ISSUE 61 FEV CUSTOMER MAGAZIN

"ZERO EMISSION STRATEGIES"

ZERO EMISSION Strategies from Synthetic Fuels to E-Drives

SI HYBRID ENGINE High Tech or Low-cost?

FEV HECS ECOBRID Diesel with 48V Hybridization

RANGE EXTENDER Systems for Medium-Duty Transport Vehicles TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Dear Readers, PAGE 08 PAGE 18 PAGE 24 as the popular saying goes, all roads lead with emissions and spatial requirements to Rome. This statement also applies with while simultaneously fulfilling specific a view to CO2-neutral mobility. Whether NVH requirements. through gradual electrification or the use Electrification constitutes an important of conventional combustion engines with change, and not just on the drive technol- alternative fuels, the opportunities and ogy side. New challenges are also emerg- options are highly diverse. Finding the ing for the overall vehicle: for example, right mix for the corresponding boundary new solutions are required to address conditions seems to be one of the main the reduced range of electrical vehicles, challenges. particularly in winter, and the lack of waste heat from combustion that is used for In the current issue of our customer mag- heating purposes. We have evaluated the azine SPECTRUM, we not only present the energy conservation potential of radiant results of our research on hybrid drives in heating in an empirical study, and are the personal car and commercial vehicle presenting its findings in SPECTRUM. segments, but also introduce our current studies on the costs and market pene- We hope you enjoy reading it. Follow us Zero Emission Strategies from The Hybrid-Optimal SI Engine FEV HECS ECObrid: tration of electro mobility. In a technical on social media to keep up with the latest Synthetic Fuels to E-Drives Diesel with 48V Hybridization discussion with experts from FEV, we also news from FEV. illuminate perspectives on renewable and synthetic fuels and their contribution to 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES CO2-neutral mobility.

In addition to practical electrification proj- The Future Drives Electric? Zero-Emission Strategies from ects, such as our ECObrid diesel hybrid, we Drivetrain Topologies in 2030 04 Synthetic Fuels to E-Drives 08 have been on the hunt for the optimum hybrid gasoline engine. This needs to be Development of Electric High Tech or Low-cost? small, light and efficient in order to comply Vehicle Costs 14 The Hybrid-Optimal SI Engine 18

FEV HECS ECObrid Diesel BMS Algorithm for Battery State of with 48V Hybridization 24 Health Determination 28 Dr.-Ing. Norbert W. Alt Chairman of the Executive Board Energy Balance of Range Extender Systems for FEV Europe GmbH 48V Mild Hybrids 30 Medium-Duty Transport Vehicles 34

02 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

Energy Savings with Help of Radiating Surfaces 38

2 3 POWERTRAIN 2030 POWERTRAIN 2030 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

his market forecast focu- POWERTRAIN 2030 ses on the most important markets worldwide: Euro- THE MAJORITY OF ALL pe, the USA and China. It VEHICLES SOLD IN EUROPE Tis based on a comprehensive study THE FUTURE DRIVES ELECTRIC? WILL STILL HAVE COMBUS- by FEV Consulting GmbH, which TION ENGINES IN includes the following aspects: FEV STUDY EXAMINES DRIVETRAIN TOPOLOGIES IN 2030 „„Legal framework conditions as CO2 emission limits The automotive industry is under pressure. We are experiencing major – even disruptive – changes. The „„Regional and temporary public perception of the automobile is changing, and demands ecologically sustainable drivetrains. In driving bans for vehicles with the context of this market dynamic, electrification of the drivetrain has clearly set the stage for the public combustion engines discussion and is also considered the strongest driving force in the industry. However, the sales volume for „„Specific strategies of the electrified vehicles is still strongly inhibited by high costs, weak infrastructure and short range. In 2016, less 2030 automotive manufacturers who than 1% of all of the vehicles sold worldwide were primarily electrically driven. Against this background, are dominant in each market market forecasts are certainly risky. But, despite this, an attempt has been made, below, to assess how „„Development forecasts powertrain populations will develop in the world's most important markets. It becomes clear that despite for important drivetrain the uncertainties mentioned some reliable, central conclusions can still be made. components, like batteries „„Infrastructure and development scenarios for fast charging technology „„Forecasts of buying behavior based on market studies and socio-phenomenological developments, such as urbanization and car sharing (shared use as an alternative to ownership) Drivetrain Topologies in Europe

The CO2 limits are continually being lowered in the European, American, and Chinese markets. The level of allowable CO2 emissions, which is lower on an absolute basis in Europe and China compared to the USA, is an indication of a strong need for electrification in those two markets. The anchor points were set at 2016

For further information please feel free to contact us

4 5 Powertrain 2030 Powertrain 2030 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

(today), 2020, 2025 and 2030. By 2020, start- in mild hybrids (2025: 33% market development of the charging infrastruc- FUEL ECONOMY/GHG REGULATION stop functional systems (micro hybrid) will share), plug-in hybrids (2025: 13% mar- ture, and the development of oil prices. An NEFZ CO2 emission in g/km EPA 2-cycle CO2 emission in g/mi NEFZ CO2- emission in g/km almost completely replace traditional pure- ket share) and battery-electric vehicles additional large influence is attributed to Passenger Car ly combustion engine-driven powertrains. (2025: 8% market share) is expected. the "zero emission zones" currently being Passenger Car and Light Trucks Passenger Car The development of more electrified topol- The more distant view towards 2030 is, discussed publicly. If emission-free urban No well-to-wheel Well-to-wheel regulation No well-to-wheel ogies is growing rapidly, relative to today's today, still uncertain. The interaction of zones are broadly implemented, it is to -23% -30% very low sales volumes, but remains at a the development of the plug-in hybrid be expected that this development will low level. Therefore, the sum of the mar- market share and the sales volumes for strongly encourage the purchase of purely -23% -27% ket share of mild battery-powered electric vehicles in cities. Irrespective of this 272 167 -27% -21% -15% hybrids (48V), full IN CHINA, BY 2030, vehicles is not uncertainty, the following can be safely 211 -26% hybrids, plug-in yet predictable forecast for 2030: 130 -16% ONLY 50% TO (A MAXI- 117 hybrids and and is primari- „„The majority of all vehicles sold in 163 95 140-150 battery-electric MUM OF) 75% OF ALL ly linked to the Europe will still have combustion 68-78 80-90 vehicles will be VEHICLES SOLD WILL development engines in 2030 (75 to 80%). 60-65 60-65 just over 10%. In HAVE A POWERTRAIN progress of bat- „„A very high proportion of these the subsequent tery technology combustion engines (about 5 years, a dis- EQUIPPED WITH A (energy density 90%) will be operated in hybrid Target Target Target Target Target Target Target Target Target Target Target Target tinctive growth COMBUSTION ENGINE. and price), the powertrains. 2015 2021 2025 2030 2015 2021 2025 2030 2015 2021 2025 2030

Drivetrain Topologies in Drivetrain Topologies in drives will still be equipped with com- the USA China bustion engines in 2030, and that these FUTURE POWERTRAIN SCENARIOS PASSENGER CAR combustion engines will have to work in When market expectations for Europe The market expectations for China relative a variety of drive topologies. FEV Scenario Scenario 1: “BEV boom” Scenario 2: “Compliance” are compared to those for the USA, a di- to Europe can also be summarized as With increasing start-stop events, vibra- 100% 1% 7% vergent picture emerges, which can be core trends: tions due to rigid body modes of the en-

34% 29% 32% 29% summarized as follows: „„Investments in infrastructure and gine-transmission combination must be 80% 40% 93% „„In the near future, sales in the USA strict legislation such as driving minimized in this operating condition. 58% electrified 67% 56% ICE only 66% 11% drives 60% 85% electrified will be geared towards the long bans for combustion engine-driven electrified 1% Stop-Start & 12V 31% drives 4% drives ranges associated with liquid fuels vehicles in large cities, strongly Separate from the body-in-white con- 52% 52% Energy Mgmt 40% 39% and large combustion engines encourage powertrain electrification siderations related to available space, 1% 7% Mild-Hybrid 23% 6% 49% 7% Voll-Hybrid (6-cylinder and 8-cylinder) „„Already today, many future there are additional NVH requirements 20% 1% 11% 15% 4% 25% Plug-In-Hybrid 12% 12%51% 21% 23% „„Generally speaking, demands for passenger car buyers in China drive for combustion engines in hybrid pow- 1% 12% 28% 1% 2% 4% 2% 4%w/o ICE w/o ICE 0% 4% 3% w/o1%3% ICE 0%1%3% 2% Battery Electric CO2 emissions reduction take a electric two-wheel vehicles, so their ertrains. These can be summarized in a 2016 2020 2025 2030 2025 2030 2025 2030 Fuell Cell back seat to reducing greenhouse behavioral pattern is a good match simplified manner as follows: Others gases, allowing a lower degree of for electric drivetrains „„With increasing start-stop events, Market forecast for powertrain populations for China from 2016 to 2030 (registrations of new passenger cars) electrification „„At the same time, China has a highly vibration due to rigid body modes „„In contrast to Europe, CO2 emissions cost-sensitive market segment that of the engine-transmission associated with electricity generation will, for a long time, be driven by combination must be minimized are increasingly being taken into purely combustion engine-driven during this operating condition. FUTURE POWERTRAIN SCENARIOS PASSENGER CAR consideration in the assessment of passenger cars „„It is desirable that the electric

FEV Scenario Scenario 1: “BEV break-through” Scenario 2: “PHEV” vehicle emissions (trend towards These trends suggest a pronounced co- driving experience is not adversely ICE only “well-to-wheel” instead of “tank-to- existence of internal combustion engine affected by the operation of the 100% 6% Stop-Start & 12V 18% 6% 6% wheel” approaches) drivetrains and battery-electric vehicles in combustion engine. This creates 0 0 Energy Mgmt 91% 39% 80% 91% electrified 89% Mild-Hybrid China. By 2030, only 50% to (a maximum increased requirements with 51% electrified drives 47% electrified drives 57% drives Voll-Hybrid These aspects lead to lower electrifica- of) 75% of all vehicles sold will have a regard to acoustics and vibration 60% 85% Plug-In-Hybrid tion rates for the market in North America, powertrain equipped with an internal excitation at comfort points, such 78% 74% 74% 33% 8% 40% Battery Electric compared to Europe. Consequently, it is combustion engine. Concurrently, the as low vehicle seat acceleration. 7% 2% 13% 7% 21% Fuell Cell 3% expected that mild hybrid drives will only degree of electrification of 90% of these 20% 13% Others 20% 24% be fully rolled out by 2025. Additionally, it drives will be limited to micro and mild 5% 19% 25% 10% 13% 8% w/o5% ICE 5%w/o ICE 2% 2% 2% 2% 1% 2% w/o ICE 5% 1% 2% 0%2% 3% can be assumed that by 2030, 85 to 90% hybrids, making the combustion engine 0% 2% 2% 3% 3% 5% *: normalized to NEDC 2016 2020 2025 2030 2025 2030 2025 2030 of all vehicles sold will still be equipped the dominant drive unit. with combustion engines. The picture

CO2 fleet that has been painted can be expanded In summary, it can be inferred that, even Written by: emission: <95 g/km* <75 g/km* <65 g/km* <65 g/km* <65 g/km* by the additional analysis of the Chinese with the electrification of the powertrain Dr. Andreas Wiartalla Dr. Michael Wittler Market forecast for powertrain populations for Europe 2016 to 2030 (new passenger car registrations) market. increasing sharply, the majority of all [email protected] [email protected]

6 7 Zero Emission Strategies Zero Emission Strategies 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

he automotive industry ZERO EMISSION STRATEGIES is currently in the middle of one of the greatest upheavals in its history. TThe new challenges surrounding connected and autonomous vehi- WITH THE NEW cles also pose major tasks for de- velopers, such as the choice of the POWER-TO-GAS AND correct and appropriate drive for POWER-TO-LIQUID PROCEDU- achieving a minimum level of emis- „MARK IT ZERO“ RES, IN WHICH CO2 SERVES AS sions. What's more, experts remain divided as to whether there is any A CARBON SOURCE, CO2 ideal route to follow, or what that SAVINGS OF WELL OVER would be. Possible technologies ZERO EMISSION STRATEGIES FROM include hybridization, partial or full electrification, or even fuel cells. It is SYNTHETIC FUELS TO E-DRIVES a fact that the market penetration of FEV AND RWTH EXPERTS DISCUSS FUTURE DRIVE CONCEPTS these individual technologies con- WITH REGARD TO ZERO CO2 EMISSIONS ARE90% ACHIEVED tinues to fall below expectations, despite a number of government initiatives. Accordingly, the corre- sponding infrastructure is also only growing slowly.

