under the Chola ruler who urge paramount in South India during 9th to 12th centuries. They were not only excellent rulers but also mighty builders, who erected a large number of exquisite temples in their empire, some of which constitute the finest specimens of architecture. Hence the district stands distinguished in the state even in its large number of temples, whose legends extend deep into early historic times. Many of these temples reflect the power, genius and architectural grandeurs of their authors 103 displaying the unique and magnificent proficiency is sculpture, painting and wood carving. Art gallery the great Saraswathi Mahal library the ‘Sangeetha Mahal Library’ the ‘Sangeeth Mahal’ (Hall of Music), the thriving of classical music and dance known as ‘Bharathanatyam’ and celebration of grand annual music festival at Thiruvaiyaru, in honour of the great saint Thiagaraja, all bear testimony to the cultural heritage.

The district can be divided into two distinct regions viz., the deltaic region, the uphead care or non-deltaic region. The deltaic region covers the whole northern and eastern portions of the district where the Cauvery with its wide network of branches irritate more than half of the district. It comprises the whole of Kumbakonam taluk and part of Thanjavur, Papanasam taluk. The rest of the southern and western areas of the district are non-deltaic or upland region. A good portion of upland regions which was dry has now been brought under irrigation with the help of Grand Anaicut canal fed by the Cauvery – Mettur project and by extension of the Vadavar river. Non-deltaic region is also devoid of hills and slopes gradually seawards.

Thanjavur is the home to famous Brihadeeswara temple, one of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Thanjavur is famous for the Brihadeeshwara temple or Brihadeeswara Temple) built by Raja Raja Cholan during the 11th century. The Brihadishwara temple, also known as the big temple is one of UNESCO World Heritage sites. The temple is enclosed in two courts. Papanasam taluk stands unique from time immemorial for its agricultural activities and is rightly acclaimed as the Granary of the South India lying in the deltaic region of the famous river Cauvery and criss-crossed by lengthy network of irrigation canals. This coastal district abounds in green paddy fields tall account groves, vast gardens of mango and plantain trees and other verdant vegetation. Various testimonials available in the ancient Tamil literature referring to the Cauvery as possessing the sanctity of the Ganges in conformity with the legendry and mythological stories attributed to its divine origin, rightly point out why the river is popularly called the mother Cauvery, and its sacredness is evident from 104 ‘Kaviri-Thala-Puranam’. The river has also been named as ‘Ponn’ bears it is yielding ‘Pon’ – gold in the form of paddy. That is why it is said with pride that every iota of the earth of Thanjavur is equal to an iota of gold. The tillers in Tamil literature have been rightly called as ‘Kavirippudhalvars’, the sons of the Cauvery, as they alone are worthy of this title for the rich production of golden grains in this festive soil. It is no wonder therefore that at the very threshold of the district itself, one can feel the distinguished green vegetation and call. Papanasam as “the green mansion” of the south, with the river Cauvery irrigating the taluk, the cropping pattern followed was paddy-paddy-rice follow pulses/ cotton/gingelly. The economy of the taluk is therefore, primarily agrarian in nature with very few industrial units.

TABLE 3.3 Papanasam taluk

S. No. Land Area (Sq.mt.) 1. Nanchai land 19871.93.5 2. Punchai land 10846.10.5 3. Natham land 1164.27.8 4. Purampokku land 6725.64.7 Total land 38607.96.5

Source: Secondary data, Papanasam Taluk Office Report, 2013 Total land area of Papanasam taluk is 38607.96.5 hectare cultivable river irrigable land area is 19871.93.5 ha and Punchai land area is 10846.10.5 ha. Natham land area is 1164.27.8 ha and Purampokku land area is 6725.64.7 ha. With this area of land Papanasam taluk is a popular paddy cultivable taluk in Thanjavur district. Two important blocks i.e., Ammapet block and Papanasam block are famous in cultivating paddy, number of large farmers, small farmers, marginal farmers and landless agricultural labourers are found in it. So the researcher has analysed only socio-economic conditions of 105 agricultural labourers in the blocks i.e., Ammapet and Papanasam. The agricultural labourers are divided into a) Landless agricultural labourers, b) Small farmers cum agricultural labourers and marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers. This type of classification of agricultural labourers are found in agricultural economics especially Indian economy written by Dutt and Sundaram (2008). Papanasam taluk is a taluk of Thanjavur district of the Indian State of Tamil Nadu. The headquarters of the taluk is the town of Papanasam. According to the 2011 censes, the taluk Papanasam had a population of 2,72,871. Among the total population 1,33,814 are males and 1,39,057 are females. There were 1039 women for every 1000 men. The taluk had a literacy rate of 72.72. Child population in the age group below 6 was 13,410 males and 12,682 females. Papanasam town is 25 km from Thanjavur and 15 km from Kumbakonam. There are 4 rivers named Cauvery, Thirumalairajan, Arasalaru and Kudamurutti. The name of the town literally means ‘Destruction of Sins’ in the Tamil language.

Geography Papanasam is a taluk and Panchayat town of Thanajvur district, Tamil Nadu, located at 10.9333°N, 79.2833°E. It has an average elevation of 22 metres (72 ft).

Demographics As of 2011 India Census, Papanasam had a population of 16,397. Males constitute 50% of the population and females 50%. Papanasam has an average literacy rate of 76% higher than the nation average of 59.50%. Male literacy is 82%, and female literacy is 70%. In Papanasam 11% of the population is under 6 year stage.

History There are two temples; the Pallaivanatha Swamy temple constructed by the Chola King on the other is the 108 Sivalayam temples. There is also a 106 granary (storehouse of paddy) which measure 86 feet (26 m) in width and has a height of 36 feet (11 m) with a capacity of 3,000 kalam. The Nayaks between 1600 and 1634 constructed it. The State Archaeological Department declared it a monument. This is also the birth place of great people like Poet Papanasam Sivan and Sri Ravishankar of Art of Living, Papanasam taluk have more than school and colleges.

The station is between Thanjavur and Kumbakonam where all passenger and express trains stop here. Three consecutive railway stations are in Papanasam taluk which are Pandaravadai, Ayyampettai and Pasupathikoil.

Agricultural labourers in Papanasam taluk Papanasam taluk is located in Thanjavur district. Papanasam taluk is well linked with road ways and railways. The lands are very fertile for the growth of paddy. Papanasam taluk has Ammapet block and Papanasam block. The lands are irrigated by river Cauvery. A large number of agricultural labourers are found in Papanasam and Ammapet blocks. Most of the agricultural labourers are landless labourers. Certain labourers are having tiny bits of land holdings and after the agricultural work is over, they work in other medium and large farmers’s land. Other group of farmers are having small holdings and after the work is over, they worked as agricultural labourers in large farmers’s land.

But at the present time the lands of small farmers are grabbed by large farmers. So the small farmers are added in the list of landless labourers. Only the farmers having small holdings are to some extent left out. But in course of time that farmers land is also going to be grabbed by the large farmers. Another reason for increasing landless agricultural labourers is mechanization of agriculture by the farmers having more land. Thus the landless labourers number has been increased year after year in Papanasam taluk.

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THANJAVUR DISTRICT BLOCKS

Fig..4.1. Showing the study areas of the Ammapet and Papanasam Blocks in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu. Chapter IV METHODOLOGY

Three types of data are used usually in the research work, i.e., primary data, secondary data and cross section data. But commonly the researchers have used primary and secondary data. A pretested questionnaire is used for the collection of primary data. Interview method is used to collect data and the respondents are individually interviewed to get correct data regarding the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers of different groups. Since the researcher has belonged to Papanasam taluk it is easy to observe the agricultural activities undertaken by the agricultural labourers. By this way he has collected data regarding details of house buildings, jewels owned by them, utensils worth and value of land property of tiny and small economic holding farmers etc. Income and expenditure, small savings, borrowing and repayment capacity of money borrowed are collected through the help of a questionnaire. The habit of betelnut chewing, intoxicant drinking, tobacco chewing and income of male goes to the family etc. are collected by the researcher to understand the economic conditions of the different groups of agricultural labourers. By making use of interview method or interview schedule also data are collected.

Secondary data are also collected from Papanasam taluk agricultural department with respect to number of agricultural labourers and increasing trend of agricultural labourers at present period especially landless agricultural labourers due to monsoon failure and conversion of agricultural land as house sites commercial building, private colleges of different categories and expansion of private universities. Ruling wage rate and number of working days available etc. are derived through secondary data.

Sampling technique is used by the researcher in his study. Proportionate stratified sampling with 10 per cent is used in the study. Since the numbers of 109 different groups of male and female agricultural labourers were large in number, the above method is used by the researcher. By this way sample of male and female agricultural labourers are selected by the researcher. In 2010- 11 Ammapet block has 46 panchayats. Landless agricultural total male labourers are 1500 and females are 1200, farmers with tiny land holdings but agricultural male labourers are 900 and female labourers are 500. Farmers with small holdings but agricultural male labourers are 500 and female labourers are 200. Among them based on proportionate stratified sampling method with 10 per cent agricultural labourers are selected. So sample agricultural labourers are 150 males and 120 females, landless agricultural labourers, in the case farmers with tiny land holding but-working as agricultural workers so agricultural males sample labourers are 90 and females are 50 and in the case of small holdings farmers but they are agricultural sample labourers’ so males are 50 and females are 20. In this way sample has been taken.

In the year 2012-13, the number of landless agricultural labourers has increased to a great extent due to grabbing of land from tiny farmers and small holding farmers. Therefore house site plots, commercial building construction of private colleges and universities building, most of the agricultural lands especially river irrigated lands are taken by the rich individual. The farmers have sold the land for getting more money. Moreover drought in two years i.e., 2010-11 and 2011-12 the farmers are ready to sell their land, to rich private people.

So the number of sample landless labourers in Ammapet block 2012-13 has been 160 males and 130 females. In the case of marginal farmers but working as agricultural sample labourers, males are 80 and females 40. In the case of small holding farmers but working as agricultural male and female labourers males are 40 and females are 10 (Sample labourers).

In Papanasam block in 2010-11 the total number of landless male and female agricultural labourers are 1200 and 1100. Based on proportionate 110 stratified sampling with 10 percentage 120 male landless agricultural labourers and 110 female landless agricultural labourers are selected. Among marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but working as agricultural male and female labourers sample is 60 and 40. Total number of marginal cum agricultural labourers are 600 and 400 males and females. With same type of sampling method 40 and 20 male and female small farmers but agricultural labourers had been chosen in 2010-11. Total number of small farmers cum agricultural male and female labourers are 400 and 200. Based on above sampling method 40 male and 20 female agricultural labourers are selected.

In 2012 and 13 Papanasam block, total number of landless male and female agricultural labourers are 1350 and 1200, so based on above sampling method 135 male and 120 female landless agricultural labourers are selected. In the case of farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers chosen by proportionate stratified sampling with 10 percentage is 50 male and 30 female agricultural labourers. Total number of small farmers but working in large farmers land after finishing the work in the land are 300 male and 150 female agricultural labourers. Based on proportionate stratified sampling with 10 percentage 30 male and 15 female agricultural labourers are chosen.

The period of study is only three years i.e., 2010-11 to 2012-13. The year 2012-13 is not a year of hope for paddy cultivation and also for other related crops. The agricultural labourers working days have not increased in this year. So both the male farmers and agricultural labourers are not happy. So working days availability is lesser than 2010-11.

Tools used in the study are percentage, rank, average and deductive method of reasoning. For all the tables, foot notes are given by the researcher.

One hectare of land is equal to 2.5 acre. So tiny holding is equal to 0.5 ha. Small farmers holdings is 1.5 ha, so it is equal to 3.75 acres. Agricultural labourers are divided into three groups i.e., landless agricultural labourers are 111 group I agricultural labourers, farmers with tiny bits of land (0.5 ha) but working as agricultural labourers are called as group II agricultural labourers. Small farmers with (1.5 ha) of land but working as agricultural labourers in other large farmers land after finishing the work i.e., paddy cultivation are called as group III agricultural labourers. 1 bag of paddy contains 60 kgs of paddy. The price of paddy per bag in 2010-11 was `900 and in 2012-13 the price was `1015. Chapter V DATA ANALYSIS The results of the analysis are discussed and presented in this chapter. It has three sections social conditions of different groups of agricultural labourers are given i.e. male and female landless agricultural labourers (group I), marginal farmers but agricultural labourers (group II) small farmers but agricultural labourers (group III), community of the agricultural labourers, religion, marital status, educational status and size of the family are discussed. Other habits of male labourers like intoxicant drinks taking, betelnut chewing, cigarettes smoking and tobacco chewing are analysed and above mentioned habits are found among female labourers like betelnut and tobacco chewing are analysed. Other miscellaneous aspects are also discussed in the first section.

SECTION – 1 Social condition of agricultural labourers in the study area are analysed in this section.

SECTION - 2 In this section economic aspects are analysed. Number of days worked in a year daily wage received both by male and female agricultural labourers, are discussed and presented. Income, expenditure, saving, borrowing, festival expenditure etc. are analysed. Standard of living of agricultural labourers such as labourers living below poverty line, on poverty line and above poverty line, types of houses in which the agricultural labourers are living, the number of sovereign of gold and silver possessed, different types of utensils, etc. possessed by agricultural labourers are analysed. Different types of vehicles, milch cows, goats and sheeps possessed are analysed. Number of children educated in the family male and female and the age group, school going and college going or employed in secondary and tertiary sector (government sector department or private sector etc.) are analysed in a detailed manner.

SECTION - 3 It has dealt with other important aspects associated with agricultural labourers in the study area. TABLE 5.1.1 Number of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2010-2011 Number of differed groups of agricultural labourers male and female labourers in Ammapet block Landless Small farmer but S. Marginal farmer but Name of the panchayaths agricultural agricultural Total Grand No. agricultural labourers % labourers labourers Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1. Agaramangudi 33 25 17 10 10 4 60 39 99 2.0 2. Alangudi 32 26 20 12 11 5 63 43 106 2.2 3. Annappan Pettai 30 25 18 11 12 4 60 40 100 2.0 4. Arumalaikottai 32 27 19 10 10 6 61 43 104 2.2 5. Arunthavapuram 30 26 19 12 12 5 61 43 104 2.2 6. Devarayanpettai 32 25 20 11 11 4 63 40 103 2.1 7. Edaiyiruppu 33 27 22 13 10 6 65 46 111 2.3 8. Edavakkudi 30 26 19 10 11 5 60 41 101 2.1 9. Irumputhalai 32 25 20 9 9 4 61 38 99 2.1 10. Jenbagapuram 34 29 19 10 10 6 63 45 108 2.3 11. Kalancheri 36 22 18 11 12 5 66 38 104 2.2 12. Kavalur 34 26 19 12 11 4 64 42 106 2.2 13. Kamparnatham 32 28 20 11 10 6 62 45 107 2.3 14. K.M.Kottai 30 29 18 10 13 5 61 44 105 2.2 15. Kathirinatham 32 27 19 12 11 4 62 43 106 2.2 16. Keelakovilpathu 34 26 17 13 11 5 62 44 106 2.2 17. Kuthangudi 30 25 20 10 12 3 62 38 100 2.0 18. Kumilakudi 31 28 21 9 9 4 61 41 102 2.2 19. Makimalai 33 29 18 10 10 5 61 44 105 2.2 20. Melakalakudi 36 22 20 13 12 4 68 39 107 2.2 21. Melasemmangudi 34 27 19 10 10 4 63 41 104 2.2 22. Kovathakudi 32 26 20 11 11 5 63 42 105 2.2 23. Nallavianniankudikadu 36 28 22 10 12 4 70 42 112 2.3 24. Nellithoppu 30 29 18 12 10 3 58 44 102 2.1 113 Number of differed groups of agricultural labourers male and female labourers in Ammapet block Landless Small farmer but S. Marginal farmer but Name of the panchayaths agricultural agricultural Total Grand No. agricultural labourers % labourers labourers Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 25. Preikkunnam 34 28 19 11 11 5 64 44 108 2.3 26. Ompathuveli 32 27 20 10 10 4 62 41 103 2.1 27. Neduvasal 35 25 22 13 13 5 68 43 111 2.3 28. Palliyur 30 23 24 10 10 4 64 37 101 2.1 29. Perumakkanallur 33 27 19 9 12 3 64 39 103 2.1 30. Poondi 34 28 18 10 9 5 61 43 104 2.2 31. Pulavarnatham 33 29 18 11 10 5 61 45 106 2.2 32. Puliyakudi 30 24 19 12 12 4 61 40 101 2.1 33. Raramuthira Kottai 32 23 20 13 10 3 62 39 101 2.1 34. Saliyamangalam 30 25 22 10 11 5 63 40 103 2.1 35. Serumakkanalur 32 28 18 11 12 3 62 42 104 2.2 36. Sulaikottai 35 24 20 12 11 5 66 41 107 2.2 37. Suraikkauvr 31 27 19 10 10 4 60 41 101 2.1 38. Thirupuvanam 34 25 20 9 9 5 63 41 104 2.2 39. Thirukkarukkaur 33 24 22 11 10 3 65 38 103 2.1 40. Thiruvaiyathukudi 34 26 21 10 12 4 67 40 107 2.2 41. Ukkadai 35 28 20 11 13 5 68 44 112 2.3 42. Vadakkumangudi 32 26 18 12 12 3 62 41 103 2.1 43. Vadapathi 34 24 19 10 10 4 63 38 101 2.1 44. Vaiyacheri 32 25 20 12 11 5 63 42 105 2.2 45. Vembugudi 34 27 22 11 12 4 68 42 110 2.3 46. Viluthiyur 35 24 18 10 10 5 63 41 104 2.2 Total number of panchayats 1500 1200 900 500 500 200 2900 1900 4800 100 Source: Secondary data. Papanasam Taluk (2010-11), Ammapet block Agricultural department, Agricultural labour record No.208, pp.320-330.

114 115 This table 5.1.1 has explained different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block – Papanasam taluk. Ammapet block has 46 panchayats in 2010-11. Total member of agricultural labourers are 4800. Among them 1500 are male and 1200 are female landless labourers. 900 male and 500 female agricultural labourers are marginal farmers with tiny bits of land after the farm work is over the farmer and other members of the family are working in others land for wages. Third group of farmers having small holding of land and the farm work is over, the farmers and their dependents are working in others land for wages. The number of labourers are 500 male and 200 are female labourers. First category farmers are free landless agricultural labourers due to the enactment of abolition or bonded labourers Act in 1975, at present in the study area, there is no bonded agricultural labourers. This type of classification has been given by Ruddar Datt and Sundaram (2008) in their book, Indian economy.

Hence it is understood that landless agricultural labourers are more in number than marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers and small farmers with small land holding but agricultural labourers. The percentage in the table has shown landless agricultural labourers are more in the particular study area in 2010-2011. TABLE 5.1.2 Number of different groups of agricultural labourers in Papanasam block during 2010-11

Number of differed groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Papanasam block S. Landless agricultural Marginal farmer but Small farmer but Name of the panchayaths Total Grand No. labourers agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1. Alavandipuram 34 32 17 12 12 6 63 50 113 2.9 2. Adanur 35 31 18 11 11 5 64 47 111 2.8 3. Iluppagoraj 36 33 17 13 10 4 63 50 113 2.9 4. Echankudi 35 32 18 12 13 7 66 51 117 3.0 5. Umayalpuram 34 31 17 11 12 6 63 48 111 2.8 6. Umbalapadi 33 33 18 13 10 5 64 51 115 2.9 7. Ullikadai 35 32 16 12 13 7 67 51 118 3.1 8. Olippadi 38 31 17 13 12 6 67 50 117 3.0 9. Ganapathiakrakaram 36 33 18 11 10 7 64 51 115 2.9 10. Kabisthalam 35 32 17 13 11 6 63 51 114 2.9 11. Koonanchery 34 31 16 12 12 5 62 48 110 2.8 12. Kondagai 36 32 18 11 13 6 67 49 116 3.0 13. Gopurasapuram 34 33 17 13 10 5 61 51 112 2.9 14. Govintha Nattuchery 35 34 18 12 11 6 64 52 116 3.0 15. Chakkarapalli 36 31 17 13 12 7 65 51 116 3.0 16. Chathiyamanagalam 35 32 20 12 13 6 68 50 118 3.0 17. Sarapojipuram 36 33 17 11 10 5 63 49 112 2.9 18. Sarukkai 38 31 18 10 11 6 67 47 114 2.9 19. Soolamangalam 35 34 16 13 12 7 63 54 117 3.0 116 Number of differed groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Papanasam block S. Landless agricultural Marginal farmer but Small farmer but Name of the panchayaths Total Grand No. labourers agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 20. Somesvarapuram 38 33 18 12 13 6 69 51 120 3.1 21. Thiyagsamuthiram 34 35 20 11 12 5 66 51 117 3.0 22. Thirumandamkudi 35 34 16 10 13 6 64 50 114 2.9 23. Thiruvaikavur 34 33 18 12 11 7 63 52 115 2.9 24. Thurumbur 38 31 20 11 12 6 70 48 118 3.1 25. Pasupathikovil 34 34 17 10 13 5 64 49 113 2.9 26. Pandaravadai 35 32 18 12 11 6 64 50 114 2.9 27. Perumalkovil 38 33 16 13 13 7 67 53 120 3.1 28. Manallur 34 34 18 10 12 6 64 50 114 2.9 29. Melakabisthalam 35 32 17 12 13 5 65 49 114 2.9 30. Rajagiri 36 33 18 13 11 6 65 52 117 3.0 31. Ramanusopuram 35 32 20 10 12 7 67 49 116 3.0 32. Ragunathapuram 34 30 18 11 13 5 65 46 111 2.8 33. Valuthur 36 33 16 12 11 6 63 51 114 2.9 34. Veeramangudi 34 30 20 13 12 5 66 48 114 2.9 Total number of panchayats 1200 1100 600 400 400 200 2200 1700 3900 100 Source: Secondary data. Papanasam block, Agricultural Office, Record No.36, pp.130-138.

117 118 It is evident from the table 5.1.2 Papanasam taluk has two important blocks. Among them Ammapet block is bigger then Papanasam block because less member of panchayats i.e. 34 are found in Papanasam block. The number of landless male agricultural labourers are 1200 and female are 1100. Marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers are lesser in Papanasam block, i.e. male are 600 and female agricultural labourers are 400. In the third category, farmers having small land holding but agricultural male labourers are 400 and female agricultural labourers are 200 in 2010-2011.

Thus it is understood from the table that due to less member of panchayat different groups of agricultural labourers are also less in Papanasam block – Papanasam taluk. So depending upon the number of villages the agricultural labourers are varying in number.

TABLE 5.1.3 Number of panchayats and different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2012-13

Number of different groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Ammapet block S. Landless agricultural Marginal farmer but Small farmer but Name of the panchayats Total Grand No. labourers agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1. Agaramangudi 35 28 20 8 9 2 64 38 102 2.2 2. Alangudi 30 30 16 10 8 3 54 43 97 2.1 3. Annappan Pettai 36 27 16 9 9 2 61 38 99 2.2 4. Arumalaikottai 34 28 20 8 10 2 64 38 102 2.2 5. Arunthavapuram 30 30 15 10 8 1 53 41 94 2.0 6. Devarayanpettai 35 28 14 9 8 2 57 39 96 2.1 7. Edaiyiruppu 30 30 16 10 10 2 36 40 96 2.1 8. Edavakkudi 35 27 20 8 8 2 63 37 100 2.1 9. Irumputhalai 39 25 17 9 9 2 65 36 101 2.2 10. Jenbagapuram 35 24 20 8 10 3 65 35 100 2.1 11. Kalancheri 30 34 15 10 8 2 53 46 99 2.2 12. Kavalur 34 28 16 9 10 2 60 39 99 2.2 13. Kamparnatham 36 30 20 8 9 2 65 40 105 2.3 14. K.M.Kottai 33 26 17 9 8 2 58 37 95 2.1 15. Kathirinatham 36 30 20 9 8 2 64 41 105 2.3 16. Keelakovilpathu 35 28 15 8 8 2 58 38 96 2.1 17. Kuthangudi 36 30 18 10 10 3 64 43 107 2.3 18. Kumilakudi 38 28 20 9 8 2 66 39 105 2.3 19. Makimalai 39 30 15 8 10 2 64 40 104 2.3 20. Melakalakudi 38 26 16 9 9 2 63 37 100 2.1 21. Melasemmangudi 35 28 20 8 8 2 63 38 101 2.2 22. Kovathakudi 38 30 15 8 10 3 63 41 104 2.3 23. Nallavianniankudikadu 37 26 16 9 6 2 59 37 96 2.1 24. Nellithoppu 30 30 15 8 8 2 53 40 93 2.0 25. Preikkunnam 35 28 20 10 9 2 64 40 104 2.3 119 Number of different groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Ammapet block S. Landless agricultural Marginal farmer but Small farmer but Name of the panchayats Total Grand No. labourers agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 26. Ompathuveli 38 27 15 8 8 2 61 37 98 2.1 27. Neduvasal 35 25 20 9 10 3 65 37 102 2.2 28. Palliyur 30 28 15 8 9 2 54 38 92 2.0 29. Perumakkanallur 35 29 20 9 9 2 64 40 104 2.3 30. Poondi 36 30 15 9 8 2 59 41 100 2.1 31. Pulavarnatham 30 28 17 8 9 3 56 39 95 2.1 32. Puliyakudi 35 29 20 8 8 2 63 39 102 2.2 33. Raramuthira Kottai 38 28 15 9 8 2 61 39 100 2.1 34. Saliyamangalam 36 29 20 8 10 3 66 40 106 2.3 35. Serumakkanalur 34 28 20 9 8 2 62 39 101 2.2 36. Sulaikottai 30 26 17 9 9 2 56 37 93 2.0 37. Suraikkauvr 35 30 20 8 8 3 63 41 104 2.3 38. Thirupuvanam 36 28 16 9 9 2 61 39 100 2.1 39. Thirukkarukkaur 38 30 20 8 8 2 66 40 106 2.3 40. Thiruvaiyathukudi 35 28 15 8 9 2 59 38 97 2.1 41. Ukkadai 34 30 17 8 8 2 59 40 99 2.2 42. Vadakkumangudi 38 28 16 9 9 2 63 39 102 2.2 43. Vadapathi 36 26 14 9 8 2 58 37 95 2.1 44. Vaiyacheri 34 28 16 8 9 3 59 39 98 2.1 45. Vembugudi 32 30 20 9 8 2 60 41 99 2.2 46. Viluthiyur 36 28 20 9 10 2 66 39 105 2.3 Total number of panchayats 1600 1300 800 400 400 100 2800 1800 4600 100 Source: Secondary data. Papanasam Taluk, Agricultural labourers, Record No.110, pp.165-170. 120 121 The table 5.1.3 indicates that the number of panchayats are 46 in number in the year 2012-13. Even then the number of landless agricultural labourers has increased from 150-160 males and 120-130 females. The increase in male and female is 6.7 per cent and 8.3 per cent. On the other hand second group of agricultural male labourers has decreased from 90-80 so the decreasing percentage of male labourers is 11.1 per cent. Female agricultural labourers has decreased from 50-40 (20%). Third category of agricultural labourers i.e. small farmers with small holdings but agricultural male labourers also decreased from 50-40 (20%). Female agricultural labourers also have decreased from 20- 10 (50%).

Hence it is understood that landless agricultural labourers are going on increasing fastly due to selling of land to large farmers, rich private individual and money lenders. Cultivable lands are destroyed and converted as commercial buildings and complex, pacca buildings etc. Thus slowly in the study area and arable lands or cultivable lands are reduced. Due to this above reasons the number of agricultural wage earners or daily wage earners has been steady increasing. The first objective has been analysed in this table. So clearly it is concluded from the table that landlers agricultural labourers increased year after year in the study area. TABLE 5.1.4 Number of panchayats and different groups of agricultural labourers in Papanasam block during 2012-13

Number of different groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Papanasam block S. Landless agricultural Marginal farmer but Small farmer but Name of the panchayats Total Grand No. labourers agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 1. Alavandipuram 39 34 15 9 8 4 62 47 109 2.9 2. Adanur 40 36 14 8 9 5 63 49 112 2.9 3. Iluppagoraj 38 34 15 9 8 4 61 47 108 2.8 4. Echankudi 39 35 14 8 9 5 62 48 110 2.9 5. Umayalpuram 42 36 13 9 8 3 63 48 111 2.9 6. Umbalapadi 38 35 12 8 9 5 59 48 107 2.8 7. Ullikadai 42 34 15 9 8 4 65 47 112 2.9 8. Olippadi 38 38 14 8 9 5 61 51 112 2.9 9. Ganapathiakrakaram 40 35 15 9 8 3 63 47 110 2.9 10. Kabisthalam 36 38 13 8 10 5 59 51 110 2.9 11. Koonanchery 42 38 14 7 8 4 64 49 113 3.0 12. Kondagai 38 34 15 9 9 5 62 48 110 2.9 13. Gopurasapuram 40 35 13 9 8 3 61 47 108 2.8 14. Govintha Nattuchery 42 34 15 8 9 5 66 47 113 3.0 15. Chakkarapalli 38 38 16 10 9 3 63 51 114 3.0 16. Chathiyamanagalam 40 35 15 9 8 5 63 49 112 2.9 17. Sarapojipuram 39 38 14 10 10 4 63 52 115 3.0 18. Sarukkai 42 36 15 9 9 5 66 50 116 3.0 19. Soolamangalam 39 35 15 9 8 4 62 48 110 2.9 122 Number of different groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Papanasam block Landless S. Name of the Marginal farmer but Small farmer but agricultural Total Grand No. panchayats agricultural labourers agricultural labourers % labourers Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 20. Somesvarapuram 40 36 14 8 9 5 63 49 112 2.9 21. Thiyagsamuthiram 42 35 15 10 8 5 65 50 115 3.0 22. Thirumandamkudi 39 34 13 9 10 4 62 47 109 2.9 23. Thiruvaikavur 42 36 15 8 9 5 66 49 115 3.0 24. Thurumbur 40 34 14 10 8 4 62 48 110 2.9 25. Pasupathikovil 38 35 18 9 10 5 66 49 115 3.0 26. Pandaravadai 39 36 14 10 9 6 62 52 114 3.0 27. Perumalkovil 40 34 15 8 10 5 65 47 112 2.9 28. Manallur 42 35 18 9 8 4 68 48 116 3.0 29. Melakabisthalam 39 33 14 9 9 5 62 47 109 2.9 30. Rajagiri 40 34 15 10 10 4 65 48 113 3.0 31. Ramanusopuram 38 35 16 8 9 5 63 48 111 2.9 32. Ragunathapuram 40 36 14 10 8 4 62 50 112 2.9 33. Valuthur 39 35 18 9 10 3 67 47 114 3.0 34. Veeramangudi 40 34 15 8 9 5 64 47 111 2.9 Total number of 1350 1200 500 300 300 150 2150 1650 3800 panchayats Source: Secondary data. Papanasam Taluk, Agricultural labourers, Record No.36, pp.130-138.

123 124 There are 34 panchayats in Papanasam block and various groups of agricultural labourers are found. Among them first category labourers has increased (landless labourers). They have increased with an interval of two year i.e. 2010-11 and 2012-13 fastly. Male landless labourers increase is 33.3 per cent (1200 to 1350) female labourers increase is (1100 to 1200) 25 per cent. But in other two categories of agricultural labourers, marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers number has been reduced due to increase in landless labourers and snatching or confication of land by large farmers and money lenders so decrease in number of agricultural male and female labourers was 60 to 50 (16.7%), 40-30 (25%). Third group of agricultural labourers are small land farmers with small holdings (1.5 ha) but agricultural labourers have declined from 40-30 (25%). So male agricultural labourers in third category decrease is 20 to 15 percentage of male and female also 25 per cent.

Thus it is understood from the table that cultivable land has decreased due to many reasons. Lack of proper timely rainfall, lack of water in river Cauvery monsoon failure etc. have been the reasons for increasing landless agricultural male and female labourers. Marginal farmer’s land has been conficated by rich people, large farmers and money lenders due to the indebtedness of the marginal farmers. Third group of farmers are small farmers but they can not use power point for irrigation, tube well irrigation etc. So the condition of small farmers is much more precarious. Thus landless farmers have been going on increasing. Thus the first objective has given scope for the analysis.

TABLE 5.1.5 Different groups of sample agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2010-2011

Ammapet block Papanasam block

S. Different Different groups of Male Female groups of Male Female No. Male Female Total Rank Male Female Total Rank Agricultural (%) (%) Agricultural (%) (%) labourers labourers 1. Landless Landless agricultural 150 120 270 55.56 44.44 1 agricultural 120 110 230 52.17 47.83 1 labourers labourers 2. Marginal Marginal Farmers with Farmers with tiny bit only tiny bit only 90 50 140 64.29 35.71 2 60 40 100 60.00 40.00 2 land but land but Agricultural Agricultural labourers labourers 3. Farmers with Farmers with small but small but 50 20 70 71.43 28.57 3 40 20 60 66.67 33.33 3 agricultural agricultural labourers labourers Total and Total and 290 190 480 60.42 39.58 220 170 390 56.41 43.59 Percentage Percentage

Source : Computed from primary data. Note : Hereafter landless agricultural labourers are known as group I labourers, Marginal Farmers with tiny holdings, but agricultural labourers are knows as group II labourers and small farmers with small holdings but agricultural labourers are known as group III labourers. 125 126 Since the total number of three groups of labourers is too large sampling method is used to choose sample agricultural male and female labourers. Proportionate stratified sampling with 10 percentage is used for the purpose. Based on it among the total number of male and female labourers sample labourers are selected.

First group of agricultural male and female labourers are landless agricultural labourers. So 150(55.56%) are male and 120 (44.44%) are female agricultural labourers. Total number of landless agricultural labourers are 270. Marginal farmers with tiny bits or land but agricultural labourers. Therefore, the male number is 90 (64.29%) and female 50 (35.71%). Third group of small farmers with small holding but male agricultural labourers are 50(71.43%) and female agricultural labourers are 20(28.57%). Hence total number of male agricultural labourers in three categories is 290 and agricultural female labourers is 190. Therefore both male and female agricultural labourers are 480(100%) in 2010-2011.

During the year 2010-2011 in Papanasam block the male and female landless agricultural labourers are 120 (52.17%) and 110 (47.83%) marginal farmers but the farmers are agricultural labourers are 60 male (60.00%) and female agricultural labourers are 40 (40.00%). Farmers are having small holding but the dependent of their families male labourers are 40 (66.67%) and female are 20 (33.33%). So the total number of sample of different groups of male and female agricultural labourers are 390 (100%).

For easy and accurate analysis of agricultural labourers sample is essential and inevitable. That is why proportionate stratified sampling with 10 percentage is used in this the analysis is more easier than other sampling techniques. TABLE 5.1.6 Different groups of sample agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

S. Different Different groups of Male Female groups of Male Male Female No. Male Female Total Rank Female Total Rank Agricultural (%) (%) Agricultural ` (%) (%) labourers labourers

1. Landless Landless agricultural 160 130 290 55.20 44.80 1 agricultural 135 120 255 53.94 47.06 1 labourers labourers 2. Marginal Marginal Farmers with Farmers with tiny bit only tiny bit only 80 40 120 66.70 33.30 2 50 30 80 62.50 37.50 2 land but land but Agricultural Agricultural labourers labourers 3. Farmers with Farmers with small but small but 40 10 50 80.00 20.00 3 30 15 45 66.70 33.30 3 agricultural agricultural labourers labourers Total and Total and 280 180 460 60.86 39.14 215 165 380 56.60 43.40 Percentage Percentage

Source : Computed from primary data. Note : Hereafter landless agricultural labourers are known as group I labourers, Farmers with marginal holdings, but agricultural labourers are knows as group II labourers and farmers with small holdings but agricultural labourers are know as group III labourers.

127 128 For the year 2012-2013 in Ammapet block the same type of sample has been taken into account for selecting sample in the universe or population in the case of three groups of agricultural labourers. Among the landless labourers in Ammapet block 160 male and 130 female landless agricultural labourers, marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural 80 male and 40 female labourers and 40 male and 10 female small holding farmers but agricultural labourers are chosen during 2012-2013.

In Papanasam block, 135 male landless agricultural labourers and 120 female agricultural labourers 50 male marginal farmers but agricultural labourers and 30 female labourers are selected. Small holding farmers but agricultural labourers viz., 30 male and 15 female are chosen based on proportionate stratified sampling with 10 per cent from the universe or population.

Sampling is very significant in research work because population is large in number. So all the items in the universe must have equal chance of being selected. With the help of sampling alone research work is undertaken. So in Ammapet block sample of three groups of agricultural labourers are 460 and in Papanasam block 380 are chosen. For proper and easy analysis of data landless labourers are called as group I, marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers are called as group II and farmers with small holdings but agricultural labourers are called as group III labourers. TABLE 5.1.7 Community wise distribution of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group Group Group Group Group Group Community Total Total I II III Total % Community I II III Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Backward Backward class 35 30 10 5 10 2 55 37 92 19.17 class 10 10 10 5 5 2 25 17 42 10.77 community community

Most Most Backward Backward 30 25 15 10 10 3 55 38 93 19.37 20 22 10 10 5 3 35 35 70 17.95 class class community community

Scheduled Scheduled Caste 80 60 65 35 30 15 175 110 285 59.38 Caste 85 76 38 25 30 15 153 116 269 68.97 Community Community

Scheduled Scheduled Tribes 5 5 - - - - 5 5 10 2.08 Tribes 5 2 2 - - - 7 2 9 2.31 Community Community

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 129 130 Four important communities are mentioned in Ammapet Block during 2010-11. Group I agricultural labourers are landless agricultural labourers. Among the 150 labourers, male backward agricultural labourers are 35 and female are 30. Most backward landless agricultural labourers are 30 male and female are 25. Scheduled community landless male agricultural labourers are 80 male and female are 60 scheduled tribes landless agricultural labourers are found in the study area males are 5 and females are 5 Ammapet block has 90 per cent Paddy cultivable land. Group II has consisted of 10 male agricultural labourers with marginal land holding and female labourers are 5 in backward community, most backward community male labourers are 15 and females are 10 scheduled community males are 65 and females are 35 farmers with marginal agricultural labourers. Group III agricultural labourers are small holding farmers so in backward community male farmers are 10 and females are 2. In most backward community agricultural labourers 10 are males and 3 are females. In scheduled community 30 are males and 15 are females agricultural labourers. But this groups of labourers are not found in scheduled tribes. So total number of groups III male labourers are 290 and female are 190. The grand total member of agricultural labourers in 2010-2011 in Ammapet block is 480.

Papanasam block has also three groups of agricultural labourers in 2010- 11. In group I backward agricultural labourers are 10 males and 10 are females. In the case of most backward community landless male agricultural labourers are 20 and females are 22. In scheduled community male labourers are 85 and females are 76. Scheduled tribes group I male landless labourers are 5 and female labourers are 2. Group II backward community landless male agricultural labourers are 10 and females are 5. Most backward community male labourers are 10 and females are 10. Scheduled community male labourers are 38 and females are 25 scheduled tribe male agricultural labourers only are 2.

131 In the case of Group III agricultural, backward community male labourers are 5 and females are 2. Most backward community male agricultural labourers are 5 and females are 3. In scheduled community male agricultural labourers are 30 and females labourers are 15. No agricultural scheduled tribe labourers are found in group III. So total male agricultural labourers in all the three groups are 220 and female agricultural labourers are 170. Hence agricultural labourers are 390.

From this table it is understood that more landless labourers are found in scheduled community rather than backward and most backward communities agricultural labourers. In group II and group III agricultural labourers also more scheduled community male and female labourers are found. Even though the government has undertaken number of welfare measures to improve scheduled community people still they are living below poverty line. Only 10 percentage of the people are above poverty line, on the other land backward community agricultural labourers are having middle level economic conditions. Most backward community people also are some what equal status with regard to economic conditions of backward community agricultural labourers. Only very few scheduled tribe people are considered as agricultural labourers. Even then those people are found in landless agricultural category. So the economic conditions of the agricultural labourers are poor. So based on community wise distribution, it is concluded that except backward and most backward communities, other communities are living below or on poverty line due to their improper spending of wage income and income from agricultural holdings like small number or marginal farmers. That is why the rich people are remaining rich but poor people are remaining poor. Misery go round is found in the life of poor people but merry-go-round is operating in the life or rich people wherever people come that refers to agricultural labourers only.

TABLE 5.1.8 Community wise distribution of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block in the study area during 2012-2013

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group Group Group Group Group Group Community Total Total I II III Total % Community I II III Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Backward Backward class 20 15 10 10 10 2 40 27 67 14.57 class 25 23 10 5 5 2 40 30 70 18.42 community community

Most Most Backward Backward 30 20 18 10 15 2 63 32 95 20.65 20 19 10 5 5 3 35 27 62 16.31 class class community community

Scheduled Scheduled Caste 105 92 50 20 15 6 170 18 288 62.61 Caste 85 75 30 20 20 10 135 105 240 63.16 Community Community

Scheduled Scheduled Tribes 5 3 2 - - - 7 3 10 2.17 Tribes 5 3 - - - - 5 3 8 2.11 Community Community

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

132 133 Four important communities are mentioned in Ammapet block in 2012- 13 group I backward community agricultural male labourers are 20 and females are 15, in group II males are 10 and females are 10 and in group III males are 10 and females are 2. So total number of males and females in backward community is 67 (14.57%). Total number of most backward community males and females are 95 (20.65%) group I, group II and group III agricultural male and female labourers are 460 (100%) scheduled community male and female agricultural labourers are 288 (62.61%). Remaining agricultural labourers belong to scheduled tribes i.e. 10 (2.17%).

From this table it is understood that more number of agricultural labourers belong to scheduled community 288 (62.61%).

In Papanasam block the total number of backward community male and female agricultural labourers in three groups are 70 (18.42%). Most backward community male and female agricultural labourers in three groups are 62 (16.31%). In scheduled community, three groups of male and female agricultural labourers are 380 (100%) scheduled tribes agricultural labourers in all the three groups are very few.

So it is understood from Ammapet and Papanasam blocks that within a two or three years the number of landless agricultural labourers growth has shown an increasing trend. The number of more agricultural labourers is found more in scheduled community. But less number of agricultural labourers is found in scheduled tribes because the number is also less. Therefore it is concluded that more scheduled community agricultural labourers are found in all the three groups. Hence it is found out that scheduled community is still at the bottom level, eventhough government has implemented a lot of welfare programmes to uplift the standard of living of scheduled community agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.1.9 Religion wise distribution of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group Group Group Group Group Group Religion Total Total I II III Total % Religion I II III Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Hindu 120 90 75 40 45 15 240 145 385 80.21 Hindu 80 75 30 20 20 10 130 105 235 60.25

Christian 20 20 10 7 4 3 34 30 64 13.33 Christian 30 30 25 10 15 5 70 45 115 29.49

Muslim 10 10 5 3 1 2 16 15 31 6.46 Muslim 10 5 5 10 5 5 20 20 40 10.26

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

134 135 Total number of male and female agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2010-2011 is 480. Among them 290 are males and 190 are females agricultural labourers. Religion wise distribution of agricultural labourers is concerned Hindu labourers are 385 (80.21%). Total member of Christian male and female agricultural labourers in all the three groups is 64 (13.33%). The remaining agricultural Muslim male and female labourers are 31 (6.46%).

