DOCSLIB.ORG

Auxiliary Verbs As a Subcategory of the Verb in Tswana

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Auxiliary Verbs As a Subcategory of the Verb in Tswana AUXILIARY VERBS AS A SUBCATEGORY OF THE VERB IN TSWANA Rigardt Samuel Pretorius, BA, BA Honours, MA, H.E.D. Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor in the Department of African Languages at the Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education Promotor: Prof. L.C. Posthumus Co-promotor: Prof. C.J.H. Kriiger Potchefstroom 1997 ·ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely thank the following persons: Professor L.C. Posthumus, my promoter, for patience and constructive scientific guidance amidst a very busy program. Professor C.J.H. Kriiger, my co-promoter, for many hours of his time, his interest in this work, and the privilege of learning from his experience, as well as insight into his manuscript on Tswana grammar which has not yet been published. Dr G.J.G. Vermeulen, the head of our department, and other colleagues, for interest shown in the study and for relieving me of my official workload for six months. It is highly appreciated. Dr C.H. Mackenzie for the language editing of the thesis. Mrs Chandre Barnard and mrs Nelmarie van Staden for assistance with the layout and printing of the thesis. My wife, son and parents for assistance and understanding. All the mother-tongue Tswana speakers with whom I conferred on examples used in this study. Above all, our Lord for health, the opportunity and the ability to attempt and finish this research. PREFACE The term verb includes a compound of meanings as the word class verb has three sub categories, namely: independent verbs, copulative verbs and auxiliary verbs. During the research for the study a problem regarding the appropriate term to be used for specific words in verbal groups arose. The intention is to clarify the position on terms used for these words here, before the study commences. To complicate the problem it has been found that different terms are used by different linguists to refer to the same concept - verbs. Thus Ziervogel (1976:116), Louwrens (1994(c):l 7), Lombard et al. (1985:186) and several others refer to verbs in auxiliary verbal groups as main verbs. Likewise, several studies in Afrikaans refer to these verbs as 'hoofwerkwoorde'. However, there are also other terms used to refer to these verbs, namely: principle verbs, proper verbs, proper main verbs, ordinary verbs, ordinary predicates, etc. The term that has been opted for to refer to verbs is independent verb. This term was chosen because it indicates the syntactical independence of such verbs which are clearly to be separated from auxiliary verbs. The term copulative verbs is clear, and will be retained. In the case of the auxiliary verbs there are also several terms used, however, these terms are explained in chapter three, as the classification of the auxiliary verbs is treated there. ABSTRACT The auxiliary verb in Tswana is the focus of this study. An overview of the research that has been done on the auxiliary verb in Zulu, Sotho and Tswana up to now indicates that there are still a number of issues regarding auxiliary verbs in Tswana that need futher inverstigation. From the assembled bibliography it is clear that the auxiliary verb in Tswana has only been touched upon. Only the studies of Swanepoel (1975) and Kruger (1983) on the auxiliary verbs in Tswana which are exclusively based on linguistic criteria seem to be noteworthy. Before a classification of the auxiliary verb may be attempted, a classification of the verb as word class would be necessary. Insights on concepts like aspect, time and tense and metaphorical mapping, prompted by the development in the study of Bantu languages, have to be utilized in a study on auxiliary verbs. After a discussion of the classificatory principles and criteria of word classes as proposed by Van Wyk (1966), the word classes for Tswana are set out accordingly. It is then shown that the independent verbs, the copulative verbs and the auxiliary verbs are sub categories of the word class verb. Based on this the auxiliary verb is analysed to indicate its sub categories and features. Regarding the origin, meaning and function of auxiliary verbs in Tswana, it is found that they have a metaphorical basis. The semantic values of many auxiliaries in Tswana are derived from verbal counterparts through a process of metaphorical mapping. Certain auxiliaries still show semantic affinity with their verbal counterparts. It is also indicated that this affinity is morphologically and syntactically related to the sub-classes/categories identified in the classification of the auxiliaries. The grammatical categories of the verb are then discussed, and the mutual relationship between auxiliary verbs and mood, tense and aspect is pointed out. It is apparent from the classification of the auxiliary verbs in Tswana that a significant number of them have a semantic significance to logical time and tense. The aspectual values of the complementary verb (in certain instances) in auxiliary verbal groups, in the relative tenses, where the future and past tenses are indicated by the auxiliary verb, are pointed out. To conclude the study, the auxiliary verbal groups are described with respect to their syntactic and valentional