These days, referring to the further potential of combustion engines sounds rather anachronistic, and is increasingly perceived by the public as the perspective of those who are permanently behind the curve and have not adopted the change in direction towards alternative drive forms, or have only done so insuf- ficiently. However, synthetic fuels actually offer an enormous amount of potential for ensuring sustainabil- ity and reduced pollution.

As an engineering service pro- vider with a strong focus on drive development, FEV not only offers its customers the development of advanced drive solutions, but also provides assistance and advice in the selection of drive concepts. In SPECTRUM, experts from FEV and RWTH discuss e-mobility, fuel cell drives and synthetic fuels.

8 9 Zero Emission Strategies Zero Emission Strategies 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

Mr. Ogrzewalla: It appears Mr. Heuser, as the Managing Mr. Adomeit, as the Executive nitude. In the examples mentioned, it is totally impossible to Adomeit: For development, it is extremely important that oil that the public has already Director of the “Tailor-Made Engineer for Thermodynam- accommodate the necessary energy quantities with batteries companies and automotive manufacturers work hand-in-hand. agreed to say farewell to the Fuels from Biomass” excel- ics at FEV, you also research due to the enormous volume and weight requirements. With Combustion engines and fuels need to be seen as two sides of the combustion engine. As the lence cluster of RWTH Aachen alternative fuels. What are the the help of synthetic fuels, it becomes possible to ensure long- same coin that both affect and depend on each other. Engines Vice President of Electronics & University, can you briefly tell advantages of these diverse term, clean and sustainable mobility in this area. are developed with the fuel to be used in mind, and new fuels Electrification, do you see this us more about the various technologies in terms of emis- also need to be developed with a view of engine requirements as the end of an era? forms of synthetic fuel and how sions? You mentioned the optimization of existing fleets and environmental priorities – particularly with regard to the they are manufactured? – at present, how far away are we from a more- reduction of harmful emissions and fuel consumption, but also, Ogrzewalla: It is a fact that drive develop- Adomeit: With the new power-to-gas and or-less comprehensive introduction of alternative for example, maximum combustion pressure, ignition charac- ment is entirely dominated by electrifica- Heuser: The term “synthetic fuels” can power-to-liquid procedures, in which CO2 fuels, and which of the procedures mentioned will teristics, cooling features and acoustic behavior. tion at present. In recent months, virtually be used to describe an extremely diverse serves as a carbon source, CO2 savings of become established? Heuser: As Dr. Adomeit said already, there will be no single every OEM has announced development range of fuel types. It generally refers to well over 90% are achieved. Previously, developer. The appeal of synthetic fuels lies in the fact that programs to the tune of millions. Even for any fuel not manufactured on the basis of every carbon atom released into the en- Heuser: Currently, the EU has stipulated that 10% of the ener- we can influence their characteristics in a targeted manner, us, as a development service provider, petroleum. However, there are still funda- vironment from exhaust as CO2 would be gy consumed in the transport and thereby develop concretely electro mobility has been a fixed compo- mental distinctions within this designa- absorbed into the atmosphere. The same sector be supplied from alter- A MIX OF ELECTRIFICATION, better fuels. In this process, we nent of our engineering business for more tion, such as between biofuels or e-fuels. applies for second-generation biofuels. native energy sources by 2020. can also adjust the engines in than a decade. Nevertheless, it needs to be But here, only carbon that has already However, it will still be several OPTIMIZED COMBUSTION a second step, so that we can stated that despite all of the advantages, Traditional first-generation biofuels, such been converted into biomass through years before “e-fuels,” i.e. those ENGINES AND SYNTHETIC substantially reduce both fuel the market penetration of electric vehicles as bioethanol or biodiesel, are primarily the photosynthesis of atmospheric CO2 from the oxymethylene ether FUELS IS HIGHLY PROMISING consumption and emissions is still low – and so are the growth rates. obtained through the fermentation of seed is burned in the engine. In addition to group, are used to refuel in large simultaneously. To achieve This means that the combustion engine or fruit sugars into ethanol, or the ester- CO2 reduction, these fuels can also be quantities. We already know that these fuels can be created this, however, we need close collaboration between science, will still be with us for some time – whether ification of vegetable fats with (primarily formulated so that harmful emissions from CO2 and renewable energy, but the realization of this on industry and policy. as a part of hybrid systems, range extend- fossil) methanol. The second generation can also be substantially reduced, such an industrial scale still requires more investment. However, such ers, or as the sole powertrain. Especially of biofuels uses all plant material for fer- as through the synthesis of oxygenated investment requires the framework conditions to be clear for Keyword – Ecology: Is an e-drive more environ- in long-distance traffic and the transport mentation into alcohols or for synthesis fuels that produce far lower levels of soot all participants – certainty is required for planning purposes. mentally friendly than a traditional combustion sector, there are currently no conceivable into long-chain hydrocarbons by means than fossil fuels. Adomeit: One critical factor in the prompt introduction of engine that has been improved with alternative alternative solutions. of the biomass-to-liquid procedure. In CO2-neutral fuels is their integration with existing infrastruc- fuels? this process, the plant material is first What are the applications for ture. This can allow fuel components that can be mixed into In your opinion, what would a converted into synthesis gas (CO and H2) which synthetic fuels are espe- current fuels to reduce the CO2 emissions of existing vehicle Ogrzewalla: When you only consider the production of fuels practical solution for this look under anaerobic conditions, and is then cially critical? fleets immediately. We are currently researching combinations from renewable energy up to its conversion in the vehicle, an like? combined into long-chain hydrocarbons. of renewable fuels that approximate standard market fuel char- electric vehicle would be the most environmentally friendly. Similar procedures are also applied to Heuser: On one hand, synthetic fuels are acteristics very closely when blended. The efficiency of an electric car is very high, and the vehicles Ogrzewalla: The goal of a balanced fleet produce synthetic fuels from natural gas interesting for the passenger car sector. drive with no emissions. In contrast, synthetic fuels have the strategy must be to offer needs-appropri- or coal. The attraction here lies in the fact that Who exactly should develop these fuels to suit the disadvantage that every step in the manufacturing process ate drive solutions that ensure sustainable Hydrogenated vegetable oils (“HVOs”) they can be used directly, whether in the market? reduces the overall level of efficiency of the chain. One aspect and clean mobility. With these ends in are usually obtained from plant oils, but form of an admixture with conventional that is frequently left out of the discussion is the manufacturing mind, a mix of electrification, optimized other fats can also be employed. These fuels, or, depending on the fuel, as a pure combustion engines and synthetic fuels is are converted to paraffinic fuels through substance and without substantial mod- highly promising – while e-vehicles can re- the addition of hydrogen. ifications to cars. In this area, synthetic Focus: Biomass to fuel Focus: Power to fuel duce local emissions, especially for short In addition, there is also the new technol- fuels can directly help to reduce harm- distances and inner-city traffic, synthetic ogy of power-to-liquid or power-to-gas. ful emissions and immediately increase HVO Black liquor SNG DME / OME fuels have the potential to reduce the These technologies use electrolysis to the share of renewable energy in existing CO2 emissions of combustion engines generate hydrogen from renewable power fleets in the mobility sector. An admixture to a minimum. These constitute an ef- and water. In conjunction with CO2, this of only 30% of OMEs into conventional fective means of reducing the emissions can be used to produce methane, which is diesel reduces soot emissions by up to of existing fleets and directly increasing already used as a fuel for gasoline engines. 90% – without any complex adjustment the proportion of renewable energy in However, these processes also allow for of the engine. the mobility sector. Paired with further completely new fuels to be defined, such Furthermore, synthetic fuels are extremely optimizations in combustion processes, as the liquid oxymethylene ethers (OME) important in any area where no alterna- this could lead to a sustainable reduction group. These are as liquid as normal die- tives exist for conventional liquid fuels „ Hydrotreated vegetable „ Biofuels from black „ Synthetic natural gas „ Di-methyl ether and oils can be based on liquor (crude tall oil) are can be synthesized Oxymethylen ether can of CO2 emissions, culminating in zero sel fuel, and can be mixed with it easily with high energy density. This is especially nearly any vegetable oil based on a waste using CO2 and H2 from be synthesized using emissions. as a result. the case for commercial vehicles, ships or waste fat product in paper industry regenerative electricity CO2 and electricity and aircraft. For the foreseeable future, the energy density of batteries will remain lower than liquid fuels by orders of mag- Exemplary overview of tailored fuels from renewable sources which can be used in ICE combustion systems

10 11 Zero Emission Strategies Zero Emission Strategies 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

of the vehicles. For an objective analysis, We have now talked a great deal about the alternatives to elec- buyers continues to be concerns related most drives, which is anything but efficient. can also contribute to success, since this however, this is indispensable. In this area, tromobility. Due to the large number of possible technologies, the to range. In Germany, where the car has Various studies have arrived at the result will guarantee the range of electric cars electric cars are at a disadvantage compa- development, infrastructure and, not least of all, marketing costs a special significance, users are reluctant that as much as 87% of all trips could be for any trip. red to conventional drive systems. Battery will increase enormously as a matter of course. Why is it impossible to own a vehicle that does not cover all covered by an e-vehicle. The success of production, in particular, is demanding to focus on a single technology? eventualities. This is illogical, however, electro mobility thus requires an ecosys- Until then, we will absolutely need to fall and cost-intensive, and the necessary since there is no need for a combustion tem of specific services and new business back on other, additional technologies. As materials create new dependencies on Ogrzewalla: At present, there simply is not a panacea for emissions-free mobility. engine for situations such as inner-city models and, above all, a change in think- mentioned before, there are no alterna- the global market. Both the extraction of User behavior is too diverse, and the systemic strengths and weaknesses of various driving. An additional combustion engine ing on the part of consumers. In addition, tives at all for long-distance traffic. these materials and the recycling of the drive forms are too different. In my opinion, however, the essential message is the fact would simply serve as extra weight for advanced, quick-charging technologies batteries put stress on the environment. that needs-appropriate drives are the key to success. Not every powertrain can be However, if renewable energies can be reasonably employed for every objective. For e-vehicles, one of the major obstacles for Interview Partners: used with unlimited availability – in the future, it will often be the case that more power is produced than can even be used – this fact will no longer play such a large role. In this context, synthetic fuels offer 3 35:65 OME1-Diesel an ideal technology for storing excess 80:20 OME1-Diesel power in chemical form. 2,5 27:73 OME35-Diesel 100:0 OME35-Diesel What role can fuel cells play in 2 Diesel the future? 1,5 Ogrzewalla: Fuel cells could prospective- ly be used as a supplement to battery 1