So it is seen in Ammapet block, that most of the agricultural labourers are Hindus because India is a nation with more than 80 percentage of Hindu population. Other religions are minorities in nature. Moreover the central government administration, top leaders and other state government top leaders and ministers are mostly Hindu people. Nationally India has more Hindu population because more families are Hindu families only. In all the occupation it is seen that more people are only Hindu people, whether it is a primary occupation or secondary or tertiary occupation. Christian families are less in number, that is why the member of agricultural labourers also are less. The same is the case with Muslim religion. Most of the Muslim people are found in dealing with business. So very less member of Muslim people are agricultural labourers.

Religion wise distribution of agricultural labourers is seen in Papanasam block in 2010-2011. Total number of male and female agricultural labourers are less in Papanasam block that is 390. But in that particular year agricultural labourers in Ammapet block is 480. Based on religion wise distribution the total number of Hindu male and female labourers are 235 (60.25%) Christian total agricultural labourers is 115 (29.49%) Muslim agricultural labourers are 40 (10.26%). This type of religion wise distribution of agricultural labourers are found in Papanasam block during 2010-2011.

136 From this table it is understood that more Hindu families are found in the study area, so automatically more agricultural Hindu labourers are seen. The number of farmers of different groups are concerned more are Hindu agricultural labourers. So by nature the Hindu agricultural labourers are large in the study area. Number of Christian agricultural labourers are less, so Christian agricultural labourers are less in number. Muslim agricultural labourers are less because Muslims are involved in business. Thus it is concluded from the table that more Hindu families are found. Hence without doubt the number of Hindu agricultural labourers are larger in number than the minority religions agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.1.10 Religion wise distribution of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2012-2013

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group Group Group Group Group Group Religion Total Total I II III Total % Religion I II III Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Hindu 120 90 55 25 20 5 195 120 315 68.48 Hindu 100 90 26 15 15 10 141 115 256 67.37

Christian 30 30 20 10 15 3 65 43 108 23.48 Christian 25 20 15 10 10 3 50 38 83 21.84

Muslim 10 10 5 5 5 2 20 17 37 8.04 Muslim 10 10 9 5 5 2 24 17 41 10.79

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 137 138 In the year 2012-2013 first group of agricultural labourers have increased especially landless agricultural labourers. But group II and group III agricultural labourers have decreased due to increase in group I agricultural labourers. In the case of Ammapet block total number of Hindu male and female agricultural labourers in three groups is 315 (68.48%) Christian total number of agricultural labourers is 108 (23.48%). But Muslim total number of agricultural labourers is 37 (8.04%).

Due to increased number of Hindu families the number of agricultural labourers in group I has increased. But in group II and group III agricultural families and labourers have decreased. The total number of agricultural labourers is 460.

From this table it is noted that less percentage of Hindu agricultural labourers are reduced in the year 2012-2013, 2010-2011. But decreased percentage is 11.1 per cent. Eventhough the number has shown decreasing trend the percentage decrease is less. In all the religions the percentage is shown a decreasing trend. Based on number it is a only smaller or slight decrease.

In Papanasam block the number of increase in agricultural labourers in group I has shown in 2012-2013. In three groups have to be analysed in order to know decrease or increase in agricultural labourers. Total number of Hindu agricultural labourers are 256 (67.37%) Christian total number of agricultural labourers is 83 (21.84%) is Muslim total number of agricultural labourers is 41 (10.79%) high percentage decrease in Hindu agricultural labourers is found, likewise the Christian agricultural labourers percentage decrease is 1.64 per cent. Hindu agricultural labourers percentage decrease is some what greater but Muslim agricultural labourers percentage increase is 2.75 per cent. Muslim people always involved in business activities rather than other activities.

139 2012-2013 table has shown a decrease trend in agricultural labourers in all the religions except Muslim religion. This is due to failure of seasonal rainfall and snatching of land by Hindu and Christian large farmers, wet lands are used for building commercial complex schools and colleges of private individuals. Thus, it is concluded that different religions agricultural labourers are decreasing year-after-year. So this it is to be controlled that rural economic set-up would be changed in the future. Government has to implement many more number of rural improvement programmes for the upliftment of rural poor.

TABLE 5.1.11 Age wise distribution of Sample agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block in 2010-2011

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Age group Group I Group II Group III Group I Group II Group III Total % Age group Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F

0-15 15 10 5 5 5 2 42 8.75 0-15 5 6 2 5 2 2 22 5.64

15-25 50 20 15 5 10 3 103 21.46 15-25 25 18 5 5 8 3 64 16.41

25-30 30 40 25 10 15 5 125 26.04 25-30 40 35 25 10 15 6 131 33.59

35-45 40 35 30 15 10 5 135 28.12 35-45 35 30 20 15 10 5 115 29.49

45-55 10 12 10 10 5 3 50 10.42 45-55 10 15 6 4 3 3 41 10.51

55 and Above 5 3 5 5 5 2 25 5.21 55 and Above 5 6 2 1 2 1 17 4.36

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 390 100.00

Percentage 31.3 25 18.8 10.410.4 4.1 - - Percentage 30.8 28.3 15.4 10.3 10.3 5 - -

Mean age 29 31 33 36 32 34 - - Mean age 33 35 32 33 33 31 - -

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Mean age for both Male and female is 33 years (25-35 years).

140 141 Agricultural labourers age wise distribution has started from 0-15 years upto 55 and above. Among the three groups of labourers 42 are falling in the age group of 0-15. Majority of agricultural labourers of three groups are 135 and falling in the age group of 35-45. Next place given to the age group of 25- 30 because the number of labourers are 125. Third age group is 15-25, the number of agricultural labourers in three groups are 103. Only few number of agricultural labourers that is 50 are falling in the age group of 45-55 years, very less number of agricultural labourers in three groups are 25 in the age of 55 and above. Mean age of agricultural labourers is falling in the age group of 35-45 in Ammapet block during 2010-11. Therefore it is understand that age wise distribution of agricultural labourers is very important. During young age the capacity to work and working for long time is possible and feasible. As the age of the agricultural labourers increased especially women, the capacity to work and skill are decreasing. So in this aspect earning capacity of the agricultural male and female labourers is very high only in young age. The income of the household is high, when the children are very few and they are young and the amount of money spent on education is low when the children are fed by mother’s milk. So the mean age of agricultural labourers for both male and female is 33 years. In Papanasam block, number of male and female agricultural labourers within the age group of 0-15 are 22. The maximum number of agricultural labourers falling within the age group of 25-30 are 131 and between 35-45 years age are 115. Few number of male and female agricultural labourers have the age of 45-55 are 41. Remaining agricultural labourers have the age of 55 and above are 17. So total number of agricultural labourers are 390. Therefore the mean age of agricultural laourers in Papanasam block is 32 years. From this table it is understood that most of the agricultural male and female labourers are in energetic age. So the family income of the agricultural labourers is high. Both of the agricultural (male and female) labourers have found employment opportunities for certain months, so the agricultural labourers can get sizable income during that seasons like uprooting seedlings, transplantation, weeding, harvesting, winnowing, threshing etc. TABLE 5.1.12 Age wise distribution of sample agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2012-2013

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Age in years Group I Group II Group III Group I Group II Group III Total % Age in years Total % M F M F M F M F M F M F

0-15 15 10 5 3 2 1 36 7.83 0-15 15 10 5 3 2 2 37 9.74

15-25 50 25 15 10 8 2 110 23.91 15-25 20 15 11 5 3 3 57 15.00

25-30 35 30 20 10 7 2 104 22.61 25-30 35 30 10 8 5 4 92 24.26

35-45 40 45 15 10 10 2 122 26.52 35-45 40 45 10 7 10 3 115 30.26

45-55 15 15 20 5 10 2 67 14.57 45-55 15 15 10 5 7 2 54 14.21

55-65 5 5 5 2 3 1 21 4.56 55-65 10 5 4 2 3 1 25 6.58

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 380 100.00

Percentage 30 24 19 12 10 5 100 - Percentage 30 27 17 10 10 6 100 -

Mean age 28 34 35 34 36 33 - - Mean age 34 35 35 37 37 31 - -

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Mean age for both Male and female is 37 years. 142 143 In Ammapet block the age of the agricultural labourers is distributed in six (6) class intervals. In the age group of 0-15 the number of male and female agricultural labourers are 36. Between the age of 15-25 the member of male and female agricultural labourers are 110. Another more majority of agricultural labourers age group is 35-45 years. Some what less majority of the agricultural labourers that is 122 are falling in the class interval of years. In the age of 45-55, 67 agricultural labourers are found. 55-65 age group level 21 agricultural labourers are found in Ammapet block. So total number of agricultural labourers are 460. From this table it is noted that 460 agricultural labourers are energetic and enthusiastic in working in agricultural activities. Since the agricultural labourers are having families they worked hard to get money in order to maintain the family. In this aspect the agricultural laborers are very responsible because they have affection for the members of the family. Eventhough they are agricultural labourers, they have social status and that is to be maintained by them. For that earning money is an indicator to denote their social status. So mean age of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block is 37 years. In Papanasam block 2012-13 number of male and female agricultural labourers are 380. Based on age wise distribution the number of male and female labourers fall in the age group of 0-15 years are 37 (9.74%). Majority of the male and female agricultural labourers in three groups falling in the class interval age group of 15-55 are 318 (83.68%). The remaining agricultural male and female labourers in three groups are 25. So total number of male and female agricultural labourers in Papanasam block is 380. This it is understood from the table that 83.68 per cent of the agricultural labourers are young and energetic. In this context it is understood that the labourers are able to earn more money during busy season and earning normal wage in ordinary season. The income of the family has been increased because the energetic agricultural labourers who are ready to work in agricultural field, any sort of work like uprooting, transplanting, weeding, harvesting winnowing and etc. Even then more percentage of agricultural labourers are still poor because they have spent money by the mismanagement of the family.

TABLE 5.1.13 Marital Status of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Marital Group Group Group Group Group Group Total Marital Total Status I II III Total % I II III Total % Status M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Married 85 65 50 28 27 11 162 104 266 55.42 Married 65 60 35 25 28 12 128 97 225 57.69

Unmarried 65 55 40 22 23 9 128 86 214 44.58 Unmarried 55 50 25 15 12 8 92 73 165 42.31

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 144 145 In the study area, Ammapet block in 2010-11 has three different groups of agricultural labourers are found. In this table, marital status of agricultural labourers is considered in group I, 85 are married males 65 are married females. In group II married male agricultural labourers are 50 and females are 28 in number. In group III married male agricultural labourers are 27 and females are 11. So total married males are 162 and females are 104. Therefore in group I total married males and females agricultural labourers are 266. Total unmarried in all the three groups are 214. The percentage of married agricultural labourers is 55.42 and unmarried agricultural labourers is 44.58.

Papanasam block, in 2010-11 has 390 total agricultural labourers. All the three groups are taken into account. Among the agricultural labourers married males are 128 and females are 97. Total married agricultural labourers are 225. So the percentage is 57.69. Among the married agricultural labourers 92 are males and 73 are females and total unmarried are 165 (42.31%).

Thus it is understood that the agricultural labourers who have fallen in 0.15 age group and certain male and female agricultural labourers in other age group may be unmarried. Whatever may be the reasons the unmarried in all the groups of male and female sample agricultural labourers are comparatively speaking some what less in number. But in general marriage is a social and religions ceremony the life partner is essential for the healthy relationship among the family. Otherwise the morality and discipline of the people will be spoiled and that is responsible for all sorts of turmoil’s and sufferings of the people in the society. Social set up will be broken, finally the society will be broken into pieces.

TABLE 5.1.14 Marital Status of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Marital Group Group Group Group Group Group Total Marital Total Status I II III Total % I II III Total % Status M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Married 90 70 40 25 20 15 150 100 250 54.35 Married 75 65 30 15 20 5 125 85 210 55.26

Unmarried 70 60 40 15 20 5 130 80 210 45.65 Unmarried 60 55 20 15 10 10 90 80 170 44.74

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

146 147 In Ammapet black during 2012-13 the number of married male and female agricultural labourers in group I are 90 and 70. In group II the number of male and female married agricultural labourers are 40 and 25. In group III the numbers of male and female married agricultural labourers are 20 and 15. Total number of married agricultural male and female labourers are 250 and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers in all the groups are 210. Totally in all the three groups married male and female percentage is 54.35 and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers percentage is 45.65.

Papanasam block agricultural labourers marital status is analyzed. In group I married and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers are 75 and 65 and 60 and 55. In group II the number of married male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15 and unmarried are 20 and 15 Group III married male and female agricultural labourers are 20 and 5 and unmarried male and female are 10 and 10. Percentage of married male and female agricultural labourers is 55.26 and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers are 44.74 per cent.

From the table it is known that more than 50 per cent of the male and female agricultural labourers are married and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers are nearly 44.74 per cent. Marriage is a social and religions ceremony. It creates relationship between two families and also kith and kins. Due to marriage the society discipline and morality are maintained to a great extent. In this context marriage has very significant role in the life of male and female agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.1.15 Education wise distribution of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Educational Group Group Group Group Group Group Total Educational Total Qualification I II III Total % I II III Total % Qualification M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Illiterates 10 5 5 3 5 2 20 10 30 6.25 Illiterates 10 5 4 3 4 2 18 10 28 7.18

I std. – I std. – 70 55 35 24 27 9 132 88 220 45.83 55 50 23 20 17 9 95 79 174 44.61 V std. V std.

V std. – V std. – 45 40 25 12 10 4 80 56 136 28.33 30 30 20 10 12 5 62 45 107 27.44 X std. X std.

X std. – X std. – 20 15 20 8 5 3 45 26 71 14.79 20 20 10 5 4 3 34 28 62 15.90 XII std. XII std.

XII std. – XII std. – 5 5 5 3 3 2 13 10 23 4.80 5 5 3 2 3 1 11 8 19 4.87 Degree Degree

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

148 149 In Ammapet block, 2010-11, among all the three groups the total number of male and female illiterates are 30 (6.25%). Agricultural male and female labourers having the educational status of I std. to V std. are 220 (45.83%). Agricultural labourers having educational qualification upto V to X std. are 136 (28.33%). Agricultural male and female labourers having X std. and XII std. educational level are 71 (14.79%) and XII std. and above are 23 (4.80%).

The percentage of illiterate agricultural labourers are less because mostly less number of labourers are engaged themselves in agricultural activities. Certain percentage that is 71 (14.79%) are having XII std. and degree level education. Slowly the number of agricultural labourers having I std. to V std., V std. to X std. and X std. to XII std. are increasing in number and also in percentage.

Papanasam block agricultural labourers level of literacy is to be explained in 2010-11 total number of male and female illiterates are 28 only. Among 390 total number of agricultural labourers the male and female agricultural labourers having I std. to V std. education is 174 (44.61%). The number of male and female agricultural labourers having higher level education is going on increasing as it is seen in Papanasam block. However it is the number of literates are greater in number than uneducated persons.

Thus it is concluded that education is essential and inevitable whatever may be an economic activity. Since the agricultural labourers are literates, they are considered as semiskilled or skilled labourers. The literates can understand modern technical aspects of agriculture. That is why already adult education is given to the persons who are engaged in agricultural activities. If at all agricultural labourers are able to read and write in mother tongue the labourers can understand the strategy of getting more yield.

TABLE 5.1.16 Education wise distribution of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Educational Group - Group Group Group - Group Group Total Total Qualification I II III Educational I II III Total % Total % Qualification M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Illiterates 8 4 4 3 4 1 16 8 24 5.22 Illiterates 7 4 3 2 3 1 13 7 20 5.26

I std. – I std. – 90 60 38 14 15 4 143 78 221 48.04 63 41 20 12 13 6 96 59 155 40.80 V std. V std.

V std. – V std. – 30 35 23 12 10 2 63 49 112 24.35 35 40 13 8 9 4 57 52 109 28.68 X std. X std.

X std. – X std. – 22 26 10 8 9 2 41 36 77 16.74 25 30 10 5 2 2 37 37 74 19.47 XII std. XII std.

XII std. – XII std. – 10 5 5 3 2 1 17 9 26 5.65 5 5 4 3 3 2 12 10 22 5.79 Degree Degree

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

150 151 In Ammapet block 2012-13 the total number of both male and female illiterate agricultural. Labourers are 24 (5.22%) the male and female agricultural labourers having I std. to V std. education level are 221(48.04%). V to X std. education level of male and female agricultural labourers are 112 (24.35%). The number of agricultural labourers having the educational level of X to XII std. are 77 (16.74%). Upto degree level the educated agricultural labourers are 26 (5.65%) in number. Among female agricultural labourers illiterate agricultural labourers constitute 23 per cent only. So majority of the agricultural labourers are semiskilled only.

In Papanasam block the number of illiterate male and female agricultural labourers are 20 (5.26%). Number of educated agricultural labourers mean they are able to read and write. As years passed on among the total number of male and female agricultural labourers 380 are mostly able to read and write it is a welcome symbol in 2012-13.

Therefore it is understood that as years passed on the number of agricultural labourers who are having I std. to XII std. education is very larger than degree holders. They have also involved in agricultural activities because the labourers are not engaged in secondary and tertiary sector. The illiterate agricultural labourers are given adult education. So education is very essential to agricultural labourers at present day world. Without that no one can thrive in life. The standard of living of each and every individual depends on education only. Hence it is concluded that education is very significant in every one’s life. TABLE 5.1.17 Size of the family of agricultural labourers and relationship with respondent of other family members in Ammapet block during 2010-11 Male agricultural labourers Female Agricultural labourers Total Total Size of No. of Size of No. of Groups F M W S D B Si Total family % Groups F M W S D B Si Total family % the family respondent the family respondent member member Large Large 60 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 9 540 47.37 50 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 8 400 43.01 size size Medium Medium 50 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 8 400 35.08 40 1 1 1 - - 2 2 7 350 37.64 Group I Size Group I Size Small Small 40 1 1 - - - 2 1 5 200 17.55 30 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 6 180 19.35 Size Size Total 150 19 1140 100.00 Total 120 930 100.00 Large Large 40 1 1 1 2 1 - 2 8 320 49.23 25 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 6 150 55.60 size size Medium Medium 30 1 1 1 1 1 2 - 7 210 32.31 15 1 1 1 1 1 - - 5 75 28.30 Group Size Group Size II II Small Small 20 1 1 1 - - 2 1 6 120 18.46 10 1 1 1 - - - 1 4 40 15.10 Size Size Total 90 21 650 100.00 Total 50 265 100.00 Large Large 25 1 1 1 - 1 2 1 7 175 55.91 10 1 1 1 2 1 - - 6 60 57.14 size size Medium Medium 13 1 1 1 2 1 - 6 78 24.92 5 1 1 1 - 1 1 5 25 23.81 Group Size Group Size III III Small Small 12 1 1 1 - - 2 5 60 19.72 5 1 1 1 1 - - - 4 20 19.05 Size Size Total 50 313 100.00 Total 20 105 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Both for male and female agricultural labourers in the study area. Note : F refers to father, M refers to mother, W refers to widow, S. refers to son, D refers to daughter, B refers to brother and Si refers to sister. 152 153 Family sizes of male and female agricultural labourers are divided into large size, medium size and small size families. In Ammapet block 2010-11 60 male agricultural labourers have 9 (nine) members in their families. So it is called large size families. 50 male agricultural labourers have 8 members in their families, so the families are considered as medium size families. Remaining 40 male agricultural labourers have 5 members in the family. That is why it is called as small size families. Group I female agricultural labourers also have three size of families i.e. large size medium size and small size families 50 female agricultural labourers have 8 members in their families that is why the family is considered as large size family. 40 female agricultural labourers have 7 members in their families. That is why it is called as medium size families. Remaining 30 female agricultural labourers have 6 members in their families so it is considered as small size families. TABLE 5.1.18 Size of the family of agricultural labourers and relationship with the respondent and other family members in Ammapet block and Papanasam block during 2012-13

Male agricultural labourers Female Agricultural labourers Size of Total Size of Total No.of No.of Groups the F M W S D B Si Total family % Groups the F M W S D B Si Total family % respondent respondent family member family member Large Large 50 1 1 1 2 - 1 1 7 400 45.45 45 1 1 1 2 1 - 1 7 270 47.37 size size Medium Medium 40 1 1 1 - - 2 - 5 300 34.09 40 1 1 1 1 1 - 5 200 35.09 Group I Size Group I Size Small Small 30 1 1 1 - -- - - 3 180 20.46 25 1 1 1 - - - - 3 100 17.54 Size Size Total 120 880 100.00 Total 110 570 100.00 Large Large 25 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 7 150 46.15 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 140 60.34 size size Medium Medium 20 1 1 1 1 1 - - 5 100 30.77 12 1 1 1 1 - - 1 5 60 25.86 Group II Size Group II Size Small Small 15 1 1 1 1 - - - 4 75 23.08 8 1 1 1 - - - - 3 32 13.80 Size Size Total 60 3 325 100.00 Total 40 16 232 100.00 Large Large 20 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 140 55.56 10 1 1 1 2 1 1 - 7 80 58.82 size size Medium Medium 12 1 1 1 - - 1 1 5 72 28.57 6 1 1 1 1 1 - - 5 36 26.47 Group Size Group Size III III Small Small 8 1 1 1 - - - 1 3 40 15.87 4 1 1 1 - - - 3 20 14.71 Size Size Total 40 252 100.00 Total 20 4 1 1 1 - - - 3 136 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Child labourers are not taken into account agricultural labourers in the study area. F refers to father, M refers to mother,

W refers to wife, S refers to son, D refers to daughter, Si refers to sister, B refers to brother. 154 155 Size of the family and number of families of male agricultural labourers are dealt with in Ammapet block during 2012-13. Large family has 7 numbers, medium families have 5 numbers and small family has 3 numbers. Total number of male agricultural labourers or respondents in group I is 120. Among them large size families having 7 numbers are 50, medium size families are 40 and 5 members families are 30. In group II large families are 25, medium families are 20 and small families are 15. So total number of group II families are 60. In group III large size families are 20, medium size families are 12 and small size families are 8. So total number of group III is 40.

In the case of female agricultural labourers Papanasam block the same indicator of family size is used. In group I, 45 are large families, 40 are medium families and 25 are small families. So total number of group I families in 110. Group II has 20 large families, 12 medium families and 8 small families. Total number of families is 40 in group II. In group III the number of large families are 10, medium size families are 6 and small size families are 4. Total number of families in group III is 20.

From this table it is understood that agricultural families are having too many numbers upto 9 in the family. This is very typical in rural economy. Medium size families are normally found in all categories of people. But small size families are now-a-days found in educated and who have adopted family planning. In certain cases agricultural labourers are of the opinion that it is useful for income earning purposes.

But whatever may be the reasons given small size families are good for agricultural labourers for giving education to their children. Now-a-days most of the girl students are admitted in government college for getting higher education. Especially the rural scheduled community people are aware of the facilities. So in the coming future scheduled community agricultural labourers definitely will be having high standard of living.

TABLE 5.1.19 Intoxicant taking habit of male agricultural labourers among the groups in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block S. Group Group Group No. Intoxicant Group II Total % Intoxicant Group I Group II Total % I III III

1 Brandy 50 40 20 110 37.93 Brandy 40 20 20 80 35.56

2 Rum 40 30 12 82 28.28 Rum 35 15 10 60 26.67

3 Whisky 20 7 6 33 11.38 Whisky 25 10 5 40 17.78

4 Beer 15 4 4 23 7.93 Beer 10 5 2 17 7.55

5 Intoxicant taken 125 81 42 248 Intoxicant taken 110 45 37 197

6 Intoxicant not 25 9 8 42 14.48 Intoxicant not 10 15 3 28 12.44 taken taken

Total 150 90 50 290 100.0 Total 120 60 40 225 100.0

Source: Computed from primary data.

156 157 In Ammapet block 2010-11 different types of intoxicant like brandy, whisky, rum and beer are taken by male agricultural labourers of all the three groups. Total number of brandy taken male agricultural labourers are 110 rum taken have been 82, whisky taken are 33 and beer taken are 23. So total number of drunkard are 248 (85.52%) and not taking intoxicant drinks agricultural male labourers are 42 (14.48%).

In Papanasam block in 2010-11 the total number of brandy taken male agricultural labourers in all the three groups brandy taken are 80 rum taken male agricultural male labourers are 60. Whisky taken are 40 and beer taken are 17. In the study most of the male agricultural labourers have taken brandy. It is the most intoxicative than other intoxicants so total number of intoxicants taken are 197 (87.56%) remaining are not drunkard that is 28 (12.44%).

As it is seen in the table that more male agricultural labourers are drunkard. Intoxicant taken habit has totally spoiled the family social and economic status. The children are spoiled too much by the drunkard father. Intoxicant drinking habit resulted in ulcer and intestinal diseases. The male agricultural labourers are slowly dying and also the family members. Short span of life and diseases of the drunkard male agricultural labourers have pushed the family below poverty line. Education of the children is spoiled to a great extent. The sons and daughters of the family are again becoming agricultural labourers. The family has fallen into the trap of indebtedness because expenditure has been more than income of the family. The social status of the family is very very poor.

TABLE 5.1.20 Intoxicant drinks taking habit of different groups male agricultural labourers in study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

S. No. Group Group Group Group Intoxicant Group II Total % Intoxicant Group I Total % I III II III

1 Brandy 60 40 10 110 39.29 Brandy 50 20 10 80 37.21

2 Rum 45 20 8 73 26.07 Rum 40 10 5 55 25.58

3 Whisky 20 5 5 30 10.71 Whisky 20 3 3 26 12.09

4 Beer 15 7 5 27 9.64 Beer 15 7 7 29 13.49

5 In total 140 90 45 240 In total 125 40 25 190 intoxicant intoxicant taken taken

6 In total 20 10 10 40 14.29 In total 10 10 5 25 11.63 intoxicant intoxicant no taken no taken

Total 160 80 40 280 100.00 Total 135 50 30 215 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

158 159 Different types of intoxicant drinks like brandy, rum, whisky and beer are taken by agricultural male labourers since they are working in agricultural field in hazardous conditions, different types of intoxicant are taken by male agricultural labourers. In Ammapet block 2012-13 in group I 60 agricultural labourers have taken brandy 45 had taken rum, 20 had taken whisky and 15 have taken beer. Total number of agricultural male labourers taking intoxicant drinks were 140 and not taking were 20. Like wise in group II the numbers of intoxicant taken male agricultural labourers were 90 and not taking were 10. In third group (group III) total number of intoxicant taken male agricultural labourers were 45 and not taking were 10 so total number had been 50. Among different types of intoxicants more agricultural male. labourers had taken brandy 240 (85.71%), second rank was given to rum very less number of male agricultural labourers had prefermed whisky and beer. In Papanasam block 2012-13 intoxicant taken male agricultural labourers are studied. In groups the number of brandy taken agricultural male labourers were 50 rum taken were 40, whisky taken were 20 and beer taken were 15. Total number of intoxicant drinks taken in group I were 125 and not taken were 10. Therefore total number of intoxicant taken were 190 (88.37%) not taken were 25 (11.63%). In group number of dvankards are 40 and not taking any intoxicant drinks are 10. In group III, total number of drunk and are 25. Not taking any intoxicant drinks are 5. From this table it is understand that from top level to bottom level male population has taken intoxicant drinks even though intoxicant drinks are not good for the health of agricultural labourers. Male agricultural labourers had taken different types of intoxicant. The family standard of living has been spoiled to a great extent. The agricultural labourers income level is diminishing, so the women in the families are not able to manage the families and children education is spoiled to a great extent. Families’ indebtedness has increased. Again the sons and daughters of agricultural labourers are becoming agricultural labourers only. The families are pushed below poverty line. The wealth of the family is only poverty, unemployment and ill heath, therefore the social status of the family has been lowered.

TABLE 5.1.21 Tobacco Betelnut chewing and cigarette or Beedy smoking habits of different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

S. Intoxicant Group Group Group Group Group Total Group I Total No. items I II III Grand Intoxicant II III Grand % % Total items Total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

1. Tobacco Tobacco 45 50 30 20 17 10 92 80 172 35.83 40 45 20 20 15 8 75 73 148 37.95 Chewing Chewing

2. Chewing Chewing 40 40 25 15 15 5 80 60 140 29.17 35 35 15 10 10 8 60 53 113 28.97 Betelnut Betelnut

3. Cigarette Cigarette 35 - 20 - 10 - 65 - 65 13.54 30 - 10 - 10 - 50 - 50 12.82 Smoking Smoking

4. Others not Others not having any 30 30 15 15 8 5 53 50 103 21.46 having any 15 30 15 10 5 4 35 45 79 20.26 habits habits

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

160 161 In the study area in Ammapet block 2010-11 both male and female agricultural labourers are having the habits of Tobacco and betelnut chewing. Female agricultural labourers have tobacco and betelnut chewing habits, but male labourers have the above motioned habits like cigarette smoking, tobacco and betelnut chewing. In all the three groups 92 male and 80 female are having the habit of tobacco chewing. Likewise in all the three groups 80 male and 60 female laborers are having the habit of betelnut chewing.

Cigarette smoking habit of male agricultural labourers is found in all the three groups of male agricultural labourers. Total number of cigarette smoking male is 65. Cigarette smoking habit is not found among female agricultural labourers in all the three groups are 103. Grand total of tobacco chewing male and female agricultural labourers is 172 (35.83%). Total number of betelnut chewing male and female agricultural labourers is 140 (29.17%). Total number of male agricultural labourers with the habit of cigar smoking is 65 (13.54%). Remaining other agricultural labourers do not have all the above mentioned habits are 103 (21.46%). In all the three groups majority of the male and female agricultural labourers are having the habit of tobacco chewing and 35.83 per cent of male and female agricultural labourers are 29.17 per cent having the habit of betelnut chewing. Only is 13.54 per cent of the male agricultural labourers have the habit of cigarette smoking.

In Papanasam block 2010-11 agricultural labourers are having all the three habits but only few labourers do not have any above mentioned habits of tobacco, betelnut chewing and cigarette smoking. Total number of male and female agricultural labourers having tobacco chewing in all the three groups is 148 (37.95%) and betelnut chewing is 113 (28.97%) cigarette smoking male agricultural labourers are 50 (12.82%). The male and female agricultural labourers do not have any above mentioned three habits are 79 (20.26%).

Thus it is seen from the table that all the three habits are not good for the health of the male and female agricultural labourers. It has resulted in number 162 of diseases like ulcer, cancer and intestinal disease. The life span of the agricultural labourers is reduced. They are becoming the burden of the family. The family of agricultural labourers does not have peace of mind and all the members are affected to a great extent. The agricultural labourers do not have money for the treatment of the diseases.

The poverty and unemployment are the results that children education is neglected. Thus it is the scope for increasing unskilled labourers, this in turn is leading to underemployment in agricultural sector. The family becomes poorer and poorer. All properties including small piece of land are taken by the money lenders and large farmers.

TABLE 5.1.22 Tobacco Betelnut chewing and cigarette or Beedy smoking habits of different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

S. Intoxicant Group Group Group Group Group Total Grand Intoxicant Group I Total Grand No. items I II III % II III % Total items Total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

1. Tobacco Tobacco 45 50 25 20 15 5 85 75 160 34.78 50 45 15 10 10 5 75 60 135 35.53 Chewing Chewing

2. Chewing Chewing 40 45 20 10 10 2 70 57 127 27.61 30 50 20 10 5 5 55 65 120 31.58 Betelnut Betelnut

3. Cigarette Cigarette 45 - 20 - 5 - 70 - 70 15.22 25 - 5 - 10 - 40 - 40 10.53 Smoking Smoking

4. Others not Others not having any 30 35 15 10 10 3 55 48 103 22.39 having any 30 25 10 10 5 5 45 40 85 22.36 habits habits

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100

Source: Computed from primary data.

163 164 In the study area in Ammapet block 2012-13 both male and female agricultural labourers are having the habits of tobacco and betelnut chewing habits, but male labourers have all the above mentioned habits like cigarette smoking, tobacco and betelnut chewing. In all the three groups 85 male and 75 female agricultural labourers are having the habits of tobacco chewing. Likewise in all the groups 70 male 57 female labourers are having the habit of betelnut chewing.

Cigarette smoking habit is found in all the three groups of male agricultural labourers. Total number of not cigarette smoking male is 70 cigarette smoking habit is not found among male agricultural labourers in all the three groups are 160. Grand total of tobacco chewing male and female agricultural labourers is 127. Total number of tobacco chewing male and female agricultural labourers is 34.78 per cent. Total number of betelnut chewing male and female agricultural labourers is 27.61 per cent. Total number of agricultural labourers having cigarette chewing is 15.22 per cent.

In Papanasam block 2012-13 agricultural labourers are having all the three habits but only few agricultural labourers do not have any above mentioned habits of tobacco, betelnut chewing and cigarette smoking are 85 (22.36%). Total number of male and female agricultural labourers having tobacco chewing is 135 (35.53%) and betelnut chewing is 120 (31.58%). Cigarette smoking male agricultural labourers are 40 (10.53%). The male and female agricultural labourers do not have any above mentioned three habits are 85 (22.36%).

Thus it is seen from the table that all the three habits are not good for the health of the male and female agricultural labourers. It has resulted in number of diseases like ulcer, cancer and intestinal disease. The life span of the agricultural labourers is reduced. They are becoming the burden of the family. The family of agricultural labour does not have peace of mind and all the 165 members are affected to a great extent. The agricultural labourers have not money for the treatment of the disease.

The poverty and unemployment are the results that are fallen on the family, children education is neglected. There is the scope for increasing unskilled labourers, this in turn is leading to underemployment in agricultural sector. The family becomes poorer and poorer. All properties including small piece of land are taken by the money lenders and large farmers.

TABLE 5.1.23 Family planning taken by different groups of agricultural labourers in study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Family Group Group Group Group Group Total Grand Family Group I Total Grand planning I II III % II III % Total planning Total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Family Family planning - 65 - 28 - 11 - 104 104 21.67 planning - 60 - 25 - 12 - 97 97 24.87 taken taken

Family Family planning 150 55 90 22 50 9 290 86 376 78.33 planning 120 50 60 15 40 8 220 73 293 75.13 not taken not taken

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 Total 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

166 167 In Ammapet block 2010-11 the female agricultural labourers had taken family planning measure. Among all the three groups 104 (21.67%) female agricultural labourers have taken family planning. The agricultural labourers who have not taken family planning are 376 (78.33%).

In Papanasam block 2010-11 agricultural female labourers have taken family planning are 97 (24.87%) female agricultural labourers do not take family planning are 293 (75.13%) because they are unmarried.

Thus family planning is essential and inevitable for the agricultural labourers. But male agricultural labourers have not undergone family planning operation. The male agricultural labourers are earning members and the responsibility of child protection is falling on the female agricultural labourers. Not only that most of the female agricultural labourers are coming forward to undergo family planning operation rather than male agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.1.24 Family planning taken by different groups of female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Family Group Group Group Group Group Total Grand Family Group I Total Grand planning I II III % II III % Total planning Total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Family Family planning - 70 - 20 - 5 - 95 95 20.65 planning - 65 - 15 - 10 - 90 90 23.68 taken taken

Family Family planning not 160 60 80 20 40 5 280 85 365 79.35 planning not 135 55 50 15 30 5 215 75 290 76.32 taken taken

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 Total 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

168 169 Due to increase in number of agricultural labourers the number of female agricultural labourer has undergone family planning. In all the three groups 95 (20.65%) female agricultural labourers have undergone family planning operation and not taking family planning are 365 (79.35%). They are male and unmarried female agricultural labourers.

In 2012-13 the number of female agricultural labourers undergone family planning operation in Papanasam block is 90 (23.68%) and not undergone family planning operations are 290 (76.32%). They are males and unmarried agricultural female labourers.

Therefore it is seen from the table that only female married agricultural labourers alone have taken family planning measure. This measure is very essential to country like India because every census of population, the number of male and female population had been going on increasing. This has resulted in number of evil effects on the family and also on the nation. The targets of five year plan are not achieved. So controlling population is one of the targets of our nation that could be done only through family planning methods implemented in the five year plan.

TABLE 5.1.25 Social status of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Tobacco, Tobacco, Size of Size of Groups Education Betelnut Drunkard Groups Education Betelnut Drunkard family family chewing chewing

More More Less Less Group I agricultural More Male Larger size Group I agricultural More Male Larger size illiterates illiterates labourers labourers

More More Less Less Group II agricultural More Male Larger size Group II agricultural More Male Larger size illiterates illiterates labourers labourers

More More Less Less Group III agricultural More Male Larger size Group III agricultural More Male Larger size illiterates illiterates labourers labourers

Source : Computed from primary data. Note : Combination of certain tables of social status of agricultural labourers (Table No.5.5, 5.6, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.20, 5.21 and 5.22)

170 171

During the year 2012-13 less numbers of illiterates are found in the study area. Likewise the betelnut and tobacco chewing habits are found more among male and female agricultural labourers. Nearly 85 per cent of the male agricultural labourers are drunkard. The sizes of the family of agricultural labourers is large. These are the various indicators that the researcher has found out in the study area.

Thus the analysis of social conditions of agricultural labourers is presented in a defiled manner. Four important indicators have been taken into account that is education, tobacco and betelnut chewing number of drunkards and size of the family. In all these indicators the agricultural labourers are the worst. More agricultural labourers have many more habits of tobacco and betelnut chewing and the male members are drunkards and too many in number and size of the family of most of the agricultural labourers is large or big. Hence it is concluded that the social status of agricultural labourers is very low.

Thus section 1 has analysed and presented the social conditions of agricultural labourers social conditions are very significant to analyze in a detailed manner about economic conditions of agricultural labourers. 172

SECTION - 2

Economic conditions of different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area are dealt with. Annual number of working days available in agricultural activities, wage rate for men and women agricultural labourers, annual wage income earned, by male and female labourers, income earned through allied agricultural activities and miscellaneous activities, standard of living, labourers living above poverty line, on poverty line and below poverty line, unemployment different types of properties owned by agricultural labourers different problems based by agricultural labourers and implementation of employment generation schemes by central and state government for the upliftment of agricultural labourers are discussed and analyzed in the section-2.

TABLE 5.2.1 Annual number of working days available in agriculture to different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Annual number Annual number Number of of working Total number of Grand Number of of working Total number of Grand Number agricultural days available working days in total Number agricultural days available working days in total of labourers to agricultural agriculture annual % of labourers to agricultural agriculture annual % Groups labourers working Groups labourers working days days M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group Group 150 120 100 80 15000 9600 24600 62.27 120 110 100 80 12000 8800 20800 65.40 I I

Group Group 90 50 90 60 8100 3000 11100 28.10 60 40 90 60 5400 2400 7800 24.54 II II

Group III 50 20 60 40 3000 800 3800 9.63 Group III 40 20 60 40 2400 800 3200 10.06

Total 290 190 250 180 26100 13400 39500 100.00 Total 220 170 250 180 19800 12000 31800 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

173 174

Papanasam taluk has two important blocks i.e. Ammapet block and Papanasam block. Ammapet block is some what bigger in area because it has 46 panchayats. So the number of different groups of agricultural labourers are also greater in number than Papanasam block. Group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. These labourers are landless labourers but daily wage earners and annual number of working days available are 150. So total annual number of working days available to male and female agricultural labourers are 15000 and 9600. Grand total working days are 24,600 (Percentage of working days for male 60.97, female 39.03 (62.27%)).

Group II agricultural labourers are marginal farmers but agricultural labourers. Annual working days of group II male and female agricultural labourers were 90 and 60 days and group II agricultural (male and female) are labourers 90 and 50. So total working days for male agricultural labourers are 8100 and for female 3000. Grand total working days of group II agricultural labourers are 11100. So at per cent annual working days for male is 72.97 per cent and for female 27.03 per cent (28.10%).

Group III agricultural labourers are small farmers, after the work is over in their farm, they worked as wage earners in the large farmers land. So the number of group II agricultural labourers are 50 males and 20 females. Number of annual working days for both male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Total annual working days available for male and female agricultural labourers are 3000 and 800. So percentage of annual working days available in agriculture for male is 78.95 and for female 21.05 (9.63%). Thus in Ammapet block annual number of total working days are discussed and analyzed in 2010- 11.

In Papanasam block total annual number of working days available both for male and female agricultural labourers are as follows. Group I male labourers are 120 and female are 110. Group I male and female agricultural labourers annual working days are 100 and 80. Total annual numbers of 175 working days available to male and female agricultural labourers are 12000 and 8800. The percentage of working days for male is 57.59 per cent and for female labourers 42.41 per cent (65.40%).

For group II agricultural labourers total number of annual working days available in agriculture for male is 5400 and for female 2400. Number of group II sample male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Total annual working days available for male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 60. So percentage of total working days available to male and female agricultural labourers in agriculture is 69.23 per cent and 30.77 per cent (24.54%). Group III agricultural labourers are small farmers but the farmers are wage earners in large farmers lands. Number of male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Annual working days available per male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. So total annual working days available are 2400 and 800. The percentage of working days available to male and female agricultural labourers is 75 and 25 (10.06%). Therefore it is understood from the table the number of annual working days available to all the three groups of labourers are very less in the study area. This area is very famous for paddy cultivation due to its alluvial soil. Cauvery river water is used for paddy cultivation formerly but at present monsoon failure, ground water supply is not available adequately for paddy cultivation and lack of water in river. Cauvery are the important reasons for less number of annual working days available in agriculture. Hence it is concluded that even now agriculture depends on seasonal rainfall. That is why the number of working days in agriculture is going on dwindling and this points is also supported by ALE Committees, National Labour Committee on Labourers, Various Census Committee report on agricultural labourers etc. So first hypothesis is proved that there is a significant direct relationship between number of working days available in agriculture and annual income of different groups of agricultural labourers (Fig.5.1).

TABLE 5.2.2 Annual number of working days available in agriculture to different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Annual number Annual number Number of of working days Total number of Grand Number of of working days Total number of Grand Number agricultural available to working days in total Number agricultural available to working days in total of labourers agricultural agriculture annual % of labourers agricultural agriculture annual % Groups labourers working Groups labourers working days days M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group I 160 130 90 60 14400 7800 22200 69.16 Group I 135 120 90 60 12150 7200 19350 73.02

Group II 80 40 70 50 5600 2000 7600 23.68 Group II 50 30 70 50 3700 1500 5200 19.62

Group III 40 10 50 30 2000 300 2300 7.16 Group III 30 15 50 30 1500 450 1950 7.36

Total 280 180 210 140 22000 10100 32100 100.00 Total 215 165 210 140 17350 9150 26500 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

176 177

In 2012-13, the number of landless male and female agricultural labourers i.e., group I agricultural labourers have increased in Ammapet block. The number of male and female labourers are 160 and 130. The working days available both for male and female agricultural labourers annually were 14400 and 7800. In 2012-13, the male and female agricultural labourers have increased from 150 to 160 and 120 to 130. This is due to selling of land by marginal and small farmers cum agricultural labourers. Number of working days have also reduced. But number of lundless agricultural male and female labourers has increased from 150 to 160 and 120 to 130. But number of working days is also reduced i.e. 90 and 60 days. So total working days are 22200 (69.16%). Group II male and female agricultural labourers have been reduced to 80 and 40 and annual working days available to each male and female agricultural labourers are 70 and 50. So total unusual working days available to male and female agricultural labourers were 5600 and 2000. Therefore total working days available for agricultural labourers were 7600 (23.68%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers had been 40 and 10 and annual number of working days for each male and female agricultural labourers was 50 and 30. Total number of annual working days were 2000 and 300, so total number of working days was 2300 (7.16%). In Papanasam block, the total number of group I, landless agricultural labourers in 2012-13 are 135 and 120. It has increased from 120 to 135 and 110 to 120. This is due to selling of cultivable land by marginal and small farmers. Cultivable land was taken by large farmers and money lenders due to indebtedness of marginal and small farmers. Rich private individuals have also purchased the lands for building big commercial complex, colleges and universities etc. So annual number of working days available to male and female agricultural labourers were 12150 and 7200. So total number of working days were 19350 (73.02%). Group II, male and female agricultural labourers have been reduced due to selling of cultivable land by marginal farmers to rich private individuals and 178 money lenders. So the number of male and female marginal cum agricultural labourers is 50 and 30. Number of annual working days available to each male and female agricultural labourers was 70 and 50. So total number of working days available to male and female workers is 3700 and 1500. Grand total number of annual working days are 5200 (19.62%). Group III, male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. Number of annual working days available to each male and female agricultural labourers was 50 and 30. So total number of annual working days available to male and female agricultural labourers was 1500 and 450. So grand total working days are 1950 (7.36%). From the table, it is understood that the number of working days available to all the three groups of agricultural labourers are very less compared with 2010-11. This is due to less hectare of cultivable land only large farmer to some extent and marginal and small farmers have cultivated paddy in their land. Since the families size of marginal and small farmers are big they themselves cultivated the land, so the landless agricultural labourers are employed by large farmers at any time and anywhere. This is why group I agricultural labourers have more annual working days than other two groups agricultural labourers. After finishing agricultural work in the land only marginal and small farmers are ready to work in large farmers land. That is why the annual number of working days are less to marginal and small farmers. Based on it, it is concluded that due to less number of working days to three groups of labourers annual earning will be reduced. This in turn resulted in poor standard of living of agricultural labourers. Further, agricultural labourers are pushed again to below poverty line (Fig.5.1).

179

80 73.02 69.16

70 65.4 62.27

50 e g

40 percenta percentage

28.1 In 30 24.54 23.68 19.62

20 9.63 10.06 7.36 7.16 10

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.1. Annual number of working days available in agriculture to different groups of male and female agricultural labourers during the study period 2010- 11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.3 Annual wage income earned by both male and female individual agricultural labour in agriculture in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Agricultural Agricultural Number of Grand Number of labourers wage Total amount of labourers wage Total amount of Grand working total working Number per day annual income (`) Number of per day annual income (`) total days annual % days % of groups (`) groups (`) annual income income (`) (`) M F M F M F M F M F M F

Individual Individual Group I 200 90 100 80 20000 7200 27200 41.08 Group I 200 90 100 80 20000 7200 27200 41.08 Labourers Labourers

Individual Individual Group II 200 90 90 60 18000 5400 23400 35.34 Group II 200 90 90 60 18000 5400 23400 35.34 Labourers Labourers

Individual Individual Group III 200 90 60 40 12000 3600 15600 23.58 Group III 200 90 60 40 12000 3600 15600 23.58 Labourers Labourers

Total 250 180 50000 16200 66200 100.00 Total 250 180 50000 16200 66200 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Daily wage for male agricultural laboruers is `200. Daily wage for female agricultural labourers is `90. 180 181

During 2010-11 the daily wage paid to male agricultural labourers per day is `200 and for female it is `90 in all groups for agricultural activities. Annual number of working days for male and female agricultural labourers are `100 and 80. So total wage received annually by individual male labourer is 20,000 and female labourers is `7200. The percentage of wage received is 73.53 and 26.47. Second group of male and female individual agricultural labourer annual working days are 90 and 60. So at same wage level the annual income earned through agriculture by individual male and female agricultural labourer is `18,000 and 5400. Percentage of annual income received by male and female agricultural labourer is 76.92 and 23.08. Thus the wage received by group II individual agricultural labourer is less because the labourers are marginal farmers, they worked in the their land first, after that only the group II farmers cum agricultural labourers worked in other large farmer’s land. Third group of individual male and femal agricultural labourers are small farmers and the annual income received from wage by them in other large farmers land is `12,000 and 3600. So percentage of agricultural income of male and female labourer is 76.92 and 23.08. Among all the agricultural labourers, landless agricultural labourers annual wage income is greater than other two groups because group I agricultural labourers are landless.

Papanasam block also had three important groups of agricultural labourers. Annual working days of group I individual male and female agricultural labourer is 100 and 80. The same wage rate is prevailing i.e. `200 for male and 90 for female. So annual wage income of individual male and female landless agricultural labourers is `20,000 and `7200. The percentage of individual male and female labourers annual agricultural income is 73.53 and 26.47.

Group II marginal farmers cum individual male and female labourers agricultural annual working days are 90 and 60. So total annual income of male 182 and female agricultural labourers is `18,000 and `5400. So percentage of annual income of male and female agricultural labourers is 76.92 and 23.08.

Group III agricultural male and female individual labourers annual income through agriculture is `12,000 and `3600. So total annual income of group III agricultural labourers is `15600. So the percentage of annual income received by male and female agricultural labourers is 76.92 and 23.08.

From this table it is understood that the number of working days for group I agricultural labourers are more than group II and group III. The agricultural wage income is more for group I labourers than other two groups.

Because group II agricultural labourers are marginal farmers after cultivating their land only, the marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers worked in large farmers land. Eventhough the wage income is less the land income is more, so they are better than group I agricultural labourers.

Group III individual male and small agricultural labourers are small farmers, so if the income through land is added with agricultural wage income, group III small farmers income is greater than above two groups.

So it is concluded that group III farmers economic conditions and standard of living are better than other two groups. Their social status has been higher than other two groups of agricultural labourers. This point has been supported by National Commission on labour 1988 (Fig.5.2).

TABLE 5.2.4 Annual wage income earned by individual male and female individual agricultural labour in agriculture in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Agricultural Agricultural Grand Grand labourers Number of Total amount of labourers Number of Total amount of total total Number wage per day working days annual income (`) Number of wage per day working days annual income (`) annual % annual % of groups (`) groups (`) income income (`) (`) M F M F M F M F M F M F

Individual Individual Group I 250 100 90 60 22500 6000 28500 42.86 Group I 250 100 90 60 22500 6000 28500 42.86 Labourers Labourers

Individual Individual Group II 250 100 70 50 17500 5000 22500 33.83 Group II 250 100 70 50 17500 5000 22500 33.83 Labourers Labourers

Individual Individual Group III 250 100 50 30 12500 3000 15500 23.31 Group III 250 100 50 30 12500 3000 15500 23.31 Labourers Labourers

Total 210 140 52500 14000 66500 100.00 Total 210 140 52500 14000 66500 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Male agricultural wage per day is `250 and for female the wage per day is `100. 183 184

In 2012-13 the annual wage income earned through agriculture by group I agricultural labourers is `22,500 and `6000. Prevailing wage rate for male and female agricultural labourers has been `250 and `100. At this wage rate the agricultural labourers percentage of wage income is 78.95 and 21.05.

Group II agricultural labourers annual wage income is `17500 and `5000 for individual male and female agricultural labourers. Group III agricultural labourers male and female annual income in 2012-13 is `15500. Percentage of wage income received by individual male and female agricultural labourers through agriculture is 86.65 and 13.35. Group III individual male and female agricultural labourers annual wage income is `12500 and `3000.

In Papanasam block group I individual agricultural male and female labourers’s annual wage income earned through agriculture is `22,500 and `6000. Total annual wage income is `28,500. The percentage of wage income of male and female agricultural labourers is 78.95 and 21.05.

Group II individual male and female agricultural labourers annual wage income is `17,500 and `5000. So the percentage of annual wage income of individual agricultural male and female annual income is 77.78 and for female 22.22.

Group III individual male and female agricultural labourers wage income though agriculture is `12,500 and `3000. So grand total income is `15,500.

From this table it is seen that individual male and female agricultural labourers income from agriculture is estimated both in Ammapet block and Papanasam block. It is seen that group I agricultural labourers working days are larger than group II and group III agricultural labourers. The marginal farmers cum individual male and female agricultural labourers and group III small 185 farmers cum individual male and female agricultural laboruers annual wage income is lesser than group I agricultural labourers. Because of the possession of land, that is 0.5 ha and 1.5 ha by marginal land small farmers. The individual marginal and small farmers have cultivated their land first, then only they have been working in other farmers or large farmers land. That is why the number of working days are lesser to group II and group III farmers cum agricultural labourers. In coming table total number of agricultural labourers in group I, group II and group III are given. With the help of this it is easy to find out total annual income earned through agricultural activities by three groups of agricultural labourers (Fig.5.2).

186

45 42.86 42.86 41.08 41.08

40 35.34 35.34 33.83 35 33.83 e

g 30 percenta percenta e

23.58 23.58 23.58 23.31 25 23.31 In

10 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.2. Annual wage income earned by both male and female individual agricultural labour in agriculture during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.5 Total amount of annual wage income earned by male and female sample agricultural labourers through agriculture in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Individual Grand Individual Grand Number of Total amount of Number of Total amount of amount of total amount of total Number Agricultural annual income Agricultural annual income annual annual Number annual annual of labourers (` in lakhs) % labourers (` in lakhs) % income (`) income of groups income (`) income groups (` in (` in M F M F M F lakhs) M F M F M F lakhs)

Group Group 150 120 20000 7200 30.00 8.64 38.64 60.13 120 110 20000 7200 24.00 7.92 31.92 63.33 I I

Group Group 90 50 18000 5400 16.20 2.70 18.90 29.41 60 40 18000 5400 10.80 2.16 12.96 25.72 II II

Group Group 50 20 12000 3600 6.00 0.72 6.72 10.46 40 20 12000 3600 4.80 0.72 5.52 10.95 III III

Total 290 190 50000 16200 52.20 12.06 64.26 100.00 Total 220 170 50000 16200 39.60 10.80 50.40 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 187 188

Group I number of male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. Annual individual agricultural income of male and female agricultural labourers is `20,000 and `7200. So annual total income of male agricultural income is `30 lakhs and for female it is `8.64 lakhs, Total annual income through agriculture to group I agricultural labourers is rs.38.64 lakhs (60.13%) group II total number of agricultural labourers (male and female) are 90 and 50. So total annual income derived from agricultural activities of sample male and female labourers is `16.20 lakhs and 2.70 lakhs, so grand total amount is `18.90 lakhs (29.41%) Group III number of agricultural labourers is 50 and 20 annual individual income was calculated already. So total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers is `6 lakhs and 0.72 lakhs. Grand total annual income is `6.72 lakhs (10.56%).

In Papanasam block group I individual agricultural labourers annual income of male and female through agriculture is multiplied by total number of group I agricultural labourers, so total annual income of male and female is `24 lakhs and `7.92 lakhs. Grand total annual income of group I agricultural labourers is `31.92 lakhs (63.33%). Group II sample male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `10.80 lakhs and 2.16 lakhs. Hence grand total income is `12.96 lakhs (25.72%). Group III sample agricultural labourers total annual income through agriculture is `4.80 lakhs for male and `0.72 lakhs for female labourers and overall grand total annual income in 2012-13 is `5.52 lakhs (10.95%).

From this table it is known that individual annual income of group I agricultural labourers’s annual income is higher than group II and group III agricultural individual labourer annual income.

Thus the first hypothesis is proved because larger the number of working days higher will be the income through agricultural activities and vice- versa group II and group III agricultural labourers have worked lesser number 189 of days in other people or large farmer land, so wage income received through agriculture is very less. So total wage income earned by agricultural male and female labourers are lesser than group I due to lesser number of working days. The number of working days in their land are not taken into account.

As far as working days in agricultural activities are concerned. Group II and group III agricultural labourers are in disadvantageous conditions. If at all annual wage income received through agricultural activities is concerned group I agricultural labourers are in an advantageous position because grand total annual income of the group I agricultural labourers is `38.64 lakhs (60.13%) in Ammapet block and in Papanasam block grand total annual income of group I agricultural labourers is `31.92 lakhs (63.33%) (Fig.5.3).

TABLE 5.2.6 Total amount of annual wage income earned by male and female sample agricultural labourers through agriculture in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group Group 160 130 22500 6000 36.00 7.80 43.80 67.28 135 120 22500 6000 30.37 7.20 37.57 72.22 I I

Group Group 80 40 17500 5000 14.00 2.00 16.00 24.58 50 30 17500 5000 8.75 1.50 10.25 19.70 II II

Group Group 40 10 12500 3000 5.00 0.30 5.30 8.14 30 15 12500 3000 3.75 0.45 4.20 8.08 III III

Total 280 180 52500 14000 55.00 10.10 65.10 100.00 Total 215 165 52500 14000 42.87 9.15 52.02 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

190 191

In Ammapet block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 160 and 130 in number. Individual annual wage income is `22,500. So total income of 160 male agricultural labourers is `36 lakhs. 130 female agricultural labourers wage income through agriculture is `7.80 lakhs and grand total annual income is `43.80 lakhs (67.28%).

Group II agricultural labourers male annual total wage income earned through agricultural activities is `14 lakhs and for female it is ` 2 lakhs. Annual grand total wage income is `16 lakhs (24.58%). Group III agricultural labourers total annual male wage income is `5 lakhs and for female it is `0.30 lakhs. Grand total wage income earned through agriculture is `5.30 lakhs in 2012-13 (8.14%).

Papanasam block has also three groups. Group I landless agricultural labourers grand total wage income through agricultural activities is `37.57 lakhs (72.22%). Group II grand total agricultural labourers annual wage income is `10.25 lakhs (19.70%). Group III male and female total agricultural wage income is `4.20 lakhs (8.08%).

Thus it is understood from the table that group I agricultural labourers are having more number of working days. So annual grand total income has been also larger than other two groups, because the agricultural labourers are landless and this is one of the most important sources of earning income. But group II agricultural labourers have tiny bit of land (0.5 ha) and the labourers are also working in other large farmers land. So the number of working days in other large farmers land is less in amount for group II and group III agricultural labourers. That is why the annual wage income is very less compared with group I agricultural laboures.

Therefore the first hypothesis is proved i.e. larger the number of working days available better will be the economic conditions of agricultural 192 labourers and vice versa. If at all the number of working days are reduced due to monsoon failure, drought, inadequate rainfall etc. the agricultural labourers are totally spoiled including all the two groups of farmers (tiny and small). So it is concluded that larger the number of working days available higher will be the income through agricultural operations and vice versa.

In the case of grand total annual wage income group I agricultural labourers are in an advantages conditions than group II and group III agricultural laboruers. Thus the first hypothesis is proved with the help of 1991 census report that number of less working days lead to less wage income (Fig.5.3).

193

80 72.22

70 67.28 63.33 60.13 60

50 e g

40 percenta percenta e

29.43 In 25.72 30 24.58 19.7 20 95 . 10 95 10.46 8.14 8.08 10

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.3. Total amount of annual wage income earned by male and female sample agricultural labourers through agriculture during the study period 2010- 11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.7 Annual individual income of male and female agricultural labourers in allied activities in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Annual Annual No. Individual allied No. Individual allied individual Grand individual Grand Groups of income per day % Groups of income per day % income (`) Total income (`) Total days days M F M F M F M F

Individual Individual 365 10 15 3650 5475 9125 22.52 365 10 17 3650 6205 9855 24.32 Group I Group I

Individual Individual 365 15 22 5475 8030 13505 33.33 365 15 23 5475 8395 13870 34.24 Group II Group II

Individual Individual 365 20 29 7300 10585 17885 44.15 365 20 26 7300 9490 16790 41.44 Group III Group III

Total 45 66 16425 24090 40515 100.00 Total 45 66 16425 24090 40515 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

194 195

In Ammapet block 2010-11 group I agricultural labourers are 150 male and 120 female. Annual number of days are 365 per year. Group I male and female labourers received income from allied activities is `10 and `15 per day. So annual individual income received by male and female individual labourers is `3650 and `5475. Group II farmers cum agricultural labourers allied income for male and female is `5475 and `8030. Group III male and female agricultural individual labourers received annually through allied activities is `7300 and ` 10585. Total annual income received by group I individual male female agricultural labourers is `9125 (22.52%). Group II total annual income of individual male and female agricultural labourers is `5475 and ` 8030, so total individual agricultural labourers annual income is `13505 (33.33%). Group III male and female individual agricultural labourers annual income through allied activities is `7300 and `10585. Total annual income is `17885 (44.15%). Total annual individual income in all the three groups is `40515.

Papanasam block individual income received through allied activities for all the three groups is calculated for 365 days. In group I male individual agricultural labourers annual income is `3650 and for female is `6205. So total individual income of male and female agricultural labourers allied income is `9855 (24.32%). Group II individual male and female agricultural labourers annual allied income is `5475 and `8395. So total annual allied income is `13870 (34.24%). Group III individual agricultural male and female labourers annual income is `7300 and `9490. So total annual allied income from allied activities is `16790 (41.44%). So grand total annual individual agricultural male and female allied income is `40515.

From this table it is known that allied activities is also another important source of income to agricultural labourers. Especially women agricultural individual annual allied income is greater than male annual allied income. The number of working days in agriculture is very less in number to female labourers, so the women agricultural labourers have to augment the income 196 through allied activities like milch cow rearing, sheep and goat rearing, poultry for meat and egg etc.

Thus it is understood from the table that women individual agricultural labourers annual income is greater than male income. Women are managing the family, so the ways and means of getting money and saving money is done only by women agricultural labourers. Women empowerment is very essential for proper management of the family.

TABLE 5.2.8 Annual individual income of male and female agricultural labourers in allied activities in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Individual 365 17 22 6205 8030 14235 28.26 Individual 365 16 21 5840 7665 13505 27.40 Group I Group I

Individual 365 21 25 7665 9125 16790 33.33 Individual 365 22 25 8030 9125 17155 34.82 Group II Group II

Individual 365 24 29 8760 10585 19345 38.41 Individual 365 23 28 8395 10220 18615 37.78 Group III Group III

Total 62 76 22630 27740 50370 100.00 Total 61 74 22265 27010 49275 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

197 198

Group I individual annual income through allied activities in Ammapet block is `6205 (28.26%). Male headed family income is `8030 and female headed individual family annual income is `14235. Group II male headed individual annual income is `7665 and female headed family income is `9125, so total income is `16790 (33.33%) Group III individual male headed family annual income is `8760 and female headed family annual income individually is `10585. So total annual income is `19345 (38.41%).

Group I individual annual income in Papanasam block through allied activities is `5840 to male headed family income (27.40%). Female headed individual family annual income is `7665. Grand total income is `13505.

Group II individual male headed annual income is `8030 and female headed annual income is `9125. Grand total income is `17155 (34.82%).

Group III individual male headed annual income is `8395 and female headed family annual income is `10220. Grand total annual income is `18615 (37.78%).

From this table it is very clear that male headed family income is lesser than female headed family income group III agricultural labourers income is greater than two groups. So it is very clear that small farmer cum agricultural labourers annual income through allied activities is much greater than group I agricultural labourers income. Marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers allied activities annual income is lesser than group III agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.2.9 Total annual allied income earned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

(` in lakhs)

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Number of Annual Total annual Number of Annual Total annual agricultural individual allied income agricultural individual allied income Grand Grand Groups labourers allied income (`) (` in lakhs) % Groups labourers allied income (`) (` in lakhs) % Total Total M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group Group 150 120 3650 5475 5.47 6.57 12.04 45.04 120 110 3650 6205 4.38 6.82 11.20 49.47 I I

Group II 90 50 5475 8030 4.92 4.01 8.93 33.41 Group II 60 40 5475 8395 3.28 3.35 6.63 29.28

Group Group 50 20 7300 10585 3.65 2.11 5.76 21.55 40 20 7300 9490 2.92 1.89 4.81 21.25 III III

Total 290 190 16425 24090 14.04 12.69 26.73 100.00 Total 220 170 16425 24090 10.58 12.06 22.64 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

199 200

In Ammapet block total annual income earned through allied activities by different groups of agricultural labourers is estimated. Group I male headed family annual income is `5.47 lakhs and female headed family annual income is 6.57 lakhs. Total income of group I agricultural labourers income is ` 12.04 lakhs (45.04%) Group II male headed family income is `4.92 lakhs and female headed family annual total income is `4.01 (33.41%). Total annual income is `8.93 lakhs. Group III male agricultural labourers annual male income is `3.65 lakhs and female headed agricultural labourers income in `2.11 lakhs. Hence total annual income is `5.76 lakhs (21.55%).

Therefore from this table it is understood that the number of male headed families are more than female headed families. But female agricultural labourers are more concerned with augmenting their income through allied activities i.e. milch cow rearing, goat and sheep rearing, poultry and honey bee rearing. Female agricultural labourers are much more efficient in managing the family. Therefore it is concluded that women labourers are more efficient in augmenting income of the family particularly through allied activities. Papanasam block has three groups of agricultural labourers group I agricultural male headed family total annual allied income is `4.38 lakhs. Female headed families total annual allied income is `6.82 lakhs. Grand total annual allied income is 11.20 lakhs (49.47%). Group II 60 male headed families annual allied income is `3.28 lakhs. Female headed families are 40 and the total annual income is `3.35 lakhs. Grand total income is 6.63 (29.28%). In group III 40 are male headed families total annual allied income is `2.92 lakhs and 20 female headed families allied income is `1.89 lakhs. Grand total annual allied income of group III agricultural labourers is `4.81 (21.25%). So from this table it is understood that female headed families allied income is greater than male agricultural labourers allied income. So it is understood that in augmenting money and saving for future purpose female agricultural labourers are better than male agricultural labourers (Fig.5.4).

TABLE 5.2.10 Total annual allied income earned by different groups of agricultural labourers through allied activities in the study area during 2012-13

(` in lakhs)

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Annual Annual Number of Total annual Number of Total annual individual individual agricultural allied income agricultural allied income allied income Grand allied income Grand Groups labourers (` in lakhs) % Groups labourers (` in lakhs) % (`) Total (`) Total

M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group Group 160 130 6205 8030 9.92 10.43 20.35 58.68 135 120 5840 7665 7.88 9.19 17.07 61.29 I I

Group Group 80 40 7665 9125 6.13 3.65 9.78 28.20 50 30 8030 9125 4.01 2.73 6.74 24.20 II II

Group Group 40 10 8760 10585 3.50 1.05 4.55 13.12 30 15 8395 10220 2.51 1.53 4.04 14.51 III III

Total 280 180 22630 27740 19.55 15.13 34.68 100.00 Total 215 165 22265 27010 14.40 13.45 27.85 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

201 202

In Ammapet block annual income from allied activities is analyzed. Group I male agricultural labourers annual allied income is `6205 and female annual allied income is `8030. Group II annual allied income for male and female agricultural labourers is `7665 and 9125. Group III agricultural labourers male and female annual allied income is `8760 and 10585. Group I percentage is 58.68% group II 28.20% and group III 13.12%.

In Papanasam block group I male and female agricultural labourers annual allied income is `5840 and `7665. Group II male and female annual allied income is `8030 and 9125. Group IIII annual allied income is `8395 and 10220. Group I percentage is 61.29 for group II 24.20 and for group III it is 14.51.

From this table it is understood that in the case of individual income of male and female agricultural labourer third group male rank is first, second place is given to second group and third place is given to group I. Another finding is that in all the groups female individual income is greater than male individual annual income.

It is concluded from the table that eventhough less number of days are available in agricultural occupation, female agricultural labourers have augmented their income through allied activities like milch cow rearing, sheep and goat rearing, pig rearing, poultry, vegetable production at home gardening etc. (Fig.5.4).

203

70 61.29 58.68 60 49.47 50 45.04 e

g 40 33.41 29.28 28.2 percenta e percenta 30 In 24.2 21.55 21.25

20 14.51 13.12

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.4. Total annual allied income earned by different groups of agricultural labourers through allied activities during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.11 Annual individual other income earned by male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Individual Individual Total Total Annual annual income Individual Annual annual income Individual annual annual working in other annual income working in other annual income income in income in Groups other days occupation (`) % Groups other days occupation (`) % others others per day per day occupation occupation (`) (`) M F M F M F M F M F M F

Individual Individual 30 20 200 90 6000 1800 7800 40.94 30 25 200 90 6000 2250 8250 46.87 Group I Group I

Individual Individual 25 15 200 90 5000 1350 6350 33.33 25 10 200 90 5000 900 5900 33.53 Group II Group II

Individual Individual 20 10 200 90 4000 900 4900 25.73 15 5 200 90 3000 450 3450 19.60 Group III Group III

per per per per Total 75 45 day day 15000 4050 19050 100.00 Total 70 40 day day 14000 3600 17600 100.00 wage wage wage wage

Source: Computed from primary data.

204 205

In Ammapet block annual individual working days of group I male and female house-holds in other sources are 30 and 20. Amount of wage paid for male and female agricultural labourers is `200 and 90. So individual annual income is `6000 and 1800, so total annual individual income of group I agricultural labourers is `7800 (40.94%). Group II agricultural male and female labourers working days in other sources are 25 and 15. So total average annual other income of the individual male and female agricultural labourers has been `6350 (33.33%). Group III individual male and female agricultural labourers other income is `4000 and 900. Therefore total annual individual other income is `4900 (25.73%).

In Papanasam block, Group I individual male and female agricultural labourers other source income is `6000 and 2250. So the total annual other income is `8250 (46.87%). Group II agricultural male and female labourers other annual individual income is `5000 and `900. So total annual individual other income is `5900 (33.53). In group III total other individual income of male and female agricultural labourers annual income from other sources is `3450 (19.60%).

Thus it is understood from the table that through other source also the male and female agricultural labourers are employed, but for the remaining days more than 6 months there is no work available to the group I agricultural labourers. Group II and group III agricultural labourers are atleast having some work in their land so they are earning some amount of money by cultivating green gram, black gram and gingerly.

So the conditions of landless agricultural labourers are very precarious in nature. Therefore they are pushed back to very very low income group that means living below poverty line. But marginal farmers are living on poverty line and small farmers above poverty line. Third group of small farmers cum agricultural labourers are better than group I and group II agricultural labourers 206 in the study area. Since the number of total working days are very less agricultural labourers annual income is very less. So the first hypothesis is proved empirically. S.Parthasarathy report in the year 1991-96 had proved that less number of working days in agricultural sector and other occupation had resulted in lower annual income only.

TABLE 5.2.12 Annual individual other income earned by male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Individual Individual 25 20 250 100 6250 2000 8250 42.31 30 20 250 100 7500 2000 9500 50.00 Group I Group I

Individual Individual 20 15 250 100 5000 1500 6500 33.33 20 15 250 100 5000 1500 6500 34.21 Group II Group II

Individual Individual 15 10 250 100 3750 1000 4750 24.36 10 5 250 100 2500 500 3000 15.79 Group III Group III

per per per per Total 60 45 day day 15000 4500 19500 100.00 Total 60 40 day day 15000 4000 19000 100.00 wage wage wage wage

Source: Computed from primary data. 207 208

In Ammapet block other annual individual working days for group I male and female agricultural labourers are 25 and 20 for group II 20 and 15 days and for group III 15 and 10 days. So annual average income for male and female agricultural labourers for group I is `6250 and 2000, for group II it is `5000 and 1500 and for group III it is `3750 and 1000. So total individual annual income for group I is `8250 (42.31%) for group II it is `6500 (33.33%) and for group III it is `4750 (24.36%).

In Papanasam block other source annual working days for individual male and female agricultural labourers for group I are 30 and 20 days for group II it is 20 and 15 days and for group III it is 10 and 5 days. So annual individual other income for male and female agricultural labourers is `7500 and 2000, so total income is `9500 (50.00%). In the case of group II agricultural male and female labourers annual other individual income is `5000 and 1500, so grand total annual income is `6500 (34.21%) group III total annual individual average other income is `3000 (15.79%).

Thus it is understood from the table that male agricultural labourers had more other working days than female agricultural labourers. Group I agricultural labourers have more working days. Compared with grand total income, group III labourers group I labourers rank first. This is because they do not have any land holding, but free to work in any one’s land at anytime. But working days are concerned the agricultural labourers of all groups have less months only. So they can not earn sufficient income for the whole year without borrowing from their relatives, neighbours, money lenders and large farmers. Therefore it is concluded that annual individual income earned by the agricultural labourers is simply an addition to the annual total income of agricultural income but not at all sufficient to meet their needs. This is the conditions of all groups of agricultural labourers. Some what group III and group II labourers are better because they possess marginal and small size land holdings. So they are engaged in their farm after harvesting paddy; they are 209 cultivating green gram, block gram and gingerly. By this way they are earning or augmenting their income. Since the number of working days are less annual income is also less. This is also supported by 1991 census population which had estimated the working days and agricultural income of agricultural labourers and found out that agricultural labourers conditions are very precarious. So the finding is empirically proved.

TABLE 5.2.13 Annual total other income earned by different group of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Number of Individual Individual Grand Number of Individual Individual Grand agricultural Annual income Total income total agricultural Annual income Total income total Name of labourers (`) (` in lakhs) annual Name of labourers (`) (` in lakhs) annual % % groups income groups income M F M F M F (` in M F M F M F (` in Lakhs) Lakhs)

Group Group 150 120 6000 1800 9.00 2.16 11.16 60.29 120 110 6000 2250 7.20 2.47 9.67 67.53 I I

Group Group II 90 50 5000 1350 4.50 0.67 5.17 27.93 60 40 5000 900 3.00 0.36 3.36 23.46 II

Group Group 50 20 4000 900 2.00 0.18 2.18 11.78 40 20 3000 450 1.20 0.09 1.29 9.01 III III

Total 290 190 15000 4050 15.50 3.01 18.51 100.00 Total 220 170 14000 3600 11.40 2.92 14.32 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

210 211

In Ammapet block group I male agricultural labourers are 150 and female are 120. Already annual other sources individual income is calculated. So total annual other income is `9 lakhs and 2.16 lakhs. Grand total annual other sources income is `11.16 lakhs (60.29%). Group II agricultural male and female labourers annual income is `4.50 lakhs and 0.67 lakhs. So grand total annual other sources income is ` 5.17 lakhs (27.93%). Group III agricultural labourers total annual other sources income for male and female is `2.00 lakhs and 0.18 lakhs. So total annual other sources income is `2.18 lakhs (11.78%).

In Papanasam block, group I agricultural labourers (male and female) are 120 and 110. Here too already average annual other income has been found out. So total annual other income of male and female agricultural labourers is `7.20 lakhs and `2.47 lakhs. So grand total other income of group I male and female agricultural labourers is `9.67 lakhs (67.53%). Group II total annual other income is `3.36 lakhs (23.46%). Group III annual other income for male and female agricultural labourers is `1.29 lakhs (9.01%).

As it is seen in the table that group I has more male and female labourers than other two groups. The amount of other sources annual income is greater than other two groups. It must be understood that group I agricultural labourers are landless, so they are free or ready to work others land at anytime as they like. But group II and group III agricultural labourers are marginal and small farmers but agricultural labourers.

Group II farmers cum agricultural male and female labourers possess 0.5 ha of land and group III are small farmers have land holding 1.5 hectare. These two groups of farmers have been employed. But group I labourers in the peak season only are getting employment in agriculture and earning more. That is why group II and group III farmers have less number of working days. After harvest of paddy is over, the group II and group III farmers are cultivating summer crops like green gram, black gram and gingerly. They are earning 212 income from their land. So it is understood that group III agricultural labourers are far better than other two groups i.e. group I and group II. Group II agricultural labourers are better than group I labourers so the income earned by the group II and group III farmers by wage in large farmers land is subsidiary income and main income is derived from their land. The two groups of (group II and group III) agricultural labourers economic conditions are better and they have social status because of the possession of land holdings.

TABLE 5.2.14 Annual total other income earned by different group of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Number of Individual Total Grand total Number of Individual Total Grand total Individual Annual Individual Annual agricultural income annual agricultural income annual Name of income (`) Name of income (`) labourers (` in lakhs) income % labourers (` in lakhs) income % groups groups (` in (` in M F M F M F Lakhs) M F M F M F Lakhs)

Group Group 160 130 6250 2000 10.00 2.60 12.60 67.02 135 120 7500 2000 10.12 2.40 12.52 76.86 I I

Group Group 80 40 5000 1500 4.00 0.60 4.60 24.47 50 30 5000 1500 2.50 0.45 2.95 18.11 II II

Group Group 40 10 3750 1000 1.50 0.10 1.60 8.51 30 15 2500 500 0.75 0.07 0.82 5.03 III III

Total 280 180 15000 4500 15.50 3.30 18.80 100.00 Total 215 165 15000 4000 13.37 2.92 16.29 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 213 214

In Ammapet block the number of group I male and female agricultural labourers has increased from 150 to 160 (6.7%) and female agricultural labourers from 120 to 130 (8.3%). Already annual other income of individual agricultural labourers is estimated. So total annual other income of group I agricultural male and female labourers is `10.0 lakhs and `2.60 lakhs. So grand total annual income is `12.60 (67.02%). Group II agricultural labourers have been decreased from 90 to 80 and from 50 to 40 male and female agricultural labourers. So total annual other income of male and female labourers had been `4.00 lakhs and 0.60 lakhs. So grand total annual other income of male and female agricultural labourers is `4.60 lakhs (24.47%). Group III agricultural male and female annual labourers annual other income had been `1.50 lakhs and 0.10 lakhs. So grand total annual income is `1.60 (8.51%).

In Papanasam block group I male and female agricultural labourers had been 135 and 120. Total annual other income of male and female agricultural labourers is `10.12 lakhs and `2.40 lakhs. Grand total other income is `12.52 lakhs (76.86%). Group II agricultural male and female labourers annual other income has been `2.50 lakhs and 0.45 lakhs. Annual total agricultural male and female labourers other income is `2.95 lakhs (18.11%). Group III male and female agricultural labourers annual other income is `0.75 lakhs and 0.07 lakhs 0.82 lakhs (5.03%).

Thus it is known that a portion of income is earned as additional annual income by male and female agricultural labourers instead of staying idle at home. As years passed on the number of working days and income of agricultural labourers are going on deteriorating. The finding of the study is strongly supported by Rural Agricultural Labourers Commission and Ministry of Labour report of National Commission on Rural Labour (1991).

TABLE 5.2.15 Total annual income earned by male and female agricultural labourers from agriculture allied activities and other household members income in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Number of Total Number of Total Total Total agricultural Total annual agricultural Total annual annual annual Name labourers annual allied Name labourers annual others Grand allied others Grand of agricultural activities % of agricultural % income total activities income total groups income income groups income (` in income (` in M F (` in lakhs) (` in M F (` in lakhs lakhs) (` in lakhs) lakhs) lakhs)

Group Group I 150 120 38.64 12.04 11.16 61.84 56.47 120 110 31.92 11.20 9.67 52.79 60.43 I

Group Group II 90 50 18.90 8.93 5.17 33.00 30.14 60 40 12.96 6.63 3.36 22.95 26.27 II

Group Group III 50 20 6.72 5.76 2.18 14.66 13.39 40 20 5.52 4.81 1.29 11.62 13.30 III

Total 290 190 64.26 26.73 18.51 109.50 100.00 Total 220 170 50.40 22.64 14.32 87.36 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

215 216

In Ammapet block during 2010-11 male and female agricultural labourers in the study area are computed. Group I number of agricultural male and female agricultural labourers earned wage income through agricultural activities, allied activities and other activities are estimated as `38.64, 12.04 and `11.16 lakhs. Grand total amount of 150 male and 120 female agricultural labourers is `61.84 (56.47%). Group II 90 male and 50 female agricultural labourers annual grand total income is `33.00 lakhs (30.14%). Group III 50 male and 20 female agricultural labourers annual grand total income is `14.66 (13.39%). So grand total annual income of all the three activities for three groups is `109.50 (100.00%). In Papanasam block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 120 and 110. Annual income earned from agricultural activities is `31.92 lakhs from allied activities it is `11.20 and other activities it is `9.67. In percentage it is 60.43. Group II total annual income from three activities is `22.95 lakhs (26.27%). Group III annual grand total income from all the three activities is `11.62 lakhs (13.30%). Total annual grand total income of all three groups is `87.36 lakhs (100.00%). From this table it is inferred that annual agricultural income is greater than other two income i.e. annual allied activities and other income in all the two blocks. It is revealed that the labourers are agricultural labourers because of the special talents in agricultural activities. Allied activities income is more common among construction workers and small industrial labourers in this contest it is concluded that agricultural activities are giving more income to agricultural labourers than other activities. That is why agricultural labourers are living hand to mouth life. Other income includes, income earned by other members of the family. It is understood that the male or female sample agricultural labourers are the bread winners of the family. Thus the annual income is lower than expenditure. The income earned by agricultural labourers is not so sufficient therefore the economic conditions is very poor in the study area (Fig.5.5).

TABLE 5.2.16 Total annual income earned by male and female agricultural labourers from agriculture allied activities and other household members income in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group 160 130 43.80 20.35 12.60 76.75 64.72 Group 135 120 37.57 17.07 12.52 67.16 69.84 I I

Group 80 40 16.00 9.78 4.60 30.38 25.62 Group 50 30 10.25 6.74 2.95 19.94 20.74 II II

Group 40 10 5.30 4.55 1.60 11.45 9.66 Group 30 15 4.20 4.04 0.82 9.06 9.42 III III

Total 280 180 65.10 34.68 18.80 118.58 100.00 Total 215 165 52.02 27.85 16.29 96.16 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

217 218

In 2012-13 in Ammapet block group I male and female agricultural labourers total income is estimated. From agricultural activities it is `43.80 lakhs, allied activities `20.35 lakhs and total other household income is `12.60 lakhs. So grand total income is `76.75 lakhs (64.72%). Group II agricultural labourers total income is `30.38 lakhs (25.62%). Group III agricultural labourers grand total income is 11.45 lakhs (9.66%). Grand total income is `118.58 lakhs (100%).

In Papanasam block group I agricultural labourers are 135 and 120. The income received from agricultural activities is 37.57 lakhs, from allied activities the income received is 17.07 lakhs and other household income is `12.52 (67.16 lakhs). So total annual income is 69.84 per cent. Group II male and female agricultural labourers total annual income is `19.94 lakhs (20.74%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers grand total income is `9.06 lakhs (9.42%). Three groups grand total income is `96.16 lakhs (100%).

From this table it is understood that head of the household male or female agricultural labourers income in total income is the major portion of the family income. Allied income and other household income are minor portion.

Therefore it is concluded that from the tables i.e. Ammapet agricultural income is greater than Papanasam block. In this ways agricultural income is estimated. If annual income is greater, automatically standard of living is also greater (Fig.5.5).

219

70 69.84 64.72 60.43

60 56.47

50 e

g 40 30.14 percenta e percenta 30 26.27 In 25.62 20.74

20 13.313.3 13.39 9.66 9.42 10

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.5. Total annual income earned by male and female agricultural labourers from agriculture allied activities and other household members income during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.17 Annual individual income received by group II and group III agricultural labourers (marginal and small farmers) in wet land in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

One year One year Yield Yield One One income Possession Yield income Possession Yield received received year year received Groups of wet land from Rate received from of wet land from from wet Rate from wet wet Grand wet from wet Grand in (ha) Kuruvai for 1 wet land (` in % in (ha) Kuruvai land in for 1 % land in Bag land total land land (`in total and Bag lakhs) and Bag Bag yield yield lakhs) Thaladi Thaladi bag Bag M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group II 0.5 0.5 2 50 50 100 900 0.45 0.45 0.90 25.00 0.5 0.5 2 50 50 100 900 0.45 0.45 0.90 25.00 Individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 2 150 150 300 900 1.35 1.35 2.70 75.00 1.5 1.5 2 150 150 300 900 1.35 1.35 2.70 75.00 Individual

Total 2.0 2.0 4 200 200 200 1.80 1.80 3.60 100.00 2.0 2.0 4 200 200 200 1.80 1.80 3.60 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data Note : 1 bag contains 60 kgs of paddy 220 221

In Ammapet block individual group II male and female agricultural labourers possession of wet land is 0.5 ha. In 2010-11 yield from both Kuruvai and Thaladi in 0.5 has was 50 bags (1 bag contains 60 kgs). Total production of paddy reaped by group II male and female agricultural labourers was 50 and 50 bags of paddy. The price of 1 bag of paddy was `900. So total income received by male from the possession of 0.5 ha was `0.45 lakhs and by female agricultural labourer and total income was `0.45 lakhs. Grand total income of both male and female labourers was `0.90 lakhs (25%). In the case of group III agricultural labourers the possession of land is 1.5 ha (both small farmers cum agricultural male and female labourers). So the yield of paddy in both Kuruvai and Thaladi seasons for male and female agricultural labourers was 150 bags and 150 bags. Total paddy yield was 300 bags. 1 bag of paddy price is `900. Both male and female annual income is `1.35 lakhs and `1.35 lakhs. Grand total income was `2.70 lakhs (75%).

In Papanasam block individual group II male and female agricultural labourers possessed 0.5 ha 0.5 ha. In a year 2 times cultivation of paddy that is Kuruvai and Thaladi had taken place. So total yield is 50 and 50 bags (1 bag contains 60 kgs). So total production is 100 bags. Price per bag is `900. Therefore total annual income of individual male and female labourers was `0.45 lakhs and `0.45 lakhs. Grand total income is `0.90 lakhs (25%).

Group III individual agricultural male and female labourers possessed 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha yield from the wet land was 150 bags and 150 bags from Kuruvai and Tahladi. So total yield was 300 bags. Price of each bag of paddy is `900. So grand total amount of income was `2.70 lakhs (75%).

Thus from the table it is understood that group II individual agricultural labourers income from wet land in 2010-11 was smaller than group III individual small farmers cum agricultural labourers. This is because of more possession of wet land by group III individual agricultural labourers. Based on 222 it is conducted that group III agricultural labourers income is much more greater than group II agricultural labourers. The standard of living of agricultural labourers is better than other two groups. Group III agricultural labourers are respected by the society and the economic conditions also are better. Group III agricultural labourers are living above poverty line and throughout the year group III agricultural labourers are employed either in their own land or in large farmers land. Thus fourth hypothesis is proved in the case of group II and group III agricultural labourers. Ownership of land has direct relationship with standard of living, and employment. Ownership of wet land has resulted in more income and better standard of living and employment throughout the year. So poverty is completely eradicated Dr. Memoria had also accepted this view in his book “Agricultural Economics”, 1999, p.236 (Fig.5.6).

TABLE 5.2.18 Annual individual income received by group II and group III agricultural labourers (marginal and small farmers) in wet land in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

One year One year Yield One Yield One income Possession Yield income Possession Yield received year received year received Groups of wet land from Rate received of wet land from Rate from wet wet Grand from wet wet from wet Grand in (ha) Kuruvai for 1 from wet land % in (ha) Kuruvai for 1 % land in Bag land total land in Bag land land (` in total and Bag (` in lakhs) and Bag yield yield lakhs) Thaladi Thaladi bag bag M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group II 0.5 0.5 2 60 60 120 950 0.57 0.57 1.14 25.00 0.5 0.5 2 60 60 120 950 0.57 0.57 1.14 25.00 Individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 2 180 180 360 950 1.71 1.71 3.42 75.00 1.5 1.5 2 180 180 360 950 1.71 1.71 3.42 75.00 Individual

Total 2.0 2.0 4 240 240 480 2.28 2.28 4.56 100.00 2.0 2.0 4 240 240 480 2.28 2.28 4.56 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data Note : 1 bag contains 60 kgs of paddy 223 224

In Ammapet block possession of land by group II individual agricultural labourer is 0.5 ha and 0.5 ha (both male and female). In wet land Kuruvai and Thaladi paddy are cultivated. Yield received by the male and female agricultural labourers is 60 bags and 60 bags. Total annual production of paddy is 120 bags. Price per bag of paddy is `950. Income received from the wet land is `0.5 lakhs and `0.5 lakhs (both male and female income separately). Grand total income is `1.14 lakhs (25%). In the case of group III male and female agricultural individual labourers possession of land is 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha yield of paddy reaped by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 180 bags and 180 bags. Total yield is 360 bags. So grand total price is `3.42 lakhs (75%).