technology, or even replace it entirely. Ind. spec. PM / g/kWh The hydrogen usage of fuel cells exhibits Jürgen Ogrzewalla Benedikt Heuser Dr. Philipp Adomeit 0,5 minimal CO2 emissions, since hydrogen [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] does not contain any carbon that would be converted to CO2 and its production 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 requires the fewest steps. FEV has created JOIN OUR UPCOMING CONFERENCE a corresponding demonstration vehicle Ind. spec. NOx / g/kWh together with its development partners, in the form of the “BREEZE!” joint project. This involved integrating a fuel cell range ZERO CO2 extender with a Fiat 500 from our e-vehi- cle fleet in order to combat the e-vehicle range problem. This allowed us to achieve a range of about 280 km. A tank refill of MOBILITY hydrogen can be completed within a few 0,5 35:65 OME1-Diesel 9th - 10th November 2017, short minutes, and travel can be contin- 80:20 OME1-Diesel HOTEL PULLMANN QUELLENHOF, AACHEN ued unhindered. However, this technology 0,4 27:73 OME35-Diesel still faces the question of the necessary 100:0 OME35-Diesel Diesel infrastructure, which is highly complex 0,3 and thus very expensive. Not least of all, the series and small-series solutions of the last decade have failed. At present, 0,2

however, there are more and more pilot Ind. spec. PM / g/kWh projects in which public buses are being 0,1 equipped with fuel cells. The advantage for regular transportation services lies 0 in the fact that a comprehensive filling 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 station network is unnecessary. A small Ind. spec. NOx / g/kWh number of filling stations at the transport company's depots is enough to supply the fleet permanently. PM/NOx emission reduction with OME use in Diesel test engine FEV’s new international conference on “Zero CO2 Mobility” offers a highly focused platform for strategic discussion on the potential and performance of various zero emission strategies ranging from battery technologies to fuel cells and e-fuels. For more information please visit: http://www.fev.com/zero-co2-mobility 12 13 costsCOSTS ofOF electrificationELECTRIFICATION costs of electrification 01 AUS"ZERO FORSCHUNG EMISSION" UND AND ENTWICKLUNG HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

FEV’s study answers the following core architecture. Other manufacturers are planning similar concepts, COSTS OF ELECTRIFICATION questions: including purely electric as well as hybrid, and fuel-cell electric vehicles with electric ranges exceeding 350 km. Aside from the „„BYWhat are2025, the latest BEVS trends in electrificationWITH A and regulatory and legislative motivation, the financial implications hybridization? for OEMs over the next 10 years are still not clear. The question COST DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES 300„„What KM are key RANGE market and technology CAN BE trends of whether xEVs will be able to attain a significant market share CONSIDERING FUTURE MARKET CONDITIONS REALIZEDregarding xEVs towards ON 2025/30?THE SAME largely depends on future price competitiveness compared with COST„„How high LEVEL are costs for AS alternative THEIR powertrains today, their conventionally powered counterparts. MARKET STUDY AND COST ANALYSIS OF ELECTRIC, HYBRID AND FUEL CELL VEHICLES and what will they be in 2025/30? MILD„„What are HYBRIDIZED the primary cost drivers and VEHICLE CONFIGURATIONS COUNTERPARTShow will they develop? With a market share of only about 1% of new vehicles sold, battery driven electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehi- „„Will combustion engines still be the 2016 2025 CONV. ICE (w/ stop-start & 12V energy mgmt.) 48V MHEV cles (“xEVs”) stand, from a European market perspective, far below expectations. In Germany, the xEV share is 0.6%; cost leaders in 2025/30? 110 kW POWER 962 KM RANGE (NEDC) 110 + 12 kW POWER 962 KM RANGE (NEDC) corresponding to about 25,000 vehicles sold in 2016. Germany is below the EU average. It is clear that the purchase „„Which additional costs are expected in order to P2 HYBRID P2 HYBRID 110 + 80 kW POWER 940 + 50 KM RANGE (NEDC) 110 + 80 kW POWER 940 + 75 KM RANGE (NEDC) and tax subsidies from the German government have, so far, not had a significant impact: In the first 3 months, only meet statutory and supervisory requirements? PURE EV PURE EV 4,500 sales were realized. Despite the subdued market demand, the number of public charging stations for electric „„How cost competitive will fuel cell technology 60 kW POWER 300 KM RANGE (NEDC) 70 kW POWER 300 KM RANGE (NEDC) vehicles tripled between 2015 and 2016. Against this background, FEV Consulting conducted a market and cost be in 2025/30? PURE EV PURE EV study to answer the question of how electric vehicle costs will develop in the future under conditions of increased 100 kW POWER 600 KM RANGE (NEDC) 130 kW POWER 600 KM RANGE (NEDC)

sales volumes, growing demand for raw materials, and developing production capacities. The main objective is to Driven by "diesel gate", statutory regulations, regulatory pressure FULL HYBRID FULL HYBRID 114 kW POWER 658 KM RANGE (NEDC) 130 + 60 kW POWER 740 + 57 KM RANGE (NEDC) assess the extent to which xEV vehicles can be cost competitive with conventional vehicles and which powertrain and technological advances, alternative drives (or xEV vehicles) type will dominate the market. have developed into a key trend in the automotive sector. Many European OEMs are convinced that the tipping point for Selected vehicle concepts for cost comparison of future xEVs electric vehicles will soon be reached: OEMs and suppliers are currently investing heavily in the development of their EV fleet Methodology and Assumptions and EV component portfolios. Volkswagen just recently released the launch of its xEV platform (MEB) with a goal of achieving a Several alternative powertrain vehicle concepts and a conven- 600 km electric driving range in its compact car concept, “ID.” tional compact vehicle were compared in a cost analysis study. Daimler showcased an electric SUV Coupé called “Generation The selected models included typical plug-in hybrids (PHEV), EQ,” at the Paris Motor Show that is based on a dedicated EV pure battery-electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEV) in the compact car segment. In order to capture market Humidifier System and technology uncertainties, 3 scenarios were developed that Thermal Management, reflect technology development costs and fluctuations in raw Coolant Pump, Radiator 4.505 material prices. For all 3 scenarios, a set of boundary conditions Misc (Valves, Sensors, Piping) 208 Hydrogen Recirculation were determined to allow a fair cost comparison between the Other different concepts. 496 Air Compressor (CEM) Selected boundary conditions for the 500 2016 cost baseline: 3.061 „„Vehicle segment: Compact car 645 141 2.701 337 „„Baseline vehicle for cost comparison is a conventional ICE 125 with start-stop and 12V 374 297 653 „„Low production volume for Fuel Cell Vehicles 330 „ 438 „Battery specifications based on current market concepts 386 443 Selected boundary conditions for the 391 2025 cost forecast:

1.954 „„Vehicle segment: Compact car 1.328 1.171 „„Conventional baseline vehicle is MHEV (48V) with an additional 12 kW of electric power „„Production volume for FCEV has been increased to 50 thousand units conservative most likely progressive „„Higher specific energy [Wh/kg] Exemplary cost split for selected fuel cell component in 2025 [in €]

14 15 costs of electrification costs of electrification 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

Selected Study Results 800 km, is expected to fall to one-fifth of In addition to the comparison of the total Conventional Powertrain Technology Development Brand development Electro mobility today’s price, leaving a remaining cost cost and the delta analysis of the select- 2015 2020 2025 2030 In 2016, the manufacturing costs of plug-in gap of 60% compared to the 2025 base- ed xEV vehicle configurations, detailed hybrids and battery electric vehicles (PHEVs line vehicle (48V mild hybrid). Battery powertrain cost splits are provided in 2017 & BEVs) were about one-third higher than costs are expected to decrease by 50% the study for key components like the a conventional ICE-powered ve- electric motor, controller, bat- Strategic Analysis / hicle with a Start/Stop automatic BY 2025 BEVS WITH A 300 KM tery, transmission, etc. Each key 1 Preparation of reorientation transmission. Fuel cell electric component has been further RANGE (NEDC) CAN BE REALI- Implementation of the vehicles (VCEV) manufacturing broken down into the main cost 2 Reorientation and transition costs are nearly 5 times as high ZED AT THE SAME COST LEVEL drivers, including material costs as those for a conventional ve- AS THEIR MILD HYBRIDIZED as well as overhead costs which 3 Completion of the transition phase hicle. The reasons for this are were determined using the FEV lower sales volumes and high COUNTERPARTS “should cost” methodology. Un- development cost in 2016. for traditional OEMs due to economies of certainties in future production volumes By 2025, it is expected that the electric scale associated with increased produc- are considered in the “conservative,” range of xEV vehicles will nearly double, tion volumes and improvements in cell “most likely” and “progressive” scenarios. Impact on the Automotive Today: Strategic Analysis and Pre- 2025+: Completion of Transition with marginal cost savings of approxi- technologies. The electric capacity of a Industry paration of Realignment Phase mately 5% (Allrounder EV). Compared to typical BEV is expected see a significant Although the industry is in a state of Depending on the respective sce- mild hybrid comparison vehicles with 48V increase from 36 to 70 kWh (500-600 km). Fully electric drivetrains are far less com- 1upheaval, there is still partial restraint. On 3nario, market shares for conventional technology, the costs are about 20% high- plex than their conventional counterparts the one hand, the change to the develop- powertrains (ICE-only) will shrink signifi- er. The cost of fuel cell electric vehicles, with internal combustion engines, since ment of alternative propulsion systems is cantly. In one radical scenario, ICE vehicle with an electrical range of approximately many components of a conventional already visible in the organizations of ma- sales are likely to drop to 75% of the 2016 drivetrain are no longer necessary. The jor manufacturers and large or specialized level. On one hand, as a result of shrinking sales potential of injectors, fuel pumps, suppliers. On the other hand, traditional market volumes, further (and even stron- filter systems and turbochargers is ad- suppliers that are active in the internal ger) consolidation of the remaining suppli- versely affected by increasing EV sales. combustion engine market are still in the ers in the field of conventional powertrains Conversely, the strategic importance of preparatory phase. is expected. On the other hand, market new components, such as the electric participants will be well-positioned with motor, battery and power electronics 2020: Implementation of the Re- an early strategic focus on the realignment increases. For the future, manufacturers alignment and Transition and transition toward the new boundary need to decide what share of the added As soon as market shares of xEVs conditions for the future xEV market and value they want to provide from within 2have increased, product and service port- technology competition. (vs outsourcing). This decision is strongly folios must be realigned and value chains influenced by endogenous factors such as have to be reorganized. The orchestration cost competitiveness, exogenous factors of an orderly ramp-down of the traditional such as raw material prices, vehicle range business requires a solid strategic plan and future development of charging in- and dedicated implementation. It is very frastructures. likely that the early inefficient suppliers Suppliers – especially those with a product will fall victim to the industry transition portfolio focusing on conventional power- and exit the market. As a further conse- trains – will have to undergo a fundamen- quence, the future R&D focus of the OEM’s If you are interested in the details of tal transformation over the next 15 years, will shift even more clearly toward electri- the study or would like to discuss which can be subdivided into 3 steps: fication and other value-added product implications and possible actions, Conventional Hybrid Fully electric offerings, such as automation and (digital) please don’t hesitate to contact us. Internal combustion engine Modified / Downsized Modified / Downsized Deleted mobility services. (crankcase, cylinder head, crankshaft, conrod, camshaft, valves etc.) Fuel supply (injectors, fuel pump, rails, tank, piping, filters) Modified Modified Deleted Charging and exhaust gas Modified Modified Deleted Written by (turbocharger, manifold, catalysts, filter, sensors, exhaust system) Alexander Nase Starter and generator Modified Modified Deleted [email protected] Transmission and clutch Modified Modified Modified/Deleted Cooler water pump, air conditioning etc. Modified Modified Modified/Deleted Mirko Engelhard [email protected] E-motor - New New Battery system - New New Power electronics - New New