In Papanasam block group II individual agricultural labourer possession of land by male and female agricultural labourers is 0.5 ha and 0.5 ha. In Kuruvai and Thaladi paddy cultivation each male and female agricultural labourers had reaped 60 bags and 60 bags. So grand total yield of paddy is 120 bags. One bag (60 Kg of paddy) price is `950. Therefore grand total price is `1.14 lakhs (25%).

But in the case of group III agricultural labourers, possession of land is 1.5 ha. Based on centre paribus assumption the fertility of the soil remains the same. Cultivation technology adopted by the farmers had been the same. Based on it, the yield or income from one hectare of land is `1.14 lakhs. So there is no doubt that the sample group II marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers and group III small farmers cum agricultural labourers are reaping yield depending upon the possession of land only. So individual male and female agricultural 225 labourers had received 360 bags of paddy due to production of paddy in Kuruvai and Thaladi. Hence the price of paddy per bag is `950. So individual male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `1.71 lakhs and `1.71 lakhs. Grand total income received by individual group III male and female agricultural labourers is `3.42 lakhs (75%) (Fig.5.6).

226

80 75 75 75 75

50 e g

40 percenta e percenta

In 25

30 25 25 25

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group II individual Group III individual

Fig..5.6. Annual individual income received by group II and group III agricultural labourers (marginal and small farmers) in wet land during the study period 2010-12 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.19 Annual income received from wet land owned by group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Individual Total annual Individual Total annual No. of annual income income received No. of annual income income received Groups agricultural received from from wet land Grand agricultural received from from wet land Grand % % labourers wet land (` in total labourers wet land (` in total lakhs) (` in lakhs) lakhs) (` in lakhs)

M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 90 50 0.45 0.45 40.50 22.50 63.00 40 60 40 0.45 0.45 27.00 18.00 45.00 35.71 II

Group 50 20 1.35 1.35 67.50 27.00 94.50 60 40 20 1.35 1.35 54.00 27.00 81.00 64.29 III

Total 140 70 1.80 1.80 108.00 49.50 157.50 100 100 60 1.80 1.80 81.00 45.00 126.00 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 227 228

In Ammapet block, total number of male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 50 in group II. Individual male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `0.45 and 0.45 respectively. Annual income received by 90 male agricultural labourers is `40.50 lakhs in 2010-11. 50 female agricultural labourers annual income is `22.50 lakhs. So grand total income is `63 lakhs (40%). Group III total number of agricultural labourer are 50 and 20. Individual male annual income is `1.35 lakhs and also the same amount for female individual agricultural labourer so total annual income of 20 agricultural female labourers is `27 lakhs. Therefore grand total income is `94.50 lakhs (60%). In Papanasam block, total number of group II agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Individual agricultural labourer annual income is `0.45 lakhs both for male and female agricultural labourers. So 60 male agricultural labourers annual income is `27 lakhs and 40 female agricultural labourers annual agricultural income is `18 lakhs. Grand total income is `45.00 (35.71%). Group III total number of male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Individual male agricultural annual income is `1.35 lakhs. The same amount is reaped by female individual agricultural labourers. So total annual agricultural income received by 40 male agricultural labourers is 54 lakhs and for 20 agricultural female labourers the annual agricultural income is `27 lakhs. So total annual agricultural income received by group III agricultural labourers is `81 lakhs (64.29%). From this table it is understood that during 2010-11 the group II marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers land holding is smaller than small farmers cum agricultural labourers. So the annual income from the land holding is greater than group II agricultural labourers. The yield from one hectare of land is only 50 bags of paddy annually. At the same time the agricultural labourers did not adopt latest technology. So agricultural labourers had reaped less yield. The agricultural labourers did not adopt any technology announced by agricultural research centres and agricultural university, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The agricultural labourers are at present aware of latest technology, that enables them to earn more profit.

TABLE 5.2.20 Annual income received from wet land owned by group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 80 40 0.57 0.57 45.60 22.80 68.40 44.44 50 30 0.57 0.57 28.50 17.10 45.60 37.21 II

Group 40 10 1.71 1.71 68.40 17.10 85.50 55.56 30 15 1.71 1.71 51.30 25.65 76.95 62.79 III

Total 120 50 2.28 2.28 114.00 39.90 153.90 100.00 80 45 2.28 2.28 79.80 42.75 122.55 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

229 230

In Ammapet block total number of group II male and female agricultural labourers are 80 and 40. Individual male and female annual income is `0.57 lakhs and 0.57 lakhs respectively. 80 male agricultural labourers annual income is `45.60 lakhs and 40 female agricultural labourers annual income from the land possessed (0.5 ha) is `22.80. Grand total income is `68.40 lakhs (44.44%). Group III male agricultural labourers are 40 and female agricultural labourers are 10. Annual individual income is `1.71 lakhs. So 40 male agricultural labourers (55.56%) annual income is `85.50 lakhs. Annual female individual income is `1.71 lakhs and 10 female agricultural labourers income is `17.10. So total percentage of income obtained by group III agricultural labourers is 85.50 grand total (55.56%). In Papanasam block, group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30 in number. Individual male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `0.57 lakhs and `0.57 lakhs respectively. 50 male agricultural labourers annual income is `28.50 lakhs and 30 female agricultural labourers annual income is `17.10 lakhs. Total annual income of group II agricultural labourers is ` 45.60 lakhs (37.21%). Group III agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. Individual group III agricultural male labourer annual income is `1.71 lakhs. So 30 male agricultural labourers annual income is `51.30 lakhs and 15 female agricultural labourers annual income is `25.65 lakhs. So group III agricultural male and female income is `76.95 lakhs (62.79%). From this table it is known that annual income of group III agricultural labourers is greater than group II agricultural labourers. But group II male and female are getting equal amount of paddy and annual income. So it is understood from the table that the fertility of the soil is the same and technology adopted in paddy cultivation is the same. Therefore it is concluded that group II and group III farmers cum agricultural labourers annual income from agricultural wet land is greater. So standard of living and socio economic conditions are also better then group I agricultural labourers due to possession of more wet land.

TABLE 5.2.21 Annual individual expenditure incurred by male and female group II and group III agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Individual Individual expenditure in Kuruvai expenditure in Possession of Kuruvai Possession of Groups Kuruvai and Grand Thaladi Kuruvai and Grand wet land (ha) Thaladi % wet land (ha) % Thaladi total culvation Thaladi total culvation (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs)

M F M F M F M F

Group II 0.5 0.5 2 0.30 0.30 0.60 25 0.5 0.5 2 0.30 0.30 0.60 25 Individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 2 0.90 0.90 1.80 75 1.5 1.5 2 0.90 0.90 1.80 75 Individual

Total 2.0 2.0 4 1.20 1.20 2.40 100 2.0 2.0 4 1.20 1.20 2.40 100 Source: Computed from primary data. 231 232

In Ammapet block group II individual agricultural labourers had cultivated Kuruvai and Thaladi in their wet land. So expenditure incurred for one time cultivation is `0.30 lakhs. If it is for another one more time, the total expenditure is `0.60 lakhs. Therefore grand total expenditure is `0.60 lakhs (25%). Group III individual agricultural labourers cultivated Kuruvai and Thaladi. In 1.5 ha, the total expenditure for two times is `1.80 lakh for each time the individual agricultural labourers had spent `0.90 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `1.80 lakhs (75%).

In Papanasam block individual group II agricultural labourers had spent `0.30 lakhs for Kuruvai paddy cultivation and 0.30 for Thaladi paddy cultivation. So grand total expenditure is `0.60 lakhs (25%).

Group III individual agricultural labourers had spent 1.80 lakhs for Kuruvai and Thaladi paddy cultivation. So grand total expenditure of group III agricultural labourers is `1.80 lakhs (75%).

Therefore it is understood from the table that without expenditure it is highly impossible to get income. As far as agricultural activities are concerned the farmers have spent money in each stage, then only the farmers have seen income. Thus the farmers cum agricultural labourers have spent two third of money to get one third of income annually.

TABLE 5.2.22 Annual individual expenditure incurred by male and female group II and group III agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Individual Individual expenditure in Grand Kuruvai expenditure in Grand Possession of Kuruvai Possession of Groups Kuruvai and total Thaladi Kuruvai and total wet land (ha) Thaladi % wet land (ha) % Thaladi (` in culvation Thaladi (` in culvation (` in lakhs) lakhs) (` in lakhs) lakhs) M F M F M F M F

Group II 0.5 0.5 2 0.40 0.40 0.80 25 0.5 0.5 2 0.40 0.40 0.80 25 Individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 2 1.20 1.20 2.40 75 1.5 1.5 2 1.20 1.20 2.40 75 Individual

Total 2.0 2.0 4 1.60 1.60 3.20 100 2.0 2.0 4 1.60 1.60 3.20 100

Source: Computed from primary data.

233 234

In Ammapet block group II individual agricultural labourer has possessed 0.5 ha (both male and female) for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation in a year group II individual agricultural labourer has spent `0.40 lakhs. Agricultural female individual labourer has spent `0.40 lakhs as an expenditure so this grand total expenditure is `0.80 lakhs (25%). Group III individual male and female agricultural labourers’s possession of land is 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha respectively. The amount of money incurred for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi by individual male agricultural labourer is `1.20 lakhs and the same amount of money is incurred by agricultural female labourer `1.20 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `.2.40 lakhs (75%). In Papanasam block group II individual agricultural labourer male and female labourer have spent for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation per year is `0.40 lakhs and `0.40 lakhs respectively. So grand total expenditure is `0.80 lakhs (25%). Group III male and female individual agricultural labourer has possessed 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha of wet land. The amount of money spent by agricultural male and female labourers for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation is `1.20 lakhs and 1.20 lakhs. Thus grand total expenditure is `2.40 lakhs (75%). So group II and group III agricultural labourers (Marginal and small farmers) have spent sizable amount of money as expenditure for paddy cultivation. So the two groups of agricultural labourers have to meet their family expenditure also. In this context, the agricultural labourers are finding employment opportunities in medium or large farmers land. That wage income of the group II and group III agricultural labourers is used as family expenditure. At the harvest season only the labourers get profit from the land. So incurring the expenditure for paddy cultivation is essential and inevitable to find out annual profit from wet land.

TABLE 5.2.23 Annual expenditure spent on wet land for cultivating paddy by group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Annual Total Annual Total Annual No. of Annual Individual No. of Individual expenditure in Grand expenditure in wet Grand Groups agricultural expenditure in wet agricultural expenditure wet land total (` land total (` labourers land (` in lakhs) % labourers in wet land % (` in lakhs) in (` in lakhs) in lakhs) (` in lakhs) lakhs) M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 90 50 0.30 0.30 27.00 15.00 42.00 40.00 60 40 0.30 0.30 18.00 12.00 30.00 35.71 II

Group 50 20 0.90 0.90 45.00 18.00 63.00 60.00 40 20 0.90 0.90 36.00 18.00 54.00 64.29 III

Total 140 70 1.20 1.20 72.00 33.00 105.00 100.00 140 70 1.20 1.20 54.00 30.00 84.00 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

235 236

Agricultural labourers are 90 male and 50 female individual expenditure incurred by agricultural group II labourers is `0.30 lakhs. So 90 male agricultural labourers expenditure per year for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi is `27.00 lakhs. 50 Female agricultural labourers annual expenditure for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation is `15.00 lakhs. Grand total expenditure of group II male and female agricultural labourers expenditure is `42.00 lakhs (40%). Group III agricultural labourers are 50 males and 20 females. 50 agricultural group III labourers expenditure for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi per year in 1.5 ha of land is `45.00 lakhs. 20 male agricultural female labourers annual expenditure for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi is `18.00 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `63.00 lakhs (60%). In Papanasam block total number of group II male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Group II 60 male agricultural labourers have spent `18.00 lakhs for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation in 2010-11. 40 group II female agricultural labourers have spent for Kuruvai and Thalai cultivation annually `12.00 lakhs. So grand total expenditure of group II agricultural labourers is `30.00 lakhs (35.71%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 20. Therefore 40 agricultural male labourers have spent for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation per year is `36 lakhs and 20 female agricultural labourers have spent `18.00 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `54.00 lakhs (64.29%). Thus it is known from the table that group II and group III agricultural male and female labourers have spent sizable amount of money for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi paddy. For the day-to-day expenditure of the family, the agricultural labourers are depending on wage. After the work in the land is over the agricultural labourers have been employed in large farmers land as wage earners. Because the income earned by group II and group III agricultural labourers is realized after 3 or 6 months, then only the paddy is sold by marginal and small farmers cum agricultural labourers (Fig.5.7).

TABLE 5.2.24 Annual expenditure spent on wet land for cultivating paddy by group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Group 80 40 0.40 0.40 32.00 16.00 48.00 44.44 50 30 0.40 0.40 20.00 12.00 32.00 37.21 II

Group 40 10 1.20 1.20 48.00 12.00 60.00 55.56 30 15 1.20 1.20 36.00 18.00 54.00 62.79 III

Total 120 50 1.60 1.60 80.00 28.00 108.00 100.00 80 45 1.60 1.60 56.00 30.00 86.00 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 237 238

Agricultural labourers are 80 males and 40 females. Individual expenditure incurred by agricultural group II labourer is `0.40 lakhs. So 80 male agricultural labourers expenditure per year for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi is `32 lakhs. 40 Female agricultural labourers annual expenditure for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation is ` 16 lakhs. Grand total expenditure of group II agricultural expenditure is `48 lakhs (44.44%). Group III agricultural labourers are 40 males and 10 females. 40 agricultural group III labourers expenditure for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi per year in 1.5 ha of land is `48 lakhs and 10 female agricultural labourers annual expenditure for the cultivation of Kuruvai and Thaladi is `12 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `60 lakhs (55.56%). In Papanasam block, total number of group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Group II agricultural labourers have spent `20 lakhs for Kuruvai and Thaladi paddy cultivation in 2012-13. 30 group II female agricultural labourers have spent for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation is `12 lakhs. So grand total expenditure of group II agricultural labourers is `32 lakhs (37.21%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 30 and 15. Therefore 30 agricultural male labourers have spent for Kuruvai and Thaladi cultivation per year `36 lakhs and 15 female agricultural labourers have spent `18 lakhs. So grand total expenditure is `54 lakhs (62.79%). Therefore it is concluded that first the farmers have spent sizable amount of money. After 3 or 6 months only the agricultural labourers can get the income. Between the interval period only they are engaging themselves as wage earners in other large farmers land. Since group II and group III are considered as marginal and small formers, the farmers are called as group II and group III agricultural labourers because they are employed by large farmers as agricultural labourers. They are also employed in other works like animal husbandry as labourers in large farmers land (Fig.5.7).

239

70 64.29 62.79 60

60 55.56

50 44.44 40 37.21 35.71 age 40 t t percen

30 n I

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group II Group III

Fig..5.7. Annual expenditure spent on wet land for cultivating paddy by group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers in the study areas during 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.25 Annual profit received by group II and group III agricultural male and female labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Total annual Total annual Total annual Total annual Annual profit income income expenditure Annual profit expenditure received from received Groups received from incurred in received from wet incurred in wet wet land (` in Grand from wet Grand wet land (` in % wet land (` land (` in lakhs) % land (` in lakhs) lakhs) total land (` in total laksh) in lakhs) laksh)

M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 40.50 22.50 27.00 15.00 13.50 7.50 21.00 40.00 27.00 18.00 18.00 12.00 9.00 6.00 15.00 35.71 II

Group 67.50 27.00 45.00 18.00 22.50 9.00 31.50 60.00 54.00 27.00 36.00 18.00 18.00 9.00 27.00 64.29 III

Total 108.00 49.50 72.00 33.00 36.00 16.50 52.50 100.00 81.00 45.00 54.00 30.00 27.00 15.00 42.00 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 240 241

In Ammapet block total number of male and female group II agricultural labourers annual income is `40.50 lakhs and `22.50 lakhs. Annual expenditure incurred by agricultural male and female labourers is `27 lakhs and 15 lakhs. Annual profit received by group II agricultural labourers (male and female) is `13.50 lakhs and 7.50 lakhs. Grand total profit of group II agricultural male and female labourers is `21.00 lakhs (40%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers annual income is `67.50 lakhs and 27.00 lakhs. Annual expenditure of group III agricultural male and female is `45 lakhs and 18 lakhs. So annual profit received by group III agricultural labourers is `22.50 lakhs and 9 lakhs. Grand total profit is `31.50 (60%). From this table it is sent hat group II male and female agricultural labourers expenditure is 66.66 per cent. Profit is only 33.34%. The profit is the income of the agricultural group I and group II labourers. Based on it only socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers are determined. In Papanasam block group II total male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `27 lakhs and 18 lakhs. Annual expenditure incurred by group II agricultural labourers is `18 lakhs and 12 lakhs. Annual profit of group II male and female labourers is `9 lakhs and 6 lakhs. Grand total profit is `15 lakhs (35.71%). Group III total number of male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `54 lakhs and 27 lakhs. Annual expenditure is `36 lakhs and 18 lakhs. Annual profit is `18 lakhs and 9 lakhs. Grand total expenditure is `27 lakhs (64.29%). From this table it is understood that more profit is reaped by group III agricultural labourers due to larger tract of wet land. Smaller the possession of wet land holding smaller would be the profit. There is direct relationship between annual income and annual expenditure in the case of paddy cultivation. So profit also directly corrected with annual income and indirectly corrected with the expenditure of agricultural labourers (Fig.5.8).

TABLE 5.2.26 Annual profit received by group II and group III agricultural male and female labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Total annual Total annual Total Annual income Total annual Total Annual income Total annual profit received Grand received expenditure profit received Grand Groups received from expenditure in wet from wet land total (` from wet in wet land from wet land (` total (` wet land (` in land (` in lakhs) % % (` in lakhs) in land (` in (` in lakhs) in lakhs) in laksh) lakhs) laksh) lakhs)

M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 45.60 22.80 32.00 16.00 13.60 6.80 20.40 44.44 28.50 17.10 20.00 12.00 8.50 5.10 13.60 37.21 II

Group 68.40 17.10 48.00 12.00 20.40 5.10 25.50 55.56 51.30 25.65 36.00 18.00 15.30 7.65 22.95 62.79 III

Total 114.00 39.90 80.00 28.00 34.00 11.90 45.90 100.00 79.80 42.75 56.00 30.00 23.80 12.75 36.55 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

242

243

In Ammapet block group I agricultural labourers annual income is `45.60 lakhs and `22.80 lakhs (male and female). Annual expenditure incurred by male and female agricultural labourers is `32 lakhs and 16 lakhs. Therefore annual profit reaped by male and female agricultural labourers is `13.60 lakhs and 6.80 lakhs. Grand total profit of group II agricultural labourers is `20.40 lakhs (44.44%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers annual income is `68.40 lakhs and 17.10 lakhs. Annual expenditure is `48 lakhs and 12 lakhs. So annual profit earned by male and female group III agricultural labourers is 20.40 lakhs and 5.10 lakhs. Grand total profit is `25.50 lakhs and 55.56 percentage.

In Papanasam block, group II male and female agricultural labourers annual income from wet land is `28.50 lakhs and `17.10 lakhs. Annual expenditure incurred is `20.00 lakhs and 12 lakhs. Total annual profit from wet land is `8.50 lakhs and 5.10 lakhs. Grand total profit is `13.60 lakhs (37.21%).

Group III agricultural male and female agricultural labourers annual income from wet land is `51.30 lakhs and `25.65 lakhs. Annual expenditure is `36 lakhs and 18 lakhs. Annual profit reaped by male and female agricultural labourers is `15.30 lakhs and `7.65 lakhs. Therefore grand total expenditure is `22.95 lakhs (62.79%).

As it is seen from the table that group II and group III agricultural labourers (marginal and small farmers) have received more income during 2012-13. Therefore agricultural labourers who are having marginal size land and small size land (0.5 ha and 1.5 ha) are interested in cultivating paddy because it is used daily by South Indian for food preparation without rice food cannot be prepared. To that extent rice is needed by all the people in South India. 244

Small farmers cum agricultural labourers and marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers are benefited by paddy cultivation in the study area. Profit is an incentive to the marginal and small farmers. So the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers of small farmers cum agricultural labourers (group III) are higher than group II agricultural labourers due to the profit and large treat of land holding (wet land) (Fig.5.8).

245

70 64.29 62.79 60

60 55.56

50 44.44 40 37.21 age 35.71 t t 40

percen 30

n I I

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group II Group III

Fig..5.8. Annual profit received by group II and group III agricultural male and female labourers in the study areas during 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.27 Annual grand total income received from different sources by agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Annual wage Annual wage No. of Annual allied Annual others Annual wet land Total annual No. of Annual allied Annual others Annual wet land Total annual income from income from Groups agricultural income income income income agricultural income income income income agriculture agriculture laboruers (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) Grand laboruers (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) Grand (` in lakhs) total (` in lakhs) total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

61.84 52.79 Group I 150 120 30.00 8.64 5.47 6.57 9.00 2.16 - - 44.47 17.37 120 110 24.00 7.92 4.38 6.82 7.20 2.47 - - 35.58 17.21 (38.17) (40.81)

54.00 37.95 Group II 90 50 16.20 2.70 4.92 4.01 4.50 0.67 13.50 7.50 39.12 14.88 60 40 10.80 2.16 3.28 3.35 3.00 0.36 9.00 6.00 26.08 11.87 (33.33) (29.34)

Group 46.16 38.62 50 20 6.00 0.72 3.65 2.11 2.00 0.18 22.50 9.00 34.15 12.01 40 20 4.80 0.72 2.92 1.89 1.20 0.09 18.00 9.00 26.92 11.70 III (28.50) (29.85)

162.00 129.36 Total 290 190 52.20 12.06 14.04 12.69 15.50 3.01 36.00 16.50 117.74 44.26 220 170 39.60 10.80 10.58 12.06 11.40 2.92 27.00 15.00 88.58 40.78 (100.00) (100.00)

Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 246 247

In Ammapet block group I agricultural male and female labourers had earned more income from daily wages because the labourers do not have any cultivable land. Total number of group I agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. As a wage earner male agricultural group I labourers had earned annually `30 lakhs. Female agricultural labourers total earning is `8.64 lakhs. From allied activities male labourers have earned `5.47 lakhs and female agricultural labourers other allied activities income is 6.57 lakhs. Another source of earning is other sources income, earned by other family members. So annual other income of male and female agricultural labourers is ` 9.00 lakhs and `2.16 lakhs. Grant total incomes for male and female is `44.47 lakhs and 17.37 lakhs. Hence including all the income grand total income is `61.84 lakhs (38.17%). Agricultural wet land income is nill because the labourers are landless agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers are 90 males and 50 females wage through agriculture the male and female labourers earned `16.20 lakhs and 2.70 lakhs. From allied activities the total number of male and female had earned `4.92 lakhs and 4.01 lakhs. Annual other income of group II male and female agricultural labourers is `4.50 lakhs and 0.67 lakhs. Annual wet land income of male and female agricultural labourers is `13.50 lakhs and `7.50 lakhs. All the total income is `39.12 lakhs and ` 14.88 lakhs. Grand total income is `54.00 lakhs (33.33%). Group III male and female agricultural labourers annual wage income is `6 lakhs and 0.72 lakhs. Allied income of male and female agricultural labourers is `3.65 lakhs and `2.11 lakhs. Annual other income is `2.00 lakhs and `0.18 lakhs. Annual wet land income is `22. 50 lakhs and 9 lakhs. Annual grand total income of male and female agricultural labourers is `34.15 lakhs and 12.01 lakhs. Overall grand total income is `46.16 lakhs (28.50%). In Papanasam block Group I agricultural male and female labourers are 120 and 110. The labourers are landless labourers, so wet land income is not found. The major sources of annual income is wage income. So it is `24 lakhs and `7.92 lakhs. Allied income of the male and female income is `4.38 lakhs and `6.82 lakhs. Other income of male and female agricultural labourers is 248

`7.20 lakhs and `2.47 lakhs grand total income is `35.58 lakhs and `17.21 lakhs. Overall grand total income is `52.79 lakhs (40.81%). Group I male and female agricultural labourers did not have wet land income. So overall grand total income is less. But group III agricultural labourers have more wet land income. So grand total income is greater. Because of that the income higher the standard of living will be high. Group II agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Annual wage income of male and female agricultural labourers is `10.80 lakhs and 2.16 lakhs. Allied income is `3.28 lakhs and 3.35 lakhs and annual other income is `3.00 lakhs and 0.36 lakhs. Annual total wet land income is `9 lakhs and `6 lakhs and grand total annual income of male and female labourers is `26.08 lakhs and `11.87 lakhs. Overall grand total income is `37.95 lakhs (29.34%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 20. Income from wage annually is `4.80 lakhs sand 0.72 lakhs. Allied annual income is `2.92 lakhs. and 1.89 lakhs. Other income is `1.20 lakhs 0.09 lakhs. Annual income form wet land is `18 lakhs and `9 lakhs. Total annual income from all the field is `26.92 lakhs and `11.70 lakhs. Overall grand total income is `38.62 lakhs (29.85%). From the table the number of agricultural labourers are very less in group II and group III, group III male agricultural labourers are 3 fold lesser than group II and it is further more lesser than group I. That is why the overall grand total income is less. Here too the conclusion is drawn that group III agricultural male and female earning is greater than other two groups. This is due to wet land income and possessions of wet land by group III agricultural labourers is greater than groups II. But the number of sample farmers are less. Even than group III agricultural labourers are having a better socio- economic condition. Income from land is greater. They are having high standard of living than other two groups i.e. group II and groups I agricultural labourers. But in the case of total annual expenditure group II agricultural labourers is greater than group I agricultural labourers (Fig.5.9).

TABLE 5.2.28 Annual grand total income received from different sources by agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Annual wage Annual wage No. of Annual allied Annual others Annual wet Total annual No. of Annual allied Annual others Annual wet Total annual income from income from Groups agricultural income income land income income agricultural income income land income income agriculture agriculture laboruers (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) laboruers (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) Grand total (` in lakhs) Grand total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

76.75 67.16 Group I 160 130 36.00 7.80 9.92 10.43 10.00 2.60 - - 55.92 20.83 135 120 30.37 7.20 7.88 9.19 10.12 2.40 - - 48.37 18.79 (46.66) (50.61)

Group 50.78 33.54 80 40 14.00 2.00 6.13 3.65 4.00 0.60 13.60 6.80 37.73 13.05 50 30 8.75 1.50 4.01 2.73 2.50 0.45 8.50 5.10 23.76 9.78 II (30.87) (25.27)

Group 36.95 32.01 40 10 5.00 0.30 3.50 1.05 1.50 0.10 20.40 5.10 30.40 6.55 30 15 3.75 0.45 2.51 1.53 0.75 0.07 15.30 7.65 22.31 9.70 III (22.47) (24.12)

164.48 132.71 Total 280 180 55.00 10.10 19.55 15.13 15.50 3.30 34.00 11.90 124.05 40.43 215 165 42.87 9.15 14.40 13.45 13.37 2.92 23.80 12.75 94.44 38.27 (100.00) (100.00)

Source: Computed from primary data.

249 250

In Ammapet block total number of group I agricultural male and female labourers are 160 and 130, annual wage income received by male agricultural labourers is `36 lakhs and female labourers received 7.80 lakhs. Annual allied income received by male agricultural labourers is `9.92 lakhs and female labourers have received `10.43 lakhs. Annual other income received by male and female agricultural labourers is `10 lakhs and 2.60 lakhs since the agricultural labourers are landless overall grand total income is `76.75 lakhs (46.66%).

Groups II agricultural male and female labourers are 80 and 40. Annual wage income of male and female agricultural labourers is `14.00 lakhs 2.00 lakhs. Annual allied income of male and female agricultural labourers is `6.13 lakhs and 3.65 lakhs. Annual other income of male and female agricultural labourers is `4 lakhs and `0.60 lakhs. Annual land income is `13.60 lakhs sand 6.80 lakhs. Sum total of all annual income is `37.73 lakhs and 13.05 lakhs. Overall grand total income of group II agricultural labourers is `50.78 lakhs (30.87%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 10. Annual wage income of group III male and female labourers is `5 lakhs and 0.30 lakhs. Annual allied income of male and female agricultural labourers is `3.50 lakhs and 1.05 lakhs. Annual other income of agricultural labourers of male and females is `1.50 and 0.10 lakhs. Annual wet land income is `20.40 lakhs and `5.10 lakhs. Sum total of all the annual income is `30.40 lakhs and `6.55 lakhs. So grand total of all the annual income is `36.95 lakhs (22.47%).

In Papanasam black group I male and female agricultural labourers are 135 and 120. Annual wage income of male and female agricultural labourers is `30.37 lakhs and 7.20 lakhs. Annual allied income of male and female agricultural labourers is `7.88 lakhs and `9.19 lakhs. Annual other income earned by male and female agricultural labourers is `10.12 lakhs and 2.40 lakhs. Since group I labourers are landless, no income is added with total 251 income. Sum total of all annual income is `48.37 lakhs and 18.79. Therefore grand total annual income is 67.16 lakhs (50.61%).

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Annual wags income of male and female agricultural labourers is `8.75 lakhs and 1.50 lakhs. Annual allied income of the agricultural labourers is `4.01 lakhs and `2.73 lakhs. Annual other income is `2.50 lakhs and 0.45 lakhs. Annual wet land income of male and female agricultural labourers is `8.50 lakhs and `5.10 lakhs sum total of all the annual income is `23.76 lakhs and 9.78 lakhs. Overall annual grand total income is `33.54 lakhs (25.27%).

Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 30 and 15. Annual wage income is `3.75 lakhs and `0.45 lakhs. Annual allied income is `2.51 lakhs and `1.53 lakhs. Annual other income is `0.75 and `0.07 lakhs. Annual wet land income is `15.30 lakhs and `7.65 lakhs. Sum total of all the annual income is `22.31 lakhs and `9.70 lakhs. Overall grand total incomes is `32.01 lakhs (24.12%).

From the table it is known that the major source of income of group I male and female labourers is wage income. So based on the total income, group I agricultural labourers are poor. Since the number of male and female labourers are more, seemingly the grand total annual income is greater, otherwise it is very low. So the standard of living and socio-economic conditions are very poor. They are living below poverty line. On the other hand group 11 agricultural labourers are having somewhat better standard of living and above poverty line. Comparatively speaking the standard of living or group II agricultural labourers is better than group I. Group III agricultural male and female labourers have more land income. So automatically they are living above poverty line. The socio-economic conditions are better than group II agricultural labourers. Based on grand total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers, group III are having better living standard in the society (Fig.5.9). 252

60 50.61

50 46.66 40.81

40 38.17 33.33 e g 30.87 29.85 29.34 30 28.5 25.27 24.12 percenta e percenta

22.47 In

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.9. Annual grand total income received from different sources by the agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13. TABLE 5.2.29 Annual expenditure incurred by different group of agricultural labourers in study area during 2010-11 (` in lakhs)

Annual Ammapet block Papanasam block S. Expenditure on Group – I Group – II Group – III Total Grand Group – I Group – II Group – III Total Grand No. various groups I, II % % & III M F M F M F M F Total M F M F M F M F Total Food 1. 9.50 4.50 7.50 3.00 6.50 2.00 23.50 9.50 33.00 10.43 7.80 6.27 4.50 3.00 3.50 2.00 15.80 11.27 27.07 10.34 expenditure Clothing 2. 7.20 4.00 5.30 3.00 4.00 1.00 16.50 8.00 24.50 7.74 4.50 5.50 2.10 1.50 2.50 1.50 9.10 8.50 17.60 6.72 Expenditure Fuel 3. 5.50 3.00 3.50 1.00 1.20 1.00 10.20 5.00 15.20 4.80 3.10 2.50 1.80 1.18 1.00 0.40 5.90 4.08 9.98 3.81 Expenditure Medicine 4. 7.50 4.00 4.60 2.20 4.50 1.00 16.60 7.20 23.80 7.52 7.50 4.50 3.08 2.60 3.00 1.60 13.58 8.70 22.28 8.50 Expenditure Education 5. 6.50 4.50 4.50 2.38 4.20 1.00 15.20 8.08 23.28 7.36 6.60 3.30 4.10 2.50 3.00 1.50 13.70 7.30 21.00 8.02 Expenditure Various festival 6. 7.50 6.00 5.20 2.50 4.20 1.10 16.90 9.60 26.50 8.38 6.70 3.20 4.50 2.00 3.10 1.00 14.30 6.20 20.50 7.83 expenditure Marriage 7. 6.70 6.52 4.00 3.20 4.10 2.30 14.80 12.02 26.82 8.48 5.60 3.30 4.10 2.02 4.20 1.02 13.90 6.34 20.24 7.73 Expenditure Electricity 8. 6.40 2.50 3.38 9.50 2.10 1.00 11.88 4.00 15.88 5.02 2.50 2.00 1.10 1.30 1.30 0.30 4.90 3.60 8.50 3.24 Expenditure Transport and 9. 5.50 2.50 4.50 9.50 2.50 1.20 12.50 4.20 16.70 5.28 5.50 2.90 1.50 1.40 1.50 0.40 8.50 4.70 13.20 5.04 communication 10. Social Function 7.50 4.50 4.30 2.10 4.30 1.10 16.10 7.70 23.80 7.52 6.50 3.10 4.50 2.00 3.10 2.00 14.10 7.10 21.20 8.09 Parches of Jewels 11. 6.80 7.50 5.30 6.10 4.10 3.00 16.20 16.60 32.80 10.37 5.80 6.10 3.00 3.20 3.02 3.20 11.82 12.50 24.32 9.29 expenditure Betelnut 12. 4.60 2.60 3.40 1.00 1.20 0.50 9.20 4.10 13.30 4.20 4.80 4.60 2.00 1.30 2.00 0.68 8.80 6.58 15.38 5.87 tobacco Intoxicant 13. 6.42 0.00 3.50 0.00 1.00 0.00 10.92 0.00 10.92 3.45 6.80 0.00 2.40 0.00 2.00 0.00 11.20 0.00 11.20 4.28 expenditure Miscellaneous 14. 8.50 5.30 6.50 3.30 4.30 2.00 09.30 10.60 29.90 9.45 4.80 8.13 7.52 1.00 6.00 2.00 18.32 11.13 29.45 11.24 Expenditure Total 96.12 57.42 65.48 30.98 48.20 18.20 209.80 106.60 316.40 100.00 78.50 55.40 46.20 25.00 39.22 17.60 163.92 98.00 261.92 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 253 254

In Ammapet block during 2010-11 different groups of male and female agricultural labourers incurred 14 types or important expenditure. Among the expenditure food items expenditure occupied first place. All these three groups of male and female agricultural labourers incurred more money on foot items only. Second type of expenditure is parches of jewels. Third category expenditure is various festival and social functions and transport expenditure. Intoxicant and betelnut expenditure occupied fourteenth important type of expenditure. Miscellaneous items total expenditure was 9.45 per cent. In the case of percentage of expenditure is concerned food items expenditure constitutes first place. Second place is given to jewels expenditure third comes miscellaneous and marriage expenditure, then comes various festival and social functions expenditure. Among the lowest type of expenditure is betnut chewing and intoxicant drinks expenditure. Education expenditure has been given middle types of expenditure and also medicine expenditure.

This indicates the middle and lowest groups expenditure in the society. According to Engle’s family law of expenditure, if a group of people incurred more on food expenditure and lowest amount on education and medical expenditure the family is a poor family in the society. On the other hand a family spent highest amount of money on education and medicine and lowest amount of money on food and fuel items, that types of families have highest standard of living or middle level standard of living in the society. Based on the law, it is concluded that group I landless agricultural labourers have lowest standard of living and group II and group III agricultural labourers have middle or high level standard of living (In accordance with Engel’s law of family expenditure).

In Papanasam block also the same conclusion is drawn based on 14 important types of expenditure the same finding is applicable to Papanasam block agricultural labourers also (Fig.5.10).

TABLE 5.2.30 Annual expenditure incurred by different group of agricultural labourers in study area during 2012-13 (` in lakhs) Annual Ammapet block Papanasam block S. Expenditure on Group – I Group – II Group – III Total Grand Group – I Group – II Group – III Total Grand No. various groups I, II % % & III M F M F M F M F Total M F M F M F M F Total Food 1. 12.30 6.50 5.80 3.50 4.10 1.50 22.20 11.50 33.70 10.35 10.90 6.80 3.70 2.00 2.60 1.60 17.20 10.40 27.60 10.28 expenditure Clothing 2. 8.10 5.10 3.10 2.00 3.08 1.60 14.28 8.70 22.98 7.06 8.70 5.39 2.20 1.20 2.00 0.70 12.90 7.29 20.19 7.52 Expenditure Fuel 3. 5.40 3.10 2.20 0.40 1.00 0.68 8.60 4.18 12.78 3.93 3.00 2.00 2.00 0.50 0.50 0.40 5.50 2.90 8.40 3.13 Expenditure Medicine 4. 8.50 5.15 4.10 2.00 2.40 0.80 15.00 7.95 22.95 7.05 8.50 4.50 3.10 2.00 2.10 1.00 13.70 7.50 21.20 7.89 Expenditure Education 5. 9.50 6.10 4.80 1.50 3.10 0.40 17.40 8.00 25.40 7.80 8.37 4.00 3.60 2.10 2.30 1.00 14.27 7.10 21.37 7.96 Expenditure Various festival 6. 6.10 5.10 4.40 1.60 3.30 0.50 13.80 7.20 21.00 6.45 7.50 5.00 2.50 2.00 2.00 1.00 12.00 8.00 20.00 7.44 expenditure Marriage 7. 8.00 9.10 4.40 2.30 3.80 0.60 16.20 12.00 28.20 8.66 7.33 6.10 3.20 2.00 2.20 1.50 12.73 9.60 22.33 8.31 Expenditure Electricity 8. 3.10 2.00 2.40 0.50 1.00 0.10 6.50 2.60 9.10 2.79 2.40 2.00 0.90 0.40 0.80 0.50 4.10 2.90 7.00 2.61 Expenditure Transport and 9. 5.60 3.20 3.00 0.40 1.00 0.20 9.60 3.80 13.40 4.12 2.60 5.20 2.60 0.50 0.83 0.40 6.03 6.10 12.13 4.52 communication 10. Social Function 8.50 6.10 4.40 2.40 2.17 0.50 15.07 9.00 24.07 7.39 7.40 6.50 2.10 0.60 2.20 1.20 11.70 8.30 20.00 7.44 Parches of Jewels 11. 10.60 9.50 6.40 5.10 4.50 1.80 21.50 16.40 37.90 11.64 6.70 7.40 3.60 2.60 2.40 2.00 12.70 12.00 24.70 9.20 expenditure Betelnut 12. 6.60 1.50 3.00 0.40 1.40 0.10 11.00 2.00 13.00 3.99 4.90 2.00 2.00 0.40 0.58 0.50 7.48 2.90 10.38 3.87 tobacco Intoxicant 13. 9.50 0.00 5.30 0.00 3.50 0.00 18.30 0.00 18.30 5.62 8.90 0.00 3.76 0.00 4.00 0.00 16.66 0.00 16.66 6.20 expenditure Miscellaneous 14. 18.40 7.95 6.90 2.95 6.25 0.37 31.55 11.27 42.82 13.15 16.80 8.90 3.70 2.00 4.20 1.00 24.70 11.90 36.60 13.63 Expenditure Total 120.20 70.40 60.20 25.05 40.60 9.15 221.00 104.60 325.60 100.00 104.00 65.79 38.96 18.30 28.71 12.80 171.67 96.89 268.56 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. 255 256

In Ammapet block, group I, group II and group III agricultural laboruers annual expenditure is given. All these labourers have spent money on 14 important items. Among the items, miscellaneous item has more per cent that is 13.15 per cent after that investment in jewels percentage is 11.64 per cent. Third place is given to food expenditure (10.35%) and fourth place is given to marriage that is 8.66 per cent. Then medical expenditure constitutes 7.05 per cent, education expenditure is 7.80 per cent, social functions expenditure percentage is 7.39 and festival expenditure is 6.45 per cent. Other types of expenditure have meager per cent.

From this table it is understood that more percentage of expenditure incurred on miscellaneous items, jewels, foods, medicines, education, etc. constituted more chunk than other expenditure. Compared with 2010-11 expenditure table the per cent of amount incurred on food items was 10.35 per cent. But it has been reduced to 8.98 per cent. So the difference is 1.47 per cent in 2012-13.

Based on that it is revealed that the standard of living of the agricultural labourers has increased because expenditure on jewels has also increased in 2012-13. A slight change in percentage of education, food, miscellaneous and medicine is found. Hence it is concluded that the agricultural labourers have saved money in the form of jewels. More amount of money on food expenditure, marriage expenditure and slight change in education expenditure etc. are depicting increasing standard of living, eradication of poverty and reduction in unemployment. So the agricultural labourers are in a better position in 2012-13 because it is highlighted in the pattern of expenditure.

In Papanasam block, group I, group II and group III agricultural labourers expenditure pattern is given. There are fourteen types of expenditure incurred by the agricultural different groups of labourers. The number of male and female agricultural labourers are greater in group I and next in group II. So 257 group III agricultural labourers are less in number, the total or grand total expenditure is varying. But the researcher has taken into account only grand total and percentage of expenditure, so as to give his analysis and findings.

In this regard, it is understood that first place is given to miscellaneous expenditure because its percentage is greater than other types of expenditure. Second place is given to food and total expenditure (10.28%), third place is given to jewels expenditure (9.20%) and fourth place is given to marriage expenditure (8.31%).

Other types of expenditure is ranging between 8.0 to 2.4 percentage in 2012-13.Tthe expenditure pattern has changed that means the agricultural labourers living standard has been depicted that people living below poverty line have become zero. Even, the group I agricultural labourers are lifted up from below poverty line because of the implementation of 100 days work programme. The number of working days have been increased. The agricultural labourers have assured wage i.e., `100 per day. At present landless poor labourers are paid `120 as daily wage and 100 days work per year per family.

So it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers socio-economic conditions are at the middle level in the society. Group II has reasonable standard of living. So these two groups of agricultural labourers are respected in the society particularly group III labourers than group II agricultural labourers including group I agriculture labourers based on annual total expenditure incurred on various items (Fig.5.10).

8 percentage

In 6

2 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

1. Food expenditure 8. Electricity Expenditure 2. Clothing Expenditure 9. Transport and communication 3. Fuel Expenditure 10. Social Function 4. Medicine Expenditure 11. Parches of Jewels expenditure 5. Education Expenditure 12. Betelnut tobacco 6. Various festival expenditure13. Intoxicant expenditure 7. Marriage Expenditure 14. Miscellaneous Expenditure Fig.5.10. Annual expenditure incurred by different group of agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13. 258

TABLE 5.2.31 Grand total net indebtedness of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

No. of Total annual Total Annual Total No. of Total annual Total Annual Total No. of agricultural income expenditure indebtedness agricultural income expenditure indebtedness Groups Grand Grand labourers (` in lakhs) (` in Lakhs) (` in lakhs) % labourers (` in lakhs) (` in Lakhs) (` in lakhs) % total total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 150 120 44.47 17.37 96.12 57.42 51.65 40.05 91.70 59.39 120 110 35.58 17.21 78.50 55.40 42.92 38.19 81.11 61.19 I

Group 90 50 39.12 14.88 65.48 30.98 26.36 16.10 42.46 27.50 60 40 26.08 11.87 46.20 25.00 20.12 13.13 33.25 25.08 II

Group 50 20 34.15 12.01 48.20 18.20 14.05 6.19 20.24 13.11 40 20 26.92 11.70 39.22 17.60 12.30 5.90 18.20 13.73 III

Total 290 190 117.74 44.26 209.80 106.60 92.06 62.34 154.40 100.00 220 170 88.58 40.78 163.92 98.00 75.34 57.22 132.56 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data 259 259 260 In Ammapet block, group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. Grand total income of group I agricultural labourers in 2010-11 was `44.47 and `17.37 lakhs. Grand total annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labourers (male and female) was `96.12 lakhs and `57.42 lakhs. So total annual indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers was `51.65 and `40.05. Therefore grand total indebtedness of group I agricultural labourers was `91.70 lakhs (59.39%). So individual annual indebtedness was `33963 in 2010-11.

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 50. Annual grand total income of male and female agricultural labourers was `39.12 lakhs and 14.88 lakhs. Grand total annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labouters was `65.48 lakhs and `30.98 lakhs. Total annual indebtedness of agricultural labourers was `26.36 lakhs and `16.10 lakhs. Grand total annual indebtedness was `42.46 lakhs (27.50%). Therefore individual annual indebtedness was `30328.

Group III male and female agricultural laboruers are 50 and 20. Grand total income of male and female agricultural labourers was `34.15 lakhs and 12.01 lakhs. Grand total annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labourers was `48.20 lakhs and `18.20 lakhs. Annual indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers was `14.05 lakhs and `6.19 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness was `20.24 lakhs (13.11%). Individual agricultural labourer annual indebtedness was `28914.

In Papanasam block, group I agricultural labourers are 120 and 110. Grand total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers was `35.58 lakhs and `17.21 lakhs. Total annual expenditure was `78.50 lakhs and `55.40 lakhs. Total annual indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers was `42.92 lakhs and `38.19 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness was `81.11 lakhs (61.19%). 261

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Grand total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers was `26.08 lakhs and `11.87 lakhs. Grand total annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labourers was `46.20 lakhs and `25 lakhs. Total indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers in 2010-11was `20.12 lakhs and `13.13 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness was `33.25 lakhs. Individual agricultural labourer indebtedness was `33250 (25.08%).

Group III male and female agricultural laboruers are 40 and 20. Grand total income of male and female agricultural laboruers was `26.92 lakhs and `11.70 lakhs. Grand total expenditure was `39.22 lakhs and `17.60 lakhs. So total indebtedness at male and female agricultural laboruers was `12.30 lakhs and 5.90 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness was `18.20 lakhs. Individual agricultural labourer indebtedness was `30333 (13.73%).

From the table it is understood that Group I agricultural labourers indebtedness is greater than group II agricultural laboruers i.e. `2015 annually. Group II agricultural labourers indebtedness is greater than group III agricultural labourers i.e. `2917 annually. Based on this it is understood that Group I agricultural labourers are suffering a lot due to agricultural indebtedness. Hence, the fourth hypothesis is proved. The amont of annual expenditure is greater than annual income so the amount of indebtedness is greater. This view is supported by rural labour commission report in 1999 and the commission revealed that rural labourers are migrated to urban area due to their indebtedness.

TABLE 5.2.32 Grand total net indebtedness of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Group 160 130 55.92 20.83 120.20 70.40 64.28 49.57 113.85 70.66 135 120 48.37 18.79 104.00 65.79 55.63 47.00 102.63 75.55 I

Group 80 40 37.73 13.05 60.20 25.05 22.47 12.00 34.47 21.39 50 30 23.76 9.78 38.96 18.30 15.20 8.52 23.72 17.46 II

Group 40 10 30.40 6.55 40.60 9.15 10.20 2.60 12.80 7.95 30 15 22.31 9.70 28.71 12.80 6.40 3.10 9.50 6.99 III

Total 280 180 124.05 40.43 221.00 104.60 96.95 64.17 161.12 100.00 215 165 94.44 38.27 171.67 96.89 77.23 58.62 135.85 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data 262 263 In Ammapet block, group I agricultural male and female labourers are 160 and 130 in 2012-13. Total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers has been `55.92 lakhs and `20.83 lakhs. Total expenditure of agricultural labourers (male and female) is `120.20 lakhs and `70.40 lakhs. So total indebtedness of the male and female agricultural laboruers is `64.28 lakhs and `49.57 lakhs. So grand total indebtedness of group I agricultural labourers was `113.85 lakhs (70.66%). Individual indebtedness of agricultural labourers is `39,241.

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 80 and 40 in 2012- 13. Total annual income of male and female agricultural laboruers is `37.73 lakhs and `13.05 lakhs. Annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labourers is `60.20 lakhs and `25.05 lakhs. Total indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers is `22.47 lakhs and `12 lakhs. Grand total 34.47. Total indebtedness of agricultural individual labourer is `28725 (21.39%).

Group III agricultural male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 10. Total annual income of agricultural male and female labourers is `30.40 lakhs and 6.55 lakhs. Annual total expenditure of agricultural labourers is `40.60 lakhs and 2.60 lakhs. Total indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers is `10.20 lakhs and `2.60 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness is `12.80. So individual labourers indebtedness is `25600 (7.95%).

From this analysis it is seen that group I labourers indebtedness is greater than other group II and group III male and female labourers. Group I individual agricultural labourers annual indebtedness is `39241 and group II individual agricultural labourers indebtedness is `28725. So the difference is `10,516. Group III individual labourers indebtedness is lower than group II individual agricultural labourer i.e. `3125.

264 Thus it is understood that group I agricultural labourers are suffering from indebtedness because of mortgage of jewels and brass vessals. The labourers are unable to repay principal and interest. So indebtedness of group I agricultural laboruers are still a question mark. So the standard of living is low and socio-economic conditions are very poor and the laboures poverty can not be completely eradicated.

In Papanasam block, the number of group I male and female agricultural labourers is 135 and 120. Grand total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers is `48.37 lakhs and `18.79 lakhs. Total expendtirue of male and female agricultural labourers is `104 lakhs and 65.79 lakhs. So total indebtedness of agricultural male and female labourers is `55.63 lakhs and 47 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness of agricultural labourers is `102.63 lakhs. So individual agricultural labourers indebtedness is `66213 (75.55%).

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Grand total annual income is `23.76 lakhs and `9.78 lakhs. Grand total annual expenditure of male and female agricultural labourers is `38.96 lakhs and `18.30 lakhs. Total indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers is `15.20 lakhs and `8.52 lakhs. Grand total indebtedness is `23.72 lakhs. Individual indebtedness of agricultural labourer is `29650 (17.46%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. Total annual income of male and female agricultural labourers is `22.31 lakhs and `9.70 lakhs. Total annual expenditure is `28.71 lakhs and `12.80 lakhs. Total indebtedness of male and female agricultural labourers is `6.40 lakhs and 3.10 lakhs. Grand total annual indebtedness of agricultural labourers is `9.50 lakhs (6.99%). So individual annual indebtedness of agricultural labourer is `21111.

From this table it is seen that annual indebtedness of group I individual agricultural laboruer is lower than other two groups. Compare the group II 265 individual agricultural laboruers with group I the amount of indebtedness is `36563. Group II individual indebtednes is greater than group III individual indebtedness i.e. `8539.

Thus it is understood that the economic conditions and standard of living of group III agricultural labourers are very high compared with group I agricultural labourers. The period of unemployment is greater nearly 6-5 months in a year. That is why the annual income is low, but due to unavoidable expenditure the annual expenditure of group I agricultural labourer is very high. That is the reason for more indebtedness of agricultural labourer. But compare the indebtedness of group II agricultural labourer, group I agricultural labourer’s socio-economic conditions are very precarious in nature. The standard of living is low and poverty eradication programmes goals are defeated in the case of group I labourers.

Thus it is concluded that group I agricultural labourers indebtedness is the highest, the socio-economic condition and standard of living are poor. The labourers are facing the problem of long period of unemployment. So poor income leads to the operation of misery go round and not merry go round. TABLE 5.2.33 Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area of Ammapet block during 2010 – 2011

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 90 male and 50 female. 27 male and 17 female agricultural labourers saved `1000-3000 annually. 23 male and 13 female agricultural labourers saved `4000-5000. 15 male and 10 female agricultural labourers saved `5000-6000. 23 male and 14 female agricultural labourers have saved `7000-8000. 7 male and 3 female agricultural labourers saved annually `8000-10,000. Group III agricultural male and female agricultural labourers are 10 and 3 and saved `8000-10,000.

Group I male and female agricultural labourers savings was `6.43 lakhs, and `5.50 group II agricultural male and female labourers savings was `4.19 lakhs and `2.13 lakhs. Group III agricultural labourers total savings was `2.13 lakhs and 0.80 lakh. Total savings of all the three groups was `12.75 lakhs and `8.51 lakhs.

Grand total savings of all the three groups of male and female agricultural labourers was `21.26 lakhs (Fig.5.11). TABLE 5.2.34 Annual savings of different types of agricultural labourers in the study area of Papanasam blok during 2010 - 2011

Papanasam Block Total Saving in Group – I Group – II Group – III Group – I Group – II Group – III Annual Agricultural Mid Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Saving ` in Saving ` in Savig ` in Grand Saving Labourers ` in Percentage Value Labourers Labourers Labourers Lakhs Lakhs Lakhs Total in ` Lakhs M F M F M F M F M F M F M F 1000- 1500 23 18 10 8 8 3 0.34 0.27 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.04 0.61 0.43 1.04 5.98 2000 2000- 2500 20 16 8 6 6 3 0.50 0.40 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.07 0.85 0.62 1.47 8.45 3000 3000- 3500 10 15 7 5 5 2 0.35 0.52 0.24 0.17 0.17 0.07 0.76 0.76 1.52 8.74 4000 4000- 4500 12 14 6 4 4 2 0.54 0.63 0.27 0.18 0.18 0.09 0.99 0.90 1.89 10.87 5000 5000- 5500 25 20 15 10 10 5 1.37 1.10 0.82 0.55 0.55 0.27 2.74 1.92 4.66 26.80 6000 6000- 6500 9 8 5 3 3 2 0.58 0.52 0.32 0.19 0.19 0.13 1.09 0.84 1.93 11.10 7000 7000- 7500 8 7 4 2 2 1 0.60 0.52 0.30 0.15 0.15 0.07 1.05 0.74 1.79 10.29 8000 8000- 8500 7 6 3 1 1 1 0.59 0.51 0.25 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.92 0.67 1.59 9.14 9000 9000- 9500 6 5 2 1 1 1 0.57 0.47 0.19 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.85 0.65 1.50 8.63 10,000 120 110 60 40 40 20 5.44 4.94 2.74 1.68 1.68 0.91 9.86 7.53 17.39 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. 268 269 In Papanasam block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 120 male and 110 female. 43 male agricultural labourers female agricultural labourers 34 annual saving was `1000-3000. 22 male and 29 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `3000-5000. 25 male and 20 female agricultural labourers annual saving is `5000-6000. 17 male and 15 female agricultural labourers annual savings was `6000-8000. 21 male and 18 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `7000-10,000. Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 60 male and 40. 18 male and 14 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `1000-3000. 13 male and 9 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `3000-5000. 15 male and 10 female agricultural labourers annual saving is `5000-6000. 9 male and 5 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `6000-8000. 5 male and 2 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `8000-10,000. Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 20. 14 male and 6 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `1000-3000. 9 male and 4 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `3000-5000. 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `5000-6000. 7 male and 5 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `6000-10,000. Group I total annual saving was `5.44 lakhs and 4.94 lakhs. Group II agricultural labourers annual savings was `2.74 lakhs and 1.68 lakhs. Total savings of male and female agricultural labourers was `9.86 lakhs and 7.53 lakhs. Grand total savings of all the three groups was `17.39 lakhs. From the table i.e. Ammapet block and Papanasam block, Ammapet block had more annual savings than Papanasam block, because number of male and female agricultural labourers is larger in Ammapet block than Papanasam block. Since the agricultural labourers are poorer section of the society the annual saving is lower in the study area. But whatever it is, small savings was a better habit among the people. For mobilization of finance, small savings is essential and inevitable. In the study area the male and female agricultural labourers are saving money in the form of small saving (Fig.5.11). 270

30 26.8

25 24.51

15 percentage

11.29 In 11.1 10.87 10.49 10.3 10.29 9.97 9.92 9.22 10 9.14 8.74 8.63 8.45 8.42 5.98 5.88

0 Ammapet block Papanasam block

Rs.1000‐2000 Rs.2000‐3000 Rs.3000‐4000 Rs.4000‐5000 Rs.5000‐6000 Rs.6000‐7000 Rs.7000‐8000 Rs.8000‐9000 Rs.9000‐10,000

Fig.5.11. Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area of Ammapet and Papanasam block during 2010 – 2011.

TABLE 5.2.35 Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in Ammapet block during 2012 - 2013

Ammapet Block Total Saving in Group – I Group – II Group – III Group – I Group – II Group – III Annual Agricultural Mid Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural Saving ` in Saving ` in Savig ` in Grand Saving Labourers ` in Percentage Value Labourers Labourers Labourers Lakhs Lakhs Lakhs Total in ` Lakhs M F M F M F M F M F M F M F 2000- 2500 25 20 15 8 8 1 0.62 0.50 0.37 0.20 0.20 0.02 1.19 0.72 1.91 7.62 3000 3000- 3500 24 19 12 6 6 1 0.84 0.66 0.42 0.21 0.21 0.03 1.47 0.90 2.37 9.46 4000 4000- 4500 23 18 11 4 4 1 1.03 0.81 0.49 0.18 0.18 0.04 1.70 1.03 2.73 10.90 5000 5000- 5500 22 17 10 3 3 1 1.21 0.93 0.55 0.16 0.16 0.05 1.92 1.14 3.06 12.22 6000 6000- 6500 30 25 20 10 10 2 1.95 1.62 1.30 0.65 0.65 0.13 3.90 2.40 6.30 25.15 7000 7000- 7500 12 10 5 4 4 1 0.90 0.75 0.37 0.30 0.30 0.07 1.57 1.12 2.69 10.74 8000 8000- 8500 10 8 4 3 3 1 0.85 0.68 0.34 0.25 0.25 0.08 1.44 1.01 2.45 9.78 9000 9000- 9500 8 7 2 1 1 1 0.76 0.66 0.19 0.09 0.09 0.09 1.04 0.84 1.88 7.50 10,000 10,000- 10,500 6 6 1 1 1 1 0.63 0.63 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.83 0.83 1.66 6.63 11,000 160 130 80 40 40 10 8.79 7.24 4.13 2.14 2.14 0.61 15.06 9.99 25.05 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. 271 272 In Ammapet block group I male agricultural labourers are 160 and female are 130. 49 male labourers and 39 female labourers saved `2000-3000 annually. 45 male and 35 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `4000-6000. 42 male agricultural labourers and 35 female agricultural labourers had saved `6000-8000. 10 male and 8 female agricultural labourers have saved `8000-9000 annually. 14 male and 13 female agricultural labourers saved `9000-10000 annually. Group II 27 male and 14 female agricultural labourers saved `2000- 4000. 21 male and 7 female agricultural labourers saved `4000-6000. 25 male and 14 female agricultural labourers saved annually `6000-8000. 7 male and 5 female agricultural labourers saved `8000-11,000. Group III 14 male and 2 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `2000-4000. 7 male and 2 female agricultural labourers saved `4000-6000 annually. 14 male and 3 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `6000-8000. 5 male and 3 female agricultural labourers saved `8000-11000. Group I 160 male and 130 female agricultural labourers total annual saving was `8.79 lakhs and female annual saving was `7.24 lakhs. Group II 60 male and 40 female agricultural labourers annual saving was `4.13 lakhs and 2.14 lakhs. group III male and female agricultural labourers annual saving was `2.14 lakhs and 0.61 lakh. Total annual saving of male and female agricultural labourers was `15.06 lakhs and 9.99 lakhs. Grand total saving is `25.05 lakhs. From this table it is understood that among all the groups first groups, saving was greater than other groups saving. This is due to more number of male and female agricultural labourers. But in group II also the amount of annual saving is greater than group III. This is also larger number of male and female agricultural labourers. Group III agricultural labourers annual saving is actually greater than others. Based on number of agricultural labourers, seemingly group I saving is greater but actually group III agricultural labourers are better in case of income and saving (Fig.5.12).

TABLE 5.2.36 Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in Papanasam block during 2012 - 2013

Group II agricultural labourers are 50 male and 30 female. 18 male and 10 female agricultural labourers have saved `2000-4000. 20 male and 13 female agricultural labourers have saved `6000-9000. Remaining 4 male and 4 female agricultural labourers annual of having was `8000-11000.

Group III number of male and female agricultural labourers are 30 male and 15 female. 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers are saving `2000- 4000. 5 male and 2 female agricultural labourers have saved `4000-6000. 8 male 4 female agricultural labourers saved `6000-7000. 5 male and 2 female agricultural labourers have saved `7000-9000. 4 male and 3 female agricultural labourers have saved `9000-11000.

Total savings of group I male and female agricultural labourers is `7.41 lakhs and `6.42 lakhs. Group II total savings of male and female agricultural labourers is `2.57 lakhs and `1.63 lakhs. Group III male and female agricultural labourers total saving is `1.63 lakhs and 0.83 lakhs. All the three groups male and female agricultural labourers saving is `11.61 lakhs and 8.88 lakhs. Grand total savings of all three groups of male and female agricultural labourers is `20.49 lakhs.

From this table it is understood that as years passed agricultural labourers are saving more amount of money as small saving. This is a welcoming symptom on the part of agricultural labourers, for future saving is essential and inevitable to meet unexpected expenditure. Compared with other 275 agricultural labourers group III and group II. Agricultural labourers are somewhat having better position than other group I male and female agricultural labourers.

Group III agricultural labourers are above poverty line Government have implemented number of employment generation programme so it is beneficial to agricultural labourers to get income. State government has also provided more concession to get rice and other consumption items at lowest price through rationing shop. Because of the case most of the agricultural male and female labourers are able to come up from below poverty line to above poverty line in 2012-13 (Fig.5.12).

276

30 28.5 25.15 25

15 13.76 percentage

12.22 In 11.18 10.9 10.74 9.91 9.78 9.46 10 9.32 8.74 7.76 7.62 7.5 6.63 6.34

5 4.49

0 Ammapet block Papanasam block Rs.2000‐3000 Rs.3000‐4000 Rs.4000‐5000 Rs.5000‐6000 Rs.6000‐7000 Rs.7000‐8000 Rs.8000‐9000 Rs.9000‐10,000 Rs.10,000‐11,000

Fig.5.12. Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area of Ammapet and Papanasam block during 2012 – 2013.

TABLE 5.2.37 Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam block Amount Group I Group II Group III Group I Group II Group III Source of of Total amount Grand Total amount Grand agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural Saving Saving ` in lakhs total ` ` in lakhs total ` labourers labourers labourers % labourers labourers labourers % in ` in in lakhs lakhs M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

0– Post Office 80 50 30 10 15 5 1.25 0.65 1.90 8.15 50 30 10 - 10 5 0.70 0.35 1.05 4.60 2000

2000- SHGs - 30 - 15 - 5 - 1.50 1.50 6.44 - 40 - 10 - 5 - 1.65 1.65 7.24 4000

4000- Chit fund 20 10 10 5 5 - 1.75 0.75 2.50 10.73 30 10 - - 10 - 2.00 0.50 2.50 10.96 6000

Co-operative 6000- 20 10 20 10 10 - 3.50 1.40 4.90 21.03 - - 20 10 - 5 1.40 1.05 2.45 10.75 bank 8000

Commercial 8000- 10 - 10 - 10 5 2.70 0.45 3.15 13.52 10 - 10 10 10 - 2.70 0.90 3.60 15.79 bank 10,000

10,000- LIC 20 20 20 10 10 5 5.50 3.85 9.35 40.13 30 30 20 10 10 5 6.60 4.95 11.55 50.66 12,000

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 14.70 8.60 23.30 100.00 120 110 60 40 40 20 13.40 9.40 22.80 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data.

277 278 In Ammapet block, the annual savings is analysed. There are different sources of savings i.e., post office, SHGs, chit funds, co-operative bank, commercial bank and LIC. Annual savings in post office is upto `0.2000 by group I, 80 male and 50 female agricultural labourers. The number of group II, 30 male and 10 female agricultural labourers are falling in this category and also group III, 15 male and 5 female agricultural labourers are found in this interval of `0-2000 annual savings. Female agricultural labourers are saving money in SHGs, so group I females are 30, group II females are 15 and group III females are 5 in number. The annual amount of saving is `2000-4000. Usually female members of the families are saving money more than male families, since the female agricultural labourers are alone the members of SHGs in the study area. That is why male agricultural labourers are omitted. In Chit fund saving, the annual amount of money is ranging between `4000-6000. Therefore in group I, 20 males and 10 females in group II. 10 males and 5 females and in group III only 5 male agricultural labourers are saving money annually to the extent of `6000-8000. In co-operative bank the amount of annual savings are deposited by three groups of agricultural labourers. So therefore group I males are 20 and females are 10, group II males are 20 females are 10 and group III males are 10 and no female agricultural labourers saved money in co-operative bank. Commercial bank is also another important source of annual saving. The amount of annual saving is within the range of `8,000-10,000. In this source, group I male agricultural labourers are 10 male and no female agricultural labourer is saving money. Group II, 10 male agricultural labourers alone have saved in it. Group III, males are 10 and female agricultural labourers are 5. In LIC, 20 males and 20 females group I labourers are saving money. 20 males and 10 females are saving in group II. In this source group III. 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers are saving money in Life Insurance Corporation to the extent of `10000-12000 annually.

Thus it is noted from the table that now the agricultural labourers of different groups are saving money in various sources. The annual saving of female agricultural labourers is greater than male agricultural labourers. 279 Anyhow all the agricultural labourers irrespective of their economic conditions have saved money in the above mentioned source. Eventhough the agricultural labourers are suffering from too many problems, the agricultural labourers have saved money for themselves and also for the children. The agricultural labourers are ready to meet any emergency conditions in the life. The agricultural labourers want to create a bright future to the education of children and marriage of the daughters. For the treatment of sickness also the amount is quite useful.

In Papanasam block also three groups of agricultural labourers are saving money annually in different sources i.e. post office, SHGs, chit fund, co-operative bank, commercial bank and LIC. Group I 50 agricultural labourers, group II 10 male agricultural labourers and group III 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers are saving an annual amount in post office `0 – 2000. In SHGs group I 40 females, group II 10 females and group III 5 females have saved annually `2000-4000. In chit fund group I, 30 males and 10 females, group III 10 male agricultural labourers have saved annually `4000- 6000. In co-operative bank only group II 20 males and 10 females and group III 5 female agricultural labourers are saving an annual amount of `6000-8000. In commercial bank group I 10 males, group II 10 males and 10 females and in group III 10 male agricultural labourers are saving an annual amount of `8000- 10000. In LIC all the three groups of male and female agricultural labourers are saving annually `10,000-12,000.

It is seen from the table that more number of male and female agricultural labourers are saving annually `10,000-12,000 only in LIC. The agricultural labourers have known the benefits of LIC through the agents. Inspite of all the difficulties the agricultural labourers are saving more money annually women agricultural labourers are saving more money in SHGs. The female agricultural labourers are able to get loan at low rate of interest through SHGs. Now-a-days SHGs are playing a significant role in mobilizing small saving of the poor people or daily wage earners. In this context post office 280 savings is also to be mentioned with. Agricultural labourers ann wage earners saved money annually through agents in post office. After the maturity period, the depositors are given a sizable amount of money i.e. principal amount with interest. Only less numbers of agricultural labourers are saving in co-operative bank. Anyhow agricultural labourers are saving annually a reasonable amount of money inspite of their number of difficulties in their life.

TABLE 5.2.38 Annual savings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam block Amount Group I Group II Group III Group I Group II Group III Source of of Total amount ` Grand Total amount ` Grand agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural Saving Saving in lakhs total ` in lakhs total ` labourers labourers labourers % labourers labourers labourers % in ` in in lakhs lakhs M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

0– Post Office 80 20 10 5 10 2 1.50 0.40 1.90 4.69 40 20 10 5 5 5 0.82 0.44 1.26 3.57 3000

3000- SHGs - 40 - 10 - 2 - 2.34 2.34 5.77 - 40 - 5 - 5 - 2.24 2.24 6.34 6000

6000- Chit fund 40 20 10 - 5 2 4.12 1.65 5.77 14.23 40 20 5 - 5 - 3.74 1.50 5.24 14.83 9000

Co-operative 9000- - - 20 10 10 2 3.15 1.26 4.41 10.88 - - 20 5 5 - 2.62 0.52 3.14 8.89 bank 12,000

Commercial 12,000- - - 10 5 5 - 2.02 0.67 2.69 6.64 - - 5 5 5 - 1.34 0.67 2.01 5.69 bank 15,000

15,000- LIC 40 50 30 10 10 2 13.20 10.23 23.43 57.79 55 40 10 10 10 5 12.37 9.07 21.44 60.68 18,000

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 23.99 16.55 40.54 100.00 135 120 50 30 30 15 20.89 14.44 35.33 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data.

281 282 Agricultural labourers in Ammapet block had saved money in different sources i.e. post office, SHGs, chit fund, co-operative bank, commercial bank and LIC. In group I 80 male and 20 female agricultural labourers have saved `0-3000 as annual saving in post office. Group II males are 10 and females are 5 and group III 10 male and 2 female agricultural labourers are saving `0-3000 as annual savings in the post office. Through sHGs group I female agricultural labourers 40, group II female agricultural labourers 10 and group III agricultural female labourers 2 have saved `3000-6000 as annual saving. Chit fund also another important source of saving of agricultural labourers. Group I male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Group II male agricultural labourers are 10 and group III male and female agricultural labourers are 5 and 2 have saved money in chit fund annually `6000-9000. In co-operative bank group II male and female agricultural labourers are 20 and 10 and group III male and female agricultural labourers are 10 and 2 saved money as an annual amount of saving `9000-12,000. In commercial bank only group II male and female agricultural labourers and group III male and female agricultural labourers have saved annually `12,000-15,000. In LIC all the three groups of labourers upto 142 male and female agricultural labourers have saved money annually to the extent of `15,000-18,000.

From this table it is understood that saving money by female agricultural labourers in all three groups in all sources are found. In post office male and female agricultural labourers are saving money. Comparatively speaking female agricultural labourers saving is greater than male agricultural labourers. Hence it is concluded that small savings schemes of different types are found even among agricultural labourers. Mobilization of savings in rural areas is a symptom of economic development. Rural people are also ready to face any sort of emergencies in the future period. It is also used for the education of the children, by this way in coming future the standard of living of agricultural labourers may be higher.

283 In Papanasam block also all the three group of agricultural labourers are saving money in post office, SHGs, Chit fund, co-operative bank, commercial bank and LIC. Through post office 40 male and 20 female group I agricultural labourers saved money. 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers in group II and 5 male and 5 female group III agricultural labourers have saved money. In SHGs group I 40 females, group II 5 females and group III 5 females have saved money because all the above agricultural labourers are members of SHGs. The amount saved by them is `3000-6000. In chit fund, group I 40 male and 20 female agricultural labourers, group II 5 male agricultural labourers and group III 5 male agricultural labourers saved `6000-9000 annually. In co- operative bank, group II 20 male 5 female agricultural labourers and group III 5 male agricultural labourers saved `9000-12,000 as annual saving. In commercial banks, 5 male and 5 female agricultural labourers in group II and 5 male, 5 female agricultural labourers of group III have saved money to the extent of `12,000-15,000. Through LIC group I 55 male and 40 female agricultural labourers saved money `15,000-18,000. In group II male and female labourers who are saving money to the extent of `15,000-18,000 are 10 male and 10 female agricultural labourers in group I and group III male and female agricultural labourers are 10 and 5 have saved money to the extent of `15,000-18,000. Majority agricultural labourers preferred LIC.

From this table it is understood that most of the agricultural labourers saved money in post-office and LIC. Women agricultural labourers have saved money in SHGs. Next place is given to chit fund. Saving in co-operative bank less number of agricultural labourers have saved money. Hence it is concluded that not only middle class and high class people are saving money for their future but also the poor agricultural labourers at present have known the benefits of saving. During times of emergency and unavoidable financial need, this saving could be quite useful to the agricultural labourers. It is also useful for economic development of the nation as such and saving habit is created among the people. That shows not only rich people can save money, but also poor and middle class people of all communities can save money.

TABLE 5.2.39. Annual borrowings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam block

Amount of Group I Group II Group II Group I Group II Group II Source of Total amount Grand Total amount Grand borrowing agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural borrowing ` in lakhs total ` ` in lakhs total ` in ` labourers labourers labourers % labourers labourers labourers % in in lakhs lakhs M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

5000– SHGs - 90 - - - - - 6.75 6.75 5.52 - 70 - - - - - 5.25 5.25 5.24 10,000

Money 10,000- 100 20 - - - - 12.50 2.50 15.00 12.27 80 30 - - - - 10.00 3.75 13.75 13.72 lender 15,000

Finance 15,000- 50 10 - - - - 8.75 1.75 10.50 8.59 40 10 - - - - 7.00 1.75 8.75 8.73 company 20,000

Co- 20,000- operative - - 70 40 30 10 35.00 17.50 52.50 42.94 - - 40 25 25 10 22.75 12.25 35.00 34.91 50,000 bank

Commercial 50,000- - - 20 10 20 10 25.00 12.50 37.50 30.68 - - 20 15 15 10 21.87 15.62 37.59 37.40 bank 75,000

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 81.25 40.75 122.25 100.00 120 110 60 40 40 20 61.62 38.62 100.24 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data.

284 285 In Ammapet block, three groups of agricultural labourers have borrowed money from the following sources i.e. SHGs, money lenders, finance company, co-operative bank and commercial bank. In group I 90 female agricultural labourers (75%) have borrowed from SHGs because they are members in SHGs. From money lenders 100 male agricultural labourers and 20 female agricultural labourers are borrowing money. The agricultural labourers are landless and they have borrowed money by pledging jewels or house bonds to the money lenders. This is a dangerous source of borrowing because money lenders are cheating the poor people by writing more amount of money in the bond but advanced less amount of money to the agricultural labourers. Group II, 70 male and 40 female agricultural labourers and group III, 30 male and 10 female agricultural labourers have borrowed money from co-operative bank. Through commercial bank group II, 20 male and 10 female agricultural labourers and group III, 20 male and 10 female agricultural labourers borrowed money for agricultural activities and also for their use. SHGs had provided `5000-10,000 loan to 90 female agricultural labourers. So group I 90 female agricultural labourers have received loan from SHGs.

Among all the sources of borrowing, co-operative bank provided 52.50 lakhs loan to the group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers. Commercial bank provided 37.50 lakhs. Money lenders had provided 10 lakhs loan.

Thus agricultural labourers are borrowing from all sources. Anyhow the condition of group I male and female agricultural labourers are very precarious in nature because the money lenders have cheated the illiterate agricultural labourers by getting thumb impression and also charged exorbitant rate of interest. By this way group I agricultural labourers can not get back the property pledged to money lenders. But group II and group III agricultural labourers got loan from organized agencies, so they are in safe conditions.

286 In Papanasam block 70 male landless agricultural labourers borrowed money to the extent of `5000-10,000. So total money borrowed was `5.25 lakhs. From money lenders group I, 80 male and 30 female landless agricultural labourers borrowed money within the range of `10,000 – 15,000. Thus the total amount borrowed is `13.75 laksh. Through finance company group I landless 40 male and 10 female agricultural labourers have borrowed `8.75 laksh. Co-operative bank had provided loan to 40 male and 25 female agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers are 25 male and 10 female agricultural labourers borrowed money to the extent of 35.00 lakhs (34.91%). Commercial banks have accepted collateral securities and advanced loan to 20 male and 15 female agricultural labourers and 15 male and 10 female agricultural labourers in group II and group III to the extent of `50,000- 75,000. So total amount of loan advanced by commercial bank was `37.40 lakhs.

Thus majority of group II and group III male and female agricultural labourers have resorted loan from well organized agencies like co-operative bank and commercial bank which are charging reasonable rate of interest. By pledging land bonds or jewels, loan is availed by group II and group III agricultural labourers. But these two groups can easily get back the land bond and jewels. But group I male and female agricultural labourers are suffering a lot because they are not able to get back their jewels and also paid interest till their life. By this way group I landless agricultural labourers economic conditions are poor, again are living below poverty line and unemployment has made them to get low annual income. So they get into the trap of various circle of poverty. Misery go round is operating in their life (Fig.5.13).

TABLE 5.2.40 Annual borrowings of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block Amount Group I Group II Group II Group I Group II Group II Source of of Total amount ` Grand Total amount Grand agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural agricultural borrowing borrowing in lakhs total ` ` in lakhs total ` labourers labourers labourers % labourers labourers labourers % in ` in in lakhs lakhs M F M F M F- M F M F M F M F M F

6000 SHGs – - 90 - - - - - 8.10 8.10 5.12 - 80 - - - - - 7.20 7.20 6.19 12,000

12,000 Money - 100 30 - - - 15.00 4.50 19.50 12.33 90 20 - - - - 13.50 3.00 16.50 14.18 lender 18,000

18,000 Finance - 60 10 - - = 12.60 2.10 14.70 9.30 45 20 - - - - 9.45 4.20 13.65 11.73 company 24,000

Co- 24,000 operative - - - 30 25 20 5 24.00 14.40 38.40 24.29 - - 30 20 15 10 21.60 14.40 36.00 30.94 bank 72,000

72,000 Commercial - - - 50 15 20 5 60.20 17.20 77.40 48.96 - - 20 10 15 5 30.10 12.90 43.00 36.96 bank 1,00,000

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 111.80 46.75 158.10 100.00 135 120 50 30 30 15 74.65 41.70 116.35 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data.

287

288 During the year 2012-13 different groups of agricultural labourers have borrowed money from SHGs, money lenders, finance companies, co-operative bank and commercial banks. Among 130 female group I agricultural labourers 90 female labourers (69.23%) have borrowed money to the extent of `6000- 12,000. So total borrowing is 8.10 lakhs (5.12%). From money lenders 100 male and 30 female group I agricultural labourers borrowed money (44.82%). Even now the agricultural labourers are resorting the help of money lenders who are charging very high rate of interest. The illiterate agricultural labourers are cheated by putting thumb impression in the loan bond. From finance company 60 male and 10 female group I agricultural labourers have borrowed money for meeting the expenditure. Even now the group I agricultural labourers are living below poverty line inspite of the implementation of employment provision. Schemes by the government. Group II agricultural 30 male and 25 female and group III 20 males and 5 females agricultural laborers have borrowed annually `24,000-72,000. So total annual borrowing of the agricultural labourers was `38.40 lakhs (24.29%). Remaining group II 50 male and 15 female group III 20 male and 5 female agricultural labourers have borrowed from commercial bank upto `72,000-1,00,000. So total borrowing was `77.40 lakhs (48.96%). From this table it is clearly known that group II and group III agricultural labourers have borrowed from organized agencies but group I agricultural labourers have borrowed money from unorganized agencies. Therefore group I agricultural labourers are not in a position to get back their pledged jewels, brass utensils and also small houses. Money lenders have taken all the properties of group I agricultural labourers by their malpractices. Again and again group I agricultural labourers are becoming poorer and poorer. The agricultural labourers (group I) are pushed to below poverty line and the standard of living is poor. Totally the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers are spoiled. Ultimately they migrated to urban area or other states. But group II and group III agricultural labourers are safely getting back their properties pledged in co-operative bank and commercial bank. In this context, it is concluded that group II and group III agricultural labourers are 289 better than group I agricultural labourers. Comparatively speaking small farmers cum agricultural labourers are better than group II agricultural labourers. In Papanasam block 80 female agricultural labourers have borrowed money from SHGs (75%). The amount of money borrowed is `7.20 lakhs because each female agricultural labourer can borrow `6000-12,000. 90 male and 20 female group I agricultural labourers borrowed money annually `12,000-18,000. So total amount of money borrowed was `16.50 lakhs (14.18%). Through finance company group I 45 male and 20 female agricultural labourers borrowed money upto `18,000-24,000. So total amount of money borrowed was `13.65 lakhs (11.73%). Group II, 30 male and 20 female agricultural labourers and 15 male and 10 female agricultural labourers in group III borrowed money upto `24,000-72,000. Hence total amount borrowed was `36 lakhs (30.94%). Through commercial bank 20 male and 10 female group II agricultural labourers and group III 15 male and 5 female agricultural labourers have borrowed annually `72000-1,00,000. Thus total amount borrowed was `43 lakhs (36.96%). Therefore total loan borrowed by three groups of agricultural male and female labourers in Papanasam block was `116.35 lakhs (100%). From this table it is known that the group I agricultural labourers owned less number of gold sovereign (jewels) and less worth of houses and utensils that is why they borrowed money from unorganized agencies. These agencies are always charging high rate of interest, so the agricultural labourers are not in a position to get back the pledged articles. That makes them poor and the social and economic status was also very low due to the pledging of all the properties. They are pushed back again to below poverty line. Group II and group III agricultural labourers are getting back the properties pledged by them in organized agencies. Therefore the social and economic conditions are far better than group I agricultural labourers. Group III agricultural labourers are better than group II agricultural labourers, with regard to borrowing money from co- operative bank and commercial bank which are charging very less rate of interest (Fig.5.13). 290

50 48.96 42.94

40 37.4 36.96 34.91 30.94 30.68 30 percentage

24.29 In

20 14.18 13.74 12.33 12.27 11.73 9.3 8.73 10 8.59 6.19 5.52 5.24 5.12

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

SHGs Money lender Finance company Co‐operative Bank Commercial Bank

Fig.5.13. Annual borrowings of different groups of agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.41 Possession of gold sovereign by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Possession a Possession a Total worth Total worth No. of Gold sovereign Total worth No. of Gold sovereign Total worth No. of possession of possession of agricultural by individual possession agricultural by individual possession groups gold Grand gold Grand labourers agricultural of gold % labourers agricultural of gold % (` in lakhs) total (` in lakhs) total labourers labourers

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 150 120 1 2 150 240 33.00 52.80 85.80 33.62 120 110 1 2 120 220 26.40 48.40 74.80 36.17 I

Group 90 50 3 4 270 200 59.40 44.00 103.40 40.52 60 40 3 4 180 160 39.60 35.20 74.80 36.17 II

Group 50 20 4 5 200 100 44.00 22.00 66.00 25.86 40 20 4 5 160 100 35.20 22.00 57.20 27.66 III

Total 290 190 8 11 620 540 136.40 118.80 255.20 100 220 170 8 11 460 480 101.20 105.60 206.80 100

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : One sovereign of Gold is `22,000/-

291 292 In Ammapet block group I agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. Individual possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers are 1 and 2 sovereign. So total possession of gold sovereign by group I male and female agricultural labourers is 150 and 240 sovereign of gold jewels. Total possession of gold sovereign is 390. So the value of 1 gold sovereign is `22,000. Therefore price of total gold sovereign is `85.80 lakhs (33.62%). Group II agricultural labourers are marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers. The numbers of agricultural labourers are 90 males and 50 females. Individual possession of gold jewels by male and female agricultural labourers are 3 and 4 gold sovereign. Total possession of gold sovereign by the male and female agricultural labourers is 270 and 200 gold sovereign. So total possession of gold sovereign is 470 and the value of gold sovereign possession is 103.40 (40.52%). Group III agricultural labourers are 50 males and 20 females. The gold sovereign possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 4 and 5 because they are small farmers cum agricultural labourers. So total possession of gold by male and female agricultural labourers is 200 and 100 sovereign, So therefore, grand total possession of gold sovereign by group III male and female agricultural labourers is 300 and the value of gold sovereign is 66 lakhs (25.86%).

In Papanasam block, group I agricultural labourers are 120 of male and 110 female and possession of gold sovereign by individual agricultural labourer is 1 and 2 gold sovereign. Hence total possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 120 and 220. So total possession of gold sovereign is 340. The value in terms of money is `74.80 lakhs (36.17%). Group II agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. The possession of gold sovereign by individual male and female agricultural labourer is 3 and 4 sovereign. So the total possession of gold sovereign of male and female agricultural labourers is 180 and 160 . The grand total of gold sovereign possessed by group II labourers is 340 and its price is `74.80 lakhs (36.17%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 20. Individual possession of gold sovereign is 4 and 5. So total possession of gold sovereign by the agricultural 293 male and female laboures is 160 and 100. Hence grand total of gold sovereign possessed by male and female agricultural labourers is 260 and value is `57.20 lakhs (27.66%).

Therefore it is understood from the table that possession of gold sovereign by group III individual male and female labourers is greater than group I. Group III agricultural labourers are small farmers cum agricultural labourers. They received income from their small cultivable agricultural wet land. So they invest their income in jewels which are useful asset. Group II farmers are also marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers (0.5 ha) so they have also invested their income to certain extent in gold jewels which are easily converted into money because it is pledged in banks whenever the farmers are in need of money. But landless agricultural labourers income is only very less that is why the investment on gold by group I agricultural male and female is very less.

Hence it is concluded that gold jewels are used for wearing during the festivals and wedding ceremonies, because it reveals their status. Moreover it is also revealing their social and economic status among their relatives and neighbourers (Fig.5.14).

TABLE 5.2.42 Possession of gold sovereign by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Possession a Possession a Total worth Total worth No. of Gold sovereign Total worth No. of Gold sovereign Total worth No. of possession of possession of agricultural by individual possession agricultural by individual possession Groups gold Grand gold Grand labourers agricultural of gold % labourers agricultural of gold % (` in lakhs) total (` in lakhs) total labourers labourers

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 160 130 1 2 160 260 36.80 59.80 73.60 35.00 135 120 1 2 135 240 31.05 55.20 86.25 38.86 I

Group II 80 40 4 5 320 200 73.60 46.00 119.60 43.33 50 30 4 5 200 150 46.00 34.50 80.50 36.27

Group III 40 10 5 6 200 60 46.00 13.80 59.80 21.67 30 15 5 6 150 90 34.50 20.70 55.20 24.87

Total 280 180 10 13 680 520 156.40 119.60 276.00 100 215 165 10 13 485 480 111.55 110.40 221.95 100

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : One sovereign of Gold is `23,000/-

294 295 In Ammapet block group I agricultural labourers are 160 and 130. Individual possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers are 1 and 2. So total possession of gold sovereign by group I. Male and female agricultural labourers is 160 and 260. Total possession of gold sovereign is 420. So the value of gold sovereign is `23,000/-. Hence value of total gold sovereign is `73.60 lakhs (35.00%). Group II agricultural labourers are marginal farmers earn agricultural individual labourers. The number of agricultural labourers are 80 and 40 male and female. Individual and possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 4 and 5. Total possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 320 and 200. Hence total possession of gold sovereign is 520 and the value of gold sovereign is 119.60 (43.33%). Group III agricultural labourers are 40 male and 10 female. The gold sovereign possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourer is 5 and 6 because they are small farmers earn agricultural labourers. So individual possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 5 and 6. So therefore total possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 200 and 60. Therefore grand total possession of gold by group III male and female agricultural labourers is 260 only and the value of gold sovereign is 59.80 lakhs (21.67%).

In Papanasam block, group I agricultural labourers are 135 male and 120 female possession of gold sovereign by individual agricultural male and female labourers is 1 and 2 gold sovereign. So total possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourers is 135 and 240. Therefore the total possession of gold is 375 and the value in terms of money is `86.25 lakhs (38.86%). Group II agricultural male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. So individual possession of gold sovereign by male and female agricultural labourer is 4 and 5. Hence the total possession of gold sovereign of male and female agricultural labourers is 200 and 150. The grand total of gold sovereign possession by group II agricultural labourers is 350 and its value is `80.50 lakhs (36.27%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 30 and 15 individual possession of gold sovereign is 5 and 6. So total possession 296 of gold sovereign by agricultural male and female labourers is 150 and 90. Therefore grand total gold sovereign possessed by male and female agricultural labourers is 240 and value is `55.20 lakhs (24.87%).