Modification / Change of powertrain configurations in a 15-year-timeframe

16 17 SI HyHYbriBRIdD ENengGinesINES SI Hybrid engines 01 AUS"ZERO FORSCHUNG EMISSION" UND AND ENTWICKLUNG HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

Architecture of Hybrid addition, the selection focuses on technol- The result: Turbocharged 3-cylinder engines SI HYBRID ENGINES Powertrains ogies that are already in series production as well as naturally aspirated 4-cylinder or show a high degree of maturity, indicat- engines with larger displacements are Hybrid drives are, by definition, com- ed by a series production launch within both suited to achieve low CO2 emissions. binations of various drives in the same the next 3 years. All engines comply with Rather simply designed "On/Off" technol- HIGH TECH OR LOW COST? powertrain. Therefore, ogy packages are also FEV INVESTIGATES THE OPTIMAL SI ENGINE FOR HYBRID POWERTRAINS there is a correspond- TURBOCHARGED 3-CYLINDER ENGI- suited for the scaling ingly high number of of the performance possible constellations. NES AS WELL AS NATURALLY ASPIRA- requirements of the Recent market studies performed by FEV for Europe, the USA and China predict a shift toward environmentally In this broad study, the TED 4-CYLINDER ENGINES WITH LAR- combustion engine for sustainable drive systems. The main factor in this trend is the electrification of the drivetrain. Although the majority FEV experts focused on various hybrid drives. of all vehicles sold in Europe (75 to 85%) will still have a combustion engine in 2030, a high proportion of these com- hybrid combinations GER DISPLACEMENT ARE BOTH SUITED The conversion to a bustion engines will be operated with hybrid powertrains. How can gasoline engines be designed to achieve low with gasoline engines TO ACHIEVE LOW CO2 EMISSIONS AT naturally aspirated 3.0 CO2 emissions in different hybrid topologies (as mild hybrid, plug-in hybrid, etc.) at optimal cost? FEV addressed this and topologies with LOW COSTS liter 6-cylinder engine question in a broad study based on a D-segment vehicle. The reference powertrain was a conventional powertrain particularly high mar- with port fuel injection with a 2.0 liter gasoline engine (135 kW, TC DI with a 2-stage variable valve train and Miller cycle), a 7-speed dual ket shares or particularly high market current and future emissions legislation (PFI), Atkinson cycle and cooled EGR neither clutch transmission and a 12V electrical system. prospects. These are: such as EU6d and CN6b. They are operat- appears favorable from the cost perspective „„Mild hybrid with 48V belt starter ed stoichiometrically (λ = 1) throughout nor from that of CO2 emissions. generator (BSG) the engine map, and they are equipped „„Mild hybrid with integrated 48V with particulate filters. Engine Variants for Mild starter generator (ISG) Hybrids with 48V BSG „„Plug-in hybrid (PHEV) With the aim of identifying the optimal combustion engine for hybrid drives, these The electrification of the reference pow- Cost-Benefit Comparison technologies have been evaluated re- ertrain with 48V BSG without changes to garding their costs and CO2 emissions. the combustion engine costs 740 € and A comprehensive technology matrix was The CO2 emissions are mean values from reduces the CO2 emissions by 8.6 g/km examined within the framework of FEV’s WLTP-L and -H. The cost scenarios relate to which means costs of 86 €/g-CO2. Start- study. This matrix includes turbocharged 2025 and a production volume of 200,000 ing with this drive, several technology and naturally aspirated engine concepts drives/year. In addition, emission in RDE combinations optimal for hybrids were with displacements from 1 to 3 liters. In were tested and evaluated. identified. They arrived at the following

48 VOLT P0 MILD HYBRID Ref. engine in hybrid-powertrain 3-cylinder 4-cylinder 6-cylinder

Symbol Displacement /L 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 1 Fuel injection DI DI DI DI DI DI DI DI PFI 2 Int. exh. manifold X X X X X X X X X High Tech 3 Turbocharger X X X X X X 4 Intake VVT X X X X X X X X X 5 Exhaust VVT X X X X X X X X 6 Miller/Atkinson * *

Delta costs / € costs Delta X X X X X 7 2-st.-intake-VVL X X 8 1050 °C turbine X X 9 2-stage TC X 10 VTG X 11 Var. int. manifold X X 12 CDA X 13 VCR X X 14 Water injection X 15 cEGR X Delta CO2 reduction / (g/km) * “Soft”-Atkinson Reference powertrain : 2.0 L TC DI w/ Miller, int. exh. manifold, dual-VVT, Miller, intake-2-stage-VVL, start/stop and 12 V energy management, 143 g/ km CO2 in WLTP

Evaluation of technology packages of gasoline engines for mild hybrids with 48V belt-driven starter generator (BSG mild hybrid) relative to the reference powertrain with regards to the ratio of costs and CO2 emissions

18 19 SI HyHYbriBRIdD ENengGinesINES SI Hybrid engines 01 AUS"ZERO FORSCHUNG EMISSION" UND AND ENTWICKLUNG HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

conclusions for the D-segment vehicle Therefore, the powertrain has a lower CO2 Engine Variants for Mild gines with knock-reducing technologies and CO2 emissions ratio under these terms and the elimination of existing compo- evaluated in the WLTP cycle: Naturally emission reduction of 8.9 g/km, but only Hybrid with 48V ISG like Miller valve timings or VCR and larger, of comparison. In the light of real driving nents. FEV has developed a parametric aspirated 4-cylinder engines and turbo- costs 460 € (52 €/g-CO2 is achieved). If inlet naturally aspirated engines like a 2.5 liter conditions, the use of a variable inlet valve procedure to be able to evaluate early charged 3-cylinder engines are particularly valve lift variability and the Miller cycle Expanding the hybrid functionalities by 4-cylinder with PFI, Atkinson cycles and lift (VVL) or the compres-sion ratio (VCR) concepts from a package perspective. well suited for use in a mild hybrid with are retained for the 3-cylinder engine, repositioning the electric engine from cooled exhaust gas recirculation (cEGR) appear advantageous. In the Charge-Sus- a 48V belt-driven starter generator. Nat- the performance requirement can also be a P0 to a P2 layout increases the cost of meet this requirement. taining-Mode, high tech turbo-charged Again, FEV considered the D-segment urally aspirated engines require 2.5 liters met via a high temperature-proof turbine powertrain electrification to 990 € but engines with knock-inhibiting technol- vehicle with a transversely mounted com- displacement, variable valve timing on the with variable geometry (950 °C VTG). A leads to a CO2 emission reduction of 19.4 Assessment Under Real ogies gain clearly, because they drive a bustion (“east-west”) engine for the 48V inlet and outlet sides (dual VVT), direct CO2 emission reduction of 13.1 g/km is g/km compared to the reference power- Driving Conditions heavy vehicle (battery weight) without hybrid variants with belt-driven starter fuel injection (DI) and a variable intake therefore achieved at 46 €/g-CO2. The train (51 €/g-CO2). The analysis shows purely electric driving. generators or starter generators, respec- system to meet performance demands. technology package inlet valve variability, that the technology package evaluation In the WLTP cycle, the influence of the tively, as well as with the P2 plug-in hybrid The costs of the BSG drive train can be Miller cycle and 2-stage charging system of a BSG mild hybrid is largely transfer- combustion engine on the powertrain. reduced to 490 € by conversion to a natu- can also be replaced at a favorable cost able to an ISG mild hybrid powertrain. CO2 emissions reduction de- 3-CYLINDER ENGINES CAN rally aspirated engine with a simultaneous and CO2 emissions level by a 2-stage VCR Naturally aspirated 4-cylinder engines creases with an increasing REPLACE 4-CYLINDER ENGINES IN The evaluation of the results increase of the CO2 emission reduction system (44 €/g-CO2). and turbocharged 3-cylinder engines are degree of electrification. At revealed that the reference to 10.4 g/km (47 €/g-CO2 is achieved). suitable for cost/CO2-optimized use in the same time, the increas- HYBRID DRIVES WITHOUT SIGNI- engine (4-cylinder 2.0 liter TC With the addition of cylinder deactivation Water injection can also serve as a sub- drives equipped with ISG. ing influence of the e-motor FICANT NVH DISADVANTAGES. DI) has no significant space (CDA), the costs increase again to 560 €; stitute technology and allows a further allows for the simplification disadvantage in the P0 mild however the CO2 emission reduction is downsizing to 1.3 liter with its strong of combustion engine technologies, thus Vehicle Integration hybrid configurations examined. This is disproportionately increased to 12.1 g/ knock-suppressing and simultaneously Engine Variants for PHEV achieving cost benefits. Concepts primarily due to the elimination of the km (46 €/g-CO2 is achieved). performance-enhancing effect. This vari- alternator, which compensates for the ant with direct water injection does not The influence of the combustion engine The influence of the combustion engine Package and NVH are of special impor- additional belt and belt-driven starter With the simplification of the combustion yet have the same production maturity technology package on achievable CO2 increases under real driving conditions tance in the integration of the combustion generator (BSG). As expected, the ISG engine to a 3-cylinder engine and the elim- as VCR, but will yield good ratios for costs emissions reduction is small for the plug- (RDE) compared to the WLTP cycle signifi- engine into hybrid powertrains. Additional variant in transverse mounting is less fa- ination of the inlet valve lift variability, the and CO2 emissions for the 2025 horizon in in hybrid drive concept. The design is cantly. This is due to higher loads and a drive components compete for consis- vorable from a package perspective when Miller cycle has to be omitted to contin- hybrid drives, too (33 €/g-CO2 is achieved). characterized by compliance with the smaller pro-portion of electric driving. Tur- tently limited space. At the same time, comparing the mild hybrids. This is due uously meet performance requirements. performance requirements at optimal bo-charged engines with more advanced electrification can be employed in an to the extension in length caused by the cost. Small, simplified turbocharged en- technology have a more favourable cost intelligent way with the simplifications ISG and the additional clutch.