Therefore it is understood from the table that possession of gold sovereign by group III individual male and female labourers is greater than group I and group II agricultural labourers. Because, group III agricultural labourers are small farmers earn agricultural labourers. They received income from their small cultivate agricultural land. So they invest their income in jewels which are liquid asset. Group II farmers are also marginal farmers earn agricultural labourers (0.5 ha). So they have also invested their income to certain extent in gold sovereign which are easily converted into money because it is pledged in bank and loan is obtained whenever the farmers are in need of money. But landless agricultural labourers income is only wage income, that is why the investment on gold by group I agricultural male and female agricultural labourers is very less.

Hence it is concluded that gold jewels are used for wearing during times of festivals and wedding ceremonies, because it reveals their economic status. Moreover it is also revealing their social status among their relations and neighbourers. Therefore their economic conditions are also better, not only that it is compared with others. Therefore their economic conditions are also better than other two groups. They possess land property and jewels (Fig.5.14).

297

120 103.4

100 85.8

80 66

60 percentage

In 43.33 38.86

40 36.27 36.17 36.17 35 27.66 24.87 21.67 20

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig.5.14. Possession of gold sovereign by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.43 Possession of silver ornaments by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Total worth or Total worth or Possession Possession possession of Total worth possession of Total worth of Silver by of Silver by No. of silver male of silver No. of silver male of silver No. of each male each male agricultural and female gram in agricultural and female gram in Groups and female Grand and female Grand labourers agricultural lakhs of % labourers agricultural lakhs of % agricultural total agricultural total labourers in rupees labourers in rupees labourers labourers gram gram

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 150 120 15 30 2250 3600 1.01 1.62 2.63 49.16 120 110 15 30 1800 3300 0.81 1.48 2.29 51.46 I

Group 90 50 20 40 1800 2000 0.81 0.90 1.71 31.96 60 40 20 40 1200 1600 0.54 0.72 1.26 28.31 II

Group 50 20 25 50 1250 1000 0.56 0.45 1.01 18.88 40 20 25 50 1000 1000 0.45 0.45 0.90 20.23 III

Total 290 190 60 120 5300 6600 2.38 2.97 5.35 100.00 220 170 60 120 4000 5900 1.80 2.65 4.45 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : One gram of silver price is `45.

298 299 In Ammapet block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120 possession of silver ornaments by individual male labourer is 15 gram and by individual female agricultural labourers is 30 grams. So total possession of silver by male labourers is 2250 grams and 3600 grams by female labourers. The grand total of silver is 5850 grams. The value of silver is measured in terms of rupees is `2.63 (49.16%). In the case of group II labourers, the number of male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 50. Individual agricultural male and female labourers possession of silver is 20 and 40 grams. Total possession of silver is 1800 and 2000 grams. So grand total possession of silver by male and female agricultural labourers is `1.71 lakhs (31.96%). Group III agricultural labourers are 50 males and 20 females possession of silver by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 25 and 50 grams. So possession of silver by male agricultural labourer is 1250 grams and by female agricultural labourers is 1000 grams. So grand total possession of silver is 2250 grams. The value of silver is `1.01 lakhs (18.88%).

In Papanasam block the number of group I male and female agricultural labourers are 120 and 110. Silver possession by individual male and female agricultural labourer is 15 and 30 grams. So total possession of silver by male labourers has been 1800 grams and 3300 grams. Total worth of silver possessed by male agricultural labourers has been `0.81 lakhs and worth of silver possession by female is `1.48 lakhs. So grand total price of silver is `2.29 lakhs. Group II agricultural labourers are 60 and 40 male and female. The possession of silver by individual male and female labourers is 20 and 40. So total possession of silver by male and female agricultural labourers is 1200 and 1600 grams. Hence the worth of silver possession by both the agricultural labourers is expressed in terms of rupees, so male and female agricultural labourers worth of silver is `0.54 and `0.72 lakhs. So total worth is `1.26 lakhs. Group III of agricultural male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Possession of silver by each male and female individual agricultural labourers is 25 and 50 grams. So possession of silver by male and female agricultural labourers is 1000 grams and 1000 grams. The worth of silver 300 possession is expressed in money so total worth of silver is `0.45 + 0.45 = `0.90 lakhs. So grand total worth of all the three group is `4.45 lakhs. First group percentage of silver possession is 51.46. Second group percentage is 28.31. Third group percentage is 20.23. So total percentage is 100.

As it is seen from the table that compared with Ammapet block both male and female agricultural labourers in Papanasam block male and female agricultural labourers possess less amount of silver. But in the case of individual male and female agricultural labourers are concerned, the female labourers possessed same amount of silver jewels. The number of agricultural male and female are larger in number, silver possession is also greater. Compared with groups. In both the blocks, individual male and female agricultural labourers in group III and group II possession of silver is greater than first group agricultural labourers possession of silver is lesser. This is because the group I male and female agricultural labourers are leading a hand to mouth life. Group II agricultural labourers are some what better than group I agricultural labourers. On the other hand group III agricultural labourers are better that other two groups.

But whatever it is, it would be concluded that more agricultural labourers standard of living is lower than workers working in secondary and tertiary sections. Female labourers in all the three groups of Papanasam block possessed more silver ornaments than male headed agricultural labourers (Fig.5.15).

TABLE 5.2.44 Possession of silver ornaments by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 160 130 20 30 3200 3900 1.60 1.95 3.55 57.26 135 120 20 30 2700 3600 1.35 1.80 3.15 60.64 I

Group 80 40 25 40 2000 1600 1.00 0.80 1.80 29.03 50 30 25 40 1250 1200 0.62 0.60 1.22 23.58 II

Group 40 10 30 50 1200 500 0.60 0.25 0.85 13.76 30 15 30 50 900 750 0.45 0.37 0.82 15.78 III

Total 280 180 75 120 6400 6700 3.20 3.00 6.20 100.00 215 165 75 120 4850 5550 2.42 2.77 5.19 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : One gram of silver price is `50.

301 302 In Ammapet block, there are three groups of agricultural labourers group I male and female agricultural labourers are 160 and 130. Individual male and female possession of silver is 20 and 30 grams. So total possession of silver is 3200 grams and 3900 grams. Total worth of silver possessed is expressed in terms of Rupees. i.e. 1.60 lakhs and 1.95 lakhs and total worth of silver is `3.55 lakhs. Group II possession of silver by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 80 and 40 grams. Total amount of silver owned by male and female agricultural labourers is 2000 grams and 1600 grams. So worth of silver is `1.00 lakhs and 0.8 lakhs. Therefore total money value of silver is `1.80 lakhs. Group III individual agricultural labourer are 40 males and 10 females. Individual male and female agricultural labourers possession of silver is 30 and 50 grams. So total male agricultural and female labourers possession of silver is 1200 grams and 500 grams. The amount of money worth of silver is `0.60 lakhs and 0.25. So total price of silver is `0.85 lakhs. Therefore total worth of silver possessed by three groups of male and female agricultural labourers is 6.20 lakhs. Thus total silver ornament worth of group I is 57.26 per cent, group II is 29.03 per cent and group III is 13.71 per cent. So total percentage is 100.

In Papanasam group I agricultural male and female labourers are 135 and 120. Possession of silver by individual male and female agricultural labourer is 20 gram and 30 grams. So total possession of silver is 2700 grams and 3600 grams. So grand total of silver is 6300 grams. Group II individual male and female agricultural labourers possession of silver is 25 and 40 grams. So total possession of silver by male and female agricultural labourers is 1250 grams and 1200 grams. Total possession of silver by group II male and female agricultural labourers is 2450 grams. Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15 and possession of silver by each male and female agricultural labourers is 30 and 50 grams. Total silver possession of male and female agricultural labourers is 900 grams and 750 grams = 1650 grams. The money value per gram of silver is `50. Group I male agricultural labourers money value of silver is ` 1.35 lakhs. Female possession of silver value is 303 `1.80. So total worth of silver possession is ` 3.15 lakhs. Group II male agricultural labourers silver money value is `0.62 lakhs for female it is `0.60 lakhs. Total money value of silver is ` `1.22 lakhs group III male possession of silver value is `0.45 lakhs and female labourers silver money value is `0.37 lakhs. So total money value of silver is `0.82 lakhs. The total value of all the three groups silver value is `5.19 lakhs. So percentage value of group I is 60.64, group II 23.58 and group III is 15.78. Total percentage is 100.

From this table it is understood that all the male and female labourers have silver jewels. But group III male and female agricultural labourers have more silver jewels than group I and group II. So economic conditions of group III agricultural labourers is higher due to more possession of silver jewels. Silver ornaments possession is also one of the assets of agricultural male and female labourers.This asset has been also an indicator of economic conditions, standard of living and income level in the society. Socio-economic status is also determined based on this asset (Fig.5.15).

304

70 60.64 60 57.26 51.46

50 49.16

40 31.96 percentage

29.03 28.31 In 30 23.58 20.23

20 18.88 15.78 13.71

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig.5.15. Possession of silver ornaments by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.45 Different types of utensils owned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11 Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Total value of Total value of Number of utensils Number of Number of Total number utensils Total number Types of utensils in utensils in Value of individual Number of utensils in Value of agricultural of utensils individual of utensils Groups agricultural labourers house agricultural utensils agricultural agricultural agricultural utensils labourers Price of value (` in Grand Price of agricultural value (` in Grand labourers in kgs labourers Groups labourers labourers in kgs utensils lakhs) Total utensils labourers house lakhs) total house house (` in house (` in lakhs) lakhs)

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Brass Brass 1.48 2.53 3 4 1 1 550 550 550 0.82 0.66 6 5 2 2 550 1100 1100 1.32 1.21 utensils utensils (14.04) (19.69)

Group Eversilver Eversilver 1.98 Group 2.40 150 120 8 15 2 1 300 600 900 0.90 1.08 120 110 10 15 3 4 300 900 1200 1.08 1.32 I utensils utensils (18.79) I (18.68)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 1.35 2.27 10 12 2 3 250 500 500 0.75 0.60 12 17 3 5 250 750 1250 0.90 1.37 utensils utensils (12.81) (17.67)

Brass Brass 1.54 1.32 5 6 2 2 550 1100 1100 0.99 0.55 6 7 2 3 550 1100 1650 0.66 0.66 utensils utensils (14.61) (10.27)

Group Eversilver Eversilver 1.41 Group 1.32 90 50 10 12 3 2 300 900 1200 0.81 0.60 60 40 15 17 4 5 300 1200 1500 0.72 0.60 II utensils utensils (13.38) II (10.27)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 0.70 0.60 8 10 2 4 250 500 500 0.45 0.25 10 15 2 3 250 500 750 0.30 0.30 utensils utensils (6.64) (4.67)

Brass Brass 1.15 1.10 7 8 3 2 550 1650 1650 0.82 0.33 8 10 3 4 550 1650 2200 0.66 0.44 utensils utensils (10.91) (8.56)

Group Eversilver Eversilver 0.63 Group 0.96 50 20 12 15 3 3 300 900 900 0.45 0.18 40 20 17 19 5 6 300 1500 1800 0.60 0.36 III utensils utensils (5.97) III (7.47)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 0.30 0.35 6 4 2 3 250 500 250 0.25 0.05 10 12 2 3 250 500 750 0.20 0.15 utensils utensils (2.85) (2.72)

10.54 12.85 Total 290 190 69 86 20 21 7200 7550 6.24 4.30 Total 220 170 94 117 26 35 9200 12200 6.44 6.41 (100.00) (100.00) Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 305 306 In Ammapet block 150 male and 120 female agricultural labourers are found in group I, individual male agricultural labourers had possessed 3 brass 8 eversilver and 10 aluminium utensils. Individual female agricultural labourer had possessed 4 brass utensils 15 eversilver utensils and 12 aluminium utensils. Group II male individual agricultural labourer had possessed 5 brass utensils 10 eversilver utensils and 8 aluminium utensils. Individual female agricultural labourer had possessed 6 brass utensils, 12 eversilver utensils and 10 aluminium utensils. Group III individual male agricultural labourer had possessed 7 brass utensils 12 eversilver utensils and 6 aluminium utensils. Individual female agricultural labourer had owned 8 brass utensils, 15 eversilver utensils and 4 aluminium utensils. Grand total number of brass, eversilver and aluminium utensils possessed by three groups of individual male agricultural labourer is 69 and by three groups of individual female agricultural labourers possessed 86 in number. 24.64 per cent of more utensils are owned by female agricultural labourers than male agricultural labourers. 69 different types of utensils possessed by male agricultural laboures. Its worth is 20 kgs and female agricultural labourers different types of 86 utensils worth is 21 kgs.

Price per kg of brass utensil is `550, eversilver utensil price per kg is `300 and price of aluminium utensil per kg is `250. In the case of group I individual utensil of brass metal is `550 and `550. Eversilver 1 kg worth of male and female agricultural labourers is `600 and `900 possession of aluminium utensil possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is `500 and `500. In the case of group II individual agricultural labourer possession of brass utensils by male and female agricultural laboruers is `1100 and `1100. With regard to eversilver utensil of individual male and female agricultural labourers is `900 and `1200. Aluminium utensils possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is `500 and `500.

Group III male and female individual agricultural labourer possession of brass utensil worth is `1650 and `1650. Eversilver utensils possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is `900 and `900. 307 Aluminium utensils possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is `500 and `250.

Group I 150 male and 120 female agricultural labourers possession of brass utensils worth is `0.82 lakhs and `0.66 lakhs. Eversilver utensils worth is `0.90 lakhs and `1.08 lakhs. Aluminium utensils worth of male and female agricultural labourers is `0.75 lakhs and 0.60 lakhs. Group II male and female agricultural labourer’s brass utensils worth is `0.99 lakhs and 0.55 lakhs. Possession of eversilver utensils worth of group II agricultural labourers is `0.81 lakhs and 0.60 lakhs possession of aluminium utensils by group II agricultural male and female labourers is 0.45 lakhs and 0.25 lakhs.

Group III 50 male and 20 female agricultural labourers possession of brass utensils workth is `0.82 lakhs and 0.33 lakhs. Eversilver worth is `0.45 and ` 0.18 lakhs. Aluminium utensils worth is `0.25 lakhs and `0.05 lakhs. Total possession of different types of metal utensil possessed by male and female agricultural labourers is `6.24 lakhs and 4.30 lakhs.

From this table it is understood that different types of utensils like brass, eversilver and aluminium possessed by male utentsils worth is greater than female agricultural labourers because the number of male labourers is greater than female agricultural labourers. But comparatively speeking female agricultural laboruers possession of different types of utensils worth is greater than male agricultural labourers. Possession of different types of utensils revealed economic status or economic conditions of agricultural labourers. It is also one of the most important mobile assets and indicators of economic condition.

In Papanasam block during 2010-11 different types of utensils owned by different groups of agricultural labourers are analyzed in a detailed manner. In group I the number of male and female agricultural labourers are 120 and 110. Three types of metal utensils owned by male agricultural labourers is analysed. 308 An individual male agricultural labourer had possessed 6 brass utensils, 10 eversilver utensils and 12 aluminium utensils and female individual group I agricultural laboruers had possed 5 brass utensils 15 eversilver utensils and 17 aluminium utensils.

Group II individual male agricultural labourers had owned 6 brass utensils, 15 eversilver utensils and 10 aluminium utensils. Individual female agricultural labourer had possessed 7 brass utensils, 17 eversilver utensils and 15 aluminium utensils.

Group III male individual agricultural laboruer had possessed 8 brass utensils, 17 eversilver utensils and 10 aluminium utensils. Individual female agricultural labourer had owned 10 brass utensils, 19 eversilver utensils and 12 aluminium utensils. Total number of different types of metal utensils owned by male agricultural labourer is 94 and female individual agricultural labourer total number of different types of utensils is 117. So female agricultural labourer had possessed more utensils.

Measurement of utensils in kgs is given. Based on weight of the utensil 6 brass and 5 brass utensils are equal to 2 or 2 kgs of brass. 10 and 15 eversilver utensils are equal to 3 or 4 kgs. 12 and 17 aluminium utensils are equal to 3 or 5 kgs. This is in the case of group I and group II male and female possession of brass, eversilver and aluminium worth is 2 or 3 kgs; 4 or 5 kgs and 2 or 3 kgs. Group III male and female possession of brass utensils are equal to 3 or 4 kgs, eversilver utensils worth is 5 or 6 kgs. Aluminium utensils worth is 2 or 3 kgs. Total possession of male brass, eversilver and aluminium utensils is equal to 26 kgs and female labourer possession of utensils is 35 kgs. One kg of brass is `550, one kg of eversilver is `300 and 1 kg of aluminium is `250.

Group I total number of male agricultural labourers possession of brass utensils price is `1.32 lakhs and female possession of brass utensils value is `1.21 lakhs. Eversilver utensils value of total male agricultural labourers is 309 `1.08 lakhs and total female labourers possession of eversilver utensils value is `1.32 lakhs. Aluminium utensils worth of male and female value is `0.90 lakhs and Rs.1.37 lakhs.

Group II agricultural male and female labourers possession of brass utensils value is `0.66 lakhs and 0.66 lakhs. Eversilver utensils value of male and female is `0.72 lakhs and 0.60 lakhs. Aluminium utensils possession by male agricultural labourers value is `0.30 lakhs `0.30 and female agricultural labourers value is `0.60 lakhs.

Group III male agricultural labourers possession of brass utensil’s value is `0.66 lakhs and `0.44 in the case of female it is `1.10 lakhs. Eversilver utensils value is `0.60 lakhs and it was possessed by male agricultural labourers is `0.36 lakhs and female agricultural labourers value of eversilver utensils is `0.96 lakhs. Aluminium utensils possessed by male is `0.20 lakhs, `0.15 lakhs and for female agricultural labourers is `0.35 lakhs.

From this table it is understood that female agricultural labourers in all the groups (three) have owned more brass, eversilver and Aluminium utensils. Usually in male headed family possession of all three types at utensils are less in number. But in women empowered family all the three types of utensils are greater in number. Therefore it is concluded that in counting the value of assets female asset value is greater than male agricultural labourers. Hence it is known that possession of utensils has reflected the asset possession value of agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.2.46 Value and different types of utensils possessed by the agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Individual Individual Possession Possession Number of agricultural agricultural Types of utensils in of utensils Possession Total value of Number of of utensils Possession Total value agricultural agricultural agricultural Groups agricultural labourers house in number of utensils utensils (` in agricultural in number of utensils of utensils (` labourers Price of labourers house Grand Price of labourers house Grand of agri. in kg. lakhs) Groups labourers of agri. in kg. in lakhs) utensils utensils value in Total utensils utensils value in total house house ` `

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Brass Brass 4.28 3.73 5 4 3 2 580 1740 1160 2.78 1.50 6 5 3 2 580 1740 1160 2.34 1.39 utensils utensils (24.25) (22.67)

Gr`oup Eversilver Eversilver 2.48 Group 3.09 160 130 8 12 2 3 350 700 1050 1.12 1.36 135 120 10 13 3 4 350 1050 1400 1.41 1.68 I utensils utensils (14.05) I (18.78)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 2.79 3.19 15 16 3 4 280 840 1120 1.34 1.45 18 20 4 5 280 1120 1400 1.51 1.68 utensils utensils (15.81) (19.39)

Brass Brass 2.77 2.03 6 7 4 4 580 2320 2320 1.85 0.92 7 8 4 5 580 2320 2900 1.16 0.87 utensils utensils (15.69) (12.34)

Group Eversilver Eversilver 1.40 Group 1.12 80 40 12 15 3 4 350 1050 1400 0.84 0.56 50 30 15 17 4 4 350 1400 1400 0.70 0.42 II utensils utensils (7.93) II (6.82)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 1.11 0.75 14 18 3 4 280 840 1120 0.67 0.44 14 16 3 4 280 840 1120 0.42 0.33 utensils utensils (6.29) (4.56)

Brass Brass 1.50 1.30 7 8 5 6 580 2900 3480 1.16 0.34 12 14 5 5 580 2900 2900 0.87 0.43 utensils utensils (8.50) (7.90)

Group Eversilver Eversilver 0.91 Group 0.83 40 10 14 16 5 6 350 1750 2100 0.70 0.21 30 15 15 18 5 6 350 1750 2100 0.52 0.31 III utensils utensils (5.16) III (5.05)

Aluminimum Aluminimum 0.41 0.41 12 14 3 3 280 840 840 0.33 0.08 14 15 3 4 280 840 1120 0.25 0.16 utensils utensils (2.32) (2.49)

17.65 16.45 Total 280 180 93 110 31 36 12980 14590 10.79 6.86 Total 215 165 111 126 34 39 13960 15500 9.18 7.27 (100) (100.00) Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage.

310 311 In Ammapet block three groups of agricultural labourers are found and different types of utensils like brass, eversilver and aluminium are possessed by all the three groups of agricultural labourers. Group I agricultural male and female labourers are 160 and 130 possession of brass utensils by the male and female labourers are 5 or 4. The worth of the utensils is 3 or 2 kgs. Eversilver utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers are 8 and 12 and the worth of utensils is 2 or 3 kgs based on weight. Aluminium utensils possession of male and female agricultural labourers is 15 and 16 and its worth 3 or 4 kgs.

Group II agricultural male and female labourers are 80 and 40. Number of brass utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers are 6 and 7. The worth of brass utensil is equal to 4 and 4 kgs. Possession of eversilver utensils by male and female agricultural labourers is 12 and 15 and the worth is 3 or 4 kgs. Aluminium utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers is 14 and 18 and the worth of the utensils is 3 or 4 kgs.

Group III has 40 male 10 female agricultural labourers and different types like brass, eversilver and aluminium utensils owned by individual agricultural male and female labourers are given. Brass utensils owned by individual male is 7 and 8 female labourers owned brass utensils worth is 5 or 6 kgs. Eversilver utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers are 12 and 14 and its worth is 3 and 3 kgs. Total number of utensils owned by male agricultural and female labourers are 93 and 110. So female agricultural labourers possession of utensil is more than male agricultural labourers that is 18.28 per cent. Price of 1 kgs of brass utensils is `580; price of eversilver per kg is `350 and aluminium prie of 1 kg is `280.

Group I total number of male and female agricultural labourers possession of brass utensils is equal to 2.78 lakshs and `1.50 lakhs. Eversilver utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers is 1.12 lakhs and `1.36 lakhs. Aluminium utensils value is 1.34 lakhs and 1.45 lakhs. 312

Group II total number of male and female agricultural labourers are 80 and 40. Total value of brass utensils of male and female agricultural labourers is ` 1.85 lakhs and `0.92 lakhs. The value of eversilver utensils value is `0.84 lakhs and `0.56 lakhs and aluminium utensils value is `0.67 lakhs and 0.44 lakhs.

Group III male and female agricultural labourers value of brass utensils is `1.16 lakhs and 0.34 lakhs. Eversilver utensils value of male and female agricultural labourers is `0.70 lakhs and 0.21 lakhs. Possession of aluminium utensils by male and female agricultural labourers and value is `0.33 lakhs and 0.08 lakhs. Possession of different types of utensils value of male agricultural labourers worth of utensils is greater than female agricultural labourers that is 17.65 per cent. This is due to less number of female agricultural labourers.

In Papanasam block 2012-13 group I number of agricultural labourers are 135 and 120. Individual male agricultural male and female labourers had owned 6 brass and 5 brass utensils. The weight of the utensils is 3 or 2 kgs. Eversilver utensils owned by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 10 and 13 and the weight is 3 or 4 kgs. Aluminium utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers is 18 and 20 and the weight is 4 or 5 kgs.

Group II agricultural male and female labourers are 50 and 30. The possession of individual male and female agricultural labourers brass utensils are 7 and 8 and the weight is 4 and 5 kgs. Eversilver utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers are 15 and 17 and the weight is 4 and 4 kgs possession of Aluminium utensils by male and female agricultural labourers are 14 and 16 and the weight is 3 and 4 kgs.

Group III agricultural male and female labourer are 30 and 15. So possession of brass utensils by individual male and female agricultural labourer 313 is 12 and 14 and the weight is 5 and 5 kgs. Eversilver utensils possessed by individual male and female agricultural labourers is 15 and 18 and the weight is 5 and 6 kgs. Aluminium utensils possessed by the individual male and female agricultural labourers is 14 and 15 and the weight is 3 and 4 kgs. Total number of utensils owned by three groups of male is 111 kgs and by three groups of female agricultural labourers is 126 kgs. So female agricultural labourers possession of different types of utensils are greater than male agricultural labourers, brass utensil is `580 lakhs, 1 kg of eversilver is `350 and 1 kg of aluminium utensil is `280.

So group I male and female agficultural laboures possession of brass utensils value is `2.34 lakhs and `1.39 lakhs. Eversilver value of male and female agricultural labourers is `1.41 lakhs and `1.68 lakhs. Aluminium utensils value of male and female labourers is `1.51 lakhs and `1.68 lakhs.

Group II agricultural male and female labourers value of brass utensils is `1.16 lakhs and 0.87 lakhs. Eversilver utensil value of male and female agricultural labourers is 0.70 lakhs and 0.42 lakhs. Aluminium utensils value of male and female agricultural labourers is 0.42 lakhs and 0.33 lakhs.

Group III agricultural male and female labourers brass utensils value is `0.87 lakhs and 0.43 lakhs. Possession of agricultural male and female labourers eversilver utensils value is `0.52 lakhs and `0.31 lakhs. Possession of aluminium utensils value of male is `0.25 lakhs and female agricultural labourers is 0.16 lakhs. Total value of three groups of male agricultural labourers possession of brass, eversilver and aluminium utensil is 9.18 lakhs. On the other hand three groups of female agricultural labourers total possession of brass, eversilver and aluminium utensil value is `7.27 lakhs.

From this analysis it is understood that female agricultural labourers possession of brass, eversilver and aluminium utensils is more than male labourers. The number of sample female agricultural labourers is very less or in 314 some case it is 2:1. Ladies are very fond of buying different types of utensils which are useful for daily use and during times of festival, marriage occasions and death.

In this context it is concluded that all the three types of utensils are possessed more by female labourers than male labourers especially. Group III and group II female agricultural labourers. Particularly group III female agricultural labourers are possessing more utensils like brass, eversilver and aluminium. But in general all groups of female labourers are very eager to boy different types of all the three utensils. That shows the social and economic status of the family. But at present time during times of marriage and other functions cooking vassals and other related vassals are hired for rent.

At present time women are very desirous to purchase plastic vassals, which are unbreakable in nature. Agricultural female labourers are fond of this vessels. So it is concluded that for revealing socio-economic conditions, possession of vessels is also an indicator.

TABLE 5.2.47 Value and different types of vehicles possessed by the agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block Types of vehicles Number of owned by Number of Number Individual Number of Number Individual agricultural Total value of Number of Total value of agricultural vehicles in of agricultural vehicles in of agricultural Groups labourers vehicles (` in agricultural vehicles (` in labourers house number of vehicles Price of labourers vehicles Grand number of vehicles Price of labourers house Grand lakhs) Groups labourers lakhs) agri. house in kg. vehicles value in ` Total agri. house in kg. vehicles vehicles value in ` total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

1.68 1.36 Cycles Cycles 110 100 1 1 800 800 800 0.88 0.80 90 80 1 1 800 800 800 0.72 0.64 (5.78) (5.36) Group Group 150 120 120 110 I I Motro Motro 9.00 9.00 40 20 1 1 15000 15000 15000 6.00 3.00 30 30 1 1 15000 15000 15000 4.50 4.50 Cycles Cycles (30.95) (35.45)

0.90 0.63 Cycles Cycles 60 40 1 1 900 900 900 0.54 0.36 40 30 1 1 900 900 900 0.36 0.27 (3.09) (2.48) Group Group 90 50 60 40 II II Motro Motro 7.20 5.40 30 10 1 1 18000 18000 18000 5.40 1.80 20 10 1 1 18000 18000 18000 3.60 1.80 Cycles Cycles (24.76) (21.27)

0.30 0.25 Cycles Cycles 20 10 1 1 1000 1000 1000 0.20 0.10 15 10 1 1 1000 1000 1000 0.15 0.10 (1.03) (0.98) Group Group 50 20 40 20 III III Motro Motro 10.00 8.75 30 10 1 1 25000 25000 25000 7.50 2.50 25 10 1 1 25000 25000 25000 6.25 2.50 Cycles Cycles (34,39) (34.46)

29.08 25.39 Total 290 190 290 190 6 6 20.52 8.56 Total 220 170 6 6 15.58 9.81 (100.00) (100.00) Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 315 316 Only two types of vehicles like cycles and motor cycles are (Two wheelers) owned by different groups of agricultural labourers are given in the table. Group I agricultural male and female labourers are 150 and 120. Male and female possession of vehicles is shown in the table.

In Ammapet block group I male members have possessed 110 cycles and 40 motorcylce (Two wheelers) and female agricultural labourers had possessed 100 cycles and 20 motorcycles. Single cycle value was `800 and motorcycle value is 15,000. So grand total value was `1.68 lakh and percentage is 5.78 and 30.95. Second group of male and female agricultural labourers in 2010-11 were 90 and 50. Possession of cycle and motorcycle by the agricultural male and female labourers were 60 and 30 and 40 and 10. Single cycle and motorcycle price was `900 and `18,000. So the grand total value was 0.90 lakhs (3.09%) and 7.20 lakhs (24.76). Group III agricultural labourers were 50 and 20. Possession of cycle and motorcycle were 20 and 30 and 10 and 10. Single cycle value was `1000 and motorcycle was 25000. So grand total value of vehicles was `0.30 lakhs and (1.03%) and 10 lakhs (34.39%).

In the case of Papanasam block there are three groups of agricultural labourers that is group I, group II and group III. Among them group I male and female agricultural labourers 120 are males and 110 are females. The number of cycle and motor cycle possessed was 90 cycles and 30 motorcycles. Single cycle and motorcycle price was 800 and 15000. So grand total value of cycle was 1.36 lakhs (5.36%) and `9.00 lakhs (35.45%).

Group II agricultural male and female labourers are 60 and 40. Possession of cycle and motorcycle by male labourers is 40 and 20. The number of cycle and motorcycle owned by female agricultural labourers are 30 and 10. Single cycle and motorcycle price is `900 and `18,000. So grand total value of cycle is `0.63 lakhs (2.48%) and `5.40 lakhs (21.27%).

317 Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 20. Possession of cycle and motorcycle by male agricultural labourers are 15 and 25 by female agricultural labourers are 10 cycle and 10 motorcycle. Value of single cycle is `1000 and motorcycle is 25,000. So grand total value of cycle is `0.10 lakhs and motorcycle is `2.50 lakhs. The possession of cycle and motorcycle value of male and female agricultural labourers is `0.25 lakhs and `8.75 lakhs. Cycle value is 0.98 per cent and motor cycle value is 34.46 per cent.

Therefore it is understood from the table that most of the male and female agricultural labourers possessed more cycle than motor cycle. Since motorcycle is very costly, only 0.33 percentage of agricultural labourers used motor cycle. This is also an indicator of economic and social conditions of agricultural labourers. Since the group III number of male and female agricultural labourers are very less in number, the number of cycle and motorcycle owned is less in number. But the price of cycle and motorcycle is costlier than group II and group I agricultural male and female labourers. Group I labourers are landless group II are marginal farmers having tiny bit of land and small farmers own wet land to the extent of 1.5 ha.

So group III farmers cum agricultural are better than group II farmers cum agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers are better than group I labourers. Hence it is understood that even in the possession of vehicles also the group III agricultural labourers are better than other two groups. Their economic conditions also better than other agricultural labourers. Hence it is concluded that the group III agricultural labourers economic conditions are better than other two groups because group III agricultural labourers vehicles are newly purchased items. That is why it is more costly than other two groups vehicles price.

TABLE 5.2.48 Value and different types of vehicles possessed by the agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Types of vehicles Types of Individual Number of Individual possession by Possession vehicles agricultural agricultural Number agricultural Total value of Number of Number Total value of agricultural of vehicles possession agricultural Groups labourers of of labourers house vehicles (` in agricultural of vehicles (` in labourers in number of by labourers vehicles Price of vehicles value in lakhs) Grand labourers vehicles Price of lakhs) Grand agri. house Groups agricultural vehicles value in vehicles ` Total vehicles total labourers `

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

1.89 1.89 Cycles Cycles 110 100 1 1 900 900 900 0.99 0.90 110 100 1 1 900 900 900 0.99 0.90 (5.45) (7.09) Group Group 160 130 135 120 I I Motro Motro 14.40 8.10 50 30 1 1 18000 1800 1800 9.00 5.40 25 20 1 1 1800 1800 1800 4.50 3.60 Cycles Cycles (41.50) (30.39)

0.80 0.40 Cycles Cycles 50 30 1 1 1000 1000 1000 0.50 0.30 30 10 1 1 1000 1000 1000 0.30 0.10 (2.31) (1.51) Group Group 80 40 50 30 II II Motro Motro 8.00 8.00 30 10 1 1 20000 20000 20000 6.00 2.00 20 20 1 1 20000 20000 20000 4.00 4.00 Cycles Cycles (23.05) (30.02)

0.16 0.16 Cycles Cycles 10 5 1 1 1100 1100 1100 0.11 0.05 10 5 1 1 1100 1100 1100 0.11 0.05 (0.46) (0.60) Group Group 40 10 30 15 III III Motro Motro 9.45 8.10 30 5 1 1 27000 27000 27000 8.10 1.35 20 10 1 1 27000 27000 27000 5.40 2.70 Cycles Cycles (27.23) (30.39)

34.70 26.65 Total 280 180 280 180 6 6 24.70 10.00 Total 215 165 215 165 6 6 15.30 11.35 (100) (100.00)

Source: Computed from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 318 319 In Ammapet block, there are three groups of agricultural male and female labourers. Group I male agricultural labourers are 160 male and 130 are female. Male labourers’s possession of cycles and motorcycles are 110 and 50. Female labourers’s possession of vehicles are 100 and 30. Price of single cycle and motorcycle is `900 and `18000. So grand value of cycles is `1.89 laksh (5.45%), motorcy values is `14.40 lakhs (41.50%). Group II number of male and female agricultural male and female labourers are 80 and 40 possession of cycles and motorcycles by male labourers is 50 and 30. Female agricultural labourers households owned 30 cycles and 10 motor cycles. The price of single cycle and motorcycle is `1000 and 20,000. Grand total value of cycles and motorcycles is 0.80 lakhs (2.31%) motorcycle price is `2 lakhs and `8 lakhs (23.05%). Group III number of agricultural labourers are 10 and 30. Possession of cycles and motorcycles by male agricultural labourers is 5 and 5. Female agricultural labourers households have owned 30 cycles and 5 motorcycles. Single cycle value is `1100 and motorcycle is `27,000. Hence grand total value of cycles and motorcycles owned by male agricultural labourers is `0.15 lakhs and `1.35 lakhs. Female agricultural labourers possession of cycle and motorcycle value is `0.16 lakhs (0.46%) motorcycle value is `9.45 lakhs (27.23%).

In Papanasam block the number of group I male agricultural labourers are 135 and female are 120. Among them male agricultural labourers have 110 cycles and 25 motorcycle the price or single cycle is `900 and motorcycle is `18,000. So grand total value of cycle is `1.89 lakhs (7.09%), motorcycle value is `8.10 lakhs (30.39%). Group II male agricultural labourers are 50 and female agricultural labourers are 30. Possession of cycle by male and female labourers is 30 and 20. Hence grand total value is `0.30 lakhs (0.1%), motorcycle grand total value is `8 lakhs (30.02%) group III agricultural male and female labourers are 20 and 10. The possession of male and female agricultural labourers worth of cycle is `1100 and motor cycle is 27,000. So grand total 320 value of cycle is `0.16 lakhs (0.60%) and worth of motorcycle is `8.10 lakhs (30.39%).

Therefore it is understood that the possession of cycle value of group III is greater and motorcycle is also grater because these are first hand products. Group I member of agricultural male and female labourers are greater in number but the price of cycle is lesser than other two groups, majority of the agricultural labourers have possessed cycles rather than motor cycles. But group III and group II agricultural labourers have comparatively speaking possessed motorcy more price of first hand cycle.

Therefore it is concluded that the economic condition of agricultural labourers of group III are better than other two groups likewise economic condition of group II agricultural labourers is better than group I. So in this context economic conditions and social status of agricultural laboruers depend on price of cycle and motor cycle. Low price or second or third had cycle or motor cycle is not working property and not giving more speed. Based on it group I agricultural labourers are poorer than other two groups.

TABLE 5.2.49 Total value of mobile assets possessed by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Total worth Total number Total worth Total number No. of Total worth Total number Total assets No. of Total worth Total number Total assets No. of possession of of utensils possession of of utensils agricultural possession of gold of vehicles (ìn possession (` in agricultural possession of gold of vehicles (ìn possession (` in groups silver (` in value (` in silver (` in value (` in laboruers (ìn lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) Grand laboruers (ìn lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) Grand lakhs) lakhs) total lakhs) lakhs) total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 103.92 94.65 150 120 33.00 52.80 1.01 1.62 2.47 2.34 6.88 3.80 43.36 60.56 120 110 26.40 48.40 0.81 1.48 3.30 3.90 5.22 5.14 35.73 58.92 I (34.62) (38.19)

Group 116.86 85.33 90 50 59.40 44.00 0.81 0.90 2.25 1.40 5.94 2.16 68.40 48.46 60 40 39.60 35.20 0.54 0.72 1.68 1.56 3.96 2.07 45.78 39.55 II (38.93) (34.43)

Group 79.39 67.86 50 20 44.00 22.00 0.56 0.45 1.52 0.56 7.70 2.60 53.78 25.61 40 20 35.20 22.00 0.45 0.45 1.46 0.95 6.40 0.95 43.51 24.35 III (26.45) (27.38)

300.17 247.84 Total 290 190 136.40 118.80 2.38 2..97 6.24 4.30 20.52 8.56 165.54 134.63 220 170 101.20 105.60 1.80 2.65 6.44 6.41 15.58 8.16 125.02 122.82 (100.00) (100.00)

Source: Computer from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 321 322 In Ammapet block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. The total value of gold jewel possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `33 lakhs and `52.80 lakhs. Total value of silver jewels owned by group I male and female agricultural labourers was `1.01 lakhs and `1.62 lakhs. Total value of utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `2.47 laksh and `2.34 lakhs. Total value of assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers families was `43.36 lakhs and 60.56 lakhs. So grand total value of mobile asset value was `103.92 lakhs (34.62%).

Group II agricultural male and female labourers are 90 and 50. The possession of gold jewel value of male and female agricultural labourers was `59.40 lakhs and `44.00 lakhs. Possession of silver jewels by male and female agricultural labourers was `0.81 lakhs and 0.90 lakhs. Utensils value of male and female agricultural labourers was `2.25 lakhs and `1.40 lakhs. Vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers and the value was `5.94 lakhs and `2.16 lakhs. So total mobile assets value was `68.40 lakhs and `48.46 lakhs. Grand total value was `116.86 lakhs (38.93%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 20 value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `44 lakhs and `22 lakhs. Silver jewels possessed by male and female labourers and the value was `0.56 lakhs and `0.45 lakhs. Utensil value of male and female agricultural labourers was `1.52 lakhs and `0.56 lakhs. Value of vehicles possessed by agricultural labourers was `7.70 lakhs and 2.60 lakhs. Total value of mobile assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `58.78 lakhs and ` 25.61 lakhs. Grand total value of all the mobile assets is `79.39 lakhs (26.45%).

In Papanasam block, group I agricultural male and female labourers are 120 and 110. The value of gold jewels possessed by male and female 323 agricultural labourers was `26.40 lakhs and `48.40 lakhs. Total value of silver jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `0.81 lakhs and 1.48 lakhs. Total value of utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `3.30 lakhs and `3.90 lakhs. Total value of vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `5.22 lakhs and `5.14 lakhs. Total value of mobile assets possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `35.73 lakhs and `58.92 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile assets was `94.65 lakhs (38.19%).

Group II agricultural male and female labourers are 60 and 40. Total value of gold jewels value of male and female agricultural labourers was `39.60 lakhs and `35.20 lakhs. Value of silver jewels possessed by agricultural labourers was `0.54 lakhs and `0.72 lakhs. Value of utensils possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.68 lakhs and `1.56 lakhs value of vehicles possessed by agricultural male and female labourers was `3.96 lakhs and `2.07 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile assets possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `45.78 lakhs and `39.55 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile assets value was `85.33 lakhs (34.43%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Total value of gold jewels possessed by agricultural labourers was `35.20 lakhs and `22.00 lakhs. Total value of silver jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `0.45 lakhs and 0.45 lakhs. The value of utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.46 lakhs and 0.95 lakhs. The value of vehicles possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `6.40 lakhs and 0.95 lakhs. So grand total value of group III male and female agricultural labourers mobile asset value was 67.66 lakhs (27.38%). The overall grand total value of all the three groups was `247.84 lakhs.

324 From this table it is known that among the total value of assets gold jewels value is greater than silver jewels value, vehicles value is more than silver value. So it is concluded that among all the three groups, group III mobile assets value is greater than other two groups eventhough the number of male and female agricultural labourers are less. This is because the group III agricultural labourers are small farmers and their annual income is greater than group II and group I. The mobile asset possession of group III small farmers cum agricultural labourers has shown that they are richer than other groups. Grand total mobile assets value of male and female group II agricultural labourers is greater than group I agricultural labourers. Therefore it is found out that mobile asset value is also one of the indicators of the socio-economic condition of agricultural labourers. The standard of living has been determined based on mobile assets value.

TABLE 5.2.50 Total value of mobile assets possessed by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Total worth of Total number Total worth of Total number No. of Total worth of Total number of Total assets No. of Total worth of Total number of Total assets No. of possession of of utensils possession of of utensils agricultural possession of gold vehicles (ìn possession (` in agricultural possession of gold vehicles (ìn possession (` in groups silver (` in value (` in silver (` in value (` in laboruers (ìn lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) Grand laboruers (ìn lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) Grand lakhs) lakhs) total lakhs) lakhs) total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 125.99 109.40 160 130 36.80 59.80 1.60 1.95 5.24 4.31 9.99 6.30 53.63 72.36 135 120 31.05 55.20 1.35 1.80 5.26 4.75 5.49 4.50 43.15 66.25 I (37.66) (40.48)

Group 135.48 94.02 80 40 73.60 46.00 1.00 0.80 3.36 1.92 6.50 2.30 84.46 51.02 50 30 46.00 34.50 0.62 0.60 2.28 1.62 4.30 4.10 53.20 40.82 II (40.50) (34.79)

Group 73.08 66.82 40 10 46.00 13.80 0.60 0.25 2.19 0.63 8.21 1.40 57.00 16.08 30 15 34.50 20.70 0.45 0.37 1.64 0.90 5.51 2.75 42.10 24.72 III (21.84) (24.73)

334.55 270.24 Total 290 190 156.40 119.60 3.20 3.00 10.79 6.86 24.70 10.00 195.09 139.46 220 170 111.55 110.40 2.42 2.77 9.18 7.27 15.30 11.35 138.45 131.79 (100.00) (100.00)

Source: Computer from primary data. Note: Figures in parentheses are indicates percentage. 325 326 In Ammapet block group I agricultural male and female labourers are 160 and 130. The value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `36.80 lakhs and `59.80 lakhs. The possession of silver jewels owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.60 lakhs and 1.95 lakhs. The value of utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `5.24 lakhs and `4.31 lakhs. The value of vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `9.99 lakhs and `6.30 lakhs. So total value of mobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `53.63 lakhs and 72.36 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile assets value of male and female agricultural laboruers was 125.99 (37.66%).

Group II male and female agricultural laborues are 80 and 40. The value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `73.60 lakhs and `46.00 lakhs. Silver jewels owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.00 lakh and 0.80 lakh. The utensils value of agricultural male and female labourers was `3.36 lakhs and 1.92 lakhs. The value of vehicles of male and female labourers was `6.50 lakhs and 2.30 lakhs. The grand total assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `84.46 lakhs and 51.02 lakhs. Overall value of mobile assets of group II was `135.48 lakhs (40.50%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 10. So value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `46.00 lakhs and `13.80 lakhs. The value of silver jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `0.60 lakhs and 0.25 lakhs. Total value of utensils owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `2.19 lakhs and `0.63 lakhs. The vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers value was `8.21 lakhs and `1.40 lakhs. So grand total value of vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `73.08 lakhs (21.84%). Overall grand total value of all the mobile assets was `334.55 lakhs (100%).

327 In Papanasam block group I agricultural labourers are 135 and 120. The value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was 31.05 lakhs and `55.20 lakhs. The possession of silver jewels by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.35 lakhs and `1.80 lakhs. Total value of utensils of different types owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `5.26 lakhs and `4.75 lakhs. The value of different types of vehicles owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `5.49 lakhs and 4.50 lakhs. Grand total value was `109.40 (40.48%).

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Total value of gold jewels possessed was `46.00 lakhs and `34.50 lakhs. Silver jewels value of male and female agricultural labourers was `0.62 lakhs and `0.60 lakhs. Different types of utensils value of male and female agricultural labourers was `2.28 lakhs and `1.62 lakhs. Different types of vehicle value of male and female agricultural labourers was `4.30 lakhs and `4.10 lakhs. Total value of different mobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `53.20 and `40.82 lakhs. Grand total value was `94.02 lakhs (34.79%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. Total value of gold jewels possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `34.50 lakhs and `20.70 lakhs. Total value of silver jewels owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `0.45 lakhs and `37 lakhs. Total value of utensils of different types owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `1.64 lakhs and `0.90 lakhs. Total value of vehicle owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `5.51 lakhs and `2.75 lakhs. Total worth of mobile assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `42.10 lakhs and `24.72 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile asset was `66.82 lakhs (24.73%).

From this table it is understood that female headed agricultural labourers had more gold and silver jewels than male agricultural laboruers. Due to greater number of male agricultural labourers total value of gold, silver, 328 utensils and vehicle value is greater. But actually the female laboures mobile assets are greater.

Group III male and female agricultural labourers mobile assets value is greater than other two groups. Individual possession of mobile assets of group III agricultural male and female labourers is greater than other two groups. Thus it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers standard of living is high and socially and economically respected. Group II agricultural labourers are having medium level of standard of living and the agricultural labourers have above poverty line. Group I agricultural labourers are leading a life on poverty line due to unemployment nearly 150 days in a year in 2012-13. But government employment generation schemes have helped them to get more annual income. That is why group I agricultural labourers have been uplifted same what to below poverty line.

TABLE 5.2.51 Value of different houses possessed by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area 2010-11 (` in lakhs)

Ammapet block Papanasam block

No. of Total worth of No. of Total worth Different agricultural possession of agricultural of possession types of the Value of labourers no. house (` in Grand Value of labourers no. of of house (` in Grand house % % houses of houses lakhs) total houses houses lakhs) total

M F M F M F M F

One room 0.05 100 62 5.00 3.10 8.10 4.85 0.05 85 61 4.25 3.05 7.30 5.92 hut house

Thatched 0.10 90 68 9.00 6.80 15.80 9.45 0.10 70 45 7.00 4.50 11.50 9.32 house

Govt. scheme 1.00 43 25 43.00 25.0068.00 40.69 1.00 27 24 27.0024.00 51.00 41.33 house

Tiled house 0.40 43 25 17.20 10.00 27.20 16.28 0.40 30 34 12.00 13.60 25.60 20.74

Concrete 2.00 14 10 28.00 20.00 48.00 28.73 2.00 8 6 16.00 12.00 28.00 22.69 house

Total 3.55 290 190 102.20 64.90167.10 100.00355.0 220 170 66.2557.15 123.40 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Rate of different types of houses multiplied by number of different groups of agricultural labourers = Total value

or worth of houses. 329 330 There are five types of houses i.e., one room hut and its value is `5000. Thatched house value is `0.10 lakhs. Government concrete house value is `1 lakhs. Tiled house is valued at `0.40 lakhs and concrete house value is ` 2 lakhs. 100 male and 62 female agricultural labourers have been living in one room house 33.75%. The value of one room house is `15.80 lakhs. So the total value of houses is `8.10 lakhs (4.85%). 90 male and 68 female are living in thatched houses. The total value of the houses is 9.45 per cent. 43 male and 25 female agricultural labourers are living in government built up concrete houses and the value is ` 68 lakhs (40.69%). In tiled houses 43 male and 25 agricultural labourers are living. So the value of houses is ` 27.20 lakhs (16.28%). 14 agricultural male and 10 female labourers are living in concrete houses. So total value of houses is ` 48 lakhs (28.73%). Thus it is understood that 320 male and female agricultural labourers are very poor. They are living below poverty line (66.15%). Remaining are on poverty line (middle level). 24.68 per cent are living above poverty line (9.17%). In Papanasam block also 5 types of houses are found and the number of agricultural labourers are living in different types of house are given. One room hut value is `0.05 lakhs. Thatched house value is `0.10 lakhs. Government built up houses value is `1 lakhs. Tiled house value is `0.40 lakhs and concrete house value is ` 2 lakhs. In one room hut 85 male and 61 female labourers are living nut house grand total value is 7.30 lakhs (5.92%). Thatched house grand total value is 11.50 lakhs (9.32%). 51 agricultural labourers are living in government built up houses. So the value of houses is `51.00 lakhs (41.33%). 64 agriculture labourers are living in tiled houses and the total value of houses is `25.60 lakhs (20.74%). 14 agricultural labourers are living in concrete houses so the value of houses is `28 lakhs (22.69%). Thus it is understood from the possession of different types of houses 64 per cent of the people are living below poverty line and 36 per cent agricultural labourers are on or above poverty line. Hence it is concluded that house is an immobile property, that has been an indicator of economic status of the agricultural labourers in the study area. TABLE 5.2.52 Value of different houses possessed by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13 (` in lakhs)

Ammapet block Papanasam block

No. of total No. of total Different Total value of Grand Value of Total value of Grand Value of agricultural agricultural types of the houses (` in total (` houses houses (` in total (` houses labourers and % labourers and % house lakhs) in (` in lakhs) in (` in lakhs) possession possession lakhs) lakhs) lakhs) M F M F M F M F

One room (hut ) 0.06 104 66 6.24 3.96 10.20 5.44 0.06 89 63 5.34 3.78 9.12 6.95 house

Thatched 0.12 84 54 10.08 6.48 16.56 8.83 0.12 67 53 8.04 6.36 14.40 10.97 house

Govt. scheme 1.25 42 23 52.50 28.75 81.25 43.33 1.25 23 14 28.7517.50 46.25 35.23 house

Tiled house 0.50 39 30 19.50 15.00 34.50 18.40 0.50 28 30 14.00 15.00 29.00 22.09

Concrete 2.50 11 7 27.50 17.50 45.00 24.00 2.50 8 5 20.00 12.50 32.50 24.76 house

Total 4.43 280 180 115.82 71.69 187.51 100.00 4.43 215 165 76.13 55.27 131.27 100.00 Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Rate of different types of houses multiplied by number of different groups of agricultural labourers = Total value or worth of houses. 331 332 In Ammapet block, there are five types of houses. One room house value is `0.06 lakhs. Total number of male and female agricultural labourers living in this type are 104 and 66. So total value of the houses is `6.24 lakhs, `10.20 lakhs (5.44%)). The value of thatched house is `0.12 lakhs and number of male and female labourers living in that house are 85 males and 54 females. Therefore total value of houses is `16.56 lakhs (8.83%). The value of govt. scheme house is `1.25 lakhs. The number or male and female agricultural labourers living are 42 and 23. Grand total value of the houses was `81.25 lakhs (43.33%). Tiled house value is 0.50 lakhs and number of total agricultural labourers living in this type of house was and grand total value of the house is `34.50 lakhs (18.40%). Concrete house value was `2.50 lakhs and total number of male and female agricultural labourers living in the house are 18 and total value of the house was `45 lakhs (24%). Overall grand total of all the houses is `187.51 lakhs (100%).

Papanasam block also has give types of houses are found. The value of one room house was `0.06 lakhs and number of male and female agricultural labourers living in that type is 89 males and 63 females. Grand total value of the houses is `9.12 lakhs (6.95%) value of thatched house was `0.12 lakhs and total number of male and female agricultural labourers living in the houses was 14.40 lakhs (10.97%). The value of government scheme house was `1.25 lakhs and number of agricultural labourers living in the houses are 27. Hence grand total value of that houses was `46.25 lakhs (35.23%). The value of tiled house was `0.50 lakhs and total number of agricultural i.e. male and female labourers living in that house was 58 and total value was 29.00 lakhs (22.09%). The value of concrete house was `2.50 lakhs, so total value was 32.50 lakhs (24.76%) because 8 male and 5 female agricultural labourers had been living in the house. Overall value of the five types of houses was `131.27 lakhs (100%).

From this table it is understood that house is also one of the immobile asset owned by the agricultural labourers. All are living in their own houses. In 333 the study are in both the blocks nearly 60 percentage of male and female agricultural labourers are living in one room house. Next place given to government scheme houses based on value of houses. Third rand is given to concrete house based on its value. Nearly 60 per cent of the people standard of living is very low vicious circle of poverty is operating in their life. 24 per cent of the people living on poverty line and 16 per cent of agricultural labourers are living above poverty line and their standard of living is somewhat better than other agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.2.53 Different types of houses owned by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block Different types of Group I Group II Group III Total Grand Group I Group II Group III Total Grand the house % % M F M F M F M F total M F M F M F M F total

One room hut 60 50 35 10 5 2 100 62 162 33.75 50 40 25 15 10 6 85 61 146 37.44 house

Thatched 50 40 20 20 20 8 90 68 158 32.91 40 30 20 10 10 5 70 45 115 29.48 house

Govt. scheme 30 20 10 5 3 - 43 25 68 14.17 20 20 5 4 2 - 27 24 51 13.08 house

Tiled 8 9 20 10 15 6 43 25 68 14.17 7 18 8 9 15 7 30 34 64 16.41 house

Concrete 2 1 5 5 7 4 14 10 24 5.00 3 2 2 2 3 2 8 6 14 3.59 house

Total 150 120 90 50 50 20 290 190 480 100.00 120 110 60 40 40 20 220 170 390 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 334 335 In Ammapet block 2010-11 100 male and 62 female agricultural labourers were living in one room house (hut) 90 male and 68 female agricultural labourers had owned thatched house. 43 male and 25 female agricultural labourers are living in government built up concrete small houses. 43 male and 25 female agricultural labourers had tiled houses. Remaining 14 and 10 agricultural male and female labourers had somewhat big concrete houses. More agricultural labourers houses 33.75 and 32.91 per cent male and female are living in one room hut house and thatched houses only very small number of people are living in tiled and small and some what big own concrete houses.

From this table it is understood that it is one of the indicators of measuring poor and rich conditions of agricultural labourers. Most of the 67 percentage of total agricultural labourers are living below poverty line. 5 per cent of agricultural labourers are living above poverty line. 28 percentage of agricultural labourers are living on poverty line.

In Papanasam block 146 agricultural labourers are living in one room house (37.43%). In thatched house 115 agricultural labourers are living (29.48%). Government scheme houses 51 agricultural labours are living (13.08%). In tiled house 64 agricultural labourers are living (16.41%). In somewhat big concrete houses 14 agricultural labourers are living (3.59%).

From this table, it is be understood easily that the nature of economic conditions 69.07 per cent of agricultural labourers is very poor. Only 21.93 per cent of the agricultural labourers are below poverty line. The remaining 9.00 per cent of agricultural labourers are living above poverty line. The socio- economic status of agricultural labourers on the whole is very poor. TABLE 5.2.54 Different types of houses owned by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block Different types of Group I Group II Group III Total Grand Group I Group II Group III Total Grand the house % % M F M F M F M F total M F M F M F M F total

One room hut 64 50 30 13 10 3 104 66 170 36.96 60 48 19 10 10 5 89 63 152 40.00 house

Thatched 50 44 25 8 9 2 84 54 138 30.00 42 40 16 8 9 5 67 53 120 31.58 house

Govt. scheme 28 15 8 7 6 1 42 23 65 14.13 14 10 5 3 4 1 23 14 37 9.74 house

Tiled 13 17 14 10 12 3 39 30 69 15.00 15 20 8 7 5 3 28 30 58 15.26 house

Concrete 5 4 3 2 3 1 11 7 18 3.91 4 2 2 2 2 1 8 5 13 3.42 house

Total 160 130 80 40 40 10 280 180 460 100.00 135 120 50 30 30 15 215 165 380 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data.

336 337 In Ammapet block the number of agricultural labourers living in one room hut are 170 (36.96%). In thatched houses 138 agricultural labourers are living (30.00%). In government built up small concrete houses 65 agricultural labourers are living (14.13%) 69 (15.00%) agricultural labourers are living in tiled houses. In some what big concrete houses only 18 male and female agricultural labourers are living 3.91 per cent.

From this table, the economic conditions of agricultural labourers are inferred from possession of houses. 67 per cent of agricultural labourers are living below poverty line and 29 percentage of agriculture labourers are on poverty line and 4 percentage of agricultural labourers are living above poverty line. So possession of own house and types of houses is also one of the indicators of economic conditions of agricultural labourers.

In Papanasam block 152 agricultural labourers are living in one room thatched houses (40.00%) 120 agricultural labourers are living in thatched houses (31.58%). In Government concrete houses, 37 (9.74%) agricultural labourers are living. In tiled houses 58 (15.26%) agricultural labourers are living. 13 agricultural labourers are living in their own concrete houses (3.42%).

Thus, it is understood from the table that nearly 70 per cent of the agricultural labourers are still poor. 20 per cent of the agricultural labourers are on poverty line and 10 per cent of the agricultural labourers are above poverty line. The ownership of type of household is also one of the measurements of economic conditions.

TABLE 5.2.55 Different types of house value of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Different Group – I house Group – II house Group – III Group – I house Group – II house Group – III Value of Total house value Total house value types of the value value house value value value house value houses (` in lakhs) Grand (` in lakhs) Grand house (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) % (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) % total total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

One room hut 0.05 3.00 2.50 1.75 0.50 0.25 0.10 5.00 3.10 8.10 4.85 2.50 2.00 1.25 0.75 0.50 0.30 4.25 3.05 7.30 5.92 house

Thatched 0.10 5.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 0.80 9.00 6.80 15.80 9.45 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 7.00 4.50 11.50 9.32 house

Govt. scheme 1.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 5.00 3.00 0 43.00 25.00 68.00 40.69 20.00 20.00 5.00 4.00 2.00 0 27.00 24.00 51.00 41.33 house

Tiled house 0.40 3.20 3.60 8.00 4.00 6.00 2.40 17.20 10.00 27.20 16.28 2.80 7.20 3.20 3.60 6.00 2.80 12.00 13.60 25.60 20.74

Concrete 2.00 4.00 2.00 10.00 10.00 14.00 8.00 28.00 20.00 48.00 28.73 6.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 6.00 4.00 16.00 12.00 28.00 22.69 house

Total 3.55 45.20 32.10 31.75 21.50 25.25 11.30 102.20 64.90 167.10 100.00 35.30 36.20 15.45 13.35 15.50 7.60 66.25 57.15 123.40 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Value of different types of houses are given in table 5.2.53 is multiplied by table 5.2.55 different types of houses owned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area 2010-11.

338 339

In Ammapet block the number of male agricultural labourers are 60 so total value of one room house is 0.05 lakhs, so total value of group I male agricultural labourers house is `3 lakhs. 2.50 lakhs female agricultural labourers one room house value was `0.05 lakhs, so 50 female labourers house value was `2.50 lakhs. Group II 35 agricultural male labourers total value of one room house was `1.75 lakhs. 10 female group II agricultural labourers house value was `0.50 lakhs. Group III 5 male labourers one room house value is `0.25 lakhs. 2 female agricultural labourers one room house value is 0.10 lakhs. In the case of thatched house, the number of male labourers living in group I is 50. So the value of one thatched house is 0.10 lakhs. So total value of houses is equal to 5 lakhs. Number of group I female agricultural labourers is 40. So total value of thatched houses was ` 4 lakhs. In case of group II 20 agricultural male labourers; 4 had possessed the houses. So the total value was `2 lakhs. Group II 20 female labourers possessed the thatched house. So the total value of the house was ` 2 lakhs. Group III agricultural 20 male labourers had possessed thatched houses, so the value of houses was ` 2 lakhs. Only 8 female agricultural labourers owned thatched houses, so the value was `0.80 lakhs. The value of government scheme houses value was `1 lakh in 2010-11. 30 group I male agricultural labourers had possessed that houses. So the value is `20 lakhs. 20 group I female agricultural labourers worth of that house was `20 lakhs. Group II 10 male agricultural labourers worth of that houses was `10 lakhs and 5 female agricultural labourers worth of the houses was `5 lakhs. Group III male agricultural labourers government scheme house was `1.00 lakhs. So the total value of the houses was `3 lakhs. No female agricultural labourers possessed govt. scheme concrete houses. One tiled house value is `0.40 lakhs. 8 male labourers in group I possessed this type of houses. So total value is `3.20 lakhs 9 female group I agricultural labourers worth of the house is `3.60 lakhs. Group II 20 male agricultural labourers possessed tiled houses. Total value of the houses is 8 lakhs. 10 female agricultural labourers possessed 340 tiled houses. So the total value of the houses was `4 lakhs. Group III 15 male agricultural labourers possessed tiled houses.

So total value of the houses was 6 lakhs. 6 female agricultural labourers possessed tiled houses. So total value of the houses was 2.40 lakhs. 1 concrete house value is `2 lakhs. Group I 2 male agricultural labourers possessed this type of houses, so total value of the houses was 4 lakhs and group I 1 (one) female agricultural labourers possessed concrete house. So value of that house is 2 lakhs. Group II 5 (five) male agricultural labourers possessed concrete houses, so the value of the houses is 10 lakhs. 5 female agricultural labourers worth of concrete houses was `10 lakhs.

Group III male agricultural labourers are 7 and the worth of the houses was 14 lakhs. 4 female agricultural labourers worth of concrete houses was 8 lakhs. So grand total worth of the different types of houses owned by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers was `480 lakhs in Ammapet block in 2010-11.

In Papanasam block, group I 50 male and 40 female agricultural labourers possessed 0.05 worth of one room house. The value of the houses was `2.50 lakhs and 2 lakhs. 40 and 30 male and female agricultural labourers had possessed 0.10 worth of thatched house. So the value of the houses was `4 lakhs and 3 lakhs 20 male and 20 female agricultural labourers had possessed 1 lakh worth of government scheme houses. So the value of the houses was `20 lakhs and 20 lakhs. The worth of tiled house was `0.40 lakhs. 7 and 18 male and female labourers possessed that types of house. So the total value of the houses was `2.80 lakhs and 7.20 lakhs. The worth of own built up concrete house was `2 lakhs. So 3 male and 2 female agricultural labourers had owned that type of houses. Therefore the total value of the houses was `6 lakhs and 4 lakhs.

341 Group II - 25 male and 15 female agricultural labourers owned one room houses. The worth of the house was `1.25 lakhs and `0.75 lakhs. 20 male and 10 female labourers had possessed 0.10 worth of thatched house. So the value of that houses was `2 lakhs and 1 lakh. The number of 5 male and 4 female agricultural labourers possessed 1 lakh worth of government scheme houses. So the value of houses was `5 lakhs and 4 lakhs the worth of tiled house was `0.40 lakhs so 8 male and 9 female agricultural labourers had possessed that houses so total value of the houses was `3.20 lakhs and `3.60 lakhs. Remaining 2 male and 2 female agricultural labourers had possessed that houses. So the value of that houses was ` 2 lakhs each. So total value of the houses was `4 lakhs and `4 lakhs.

Group III 10 male and 6 female agricultural labourers had possessed `0.05 worth of one room houses. So total value of the houses was `0.50 lakhs and 0.30 lakhs. 10 male and 5 female agricultural labourers had owned 0.10 lakhs worth of thatched houses. So the total value of the houses was `1 lakh and 0.50 lahs. 2 male agricultural labourers alone owned `1 lakh worth of government scheme house. So total value of the houses was `2 lakhs 15 male and 7 female agricultural labourers had owned `0.40 tiled houses. So total value of that houses was `6 lakhs and 2.80 lakhs. 3 male and 2 female agricultural labourers have owned 2 lakhs worth of own built up concrete houses. So total worth of the houses was 6 lakhs and 4 lakhs.

Total value of five types houses of male and female agricultural labourers was `66.25 and `57.15. Grand total value of all the agricultural labourers houses was `123.40 lakhs.

Thus it is understood that the number of group I male and female agricultural labourers is one third of group II agricultural labourers and one fourth of group III agricultural labourers. Group I agricultural labourers had owned one room houses. Very less number of group I agricultural labourers 342 possessed own built up concrete houses. Group II agricultural labourers owned mostly tiled thatched, government scheme houses and own built up concrete houses. Group III agricultural labourers owned mostly government scheme concrete houses, tiled houses and own built up concrete houses.

Therefore it is understood from the table that female group I agricultural labourers standard of living is poor and they are poverty stricken people in the society. They are not respected by other members in the society.

Less number of group II agricultural labourers are possessing one room houses. But other four types of houses are possessed by them. So they are living above poverty line. The standard of living of this group of labourers are also somewhat above low level. Group III agricultural labourers owned very few one room houses. But his group had possessed all the other types of houses. So the agricultural labourers standard of living is medium level only. They are also respected by the other people in the society. Hence it is concluded that based on possession of houses also the economic and social status is determined (Fig.5.16).

TABLE 5.2.56 Different types of house value of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

One room hut 0.06 3.84 3.00 1.80 0.78 0.60 0.18 6.24 3.96 10.20 5.44 3.60 2.88 1.14 0.60 0.60 0.30 5.34 3.78 9.12 6.95 house

Thatched 0.12 6.00 5.28 3.00 0.96 1.08 0.24 10.08 6.48 16.56 8.83 5.04 4.80 1.92 0.96 1.08 0.60 8.04 6.36 14.40 10.97 house

Govt. scheme 1.25 35.00 18.75 10.00 8.75 7.50 1.25 52.50 28.75 81.25 43.33 17.50 12.50 6.25 3.75 5.00 1.25 28.75 17.50 46.25 35.23 house

Tiled house 0.50 6.50 8.50 7.00 5.00 6.00 1.50 19.50 15.00 34.50 18.40 7.50 10.00 4.00 3.50 2.50 1.50 14.00 15.00 29.00 22.09

Concrete 2.50 12.50 10.00 7.50 5.00 7.50 2.50 27.50 17.50 45.00 24.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 2.50 20.00 12.50 32.50 24.76 house

Total 4.43 63.84 45.53 29.30 20.49 22.68 5.67 115.82 71.69 187.51 100.00 43.64 35.18 18.31 13.81 14.18 6.15 76.13 55.14 131.27 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : Value of different types of houses are given in table 5.2.54 is multiplied by table 5.2.56 different types of houses owned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area 2012-13. 343 344 In Ammapet block during 2012-13 64 male and 50 female agricultural labourers owned 0.06 lakh worth of one room houses. So the value of the houses was `3.84 and 3 lakhs. 50 male and 44 female agricultural labourers have owned `0.12 lakh worth of thatched houses. So total value of that houses was 6 lakhs and `5.28 lakhs. 28 male and 15 female agricultural labourers have owned `1.25 worth of government scheme concrete houses. Hence the value of the houses was `35 lakhs and 18.75 lakhs. 13 male and 17 female agricultural laboures owned `0.50 worth of tiled houses. 5 male and 4 female agricultural labourers have owned big concrete houses and the value is `12.50 lakhs and 10 lakhs.

Group II 30 male and 13 female agricultural labourers have owned 0.06 worth of one room houses. So the value of the houses was `1.80 lakhs and `0.78 lakhs. 25 male and 8 female agricultural laboures have owned 0.12 lakhs worth of thatched houses. So total worth of the houses was `3 lakhs and 0.96 lakh 8 male and 7 female agricultural labourers owned government scheme house worth `1.25 lalksh. So the value of the houses is `10 lakhs and 8.75 lakhs. 14 male and 10 female agricultural labourers have owned 0.50 worth of tiled houses. So the value has been `7 lakhs and 5 lakhs. 3 male and 2 female agricultural labourers have owned 2.50 worth of own built up concrete houses, so value is `7.50 lakhs and 5 lakhs.

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 10 males and 3 female and the worth of one room house was `0.06 lakhs. So the total value of the houses are 0.60 and 0.18 lakhs. The worth of thatched house was `0.12 lakhs. 9 male and 2 female labourers have owned that houses. So the total value of the houses was `1.08 lakhs and `0.24 lakhs.

The value of government scheme concrete house was `1.25 lakhs. So the value of the houses was `7.50 lakhs and 1.25 lakhs. The worth of tiled house was `0.50 lakhs. 12 and 3 female agricultural labourers have owned the 345 house. So the value of the houses was `6 lakhs and 1.50 lakhs. The worth of own built up concrete houses was `2.50 lakhs 3 male and 1 female agricultural labourers have owned that type of houses; so the value of the houses was `7.50 lakhs and `2.50 lakhs.

Total value of all the three groups of male and female agricultural labourers house value was `115.82 lakhs for male’s houses and female’s houses value is 71.69 lakhs. Grand total value of the houses of all the three groups of agricultural labourers was `187.51 lakhs.

In Papanasam block, group I 60 male and 48 female agricultural labourers had the worth of one room house was `0.06 lakhs. So total value of the houses was `3.60 lakhs and 2.88 lakhs worth of thatched house was `0.12 lakhs 42 male and 40 female agricultural labourers owned that type of houses. So grand total value was `5.04 lakhs and 4.80 lakhs. 14 male and 10 female agricultural labourers owned `1.25 worth of government scheme concrete houses. So the value of houses was `17.50 lakhs and 12.50 lakhs. The value of tiled house was `0.50 lakhs 15 male and 20 female agricultural labourers have owned that type of houses. So total value of the houses was `7.50 lakhs and 10 lakhs 4 male and 2 female agricultural labourers have owned 2.50 worth of own built up concrete houses. So the total value of the houses was `10 lakhs and ` 5 lakhs.

In group II 19 male and 10 female agricultural labourers owned one room houses. The value of one room house was `0.06 lakhs. So total value of the houses was `1.14 lakhs and `0.60 lakhs. The value of thatched house was 0.12 lakhs. So 16 male and 8 female agricultural labourers owned that type of houses. Hence the total value is `1.92 and 0.96 lakhs. The value of government scheme houses was `1.25 lakhs. So male and female agricultural labourers possessed that houses. Therefore the total value of the houses was `6.25 lakhs and `3.75 lakhs. The worth of tiled house was `0.50 lakhs. 8 male and 7 female 346 owned that type of houses. So total value of the houses was `4 lakhs and 3.50 lakhs. The value of own built up concrete house was `2.50 lakhs 2 male and 2 female agricultural labourers owned that houses. Hence the total value of that houses was `5 lakhs and `5 lakhs.

Total value of the male and female of three groups of agricultural labourers house value was `215 lakhs and 165 lakhs. Grand total value of three groups of laburers houses value was `380 lakhs.

From this table it is known that most of the group I male and female more than 50 per cent agricultural labourers owned one room houses. But group II agricultural male and female labourers have owned less one room houses. Group III agricultural labourers worth of government scheme concrete houses, tiled houses and own built up concrete houses are greater than other houses. It is understood from the value of the houses that group III agricultural labourers are having costly houses.

Therefore it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers have high stand of living compared with other agricultural labourers. Group II male and female agricultural labourers are somewhat having better standard of living than group I male and female agricultural laboures.

Group III agricultural labourers are above poverty line. Government have implemented number of employment generation programme. So it is beneficial to agricultural labourers to get income. State government has also provided more concession to get rice and other items at lowest price through rationing shop. Because of that case most of the agricultural male and female labourers are able to come up from below poverty line to above poverty line in 2012-13 (Fig.5.16).

347

90 81.25 80

50 45 41.33 40.69 percentage 40 In 35.23 34.5

30 28.73 24.76 22.69 22.09 20.74 20 16.56 16.28 10.97 9.45 10 9.32 6.95 5.92 5.44 4.85

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

One room hut home Thatched house Govt. scheme house Tiled house Concrete house

Fig.5.16. Different types of house value of different groups of agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.57 Individual possession and value of wet land owned by agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Possession of Grand Possession Grand Area of wet Total value of wet Area of wet Total value of wet Groups wet land in Total Land total of wet land Total Land total land land (` in lakhs) land land (` in lakhs) (ha) Area of value lakh % in (ha) Area of value lakh % wet land in ` (` in wet land in ` (` in M F M F M F lakhs) M F M F M F lakhs)

Group II 0.5 0.5 375 375 750 700 2.625 2.625 5.25 25 0.5 0.5 375 375 750 700 2.625 2.625 5.25 25 individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 1125 1125 2250 700 7.875 7.875 15.75 75 1.5 1.5 1125 1125 2250 700 7.875 7.875 15.75 75 individual

Total 2.0 2.0 1500 1500 3000 10.500 10.500 21.00 100 2.0 2.0 1500 1500 3000 10.500 10.500 21.00 100

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : 7.5 kulies are equal to 1 hectare of land.

348 349 In Ammapet block group II agricultural male and female labourers have possessed 0.5 and 0.5 ha of land. So the area of land is expressed in kulies. Both male and female wet land area is 750 kulies. So the total value of land is `2.625 and 2.625. So the grand total value is 5.25 lakhs (25%) group III agricultural labourers possession of land is 1.5 ha. Total area of land is 2250 kulies (1.5 ha). Total values of land is 15.75 lakhs (75%). Total value of wet land possessed by group II and group III agricultural labourers is `21 lakhs.

In Papanasam block group II agricultural labourers have possessed 0.5 ha of land (both male and female agricultural labourers). The total area possessed is 750 kulies is `700. So grand total value is `5.25 lakhs group III agricultural labourers total possession of wet land is 3 ha including both male and female agricultural labourers. In kulies it is 2250 (area). The value of per kulie is `700. So total value of group III male and female agricultural labourers is `15.75 lakhs (75%).

Therefore it is understood that group III agricultural labourers have more land than group II agricultural labourers. So group III agricultural labourers are small farmers cum agricultural labourers. Therefore it is concluded that the group III agricultural labourers economic conditions are better than group II marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers. Socially also group III agricultural labourers are repeated by other people in the society due to possession of more wet land.

TABLE 5.2.58 Individual possession and value of wet land owned by agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Possession of Total area value Grand Possession Grand Area of wet Total Area of wet Total Total area value of Groups wet land in Land of wet land (` in total of wet land Land total land Area land Area wet land (` in lakhs) (ha) value lakhs) lakh % in (ha) value lakh % of wet of wet in ` (` in in ` (` in land land M F M F M F lakhs) M F M F M F lakhs)

Group II 0.5 0.5 375 375 750 800 3.00 3.00 6.00 25 0.5 0.5 375 375 750 800 3.00 3.00 6.00 25 individual

Group III 1.5 1.5 1125 1125 2250 800 9.00 9.00 18.00 75 1.5 1.5 1125 1125 2250 800 9.00 9.00 18.00 75 individual

Total 2.0 2.0 1500 1500 3000 12.00 12.00 24.00 100 2.0 2.0 1500 1500 3000 12.00 12.00 24.00 100

Source: Computed from primary data. Note : 7.5 kulies are equal to 1 hectare of land.

350 351 In Ammapet block individual possession of wet land by group II male and female labourers is 0.5 and 0.5 ha. Total possession of area was 7.5 kulies (3.75 +3.75=7.5) square feet. Land value was `3 lakhs possession of wet land by male and female value of wet land was `3.00 lakhs. Grand total value was `6 lakhs and percentage is 25. Group III male and female possession of land was 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha. The square feet of land is expressed in kulies. So total area is 2250 kulies that is 3 ha of land. The value of 1 kulie of land is `800. Hence total value of 2250 kulies is `18 lakhs (75.00%).

In Papanasam individual group II agricultural male and female labourers possession of land is 0.5 ha. 0.5 ha is consisted of 375 kulies in the study area. So the value of 1 kulie was `800. Hence the total value of land possessed by both male and female agricultural labourers is `3 lakhs. Likewise group III individual male and female agricultural labourers possession of land is 1.5 ha and 1.5 ha. The total area of land possessed by male and female labourers is 2250 kulies and value of the wet land is 18 lakhs (75%).

Thus it is understood that the group II and group III farmers cum agricultural labourers asset possession is greater than group II agricultural labourers. If at all it is compared with group II agricultural labourers, group III agricultural labourers have more land asset than group II agricultural labourers.

Therefore it is concluded that land is an immovable asset and its value is every year going on increasing. So in this aspect the group III agricultural labourers both male and female are possessing individually 1.5 ha of wet land. So therefore group III agricultural labourers are richer than group II agricultural labourers in economic conditions and social status.

TABLE 5.2.59 Possession of total wet land by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Number of Total land Number of Total land Land value Grand Land value Grand Groups agricultural value total lakh agricultural value total lakh (` in lakhs) % (` in lakhs) % labourers (` in lakhs) (` in labourers (` in lakhs) (` in M F M F M F lakhs) M F M F M F lakhs)

Group 90 50 2.625 2.625 236.25 131.25 367.50 40.00 60 40 2.625 2.625 157.50 105.00 262.50 35.71 II

Group 50 20 7.875 7.875 393.75 157.50 551.25 60.00 40 20 7.875 7.875 315.00 157.50 472.50 64.29 III

Total 140 70 10.50 10.50 630.00 288.75 918.75 100 100 60 10.50 10.50 472.50 262.50 735.00 100

Source: Computed from primary data. 352 353 In Ammapet block group II agricultural male and female labourers are 90 and 50. Total value of wet land possessed by male and female agricultural labourers is `2.625 lakes and 2.625 lakhs 90 male agricultural labourers wet land value is `236.25. 50 female agricultural labourers wet land value is `131.25 lakhs total number of male and female agricultural labourers wet land value is `367.50 lakhs (40%).

Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 50 and 20 possession of wet land is 1.5 ha and value of 50 agricultural male labourers wet land is `393.75 lakhs and value of 20 female agricultural labourers wet land value is `157.50 lakhs. Total value of wet land is `551. 25 lakhs (60.0%). Total value of group II and group III agricultural labourers value of wet land is 918.75 lakhs.

Papanasam block groups II male and female agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. Total male agricultural labourers wet land value is `157.50 lakhs female agricultural labourers wet land value is `105.00 lakhs. So grand total wet land value is 262.50 lakhs 35.71 per cent Group III agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. Hence wet land value of 40 male and 20 female agricultural labourers is `315.00 lakhs and for female it is `157.50 lakhs. Grand total value is `472.50 lakhs (64.29%). Therefore, total two groups agricultural labourers wet land value is `735 lakhs.

Thus it is understood from the table in 2010-11 the land value is lesser than 2012-13 and land possessed by group III agricultural labourers is greater than group II agricultural labourers possession of wet land has decided economic and social condition of farmers cum agricultural labourers.

So it is calculated that group III agricultural labourers are having more income and also employed throughout the year in their land. Whenever they are free only they are working in others, medium or large farmers land. So they are living above poverty line (Fig.5.17).

TABLE 5.2.60 Possession of total wet land by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

Group 80 40 3.00 3.00 240.00 120.00 360.00 44.44 50 30 3.00 3.00 150.00 90.00 240.00 37.21 II

Group 40 10 9.00 9.00 360.00 90.00 450.00 55.56 30 15 9.00 9.00 270.00 135.00 405.00 62.79 III

Total 120 50 12.00 12.00 600.00 210.00 810.00 100 80 45 12.00 12.00 420.00 225.00 645.00 100

Source: Computed from primary data. 354 355 In Ammapet block, the total number of group II male and female agricultural laboures are 80 and 40. 80 male agricultural labourers values of 0.5 ha is `3 lakhs. So total value of male agricultural labourers wet land is `240 lakhs. Total value of wet land owned by female agricultural labourers is `120 lakhs. So grand total value is `360 lakhs (44.44%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 40 and 10, so 40 male agricultural labourers wet land value is `360 lakhs. Total number of female agricultural labourers total value wet land is `90 lakhs. So total value is `450 lakhs (55.56%) Grand total value of wet land is `810 lakhs.

In Papanasam block, group II male and female agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Total male agricultural labourers wet land value is `150 lakhs and female agricultural labourers wet land value is ` 90 lakhs. So grand total wet land value is 240 lakhs (37.21%). Group III agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. Total wet land value of 30 male and 15 female agricultural labourers is `270 lakhs and `135 lakhs. Grand total value is `405 lakhs (62.79%). Total two groups of agricultural labourers wet land value is 645 lakhs. Thus it is understood from the table in 2012-13 that the land value is greater than 2010-11. The land possessed by group III agricultural labourers is greater than group II agricultural labourers. Based on possession of land the economic and social conditions of farmers cum agricultural labourers are decided. So it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers are having more income and also employed throughout the year in their land. Whenever they are free only they are working in other medium or large farmers land. So they are living above poverty line or having better economic conditions. Group II marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers have more working days in medium and large farmers land. Because their land is one third of group III agricultural labourers. Hence the agricultural labourers land income is less but wage income is more (Fig.5.17).

356

70 64.29 62.79 60 60 55.56

50 44.44 40 40 37.21 35.71 percentage

In 30

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group II Group III

Fig.5.17. Possession of total wet land by different groups of male and female agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

TABLE 5.2.61 Immovable assets value of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

No. of No. of Total house No. of Total house Total wet land Total asset value Total wet land Total asset value agricultural agricultural value (` in group value (` in lakhs) value (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) Grand value (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) Grand labourers % labourers lakhs) % total total M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 150 120 45.20 32.10 - - 45.20 32.10 77.30 7.12 120 110 35.30 36.20 - 0 35.30 36.20 71.50 8.33 I

Group 90 50 31.75 21.50 236.25 131.25 268.00 152.75 420.75 38.75 60 40 15.45 13.35 157.50 105.00 172.95 118.35 291.30 33.93 II

Group 50 20 25.25 11.30 393.75 157.50 419.00 168.80 587.80 54.13 40 20 15.50 7.60 315.00 157.50 330.50 165.10 495.60 57.74 III

Total 290 190 102.20 64.90 630.00 288.75 732.20 353.65 1085.85 100.00 220 170 66.25 57.15 472.50 262.50 538.75 319.65 858.40 100.00

Source: Computer from primary data. 357 358 In Ammapet block group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. Total house value of 150 male agricultural male labourers was `45.20 lakhs and female agricultural labourers 32.10 lakhs and total value of wet land was nil because group I male and female agricultural labourers are landless. So grand total assets value of group I agricultural labourers was `77.30 alkhs (7.12%). Group II number of male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 50. Total house assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `31.75 lakhs and 21.50 lakhs. Total wet land assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `236.25 lakhs and `131.25 lakhs. Total value of both the assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `268 lakhs and 152.75 lakhs. Grand total value of the assets was `420.75 lakhs (38.75%). Group III number of male and female agricultural labourers was 50 and 20. Total house value asset was `25.25 lakhs and `11.30 lakhs. Total land asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `393.75 lkahs and `157.50 lakhs. So total value of both the assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `419.00 lakhs and `168.80 lakhs. Grand total assets value of group III male and female agricultural labourers was `587.80 lakhs (54.13%).

In Papanasam block, group I male and female landless agricultural labourers are 120 and 110. Total house asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `35.30 lakhs and 36.20 lakhs. So grand total asset value of house was `71.50 lakhs (8.33%).

Group II agricultural male and female agricultural labourers had been 60 and 40. Total house value of male and female agricultural labourers was `15.45 lakhs and 13.35 lakhs. Total value of wet land asset of male and female agricultural labourers was `157.50 lakhs and 105 lakhs. Total value of both the assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `172.95 lakhs and `118.35 lakhs. Grand total value was `291.30 lakhs (33.93%).

359 Group III male and female agricultural labourers had been 40 and 20. Total house asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `15.50 lakhs and `7.60 lakhs. Total wet land value of male and female agricultural labourers was `315.00 lakhs and 157.50 lakhs. Total value of both male and female agricultural labourers assets was `330.50 lakhs and `165.10 lakhs. Grand total value of both the assets was `495.60 lakhs (57.74%).

From this table it is seen that among the value of house and land assets, land asset value is much more greater than house asset, because wet land is productive and it yields more and more bags of paddy (1 bag contains 60 kgs) depending upon fertility of soil. Group III small farmer cum agricultural labourers possession of land was 1.5 ha and group II marginal farmer cum agricultural labourers possession of land was 0.5 ha. Based on possession of land group III agricultural labourers standard of living, and social and economic status etc. are higher than group II agricultural labourers. Comparatively speaking group II agricultural labourers have better standard of diving than group I agricultural labourers. So group II agricultural labourers in 2010-11 had an income which is lower for meeting family expenditure. So the group II agricultural labourers are living on poverty line and group I agricultural labourers are living below proverty line in 2010-11.

TABLE 5.2.62 Immovable assets value of different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group 160 130 63.84 45.53 - - 63.84 45.53 109.37 10.96 135 120 43.64 35.18 - - 43.64 35.18 78.82 10.15 I

Group 80 40 29.30 20.49 240.00 120.00 269.30 140.49 409.79 41.08 50 30 18.31 13.81 150.00 90.00 168.31 103.81 272.12 35.06 II

Group 40 10 22.68 5.67 360.00 90.00 382.68 95.67 478.35 47.96 30 15 14.18 6.15 270.00 135.00 284.18 141.15 425.33 54.78 III

Total 280 180 115.82 71.69 600.00 210.00 715.82 281.69 997.51 100.00 215 165 76.13 55.14 420.00 225.00 496.13 280.14 776.27 100.00

Source: Computer from primary data. 360 361 In Ammapet block, group I male and female agricultural labourers are 160 and 130. The value of house asset of male and female agricultural labourers was `63.84 lakhs and `45.53 lakhs. So total asset value of group I landless labourers was `63.84 lakhs and 45.53 lakhs. Grand total worth of asset was `109.37 lakhs (10.96%).

Group II male and female agricultural labourers are 80 and 40. Total value of house asset of male and female agricultural labourers was `29.30 lakhs and 20.49 lakhs. Total wet land value of male and female agricultural labourers was `240.00 lakhs and `120.00 lakhs. Total value of both the asset was `269.30 lakhs and 140.49 lakhs. Grand total asset value of both the assets was `409.79 lakhs (41.08%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 10. The value of house asset of male and female agricultural labourers was `22.68 lakhs and `5.67 lakhs wet land asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `360 lakhs and `90 lakhs. Total asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `382.68 lakhs and 95.67 lakhs. Grand total value of assets was `478.35 lakhs (47.96%).