# WLTP 48 V P2 ISG Mild Hybrid Ref. engine in hybrid-powertrain P2- Plugin Hybrid + P2 Plug-in-Hybrid - 4700 3-cylinder 4-cylinder 6-cylinder 5000 € 4600 # WLTP (AVERAGE L & H) # WLTP (AVERAGE L & H) 4500 1400 4500 4400 Symbol 4300 1200 Displacement /L 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 2.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 Delta costs / 4200 1 Fuel injection DI DI DI DI DI DI DI DI PFI 4000 Hybrid opt. ICEs 4100 2 Int. exh. manifold X X X X X X X X X 1000 High Tech 3500 110 112 114 116 118 120

€ 3 Turbocharger X X X X X X Delta CO2 reduction / (g/km)

2025+ 4 Intake VVT X X X X X X X X X € 3000 3-cylinder 4-cylinder 800 5 Exhaust VVT X X X X X X X X Symbol

Delta costs / € costs Delta 6 Miller/Atkinson X X X * X * X 2500 Displacement /L 1.3 1.5 1.2 2.0 2.1 2.5 600 7 2-st.-intake-VVL X X Delta Delta / costs Hybrid opt. ICEs 1 Fuel injection DI DI DI DI DI PFI 8 1050 °C turbine X X

2000 2 Int. exh. manifold X X X X X X High Tech 9 2-stage TC X Delta / costs 400 3 Turbocharger X X X X 10 VTG X 1500 HEV 4 Intake VVT X X X X X X 11 Var. int. manifold X X 200 ISG 5 Exhaust VVT X X X X X 12 CDA X 1000 BSG 6 Miller/Atkinson X X X * X 13 VCR X X 0 7 2-stage VVL X X 14 Water injection X 0 10 20 30 40 500 8 1050 °C turbine X X 15 cEGR X DeltaDelta CO CO2 reduction2 reduction / /(g/km) (g/km) 9 VCR X * “Soft”-Atkinson Reference powertrain: 2.0 L TC DI w/ Miller, int. exh. manifold, dual-VVT, 0 10 Var. int. manifold X Miller, intake-2-stage-VVL, start/stop and 12 V energy management, 143 g/ 143 g/km 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 km CO2 in WLTP 11 cEGR X Delta CO2 reduction / (g/km) * “Soft”-Atkinson

Gasoline engine technology packages ratio of cost and CO2 emissions for mild hybrids with integrated Gasoline engine technology packages ratio of cost and CO2 emissions for plug-in hybrids (PHEV) 48V starter generator (ISG mild hybrid) relative to the reference powertrain compared to the reference powertrain

20 21 SI HYBRID ENGINES SI Hybrid engines 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

For the plug-in hybrid, a critical package parameter value has Noise Vibration Harshness The result: With a full battery, purely elec- compared to the reference vehicle. The Exhaust Aftertreatment now been exceeded ("No Go"). tric, emission-free driving led to a clear higher engine load spectrum increases FEV’s studies show that the NVH requirements for the combustion reduction in route-specific particle emis- the particulate raw emissions and the A significant simplification of exhaust The naturally aspirated 4-cylinder variants reach the critical value engine in the hybridized powertrain are controllable if suitable sions for all plug-in hybrid variants in the particulate filter slip. aftertreatment technology is not recom- already in the 48V mild hybrid variants and exceed it clearly in the measures are considered in the design concept of hybrid drives. Charge-Depletion mode. With an empty mended. An electrically heated catalyst plug-in hybrid. The increase in engine length in the transverse Examples are the increase in starter speed, the integration of battery, the particles increased compared (e-cat) can even be a solution for the mounting is especially critical. The increase of the overall height balance shafts (or balancing weights with a high balancing to the reference powertrain because the Comparison of NOx trade-off between a maximum electric in particular with regards to the transverse influence on passive degree), the adjustment of the engine mounting and the use of engine had to move the heavier plug-in Emissions driving experience with a switched-off pedestrian protection and noise encapsulation measures also dual mass flywheels. With the help of such measures, 3-cylinder hybrid vehicle. combustion engine and regular engine reduces the package parameter. This cannot be compensated engines can replace 4-cylinder engines in hybrid drives without The emissions for all powertrains also starts for exhaust aftertreatment. for by the elimination of the turbocharging components when significant NVH disadvantages. Particle Emissions in maintain a safe distance from the EU6d the transition from the turbocharged to the naturally aspirated Electrified Powertrains limit (even without CF) for NOx and engine is made, as these can be placed in a comparatively flexible Emission Calibration Under Real Driving demonstrate behavior analogous to the manner. The package parameter considers this flexibility, which Conditions Particle emissions in the electrified pow- particle emissions in the comparison of leads to a lower weighting of the turbocharging components ertrain (PHEV) shift when compared to the the drives. Therefore, the electrification compared to other measures – for example, a change of the The important influence of electrification is the intermittent purely combustion engine-driven vehicle of the powertrain also lowers the NOx engine block. decoupling of the combustion engine from vehicle propulsion. dependent on the battery charge status. emissions if a fully charged battery and The connections observed here are more pronounced with an Generally, the emissions are lowered by Charge-Depletion mode allow for purely The whole study which also All 3-cylinder variants allow for a significant relaxation of the increasing degree of electrification. Therefore, a comparison emission-free electric driving. When using electric driving. Along the same lines, with includes evaluation space problem for the 48V mild hybrid variants. By way of an between the emissions of the powertrains with the highest a plug-in hybrid with an empty battery, a an empty battery, the NOx emissions in- for power split hybrid increase in the degree of downsizing (displacement reduction electrification differentiation was performed. particle emission increase of 18% occurs. crease, as well. powertrains is available to 1.3 liter), a small advantage remains even for the plug-in hy- The main effect is that purely electric and, as a download at brid variant, whereas with a larger displacement (1.5 liter), the The highly electrified plug-in hybrid powertrain was examined therefore, emission-free driving is not www.fev.com/whitepaper 3-cylinder engine is almost neutral compared to the reference with two "hybrid-optimized" combustion engines. In view of EU6d possible in that case. In addition, a smaller powertrain. limits and RDE, both drives were equipped with a particulate combustion engine (1.5 liter) is driving filter. They did not need mixture enrichment for component a heavier vehicle in the plug-in hybrid protection (λ = 1 throughout the map), and had an injection Written by system for reduced particle emissions (turbocharged engine: Dr. Johannes Scharf [email protected] 350 bar DI and naturally aspirated engine with PFI). Dr. Alexander Tolga Uhlmann [email protected] REFERENCE POWERTRAIN: 2.0 LITER, REFERENCE POWERTRAIN: 2.0 LITER, 4-CYLINDER, 12V START/STOP 4-CYLINDER, 12V START/STOP

BSG MILD HYBRID WITH HYBRID OPTIMAL PLUG-IN HYBRID 1,5 LITER 3-CYLINDER, ICE WITH HYBRID OPTIMAL 1,5 LITER 3-CYLINDER, ICE

Package length increased by 49 mm

Package length reduced by 91 mm

Comparison of the package of 3- cylinder gasoline engines in the mild hybrid powertrain (48V P2 BSG mild hybrid, left) and in the plug-in hybrid powertrain with the 4-cylinder refer- ence powertrain (right).

22 23 Diesel hybrid engine Diesel hybrid engine 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

hanks to highly efficient exhaust HECS ECObrid Concept The test vehicle has a 12V/48V electrical DIESEL HYBRID ENGINE gas aftertreatment systems, cur- system with 2 batteries. The 48V system rent diesel engines can comply The HECS ECObrid test vehicle uses the consists of the BSG in “P0” position, a lith- with the lowest NOx emissions. third generation of the FEV-HECS - a 1.6 ium-ion battery, and the e-Compressor. THowever, in very transient operating situ- liter 4-cylinder engine with single-stage su- A bidirectional DC/DC converter is used FEV HECS ECOBRID WITH 48V HYBRIDIZATION ations – for instance, during strong accel- percharging and combined high-pressure to establish the connection to the 12V FEV ELECTRIFIES DIESEL eration – a significant, short-term increase / low-pressure EGR. A 48V e-Compressor system, which was taken over from the of NOx raw (engine-out) emissions can and a 48V BSG were also integrated. The production vehicle, which also powers occur which to some extent reach the complete electronic control system for the Diesel engine’s electric water pumps. Over the next few years, a significant increase in 48V “mild hybrid” concepts is expected, since they offer considerable tailpipe. The reason for this is that the the engine and the hybrid system are han- potential to reduce fuel consumption as well as pollutant emissions. At the same time, they are relatively easy to Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system dled by a proprietary FEV model-based 48V Components implement, since they do not require a complete redesign of the powertrain. and the turbocharger can only deliver software, which was implemented on a the necessary EGR rate or the required dSpace MABX II Rapid Control Prototyping The Valeo 48V BSG is based on a claw pole As part of a joint project with Valeo, FEV has equipped a D-segment test vehicle with a 48V electrical system, a charge pressure after a certain delay time System (RCP). generator and is equipped with power belt-driven starter generator (BSG), and an electrically driven compressor (e-Compressor). The result: the optimi- (“turbo lag”). electronics unit for boosting and motor zations contribute to a CO2 reduction potential of approximately 11% in the Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty The 48V e-Compressor is installed down- control. The machine is air-cooled, which Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). Potential of Electric stream of the water-cooled charge air cool- restricts the continuously available power Components er (WCAC) and the turbocharger, which has to 4 kW, while a short-term peak power of variable turbine geometry. This installation up to 12 kW can be delivered. The BSG can Electrically driven components offer position leads to a reduced volumetric flow deliver up to 160 Nm to the crankshaft via meaningful support; a belt-driven starter downstream of the e-Compressor, which the belt gear ratio. The belt is tensioned generator (BSG) can provide additional improves transient behavior. The reduced for bidirectional power transmission with torque, allowing the engine to be oper- flow also allows the selection of a smaller a double arm tensioner from Mubea. FOR A SHORT-TERM OVERBOOST, THE ated in a lower load range. In addition, an compressor with additional response time The air-cooled bidirectional DC/DC con- EGR RATE CAN BE FURTHER INCREASED, e-Compressor can generate the desired improvements. Intercooling also reduces verter has a nominal power of 2.7 kW. It WHICH REDUCES NOx EMISSIONS boost pressure with virtually no delay the power requirements of the e-Com- handles the supply of the 12V electrical and independently of EGR, thus bridging pressor, since the compression takes place system and is therefore only operated in the “turbo lag” of the turbocharger. As an at a lower temperature this case as a low-voltage regulator. The additional measure, the exhaust gas tur- level. supply of the 48V electrical sys- bocharger can alternatively be optimized tem is realized through with regard to higher efficiency or higher a circuit in the 48V rated power. battery unit.

THROTTLE

HD-EGR E-COMPRESSOR M

CHARGE AIR COOLER TURBOCHARGER

EXHAUST GAS AFTERTREATMENT

LP-EGR

Air path of the HECS ECObrid

24 25 Diesel hybrid engine Diesel hybrid engine 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

The 48V prototype battery from Voltabox is based on a NMC/ The software architecture includes functions for all common 100% boost pressure increase (overboost). The power is fully provided by recuperation. -5.1% -1.2% -0.9% LTO cell chemistry and has a nominal capacity of 20 Ah. This components of the 48V system, such as batteries, starter gen- -4.2% boost pressure setpoint is achieved with To begin with, the E-compressor reduces comparatively high capacity enables a high degree of freedom for erators, e-Compressors, DC/DC converters, and their interfaces. virtually no delay thanks to the e-Com- the charge-exchange work due to the demonstrator applications and, Individual functions for com- pressor, whereby the EGR rate, which is rapid pressure build-up, and secondly,

in conjunction with air cooling, ponent management, system 48 V calibrated for stationary operation, can the larger exhaust-gas turbocharger (ATL) in WLTP /% in WLTP V, BSG 48 V, THE ADDITIONAL HYBRID 2 2L, D-Segment Optimization e-Compressor Turbocharger

enables peak currents of up to coordination, and diagnostics CO be adjusted without an increase in soot can be designed for a higher efficiency 15 C. The battery module consists COMPONENTS REQUIRE NEW are also included. The interfac- 1.6L Downsizing emissions during the load step. For a and lower back-pressure. Additionally, of 20 cells connected in series, re- CONTROL FUNCTIONS, WHICH es of the individual hardware Calculated CO2 reduction through 48V short-term overboost, the EGR rate can the larger turbocharger also enables an sulting in an operational voltage HAVE BEEN INTEGRATED IN components are transferred hybridization in WLTP be further increased, which leads to an increase in specific engine output and of 44 to 48V in the relevant SoC to universal and hardware-in- additional soot-neutral reduction of NOx thus a downsizing strategy, which leads area (SoC = State of Charge). THE SOFTWARE ENVIRON- dependent signals via input Simulation Results emissions. to an additional CO2 reduction of over 4%. MENT OF THE EXISTING ENGI- / output functions that are The Valeo 48V e-Compressor is NE CONTROL UNIT analogous to the basic func- In order to demonstrate the potential Significantly Reduced CO2 driven by a switched reluctance tions for a diesel engine. This of additional electrification to reduce Emissions motor and can be supplied with power of up to 6.5 kW. The allows easy exchange of components. In the case of a missing NOx engine-out emissions and fuel con- low mass inertia leads to a very short response time of less software feature, it can be added within the software module sumption, simulations were carried out Overall, there is a CO2 reduction potential Written by: Dr. Joschka Schaub than 150 ms. of the respective hardware component. for example load steps, as well as for the of around 11% in the WLTP. The majority, [email protected] future WLTP certification cycle. around 5%, is achieved via recuperation Special Control Concept Hybrid mode is the most important mode of operation for mild and electrical support of the BSG. How- Dr. Michael Stapelbroek hybrid applications. In this mode, the energy management In this manner, a distinction is made be- ever, through various effects, the e-Com- [email protected] The additional hybrid components of the HECS ECObrid require module (EgyMgt) defines the battery power split for the 48V tween boost pressure build-up with an pressor also delivers an additional CO2 re- new control functions, which have been integrated in the software BSG and e-Compressor. The EgyMgt collects all power requests unchanged setpoint value and a transient duction of 2% when the required electrical environment of the existing engine control unit. and prioritizes them according to the operating mode. This is how, for example, the BSG is prioritized for the engine start and The Powertrain (PT) area includes the various hybrid operating launch assist. states and functions. These states can be used for any type of

hybrid powertrain (Px, series, or power-split) and specify the The torque and speed setpoints are calculated in the modules 160 high-priority driving modes (e.g. Hybrid or e-Drive) and the of the BSG and the E-compressor, considering charge/discharge high-priority transient modes (for example, engine start or current, the limitations of the 48V strategy module, and torque 140 engine stop). request from the driver of the vehicle. without e-Compressor - desired 120 without e-Compressor - actual with e-Compressor- desired 100 with e-Compressor - actual with e-Compressor and Overboost - desired with e-Compressor and Overboost - actual 80

Intake manifold pressure [kPa] 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 0.01

12V BATTERY 0.005

Soot [g] without e-Compressor with e-Compressor with e-Compressor and recalibration GEAR 12V 0 12V BOARD- 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 STARTER 0.15 NETWORK Lorem ipsum E-COMPRESSOR without e-Compressor with e-Compressor DC DC 0.1 with e-Compressor and recalibration ∆ NOx ~ 40 % AC DC

BSG ∆ NOx ~ 50 % NOx [g] 0.05 48V 0 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 48V BATTERY Time [s]

Powertrain of the FEV HECS ECObrid Control concept for the e-Compressor

26 27 BATTERY AGING BATTERy Aging 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

Technical Challenges of Aging Prediction FEV's Approach BATTERY AGING Battery cell aging mechanisms are susceptible to two kinds FEV developed an online adaption concept without using com- of effects: plex aging prediction models. This offers a potential reduction „„Calendric aging (depending on SOC and temperature) in effort during battery cell testing, as well as in complexity of LIFE-LONG AVAILABILITY OF THE „„ Cyclic aging (depending on depth of discharge and C-rate) the BMS software and hardware. The concept is to determine SOH by monitoring fundamental BMS functions, calibrated at BATTERY SYSTEM Both cases result in capacity fade and internal resistance increase, the beginning of life (SOC calculation and Power Prediction) BMS ALGORITHM FOR STATE OF HEALTH DETERMINATION IN HYBRID AND ELECTRIC which is a direct drawback for system performance. of battery operation, since these BMS functionalities will be To get sufficient information for the onboard aging model such affected by aging: The system will not be capable of delivering VEHICLES the power given by the power prediction due to the increase in SOC ∆DOD internal resistance, and SOC will then no longer be calculated With the increasing application of lithium-ion battery technology in the automotive industry, lifetime battery-aging T Crate correctly, assuming beginning-of-life battery capacity, which will be reduced. Monitoring is performed by way of a smart behavior is an important topic for today’s xEV vehicle applications. Aging influences available battery capacity Capacity fading Internal resistance which is a crucial value for EV/PHEV applications, as well as battery internal resistance a crucial value for PHEV/ prediction prediction comparison of the operating data and related expected values HEV applications. Knowing the aging status (SOH, State of Health) of battery systems is important, since OEMs, under specific operating conditions. Furthermore, the BMS Long term workshops and even customers are interested in the SOH of the battery and some Battery Management System test data functions are adapted according to this comparison to ensure (BMS) functions need to be adjusted during operation to ensure the availability of the battery system throughout availability of the battery system over the course of its lifetime. ∆Cstorage ∆Rstorage its lifetime. ∆Cycle ∆Rycle Phy/Dig Signals (measured) Phy/Dig Signals Phy/Dig Signals (Feedback) Data processing Comparison and State calculation adaption Power Real time Prediction FEV’S ONLINE ADAPTION APPROACH vehicle data MAY IMPROVE SYSTEM BEHAVIOR IN State of Health (SOH) SOC SOH DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS THAT State-of-the-art approach to determine SOH during battery Capacity ARE VERY COST AND TIME operation Estimation

SENSITIVE. as capacity fading prediction and internal resistance prediction, exhaustive battery cell testing must be performed. These tests Signal and functional dependencies for SOH determination include storage and cycling under defined conditions for a long and function adaption period of time. Outlook Alternatively, accelerated aging can be applied – for example, using very high operating temperatures during tests for cyclic This approach was designed to be a cost- and effort-optimized aging, resulting in faster aging and, therefore, time saved. How- method of determination for SOH during a battery life cycle and ever, in this case, the extrapolated fuzziness of the results for to adapt relevant BMS functions accordingly. The goal is not to estimating cell behavior over a lifetime under normal operating replace established methods, but may improve system behavior conditions might harm the accuracy of aging prediction over in development projects that are very cost and time sensitive. the full product life cycle, compared to the non-accelerated approach. In both cases (accelerated and non-accelerated Written by: aging analysis), unadapted static models might not be accu- Dr. Mirco Küpper rate enough to perform a reasonable aging prediction over a [email protected] lifetime; they should be adapted online during operation when comparing measured and estimated battery parameters using real-time vehicle data.

28 29 ENERGY BALANCE ENERGY BALANCE 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

ehicles equipped with ENERGY BALANCE THE 48V SYSTEM a 48V mild hybridizati- on offer a potential to ACHIEVES HIGH FUEL save fuel compared to SAVINGS OF conventionalV vehicles. This advan- tage is leveraged by introducing full hybrid features like a greater ENERGY BALANCE amount of regenerative braking, supporting the internal combustion engine by load shifting and adding OF 48V MILD HYBRIDS BY6-7% SUPPORTING THE additional functionalities like sailing and advanced stop/start. The 48V POWERNET WITH system is also adding power for UNDER REAL DRIVING THE ENERGY additional consumers for comfort RECOVERED DURING systems like air conditioning and active suspension. Furthermore, OPERATION THE BRAKING PHASES electric supercharging from a 48V system can be introduced for Otto FEV INVESTIGATES THE POTENTIALS OF 48V POWERNETS and Diesel internal combustion en- gines which is increasing the fuel economy and can also be used to meet emission regulations by simplifying exhaust gas aftertreat- ment systems. In a recent study, FEV evaluated which of these features can be supplied by the powernet only from regenerative braking. For the evaluation, vehicle measu- rements from a 48V powernet are enhanced with simulations in real driving conditions. System Layouts and Functionalities

In the course of its study, FEV used a representative C-segment vehi- cle with a 1.4 liter gasoline engine, 7 speed dual clutch transmission and a conventional 12V powernet as a reference vehicle. The 12V powernet topology features an intelligent controlled alternator, conventional sprocket starter and 12V AGM lead acid battery. The 48V topologies adopted in the study feature a downsized 1.2 liter combustion engine with the same dual clutch transmission and con- sist of a belt-driven starter gener- ator (BSG, with integrated power electronics) which substitutes the alternator, 48V lithium ion battery and DC/DC converter to connect and supply the 12V powernet.

30 31 ENERGY BALANCE ENERGY BALANCE 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

Various 48V topologies with different FEV set up a comprehensive database less energy recovery and SOC constraints 48V High Performance Powernet 48V Electrical charger functionalities were considered. Starting containing detailed powernet measure- of the lead acid battery. On the other hand from a reference baseline with a con- ments for different drive cycles, including electrical charging using the BSG can Enabling of further electrification and Assist of ICE by electrical charger to avoid turbo-lag of ventional powernet and stop/start at real world driving. profit from intelligent load shift operation. sufficient energy supply of downsized engines 0 km/h, this study analyses the impact In contrast high load scenarios lead to „„ Electrical A/C Compressor „„ Higher low end torque of expanding a stop/start system up to The powernet consumption was varied lower benefits of the hybridization due „„ Active roll stabilization „„ Reduction of back pressure engine off sailing as well as various boost- according to varying loads. In the high to further limitation of the 48V function- „„ Electrical Power Steering ing strategies and their corresponding load scenario, all selectable consumers alities. At the same time the limitation of „„ Electrical heated catalyst electrical energy demand. were switched on at maximum stage. functionalities like advanced stop/start or „„ PTC heater, Electrical pumps, Cooling fans During the normal load scenario, just Sensitivity Analysis: low beam lights, infotainment, radio and 1.400 Powernet Consumption automatic air conditioning were acti- 48V Starter Generator 48V 48V Mild Hybrid vated. Average powernet consumption 1.200 Identification of powernet consumption is between 0.5 and 1.2 kW (depending Increased potential by powerful electric machine Additional Hybrid functions in real driving is very complex due to a on environmental conditions and user 1.000 „„ Increased recuperation potential „„ Electrical creeping large range of applications, vehicle vari- profile). However peak consumption can „„ Electrical boosting „„ Engine off coasting 620 ants and the influence of customer be- be 2 to 3 times higher. 800 „„ Advanced fast starting S&S system „„ Load point shift havior. Based on a systematic approach, 600 420 420 Starting from minimum