In Papanasam block, group I male and female agricultural labourers are 135 and 120. The value of house asset of the group I landless male and female labourers was `43.64 lakhs and `35.18 lakhs. Grand total value of asset was `78.82 lakhs (10.15%). Group II agricultural labourers are 50 and 30. Total house asset of agricultural male and female labourers was `18.31 lakhs and 13.81 lakhs. Total wet land asset value was `150 lakhs and 90 lakhs. Total assets of group II male and female agricultural labourers were `168.31 lakhs and `103.81 lakhs. Grand total asset value was `272.12 lakhs (35.06%). Group III agricultural male and female labourers are 30 and 15. Total house value was `14.18 lakhs and 6.15 lakhs. Total wet land value was `270 lakhs and `135.00 lakhs. Total value of both the assets of male and female 362 agricultural labourers was `284.18 lakhs and `141.15 lakhs. Grand total value of asset was `425.33 lakhs (54.78%).

From this table it is seen that group III male and female labourers asset value was greater than group II. Group I labourers are landless so total asset value was only 10.96%. Therefore group III agricultural labourers socio- economic conditions are better than group II agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers socio economic conditions are better than group I agricultural labourers. Standard of living of group III agricultural labourers is far better than group I because they are landless labourers.

Hence it is concluded from the possession of immovable properties that group III agricultural labourers do not have poverty line, they are above poverty line. Group II agricultural labourers are also considered as a type of labourers living above poverty line. But Group I agricultural male and female labourers are daily wage earners. Since the price of all commodities are increasing the landless agricultural labourers (group I) standard of living is low due to unemployment of agricultural labourers.

TABLE 5.2.63 Total value of immovable and movable assets owned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2010-11

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Grand total value of Grand total value of Total value of Total value of Total value of Total value of Number of immovable and Number of immovable and immovable assets movable assets immovable assets movable assets Groups agricultural movable assets agricultural movable assets value value Overall value value Overall labourers value grand labourers value grand (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) % (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) % (` in lakhs) total (` in lakhs) total

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 150 120 45.20 32.10 43.36 60.56 88.56 92.66 181.22 13.07 120 110 35.30 36.20 35.73 58.92 71.03 95.12 166.15 15.02 I

Group 90 50 268.00 152.75 68.40 48.46 336.40 201.21 537.61 38.79 60 40 172.95 118.35 45.78 39.55 218.73 157.90 376.63 34.05 II

Group III 50 20 419.00 168.80 53.78 25.61 472.78 194.41 667.19 48.14 40 20 330.50 165.10 43.51 24.35 374.01 189.45 563.46 50.93

Total 290 190 732.20 353.65 165.54 134.63 897.74 488.28 1386.02 100.00 220 170 538.75 319.65 125.02 122.82 663.77 442.47 1106.24 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 363 364 In Ammapet block, group I male and female agricultural labourers are 150 and 120. Total value of immobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers is `45.20 lakhs and 32.10 lakhs. Total value of mobile asset value was `43.36 lakhs and `60.56 lakhs. Total value of immobile and mobile assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `88.56 lakhs 92.66 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets value was `181.22 lakhs (13.07%).

Group II number of male and female agricultural labourers are 90 and 50. The value of immobile and mobile assets value was `268 lakhs and `152.75 lakhs. Total mobile assets value was `68.40 lakhs and `48.46 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `336.40 lakhs and `201.21 lakhs. Overall grand total value was 537.61 lakhs (38.79%).

Group III male and female agricultural male and female labourers are 50 and 20. The value of immobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `419 lakhs and 168.80 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was `53.78 lakhs and `25.61 lakhs. Grand total value of mobile and immobile assets value was `472.78 lakhs and `194.41 lakhs. Grand total value was `667.19 lakhs (48.14%). So overall grand total assets value of all the three groups of male and female agricultural labourers in Ammapet block was `1386.02 lakhs (100%).

As it is seen from the table that immobile and mobile assets value of agricultural male and female group III labourers was 17.35 per cent greater than group II male and female agricultural labourers. Both the male and female agricultural labourers in group III possessed income yielding mobile and immobile assets. Comparatively speaking group III agricultural labourers are richer than group II and group I agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers immobile and mobile assets value was 15.72 per cent greater than group I agricultural labourers. In case of assets, group III agricultural labourers are far better than group II agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural 365 labourers are better than group I agricultural labourers because group I agricultural labourers are landless labourers. Possession of land has been responsible for increasing asset value of agricultural labourers. Since group I male and female agricultural labourers do not possess any land, the value of assets is less.

Therefore it is concluded that possession of assets indicates. Standard of living and socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers unemployment and poverty line had also linked with possession of asset of the agricultural labourers. Group III and group II farmers owned wet land so with the help of the land the number of working days in agriculture has increased and also income. This groups of people are having a life of more or less reasonable standard of living. So poverty line is not found out. Hence sixth hypothesis is proved. Because the table has proved the fact.

In Papanasam block, the number of agricultural labourers are 120 and 110 in group I (landless labourers). The value of immobile value of male and female agricultural labourers was `35.30 lakhs and `36.20 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was `35.73 lakhs and `58.92 lakhs. Grand total immobile and mobile asset was `71.03 lakhs and `95.12 lakhs. Overall grand total assets value was `166.15 lakhs (15.02%). Group II agricultural labourers are 60 and 40. The value of immobile assets value was `172.95 lakhs and `118.35 lakhs. Total value of mobile assets was `45.78 lakhs and `39.55 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `218.73 lakhs and 157.90 lakhs. Overall grand total value of assets was Rs.376.63 lakhs (34.05%).

Group III agricultural labourers are 40 and 20. The value of immobile assets possessed by male and female agricultural labourers was `330.50 lakhs and `165.10 lakhs. Value of mobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `43.51 lakhs and 24.35 lakhs. Total value of immobile and mobile assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `374.01 366 lakhs and `189.45 lakhs. Overall grand total value was `563.46 lakhs (50.93%). Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets value of three groups was `1106.24 lakhs (100%).

This table has also revealed the fact that group III agricultural labourers are in a better position than group II agricultural labourers. Group II agricultural labourers are better than group I (landless) agricultural labourers possession of wet land is the reason for better position of group II (0.5 ha) and group III (1.5 has) agricultural labourers. This two types of assets may be income yielding assets. Due to that the economic and social conditions of the group III and group II agricultural labourers are greater than group I. To a great extent unemployment is very less among group II and group III agricultural labourers in 2010-11.

So it is concluded that more than 50 per cent of assets was possessed by group III and 33.3 per cent of assets are owned by group II agricultural labourers. Thus there is no poverty line is found among the above two groups. Hence sixth hypothesis is proved. The standard of living and economic conditions are far better than group I agricultural labourers. That is also proved with the help of the table (Fig.5.18).

TABLE 5.2.64 Total value of immovable and movable assets owned by different groups of agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13

Ammapet Block Papanasam Block

M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F

Group 160 130 63.84 45.53 53.63 72.36 117.47 117.89 235.36 17.67 135 120 43.64 35.18 43.15 66.25 86.79 101.43 188.22 17.99 I

Group 80 40 269.30 140.49 84.46 51.02 353.76 191.51 545.27 40.93 50 30 168.31 103.81 53.20 40.82 221.51 144.63 366.14 34.99 II

Group III 40 10 382.68 95.67 57.00 16.08 439.68 111.75 551.43 41.40 30 15 284.18 141.15 42.10 24.72 326.28 165.87 492.15 47.02

Total 280 180 715.82 281.69 195.09 139.46 910.91 421.15 1332.06 100.00 215 165 496.13 280.14 138.45 131.79 634.58 411.93 1046.51 100.00

Source: Computed from primary data. 367 368 In Ammapet block group I (landless) male and female agricultural labourers are 160 and 130. Total value of immobile assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `63.84 lakhs and `45.53 lakhs. Total value of mobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `53.63 lakhs and `72.36 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers was `117.47 lakhs and `117.89 lakhs. Grand total worth or immobile and mobile assets value was `235.36 lakhs (17.67%).

The number of group II agricultural male and female agricultural labourers are 80 and 40. The value of immobile assets owned by male and female agricultural labourers was 269.30 lakhs and 140.49 lakhs. Total value of mobile asset was `84.46 lakhs and 51.02 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets was `353.76 lakhs and `191.51 lakhs. Grand total value of immobile and mobile assets value was `545.27 lakhs (40.93%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 40 and 10. The value of immobile assets was `382.68 lakhs and 95.67 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was `57.00 lakhs and `16.08 lakhs. Grand total value was `439.68 lakhs and `111.75 lakhs. Overall grand total assets value was `551.43 lakhs (41.40%).

From the table it is understood that group III is having more percentage of mobile and immobile assets eventhough the number of agricultural labourers are very few compared with other two groups. This is because of highest value of wet lands and house of big types owned by them.

So it is concluded that the group III male and female agricultural labourers standard of living and socio-economic conditions are better than group II agricultural labourers and group II male and female agricultural labourers are also in a better socio economic condition than group I agricultural (landless) labourers.

369 In papanasam block, group I agricultural male and female labourers are 135 and 120. The value of immobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `43.64 lakhs and `35.18 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was `43.15 lakhs and `66.25 lakhs. Grand total asset value of male and female agricultural labourers was `86.79 lakhs and `101.43 lakhs. Overall grand total of immobile and mobile assts value was `188.22 (17.99%).

Group II agricultural male and female laboures are 50 and 30. The value of immobile assets of male and female agricultural labourers was `168.31 lakhs and `103.81 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was `53.20 lakhs and `40.82 lakhs. Grand total assets value of male and female agricultural labourers was `221.51 lakhs and `144.63 lakhs. Overall grand total value of immobile and mobile value was `366.14 lakhs (34.99%).

Group III male and female agricultural labourers are 30 and 15. The value of immobile assets or male and female agricultural labourers was `284.18 lakhs and `141.15 lakhs. The value of mobile assets was 42.10 lakhs and `24.72 lakhs. Grand total value of male and female agricultural labourers was `326.28 lakhs and `165.87 lakhs. Overall grand total value of immobile and mobile assets was `492.15 lakhs (47.02%).

So overall grand total value of immobile and mobile assets of three groups was `1046.51 lakhs (100%).

From this table it is understood that wet land asset and tract of land has given more value to group III male and female agricultural labourers eventhough the number of male and female agricultural labourers are less. In this context the male and female agricultural labourers who are having more land and more income so their social and economic status is high. The standard of living has been also high. There is no poverty line in the case of group III and group II agricultural labourers. But Group I agricultural laboures are also living above poverty line. So in 2012-13 the economic conditions and social 370 status of group III and group II agricultural labourers are higher especially group III agricultural labourers.

Therefore sixth hypothesis is proved. The number of unemployed has been reduced due to the steps taken by central and state governments in releasing Cauvery water and favourable monsoon. Not only that 100 days work programme has been also a source of income to the group I agricultural labourers. That is why in 2012-13 the economic conditions of agricultural labourers are uplifted by central government employment generation programme. Therefore the standard of living of group I landless agricultural labourers has also increased at present day world (Fig.5.18).

371

60 50.93 02 . 48.14

50 47 02 41.4 40.93 40.93 38.79 40 34.99 34.05

30 percentage percentage

In 17.99 20 17.67 15.02 13.07

0 2010‐11 2012‐13 2010‐11 2012‐13

Ammapet block Papanasam block

Group I Group II Group III

Fig..5.18. Total value of immovable and movable assets owned by different groups of agricultural labourers during the study period 2010-11 and 2012-13.

372

TABLE 5.2.65. Problems faced by the agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13 (Ammapet and Papanasam blocks)

No. of S. Types of problems agricultural Total Percentage No. labourers 1. Financial problem 840 840 100 2. Fair price is not given to sale 295 295 35.12 of paddy to the marginal and small farmers 3. Bank loan is not given in time 295 295 35.12 to the marginal and small farmers 4. Wage is not sufficient 840 840 100 5. Long period of unemployment 840 840 100 6. Inadequate amount of annual 295 295 35.12 income through agricultural operations 7. Agricultural labourers are 200 200 23.81 living on poverty line 8. Agricultural labourers 545 545 64.88 standard of living is poor 9. Large size family and 545 545 64.88 increased expenditure 10. Indebtedness of agricultural 840 840 100 labourers Source: Computed from primary data.

373 Total number of agricultural labourers are 840 in 2012-13. All the agricultural labourers are facing financial problems. But organized agencies have not helped male and female marginal farmers by advancing loan. Since the agricultural labourers have less sovereign of gold assets, they are not able to get the needed and required amount of loan. That is why the agricultural labourers are resorting the help of money lenders, by which the agricultural labourers’s indebtedness has mounted up without any leaps and bounds.

Small and marginal farmers but agricultural labourers are raising paddy in the land, but fair price or reasonable price is not paid per bag of paddy containing 60 kgs. Thus the problem is faced by the group II and group III agricultural labourers. The number of farmers cum agricultural labourers are 295 (35.12%).

Group II and group III agricultural labourers are not paid loan by the bank immediately. So timely use of bank loan is not possible. Lengthening the process of payment of loan by organized agencies the small and marginal farmers have been affected in cultivating paddy in small piece of land, so annual income is very low. Total number of farmers cum agricultural labourers suffered are 295 (35.12%). Long period of unemployment is yet another problem faced by agricultural labourers of all types especially landless agricultural labourers. So mandays are lost and this has resulted in less annual income and the families are suffering from number of problems.

All the agricultural labourers 840 (100%) are of the opinion that wage is also not sufficient, during peak seasons, the agricultural labourers should be paid still more wages. Ordinary period, agricultural labourers are paid less wages. So the income from the wage is not enough to manage the family.

All the agricultural labourers (840) are of the opinion that agricultural activities are not undertaken throughout the year by the small and marginal 374 farmers, but it is a seasonal occupation. But paddy cultivable seasons only; the agricultural labourers are having work and not in other days of the year.

Since the annual income is very low, the standard of living of the agricultural labourers is very poor and the agricultural labourers are living below poverty line. The number of agricultural labourers suffering from the problem are 295 (35.12%).

In order to keep their body and soul together agricultural labourers are borrowing money from money lenders and large farmers. Ultimately that will result in indebtedness of the landless labourers. Thus vicious circle of poverty or misery go round is operating in the life of the agricultural labourers. The number of farmers cum agricultural labourers facing the problems are 545 (64.88%).

Among all the problems, the important problems faced by all the agricultural labourers are unemployment problem. For solving the problem, Central government and state government have implemented a number of employment generation programmes. Among them the following are the various types of employment generation schemes (Fig.5.19).

375

100 100

35.12 64.88 35.12

64.88 100 23.81 35.12 100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Financial problem 2. Fair price is not given to sale of paddy to marginal and small farmers 3. Bank loan is not given in time to marginal and small farmers 4. Wage is not sufficient 5. Long period of unemployment 6. Inadequate amount of annual income through agricultural operations 7. Agricultural labourers are living on poverty line 8. Agricultural labourers standard of living is poor 9. Large size family and increased expenditure 10. Indebtedness of agficultural labourers

Fig.5.19. Problems faced by the agricultural labourers in the study area during 2012-13 (Ammapet and Papanasam blocks). TABLE 5.2.66 Employment generation programmes initiated by the central and state government to solve the problems faced by agricultural labourers

Name of the employment Year of Nature of Objectives of schemes generation implementation employment scheme programmes 1. Bhagawati Committee 1966-1971 a. A department of employment and man power should Extent of on unemployment and be set up both at the central and state level. unemployment and suggestions b. Rural works consisting of irrigation, soil conservation, under employment in land reclamation and rural road, etc. all its aspects and to suggest remedial c. Over-time work to be prohibited. measures by d. Fixed in working hours. B. Bhagawati e. Massive rural work committee report f. The more fortunate classes in all sectors, including agricultural, who are working large gains (or) incomes. g. Vocational education h. Unemployment insurance i. Population planning j. Tax concession k. Development of backward area 376 Name of the employment Year of Nature of Objectives of schemes generation implementation employment scheme programmes 2. National Rural 1977-1978 a. Generation of additional employment Rural employment Employment b. ‘Food for work’ in additional food grains cash funds generation scheme. Programme (NREP) are now being provided to the states. c. Creation of durable community assets and improvement in the standard of rural folk. 3. Integrated Rural 1978-79 a. Reducing unemployment in rural areas and providing Rural employment Development assets and inputs to the rural poor. development scheme Programme (IRDP) b. The benefits under the programme would glow exclusively to rural poor living below the poverty line. c. The programme aims at providing employment to 600 poor families in each development block every year. 4. Training of Rural 1978-79 a. Removing unemployment among rural youth. Rural youth self Youth for Self b. The scheme equips the rural youth with requisite skills employment scheme Employment and technology so that can take to vocations that lead (TRYSEM) to self-employment. c. TRYSEM is an integral part of the IRDP and the entire expenditure on the schemes is hard on a 50:50 basis by the centre and the states. 377 Name of the employment Year of Nature of Objectives of schemes generation implementation employment scheme programmes 5. Employment 1979-80 a. Provide gainful and productive employment in Rural employment Guarantee Scheme approved work to all unskilled personnel in rural areas. guarantee scheme (EGS) b. The guarantee is restricted to unskilled manual work and the participants have no choice in the type of work. c. These people are given jobs in the projects creating durable community assets like minor irrigation, soil conservation and road construction. 6. Indira Awas Jojana 1985-86 a. Rural landless employment guarantee programme Rural poor SC/ST (JAY) (RLEGP) to provide houses free of cost to the employment scheme. members SC/ST and freed bonded labourers. b. 1989-90 the scheme has been continued under JRY from 1993-94 the scheme has been extended to the poor categories besides SC/ST. c. Open irrigation wells, free of cost to poor and small and marginal farmers belonging to SC/ST and freed bonded labourers. 378 Name of the employment Year of Nature of Objectives of schemes generation implementation employment scheme programmes 7. Swarna Jayanthi 1999-2000 a. A single self-employment programme for the rural Rural people scheme Gram Swarozgan poor. It replaces the earlier self-employment and allied various programme Yojana (SGSY) programmes. launched rural b. IRDP, TRYSEM, Development of women and employment scheme children in rural areas (DWCRA), Supply of improved Tool-kits to Rural Artisans (SITRA), Ganga Kalyan Yogana (GKY) and million wells sscheme (MSW) SGSY take into account all the strength and weakness of the earlier self employment programme. c. It aims of micro-enterprises in the rural areas. 8. Pradhan Mantri 2000-2001 a. Human development at the village level. Rural basic Gramaodaya Yojana b. Basic minimum services in order to focus on certain development (PMGY) priority area of the government. scheme. c. PMGY initially had five components viz., primary health, primary education, Rural shelter, Rural drinking water and nutrition, Rural electrification has been added as an additional component. 379 Name of the employment Year of Nature of Objectives of schemes generation implementation employment scheme programmes 9. Mahatma Gandhi 2005-2006 a. The Government of India likes to provide job Rural poverty National Rural opportunity by the scheme. eradication Employment b. This scheme provides a legal guarantee for a 100 days employment scheme. Guarantee Act of employment in every financial year to adult (MGNREGA) numbers. c. The act was introduced with an aim of improving the purchasing power of rural people. d. In 2011 the programme was widely criticized more to more effective than other poverty reduction/ Source: Secondary data. (Sankaran, S., Indian Economy, Margham Publication, Chennai, 2009, pp.46.13-46.21).

380 381

In 1971, Bagawathi Committee was appointed by the central government in order to solve unemployment among agricultural labourers. The committee has studied various problems faced by agricultural labourers and recommended certain solutions. That are given in the above table clearly.

Based on it 1977-78 National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) was initiated in order to provide work and food to poor rural agricultural labourers living below poverty line. In 1978-79 Integrated Rural Development Programme was also implemented (IRDP). This programme had been also mainly implemented for the welfare of rural poor by the provision of milch cow, goat and sleep to women agricultural or rural labourers families.

Next important employment programme is Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM) in 1978-79. For initiating self-employment, training is given to rural youth. Employment Generation Scheme (EGS) in 1979-80 was initiated by Maharastra government to able bodied rural people for promoting rural developmental activities.

Indra Awas Yojana (JAY) in 1985-86 was implemented for rural landless labourers so as to promote the welfare and annual income of the family of rural agricultural labourers.

Swarna Jayanthi Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was implemented in 1999- 2000 in order to provide employment to rural poor. The scheme helped to uplift the economic conditions of agricultural labourers.

Pradhan Mandri Gramadaya Yojana (PMGY) was implemented in 2000- 2001 for creating asset and human development in rural area and increase income of rural poor. Mahathma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) was implemented throughout the nation in 2005-06. This 382 particular scheme is at present very popular among rural poor people. This schemes has provided employment to all the poor people who are living below poverty line. This programme is also called as 100 days work programme. Every day both male and female poor workers are paid `120. By this way the rural households are able to earn `12,000 as their annual income.

This programme is successfully implemented throughout the nation. From top level to bottom level it was successfully and seriously implemented without any partiality and favouritism. All the rural poor people have welcome the scheme, enjoyed and satisfied with the schemes.

All these employment programmes have been implemented for adding up annual income of agricultural labourers. The agricultural labourers are happy and finding employed in the government implemented programme because they got full amount of wages. To some extent the agricultural labourers are satisfied.

Criticism of employment generation programme implemented by the government are that there was favourism and nepotisms in the implementation of the programme. The agricultural labourers living below poverty line are relegated to background but somewhat rich agricultural labourers are absorbed in the programme. The wage given by the administrator of the programme is lower than the prescribed amount. The middlemen in the process of implementation are benefited much by employment generation scheme of the central government. By this way fifth hypothesis is proved empirically (Hindu Paper 25.10.2012, p.33, heading 100 days work programme, correspondent of Hindu paper).

383

SECTION - 3

Chapter V deals with importance of agricultural labourers. Still agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. In this context, agricultural labourers are also more important in Indian economy.

TABLE 5.3.1 Importance of agricultural labourers

Indian Economy and Agricultural labourers agriculture 1. Still agriculture contributes 40 per Agricultural labourerrs role is cent of national income. significant 2. The lands are fragmented and Only agricultural labourers can subdivided. work in the field. 3. Machines can not be introduced in Only agricultural labourers can small and sub-divided farming. work in the field. 4. In the study period, Cauvery river Cultivation was taken place only in did not supply adequate water for less hectare of land, at the time cultivation agricultural labourer works needed in the farms. 5. Cultivable lands are converted into Less land is available for cultivation house plot commercial building etc. in this context also the role of agricultural labourers is very significant. 6. Agricultural lands are used for raw For gathering raw materials like material production for Agro based cotton, coffee, tea, agricultural industry. labourers are needed. In this regard also the role of agricultural labourer is very significant. Source: Computed from primary data.

384

So it is concluded that however mechanization of agriculture is taking place that is not suitable to Indian agricultural sector. Agricultural labourers can not be replaced by machines and the importance of agricultural labourers is always felt. Agricultural labourers are the people who are oiling the wheel of Indian agriculture, but the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers are poor and they are relegated to the background. The causes for poor economic conditions are 1. Low wages paid to agricultural labourers. 2. Agricultural labourers annual income is very low. 3. Due to low wages the agricultural laboures standard of living is very low. 4. Agricultural labourers are mostly coming from scheduled caste and backward communities. 5. Agricultural labourers are mostly illiterates and ignorants. 6. The agricultural labourers are easily cheated by money lenders and large farmers, ultimately the agricultural labourers are becoming landless agricultural labourers and in some time bonded agricultural labourers. 7. The indebtedness of agricultural labourers is highly responsible for poor economic condition and ill treatment by the people in the society. 8. Usually agricultural labourers are having large size family

All these causes are found in the study area among agricultural labourers.

385

TABLE 5.3.2 Difference between agricultural and industrial labourers

Agricultural labourers Industrial labourers 1. Seasonal work Work throughout the year 2. Irregular payment. Regular payment 3. Poor standard of living High standard of living 4. Unorganized labour Organized labour. 5. Landowners not domination (wage) Trade union domination (wage) 6. Flexible wage Fixed wage 7. Poor education of the children High level education of children 8. Poor housing Living in factory quarters or own houses. 9. No respect in the society High respect in the society 10. Poor economic conditions High economic conditions. Source: Computed from primary data.

Thus the cause for poor socio-economic conditions are analyzed. The significance of agricultural labourers are analyzed by the researcher in this chapter. So without saying it is concluded that agricultural labourers’s role in agricultural sector cannot be underestimated forever.

Chapter VI FINDINGS, POLICY IMPLCATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

FINDINGS  It is understood that landless agricultural labourers are more in number than marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers and small farmers with small land holding but agricultural labourers. The percentage has shown landless agricultural labourers are more in the particular study area in 2010-2011.  It is understood due to less member of panchayat different groups of agricultural labourers are also less in Papanasam block – Papanasam taluk. So depending upon the number of villages the agricultural labourers are varying in number.  It is understood in the study are cultivable land has decreased due to many reasons. Lack of proper timely rainfall, lack of water in river Cauvery monsoon failure etc. have been the reasons for increasing landless agricultural male and female labourers. Marginal farmer’s land has been conficated by rich people, large farmers and money lenders due to the indebtedness of the marginal farmers. Third group of farmers are small farmers but they can not use power point for irrigation, tube well irrigation etc. So the condition of small farmers is much more precarious. Thus landless farmers have been going on increasing. Thus the first objective has given scope for the analysis.  Sampling is very significant in research work because population is large in number. So all the items in the universe must have equal chance of being selected. With the help of sampling alone research work is undertaken. So in Ammapet block sample of three groups of agricultural labourers are 460 and in Papanasam block 380 are chosen. For proper and easy analysis of data landless labourers are called as group I, marginal farmers with tiny bits of land but agricultural labourers are called as group II and farmers with small holdings but agricultural labourers are called as group III labourers. 387

 Based on community wise distribution, it is concluded that except backward and most backward communities, other communities are living below or on poverty line due to their improper spending of wage income and income from agricultural holdings like small number or marginal farmers. That is why the rich people are remaining rich but poor people are remaining poor. Misery-go-round is found in the life of poor people but merry go round is operating in the life or rich people wherever people come that refers to agricultural labourers only.  A decrease trend in agricultural labourers in all the religions except Muslim religion. This is due to failure of seasonal rainfall and snatching of land by Hindu and Christian large farmers, wet lands are used for building commercial complex schools and colleges of private individuals. Thus, it is concluded that different religions agricultural labourers are decreasing year- after-year. So this it is to be controlled that rural economic set-up would be changed in the future. Government has to implement many more number of rural improvement programmes for the upliftment of rural poor.  It is understood 83.68 per cent of the agricultural labourers are young and energetic. In this context it is understood that the labourers are able to earn more money during busy season and earning normal wage in ordinary season. The income of the family has been increased because the energetic agricultural labourers who are ready to work in agricultural field, any sort of work like uprooting, transplanting, weeding, harvesting winnowing and etc. Even then more percentage of agricultural labourers are still poor because they have spent money by the mismanagement of the family.  More than 50 per cent of the male and female agricultural labourers are married and unmarried male and female agricultural labourers are nearly 44.74 per cent. Marriage is a social and religions ceremony. It creates relationship between two families and also kith and kins. Due to marriage the society discipline and morality are maintained to a great extent. In this context marriage has very significant role in the life of male and female agricultural labourers. 388

 It is concluded that education is essential and inevitable whatever may be an economic activity. Since the agricultural labourers are literates, they are considered as semiskilled or skilled labourers. The literates can understand modern technical aspects of agriculture. That is why already adult education is given to the persons who are engaged in agricultural activities. If at all agricultural labourers are able to read and write in mother tongue the labourers can understand the strategy of getting more yield.  It is understood that as years passed on the number of agricultural labourers who are having I std. to XII std. education is very larger than degree holders. They have also involved in agricultural activities because the labourers are not engaged in secondary and tertiary sector. The illiterate agricultural labourers are given adult education. So education is very essential to agricultural labourers at present day world. Without that no one can thrive in life. The standard of living of each and every individual depends on education only. Hence it is concluded that education is very significant in every one’s life.  But whatever may be the reasons given small size families are good for agricultural labourers for giving education to their children. Now-a-days most of the girl students are admitted in government college for getting higher education. Especially the rural scheduled community people are aware of the facilities. So in the coming future scheduled community agricultural labourers definitely will be having high standard of living.  Male agricultural labourers had taken different types of intoxicant. The family standard of living has been spoiled to a great extent. The agricultural labourers income level is diminishing, so the women in the families are not able to manage the families and children education is spoiled to a great extent. Families’ indebtedness has increased. Again the sons and daughters of agricultural labourers are becoming agricultural labourers only. The families are pushed below poverty line. The wealth of the family is only poverty, unemployment and ill heath, therefore the social status of the family has been lowered. 389

 The poverty and unemployment are the results that children education is neglected. Thus it is the scope for increasing unskilled labourers, this in turn is leading to underemployment in agricultural sector. The family becomes poorer and poorer. All properties including small piece of land are taken by the money lenders and large farmers.  The poverty and unemployment are the results that are fallen on the family, children education is neglected. There is the scope for increasing unskilled labourers, this in turn is leading to underemployment in agricultural sector. The family becomes poorer and poorer. All properties including small piece of land are taken by the money lenders and large farmers.  It is seen from the table that only female married agricultural labourers alone have taken family planning measure. This measure is very essential to country like India because every census of population, the number of male and female population had been going on increasing. This has resulted in number of evil effects on the family and also on the nation. The targets of five year plan are not achieved. So controlling population is one of the targets of our nation that could be done only through family planning methods implemented in the five year plan.  Hence it is concluded that even now agriculture depends on seasonal rainfall. That is why the number of working days in agriculture is going on dwindling and this points is also supported by ALE Committees, National Labour Committee on Labourers, Various Census Committee report on agricultural labourers etc. So first hypothesis is proved that there is a significant direct relationship between number of working days available in agriculture and annual income of different groups of agricultural labourers.  Based on it, it is concluded that due to less number of working days to three groups of labourers annual earning will be reduced. This in turn resulted in poor standard of living of agricultural labourers. Further, agricultural labourers are pushed again to below poverty line.  So it is concluded that group III farmers economic conditions and standard of living are better than other two groups. Their social status has been 390

higher than other two groups of agricultural labourers. This point has been supported by National Commission on labour 1988.  As far as working days in agricultural activities are concerned. Group II and group III agricultural labourers are in disadvantageous conditions. If at all annual wage income received through agricultural activities is concerned group I agricultural labourers are in an advantageous position because grand total annual income of the group I agricultural labourers is `38.64 lakhs (60.13%) in Ammapet block and in Papanasam block grand total annual income of group I agricultural labourers is `31.92 lakhs (63.33%).  A grand total annual wage income group I agricultural labourers are in an advantages conditions than group II and group III agricultural laboruers. Thus the first hypothesis is proved with the help of 1991 census report that number of less working days lead to less wage income.  It is understood that female headed families allied income is greater than male agricultural labourers allied income. So it is understood that in augmenting money and saving for future purpose female agricultural labourers are better than male agricultural labourers.  Since the number of total working days are very less agricultural labourers annual income is very less. So the first hypothesis is proved empirically. S.Parthasarathy report in the year 1991-96 had proved that less number of working days in agricultural sector and other occupation had resulted in lower annual income only.  Thus it is known that a portion of income is earned as additional annual income by male and female agricultural labourers instead of staying idle at home. As years passed on the number of working days and income of agricultural labourers are going on deteriorating. The finding of the study is strongly supported by Rural Agricultural Labourers Commission and Ministry of Labour report of National Commission on Rural Labour (1991).  It is understood that head of the household male or female agricultural labourers income in total income is the major portion of the family income. Allied income and other household income are minor portion. Therefore it 391

is concluded that from the tables i.e. Ammapet agricultural income is greater than Papanasam block. In this ways agricultural income is estimated. If annual income is greater, automatically standard of living is also greater.  It is understood that during 2010-11 the group II marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers land holding is smaller than small farmers cum agricultural labourers. So the annual income from the land holding is greater than group II agricultural labourers. The yield from one hectare of land is only 50 bags of paddy annually. At the same time the agricultural labourers did not adopt latest technology. So agricultural labourers had reaped less yield. The agricultural labourers did not adopt any technology announced by agricultural research centres and agricultural university, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The agricultural labourers are at present aware of latest technology, that enables them to earn more profit.  It is known that annual income of group III agricultural labourers is greater than group II agricultural labourers. But group II male and female are getting equal amount of paddy and annual income. So it is understood from the table that the fertility of the soil is the same and technology adopted in paddy cultivation is the same. Therefore it is concluded that group II and group III farmers cum agricultural labourers annual income from agricultural wet land is greater. So standard or living and socio economic conditions are also better then group I agricultural labourers due to possession of more wet land.  For the day-to-day expenditure of the family, the agricultural labourers are depending on wage. After the work in the land is over the agricultural labourers have been employed in large farmers land as wage earners. Because the income earned by group II and group III agricultural labourers is realized after 3 or 6 months, then only the paddy is sold by marginal and small farmers cum agricultural labourers.  It is understood that more profit is reaped by group III agricultural labourers due to larger tract of wet land. Smaller the possession of wet land holding 392

smaller would be the profit. There is direct relationship between annual income and annual expenditure in the case of paddy cultivation. So profit also directly corrected with annual income and indirectly corrected with the expenditure of agricultural labourers.  Small farmers cum agricultural labourers and marginal farmers cum agricultural labourers are benefited by paddy cultivation in the study area. Profit is an incentive to the marginal and small farmers. So the socio- economic conditions of agricultural labourers of small farmers cum agricultural labourers (group III) are higher than group II agricultural labourers due to the profit and large treat of land holding (wet land).  Even than group III agricultural labourers are having a better socio- economic condition. Income from land is greater. They are having high standard of living than other two groups (i.e. I and II). But in the case of total annual expenditure group II agricultural labourers is greater than group I agricultural labourers.  So it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers socio-economic conditions are at the middle level in the society. Group II has reasonable standard of living. So these two groups of agricultural labourers are respected in the society particularly group III labourers than group II agricultural labourers including group I agriculture labourers based on annual total expenditure incurred on various items.  Based on this it is understood that Group I agricultural labourers are suffering a lot due to agricultural indebtedness. Hence, the fourth hypothesis is proved. The amont of annual expenditure is greater than annual income so the amount of indebtedness is greater. This view is supported by rural labour commission report in 1999 and the commission revealed that rural labourers are migrated to urban area due to their indebtedness.  Group I male and female agricultural labourers savings was `6.43 lakhs, and `5.50 group II agricultural male and female labourers savings was `4.19 lakhs and `2.13 lakhs. Group III agricultural labourers total savings 393

was `2.13 lakhs and 0.80 lakh. Total savings of all the three groups was `12.75 lakhs and `8.51 lakhs.  It is known that the group I agricultural labourers owned less number of gold sovereign (jewels) and less worth of houses and utensils that is why they borrowed money from unorganized agencies. These agencies are always charging high rate of interest, so the agricultural labourers are not in a position to get back the pledged articles. That makes them poor and the social and economic status was also very low due to the pledging of all the properties. They are pushed back again to below poverty line. Group II and group III agricultural labourers are getting back the properties pledged by them in organized agencies. Therefore the social and economic conditions are far better than group I agricultural labourers. Group III agricultural labourers are better than group II agricultural labourers, with regard to borrowing money from co-operative bank and commercial bank which are charging very less rate of interest.  Hence it is concluded that gold jewels are used for wearing during the festivals and wedding ceremonies, because it reveals their economic status. Moreover it is also revealing their social status among their relations and neighbourers. Therefore their economic conditions are also better, not only that it is compared with others. Therefore their economic conditions are also better than other two groups. They possess land property and jewels.  But whatever it is, it would be concluded that more agricultural labourers standard of living is lower than workers working in secondary and tertiary sections. Female labourers in all the three groups of Papanasam block possessed more silver ornaments than male headed agricultural labourers.  It is understood that female agricultural labourers in all the groups (three) have owned more brass, eversilver and Aluminium utensils. Usually in male headed family possession of all three types at utensils are less in number. But in women empowered family all the three types of utensils are greater in number. Therefore it is concluded that in counting the value of assets female asset value is greater than male agricultural labourers. Hence it is 394

known that possession of utensils has reflected the asset possession value of agricultural labourers.  At present time women are very desirous to purchase plastic vassals, which are unbreakable in nature. Agricultural female labourers are fond of this vessels. So it is concluded that for revealing socio-economic conditions, possession of vessels is also an indicator.  Therefore it is concluded that the economic condition of agricultural labourers of group III are better than other two groups likewise economic condition of group II agricultural labourers is better than group I. So in this context economic conditions and social status of agricultural laboruers depend on price of cycle and motor cycle. Low price or second or third had cycle or motor cycle is not working property and not giving more speed. Based on it group I agricultural labourers are poorer than other two groups.  It is known that among the total value of assets gold jewels value is greater than silver jewels value, vehicles value is more than silver value. So it is concluded that among all the three groups, group III mobile assets value is greater than other two groups eventhough the number of male and female agricultural labourers are less. This is because the group III agricultural labourers are small farmers and their annual income is greater than group II and group I. The mobile asset possession of group III small farmers cum agricultural labourers has shown that they are richer than other groups. Grand total mobile assets value of male and female group II agricultural labourers is greater than group I agricultural labourers. Therefore it is found out that mobile asset value is also one of the indicators of the socio- economic condition of agricultural labourers. The standard of living has been determined based on mobile assets value.  Group III male and female agricultural labourers mobile assets value is greater than other two groups. Individual possession of mobile assets of group III agricultural male and female labourers is greater than other two groups. Thus it is concluded that group III agricultural labourers standard of living is high and socially and economically respected. Group II agricultural 395

labourers are having medium level of standard of living and the agricultural labourers have above poverty line. Group I agricultural labourers are leading a life on poverty line due to unemployment nearly 150 days in a year in 2012-13. But government employment generation schemes have helped them to get more annual income. That is why group I agricultural labourers have been uplifted same what to below poverty line.  Thus it is understood from the possession of different types of houses 64 per cent of the people are living below poverty line and 36 per cent agricultural labourers are on or above poverty line. Hence it is concluded that house is an immobile property, that has been an indicator of economic status of the agricultural labourers in the study area.  It is be understood easily that the nature of economic conditions 69.07 per cent of agricultural labourers is very poor. Only 21.93 per cent of the agricultural labourers are below poverty line. The remaining 9.00 per cent of agricultural labourers are living above poverty line. The socio-economic status of agricultural labourers on the whole is very poor.  Nearly 70 per cent of the agricultural labourers are still poor. 20 per cent of the agricultural labourers are on poverty line and 10 per cent of the agricultural labourers are above poverty line. The ownership of type of household is also one of the measurements of economic conditions.  Group III agricultural labourers are above poverty line. Government have implemented number of employment generation programme. So it is beneficial to agricultural labourers to get income. State government has also provided more concession to get rice and other items at lowest price through rationing shop. Because of that case most of the agricultural male and female labourers are able to come up from below poverty line to above poverty line in 2012-13.  So it is calculated that group III agricultural labourers are having more income and also employed throughout the year in their land. Whenever they are free only they are working in others, medium or large farmers land. So they are living above poverty line. 396

 Hence it is concluded from the possession of immovable properties that group III agricultural labourers do not have poverty line, they are above poverty line. Group II agricultural labourers are also considered as a type of labourers living above poverty line. But Group I agricultural male and female labourers are daily wage earners. Since the price of all commodities are increasing the landless agricultural labourers (group I) standard of living is low due to unemployment of agricultural labourers.  So it is concluded that more than 50 per cent of assets was possessed by group III and 33.3 per cent of assets are owned by group II agricultural labourers. Thus there is no poverty line is found among the above two groups. Hence sixth hypothesis is proved. The standard of living and economic conditions are far better than group I agricultural labourers. That is also proved with the help of the table.  Therefore sixth hypothesis is proved. The number of unemployed has been reduced due to the steps taken by central and state governments in releasing Cauvery water and favourable monsoon. Not only that 100 days work programme has been also a source of income to the group I agricultural labourers. That is why in 2012-13 the economic conditions of agricultural labourers are uplifted by central government employment generation programme. Therefore the standard of living of group I landless agricultural labourers has also increased at present day world.  In order to keep their body and soul together agricultural labourers are borrowing money from money lenders and large farmers. Ultimately that will result in indebtedness of the landless labourers. Thus vicious circle of poverty or misery go round is operating in the life of the agricultural labourers. The number of farmers cum agricultural labourers facing the problems are 545 (64.88%).  All these employment programmes have been implemented for adding up annual income of agricultural labourers. The agricultural labourers are happy and finding employed in the government implemented programme 397

because they got full amount of wages. To some extent the agricultural labourers are satisfied.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS The followings are the policy implications of the study. 1. Landless agricultural labourers socio-economic conditions are very very poor, still most of them are living below poverty line. In this context government has to give attention to eradicate poverty by taking suitable steps and providing job opportunities so that the number of working days would be increased in a year. 2. The wage rate is very less for male and female agricultural labourers. The wage of male and female is to be increased because the price of all consumer items has increased to a great extent. 3. The size of the family of agricultural labourers must be made small one. The agricultural labourers have to follow small family norms. 4. Annual income of agricultural labourers is to be increased other than agricultural activities. Through allied activities and other sources. The agricultural labourers have to increase the income by different ways and means. 5. Unnecessary expenditure of the agricultural labourers like betelnut, tobacco and intoxicant drinks expenditures are to be completely stopped then only the family has sufficient income to spend on necessary items. 6. Rural indebtedness of agricultural labourers are to be reduced and agricultural labourers should borrow money from commercial bank by pledging their available gold jewels. Again bonded labour should not be a chapter or a topic in agricultural labourers socio-economic conditions. 7. Asset possessed by agricultural labourers especially landless agricultural labourers must be increased by hardwork of agricultural labourers families. 8. All types of agricultural labourers annual income must be augmented by all ways and means. Investment must be made on gold jewels and tiled, 398

concrete houses etc. All these assets are useful during times of emergencies. 9. Number of unemployment days must be reduced by making use of government employment generation schemes. Landless agricultural labourers have to use it properly. 10. Favouritism and nepotism are to be avoided in the implementation of 100 days work programme. Top to bottom level authorities are to be very sincere in the provision of work to poor agricultural labourers. 11. The agricultural labourers employed in 100 days work programme must whole heartedly work for the wage they received. 12. Agricultural labourers should realize that 100 days work programme has been useful to increase the social and economic assets of their village. Then only the village or Panchayat will be prosperous to satisfy the needs of people in the village. 13. Self-employment training should be given to agricultural labourers of all groups in order to earn income during slack seasons. That will provide sufficient works to lead a life above poverty line. For each and every thing, agricultural labourers cannot depend on government.

CONCLUSION A study on socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers in Papanasam Taluk, Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu is a micro level study. The study has deeply analysed social conditions like age, religion, community, education, marital status, family size etc. and also economic conditions like number of working days, available in the study period i.e., 2010-11 to 2012-13, wage rate, agricultural wage income, allied and other income, annual income and expenditure, rural indebtedness, unemployment poverty line and government employment schemes for eradication of poverty among agricultural labourers. The findings and implications of the study would be more helpful to the researcher doing research in this heading. The study has been more useful to the government for policy making in order to bring out any 399 modification for the successful implementation of employment generation schemes to uplift the socio-economic conditions of agricultural labourers. Because poor rural labourers are landless agricultural labourers only, so the sufferings and poor social and economic status of the agricultural labourers must be removed by all means. In this context the agricultural labourers are solely responsible to uplift their social and economic conditions; then only the government can take adequate steps to eradicate poverty and unemployment of poor agricultural labourers. Therefore it is applicable at macro level also.