THE NEED FOR ACTIVE powernet load, fuel sav- load / W Powernet 400 48V system – new features and functionalities ing slightly increases CHARGE ENERGY, WHICH from 6% up to7 %. This 200 engine off sailing can also influence the 1,200 Indoor Fan Average Scatterband 1,132 HAS TO BE SUPPLIED BY improvement is affected driving experience negatively. EPS 0 1,100 Lights FUEL, IS DRASTICALLY by two aspects: On the NEDC WLTC FEV one hand stop/start func- 1,000 Rear window heater Cycle Average Power Distribution 334 INCREASING WITH HIGHER tion of the conventional Seat heater Powernet consumption of C-segment during FEV Cycle 900 Starter vehicle is limited due to vehicle (FEV database) 6 POWERNET LOAD 800 Window wiper The need for active charge energy, which 80 Other has to be supplied by fuel, is drastically 700 112 120 - 0.9% - 5.3% - 6.4% - 7.0% - 7.0% increasing with higher powernet load. At 600 546 110 the same time it is restricting 48V function- 82 36 500 17 NEDC 100 alities, like BSG boost, since the energy 20 6 110.0 109.0 104.2 103.0 102.3 102.3 load / W Powernet 81 2 /km) / (gCO is not free by recuperation and has to 90 400 16 be generated from fuel along the engine 300 21 and BSG efficiency. The amount of re- 160 - 0.4% - 4.4% - 6.1% - 6.9% - 8.3% 480 generative braking energy is also limited 200 140 due to the effect of idling in stop phases 120 100 386 140.0 139.5 133.9 131.5 130.3 128.4 and therefore not the full regeneration WLTP - TMH WLTP 2 /km) / (gCO 100 potential can be leveraged. 0 High load scenario Normal load scenario 160 - 0.6% - 6.5% - 6.9% - 7.9% - 11.7% Fuel and CO2 Saving Average power distribution during FEV Cycle 140 Potentials in the FEV Cycle 120 this drive cycle the 48V system achieves in term of fuel consumption of 1-2 gCO2/ FEV cycle 145.0 144.2 135.6 135.0 133.5 128.0 2 /km / (gCO 100 For the FEV Cycle, a real world driving high fuel savings of 6-7% by supporting km. Sailing functionality (with engine off) cycle with average load profile was taken the powernet with the energy recovered during deceleration and downhill phases into consideration and compared to a during the braking phases. Due to the enables a further fuel consumption benefit „„ 1.4l 103 kW „„ 1.4l 103 kW engine „„ 1.2l 88 kW engine „„ 1.2l 88 kW engine „„ 1.2l 103 kW engine „„ 1.2l 103 kW engine reference case of a 12V powernet with high powernet load, very limited energy is of 4%. However, this potential is highly engine with TC with TC with TC with TC with lager TC and with lager TC and „„ Pb 12V Bat. „„ Pb 12V Bat. „„ Pb 12V + NMC „„ Pb 12V + NMC 48V eC 48V eC stop/start functionality at 0 km/h. All available for boosting, resulting in a large depending on the driver’s anticipation. „„ 14V Alternator „„ 14V Alternator 48V Bat. 48V Bat. „„ Pb 12V + NMC „„ Pb 12V + NMC (2.4 kW) (2.4 kW) „„ 48V BSG (14 kW) „„ 48V BSG (14 kW) 48V Bat. 48V Bat. cases were evaluated with (12V and 48V) share of engine operation above optimal „„ Stop/Start: 0 km/h „„ Stop/Start: 7 km/h „„ Stop/Start: „„ Stop/Start: „„ 48V BSG (14 kW) „„ 48V BSG (14 kW) balanced final SOC and an initial SOC for conditions. Due to the highly dynamic and „„ Intelligent Alter- „„ Intelligent 20 km/h 20 km/h „„ Stop/Start: „„ Engine off sailing nator Alternator „„ Max. energy „„ Max. energy 20 km/h „„ Max. energy the 48V systems of 70%. The analyzed real demanding driving cycle, the eCharger is Author: „„ No Boosting „„ No Boosting recovery recovery „„ Max. energy recovery „„ No Boosting „„ Boosting with BSG recovery „„ Boosting with world driving cycle consists of 90 km in extensively used. This component increas- Dr. Andreas Balazs „„ Boosting with BSG / eC BSG / eC urban, extra-urban and highway driving es engine low end torque and avoids turbo [email protected] with an average speed of 50 km/h and lag enabling combined “downsizing” and CO2 emissions along NEDC, WLTP and FEV Cycle for balanced SOCs a maximum speed of 121 km/h. During “downspeeding” with a resulting benefit

32 33 Range Extender Systems Range Extender Systems 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

he growth of the global popu- livery route of about 100 km, RANGE EXTENDER SYSTEMS lation, along with a dispropor- corresponding to about tionate increase in transporta- 50% of all journeys over tion capacity, represents one a period of 10 days. The Tof the biggest challenges with regard to battery capacity for all HIGH FLEXIBILITY, REDUCED sustainable mobility concepts. In parti- hybrid drives was then cular, increasing urbanization and the calculated, resulting OPERATING COSTS simultaneous intensification of the debate in a total capacity RANGE EXTENDER SYSTEMS FOR E-DRIVES FOR MEDIUM-HEAVY regarding the reduction of pollutant emis- of 100 kWh in the sions in metropolitan areas is leading to selected driving TRANSPORT VEHICLES the electrification of commercial vehicle cycle, considering powertrains. For lightweight transport 50% of the maximum As part of its search for an optimized drive configuration for medium-heavy duty transport vehicles, FEV investigated vehicles, such as courier service and mail payload and a usable the potential of serial hybrid systems compared to conventional and pure electric drives. The results show that, even distribution vehicles, there are already energy content of 75% of using today’s realistic cost scenarios, the operating costs for serial hybrid solutions can be reduced compared to conventional drives. In order to achieve this, the energy strorage and the drive sources must be dimensioned to suite the requirements and optimized with a view toward the typical driving profile. Such computational investigations are EVEN WITH CURRENTLY REALI- also a tried and tested means of determining the most suitable combination of drive solutions for a specific vehicle STIC COST SCENARIOS, THE fleet based on requirement profiles and fleet data. The acquisition costs of such systems will always have to be OPERATING COSTS FOR SERIAL assessed against the background of the current political discussions and the dynamically changing market prices. HYBRID SOLUTIONS CAN BE RE- DUCED COMPARED TO CONVENTI- ONAL DRIVES 2.0 LITER DIESEL ENGINE large numbers of corresponding, elec- the battery. A larger battery for WITH CLOSED COUPLED tric-only solutions, in large numbers, on a range of 200 km in pure electric EXHAUST AFTER- the market. It is to be expected that this operation was also investigated. technology will also find its way into the Due to the torque characteristics of TREATMENT heavier vehicle classes. electric motors, an electric power of 150 kW was selected. GENERATOR The combination of electric motors with an additional range extender represents Range Extender Concepts an obvious solution for the typical me- dium-duty commercial vehicle segment, In addition to a 7.5-liter 6-cylinder die- which also considers changing daily re- sel engine with a rated output of 180 quirements with regard to the delivery kW, representing a typical conventional routes to be served. A serial arrangement drive unit in this vehicle class, low-cost FUEL TANK of the drive sources already offers signifi- passenger car engines were also chosen cant potential, and can be implemented as possible range extenders, including a fairly easily. 2-liter diesel engine and a 1.8-liter otto- BATTERY PACKS motor with 130 kW nominal power. A fuel Computational simulation cell system with 100 kW electric power was also considered. Different exhaust As part of a simulation study based on a gas aftertreatment systems and tank purely electric vehicle, FEV has examined sizes were applied to the engines inves- various drives and has assessed them tigated, and the corresponding weights with regard to consumption potential were taken into account. All systems were ADBLUE TANK and operating costs. The base vehicle was investigated from a design perspective defined as a typical, two-axle distribution with regard to packaging feasibility by vehicle with an authorized total weight means of existing data from a typical ELECTRICMACHINES of 12 tons. vehicle. The batteries were placed in the To dimension the purely electric drive, frame for safety reasons. As an electric fleet data from a shipping company, drive, two motors on the rear axle with located in the Cologne-Aachen area the above mentioned total power of 150 were used, which indicated a daily de- kW were considered.

34 35 Range Extender Systems Range Extender Systems 01 "ZERO EMISSION" AND HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES

REAR AXLE Results FRONT AXLE €55 €55 Conventional REEV (7.5 D) 24 V REEV (2.0 D) The costs for the conventional, or elec- €45 €45 REEV (1.8 G) BATTERY BEV 200 tric-only, drive increase linearly with the

€ FCEV

t / €35 distance driven, as per the respective cost LOW VOLTAGE DC €35

cos scenarios. This changes upon switching LOADS DC

AC €25 €25 to serial hybrid operation: starting at a Daily EM 1 DC daily distance driven of 100 km, the cost €15 €15 gradient decreases in accordance with LITHIUM ION BATTERY Scenario 1 Scenario 2 the calculated fuel consumption and €5 €5 power costs. 50 100 150 200 50 100 150 200

AC Daily driving distance / km Daily driving distance / km EM 2 RANGE EXTENDER SYSTEM DC Within the delivery distance considered (ICE OR FUEL CELL BASED) Szenario 1 Szenario 2 (that of up to 200 km per day), the operation HV AC Diesel / (€/l) 1.07 Diesel / (€/l) 1.22 costs for serial hybrid operation with Diesel HV DC Gasoline / (€/l) 1.19 Gasoline / (€/l) 1.35 engines are always cheaper than those LV DC Electric Energy / (€/l) 0.24 Electric Energy / (€/l) 0.17 of a conventional engine. With gasoline Hydrogen / (€/l) 7.70 Hydrogen / (€/l) 7.70 engines, however, due to the higher power Serial drive concept for medium-duty transport vehicles Days of operation per year 250 Days of operation per year 250 prices and the higher specific consump- tion, there is also a price disadvantage in scenario 1. The operation costs for a fuel Operation costs for daily distance based on WHVC cell, due to high hydrogen prices – which Power and Fuel one operating point, this operation with a Calculation of Costs for were kept constant at EUR 7.70/kg in both Consumption changing rotational speed is acoustically Daily Operation Fuel/Power Consumption scenarios – are higher than basic operation, much more pleasant for the driver. starting at 125 km, respectively 150 km. WHVC UDC Using a simulation tool that is based In WHVC, the Diesel range extenders Generally speaking, the concepts must Powertrain Unit absolute relative absolute relative on a model library, the power and fuel showed a consumption reduction of be assessed in real operation, using the consumption of the vehicle for the dif- 2%, respectively 7% in charge sustaining daily driven distance, with regard to the Conventional l/100 km 21.5 100% 22.2 100% ferent drive variants are calculated into mode, compared to a strictly conventional running costs and the power requirements Serial Hybrid Systems the Worldwide Harmonized Vehicle Cycle drive. Due to the higher specific consump- of the vehicle. As part of the FEV analysis, with 7.5 Liter Diesel l/100 km 21.1 98% 19.6 88% Written by: (WHVC), as well as the Urban Delivery tion, consumption increases by 18% when the pure power costs are used, but initial with 2.0 Liter Diesel l/100 km 20 93% 18.5 83% Stefan Wedowski Cycle (UDC). The UDC was established in a gasoline engine is used as an additional costs, depreciation and wear costs for with 1.8 Liter Gasoline l/100 km 25.3 118% 22.6 102% [email protected] various studies and also takes height pro- drive source. In this context, it should the systems are not taken into account. with Fuel Cell kg/100 km (H2) 6 5.1 be noted that the In order to take the currently prevailing Electric-Only System Johannes Maitherth consumption of the uncertainty with regard to future energy [email protected] 100 km Range kWh/100 km 71.5 62.5 IN WHVC, THE DIESEL RANGE conventional drive costs into consideration, the costs for fuel 200 km Range kWh/100 km 74.8 64.8 EXTENDERS SHOWED A with an additional and power are reflected in two scenarios. Christopher Marten CONSUMPTION REDUCTION OF weight equivalent to In the first scenario, moderate fuel prices Fuel and power consumption of powertrain variants [email protected] the electrical com- based on average prices between 2011 2% RESPECTIVELY 7% IN ponents increases by and 2016 are used, while the power price CHARGE SUSTAINING MODE around 7% in WHVC. is based on the household price. In the If this is used as a ba- second scenario, the maximum fuel price files into account. The operation strategy sis, the consumption of the hybrid systems from the period considered is used, while foresees the initial provision of the power is, accordingly, more cost-effective. The a reduced power price for industrial clients required by the battery until the defined comparison with the results in the Urban is applied as an alternating classification minimum charge status is achieved – in Delivery Cycle, which are characterized by of fleet operators can be predicted with an this case, 20% of the full charge. From that a lower share of high speeds, more fre- increasing number of electrified vehicles. point on, the charge status for recharging quent acceleration and braking processes, the battery is kept more or less constant as well as a height profile, shows a higher by the starting of the combustion engine. basic consumption, but also offers more The control of engine operation prevents significant savings potential in hybrid high specific consumptions and uses the operation. Overall, the power to be used engine operating points that provide the for the cycle is less than what electric-only best operating area for a specific perfor- operation shows. mance. Compared to a layout with only

36 37 HEATING CONCEPTS heating concepts 02 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

n conventionally powered HEATING CONCEPTS vehicles, a portion of the excess radiated heat energy form the internal combusti- on engine is used to heat the FEV EVALUATES CABIN HEATING passenger compartment. In electric vehicles, this heat SYSTEM THAT COMBINES CONVECTIVE source is not available due to their higher tank-to-wheel effi- AIR HEATING AND RADIANT ciency. Instead, an additional he- Iater is necessary that is powered HEATING SURFACES by the battery. The cruising range INCREASED RANGE AND IMPROVED COMFORT FOR of electric cars is reduced by 50% ELECTRIC VEHICLES when the heater is turned on as a result. Increasing the efficiency of the vehicle or the passenger com- partment air conditioning system is a major challenge on the road to making electric cars competitive for everyday use.

In a recent study, FEV focused on the potential for energy savings from heating surfaces in the immediate vicinity of the driver. The heating system was installed in an electrical test vehicle and consists of an elec- tric PTC air heater and electrically operated, radiating surfaces in the passenger compartment. Extensive measurements were conducted on the test vehicle in a climatic cham- ber and the energy consumption of the heating systems was recorded. By comparing the energy consump- tion in both heating processes, an energy savings potential of as high as 9% was identified..

38 39 heating concepts heating concepts 02 VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT

30 Combination I A literature study on radiant heating for by either wind speed or solar radiation. Meas. Ptot PPTC Prad Pfan Air Combination II buildings revealed that radiant heaters The test vehicle was heated for about 25 25 Data [kW] [kW] [W] [W] Oulett Reference II can demonstrate energy consumption minutes. To compare the thermal output Ref. I 3.3 3.2 0 100 Feet 20 Interpolation that is about 10% lower than convective of all test configurations, three different Combination I heating systems. According to the study, temperature measurement locations were 15 and Comb. I 3.5 3.2 200 100 Feet Combination II the air temperature can be reduced by 5 K considered – at foot level, at head height, 10 without adverse effects on the perception and the average temperature of the pas- Comb. II 2.7 2.4 200 100 Feet of thermal comfort. Additionally, heat loss- senger compartment. 5 es due to air exchange are reduced. The Temperature / °C Temperature Measurements taken: 0 proportion of the heating energy bound Average Passenger - Ref. I: Maximum PTC power of 3.2 kW and 0.1 kW of fan power to a transport medium (air flow) is smaller - Comb. I: Same as Ref. I with an additional 0.2 kW radiation heating power Compartment - Comb. II: PTC power of 2.4 kW, 0.1 kW fan power and 0.2 kW radiation heating power -5 when applying additional radiant heating Temperatures and Energy- -10 systems. saving Potential 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Under cold ambient conditions in a vehi- cle, the feet and legs should be warmer At the average passenger compartment The air temperature was lower than that Time / min Subjective Impression than other parts of the body – which is why temperature, the results showed that the of the Radiative Heating of the heat radiating surfaces. In gen- Operating Temperature points were installed in the driver and heat-radiating surfaces were installed near PTC heating output was either too high System eral, the radiant heat was perceived as the passenger sides, respectively. 2 of the feet and legs. The foot wells of the test (measurement combination 1) or too low pleasant. The test subject deliberately The heating system uses both convec- the 4 measuring points were attached vehicle were suitable because their walls (measurement combination 2). There- During winter in Alsdorf, Germany, sub- touched the radiating surfaces with his tion and heat radiation to heat the cabin. to the headrests on each side. offered sufficient space for installation. In fore, the resulting temperature profiles jective tests were conducted in order to legs during the test, thereby improving Therefore, measuring the air temperature both the original and the modified heat- from measurements Combination 1 and adjust the settings of the various heating thermal comfort. Due to the proximity alone is insufficient. In order to adequately A self-developed flat sensor with a 3 cm ing systems, cold ambient air enters the Combination 2 were interpolated, thus systems and to check the temperature of the radiant surfaces to the legs, this consider the interaction of both of the heat edge length was used for detecting the HVAC-system. The temperature of the air providing an estimate of the tempera- sensors. During these tests, the radiant posture could be taken by the driver while transfer mechanisms, another method for operating temperature at foot level. This is increased by the PTC heater. ture profile for a measurement with the heating system was subjectively assessed. driving the car. The test subject reported a evaluation of passenger compartment is because the heat-radiating surfaces In the modified vehicle with the additional corresponding PTC heating power. The The ambient temperature during the test positive overall impression of the radiant heating must be used. were installed in the foot wells of the driv- radiant heating system, the heater power power consumption of the interpolated was 3°C, providing realistic conditions for heating. Objective measurements, even One good possibility is the so-called er and the passenger sides. The average was reduced, resulting in a lower increase measurement was calculated accord- the vehicle heating. A human subject was those employing a thermal mannequin, operating temperature. The operating cabin temperature can be calculated by in the air temperature. The heating power ingly, averaging the power consumption placed in the front seat of the equipped do not consider behavioral responses temperature weights the heat transfer averaging the air temperatures at head of the two heating systems was deter- of measurements Comb. I and Comb. II. vehicle while the heating system was op- such as those described above. coefficients of convective and radiative level and the operating temperatures at mined by measuring the temperature at Using radiative heating, only 90.7% of the erated. The test subject’s clothing was heat transfer. For this measurement, a the foot level. both the head and foot levels. heating energy is necessary to achieve appropriate for the winter conditions, Written by dedicated sensor for measuring the ra- heating performance equal to that of a consisting of jeans, a winter jacket and David Hemkemeyer [email protected] diant heat was developed as a first pro- Heating System Measurement Procedure conventional system. Since the results low shoes. Approximately two minutes totype. Experience from the construction are based on an interpolation, the po- after the start of the heating process, the Daniel Perak sector shows that using the operating The conventional heating system, con- A series of measurements was conduct- tential for energy savings is not justified radiant heat was sensed by the subject. [email protected] temperature instead of the air tempera- sisting of a pure electric air heater and a ed in a climatic chamber at an ambient physically. It can be used as a prediction ture in the control of a room’s heating fan, was extended by electrically operated, temperature of -10 °C. The outlet of the air of energy-saving potential. Klaus Wolff system reduces energy consumption and heat-radiating surfaces in the vehicle's flow in all measurements was set to feet [email protected] improves thermal comfort. foot wells. only. The test setup was not influenced Ralf Stienen Temperature Measurement [email protected] P T In order to assess passenger compart- Fan Head ment heating, various temperature mea- surement points were determined inside the passenger compartment. Since the Q aim of the new measurement method Radiation was not to evaluate the heating perfor- mance but to compare the two heating methods, obtaining the temperatures at the front seats was sufficient. Tempera- tures were taken at head and foot levels. TFeet 8 temperature measuring points were set up in the test vehicle; 4 measuring Schematic view of the conventional (left) and new (right) heating system QHeating

40 41 UPCOMING EVENTS MAY 03.05.-04.05.2017 15. ATZ - Karrosseriebautage Hamburg Hamburg, Germany 09.05.-11.05.2017 2017 International VI-grade Users Conference Turin, Italy 16.05.-18.05.2017 Integer & AdBlue® Forum China Beijing, China 17.05.-19.05.2017 Torsional Vibration Symposium Salzburg Salzburg, Austria 18.05.2017 FEV Diesel Day Beijing, China 24.05.-26.05.2017 JSAE Automotive Engineering Exposition 2017 Yokohama Yokohama, Japan MEET MORE THAN 4,200 FEV EXPERTS 30.05.-31.05.2017 Automotive Engineering Expo (AEE) Nürnberg, Germany IN OUR INTERNATIONAL JUNE 06.06.-08.06.2017 Electric & Hybrid Marine - World Expo 2017 Amsterdam, Netherlands ENGINEERING AND SERVICE CENTERS 07.06.-08.06.2017 International Conference and Exhibition - Versailles, France SIA Powertrain 2017 20.06.-22.06.2017 5th TMFB International Conference Aachen, Germany 20.06.-21.06.2017 8th Munich International Symposium on Suspension - Munich, Germany chassis.tech plus 2017 20.06.-21.06.2017 6th European Ground System Architecture Workshop - Darmstadt, Germany ESA/ESOC** 20.06.-22.06.2017 Automotive Testing Expo Stuttgart 2017 Stuttgart, Germany 27.06.-28.06.2017 7. VDI-Fachtagung - Ventiltrieb und Zylinderkopf 2017 Würzburg, Germany 27.06.-28.06.2017 21st International Congress on Advances Ludwigsburg, Germany in Automotive Electronics

JOIN OUR UPCOMING CONFERENCE DIESEL POWERTRAINS 3.0

11TH & 12TH JULY 2017, LUDWIGSBURG, STUTTGART

JOIN OUR UPCOMING CONFERENCE

ZERO CO2 MOBILITY 9th - 10th NOVEMBER 2017, HOTEL PULLMANN QUELLENHOF, AACHEN

For more information please visit: fev-events.com

IMPRINT

Spectrum Editorial Layout Translations issue 01/2017 (Number: 61) Patrick Gälweiler, FEV Emrach Achmetoglou, EVS Translations FEV Consulting

READER SERVICE

Has your address changed? Do you know a colleague who would also like to receive future issues of the SPECTRUM? Send the name of your company, person’s name, and complete mailing address by email to: [email protected]

42 43 heating concepts 01 AUS FORSCHUNG UND ENTWICKLUNG

Contact

FEV Europe GmbH FEV North America, Inc. FEV Beijing Vehicle FEV India Pvt, Ltd. Neuenhofstraße 181 4554 Glenmeade Lane Development Center Technical Center India 52078 Aachen Auburn Hills, 168 Huada Road, A-21, Talegaon MIDC Germany MI 48326-1766 ∙ USA Yanjiao High-Tech Zone Tal Maval District ∙ Pune- 065201 Sanhe City 410 507 ∙ India Phone +49 241 5689-0 Phone +1 248 373-6000 Langfang Hebei Province ∙ Fax +49 241 5689-119 Fax +1 248 373-8084 China Phone +91 2114 666 - 000

[email protected] [email protected] Phone +86 10 80 84 11 68 [email protected] www.fev.com www.fev.com www.fev.com [email protected] www.fev.com