features. All auxiliary verbs are then discussed individually regarding the semantic values they display in discourse. OPSOMMING Die hulpwerkwoord in Tswana is die fokus van hierdie studie. Uit 'n oorsig oor afgehandelde navorsing i.v.m. die hulpwerkwoord in Zoeloe, Sotho en Tswana kom aan die lig dat daar steeds vraagstukke rondom hierdie tema bestaan wat verdere studie verg. V anuit die saamgestelde bibliografie is dit duidelik dat die hulpwerkwoord in Tswana nog net oppervlakkig bestudeer is. Slegs die studies van Swanepoel (1975) en Kriiger (1983) oor die hulpwerkwoord in Tswana is noemenswaardig, en was op suiwer linguistiese kriteria gebasseer. Alvorens daar voorgegaan word met die klassifikasie van die hulpwerkwoord is noodsaaklik dat die klassifikasie van die werkwoord eers bevredigend hanteer word. Nuwe insigte wat in die ontwikkeling van die Bantoetale na vore gebring is m.b.t. die studietereine van aspek, tempus, tyd en die sogenaamde 'metaphorical mapping' is belangrik by 'n studie van die hulpwerkwoord aangesien dit talle raakvlakke met hierdie studievelde het. Na 'n bespreking van die klassifikasieprinsipes en kriteria vir woord identifikasie en - klassifikasie soos voorgestel deur Van Wyk (1966) word die woordklasse vir Tswana daarvolgens weergegee. Daar word dan aangetoon dat die selfstandige werkwoord, kopulatiewe werkwoord en die hulpwerkwoord, sub-kategoriee van die werkwoord is. Gebaseer hierop en m.b.v. die klassifikasie kriteria van Van Wyk word die hulpwerkwoord verder ontleed en sy sub-kategoriee aangetoon. Rakende die oorsprong, betekenis en funksie van hulpwerkwoorde word die metaforiese basis as oorsprong van 'n groep hulpwerkwoorde vanaf werkwoorde aangetoon. Dit is duidelik dat die semantiese waardes van 'n groot aantal hulpwerkwoorde in Tswana, van werkwoorde afgelei is. Hierdie ooreenkoms word duidelik weerspieel in die sub-kategoriee waarin die hulpwerkwoord verdeel/geklassifiseer is. Die grammatikale kategoriee van die werkwoord word dan bespreek en die rol van die hulpwerkwoord by die aanduiding van modus, tempus en tyd word aangedui. Uit die klassifikasie van die hulpwerkwoorde in Tswana is dit opvallend dat 'n groot aantal van hulle semanties met logiese tyd en tempus verband hou. Die aspektuele waarde van sekere komplementere werkwoorde in hulpwerkwoordgroepe waar die toekomende en verlede tyd deur die hulpwerkwoord aangedui word, word uitgewys. Ten slotte word die hulpwerkwoordgroepe in terme van hulle sintaktiese en valensionele kenmerke bespreek.. Daarna word elke hulpwerkwoord individueel bespreek t.o.v. sy semantiese waarde in die diskoers. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 ........••....•...•......••......•...........••......•.•....••......••.............•.........•.......•..•...•••...•.........•• 1 CO NTEXTUALIZA.TI 0 N •.................••...•......•................•...........................••.....................•....• 1 1.1 CONTEXTUALIZA.TION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEMError! Bookmark not defined 1.2 AIMS.•.•.•••...••.......•...••.••.••.....•......•...•.•.•.....••••.•...•...•...•............•.....•.....•..••......•...••.•.•..•......•. 4 1.3 THESIS STATEMENT..............•••..•......•....•...........•..........................................•...•............ 5 1.4 METHOD OF RESEARCH .•.......••.......•................•.•.......•............•...•...............•..•••......•.... 5 CHAPTER 2 ............•••..•••••...•••....•.........••.•..•..•.....•...•...........................•..•••...........•..•..••.......•.... 7 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW .•••.•••••............••...•.........•..............•..........•...•...••.....•....•...•.......•.... 7 2.1 INTRODUCTION •....••......•..............•..•••.....•..................•..•.......••...•.......•...••..................•.... 7 2.2 THE VIEWS OF DIFFERENT SCHOLARS ON THE AUXILIARY VERB IN ZULU......••..•.•...•........•..........................•.......•.......•....................................••....... 7 2.2.1 Ziervogel ............................................................................................................................ 7 2.2.2 Van Eeden ............................................................. ................................................ ............ 9 2.2.3 Doke ................................................................................................................................ 10 2.2.4 Fortune .........................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Distribution and Interpretation of the Qualificative
    THE DISTRIBUTION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE QUALIFICATIVE IN SESOTHO by ’MADIRA LEONIAH THETSO Submitted in accordance with the requirement for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject of African Languages at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Prof. M.L. Mojapelo Co-Supervisor: Prof. D.E. Mutasa JUNE 2018 DECLARATION STUDENT NUMBER: 55769365 I, ’MADIRA LEONIAH THETSO, declare that THE DISTRIBUTION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE QUALIFICATIVE IN SESOTHO is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ------------------------- ------------------------ SIGNATURE DATE i ABSTRACT This study explores the syntax of the substantive phrase, more especially substantive phrase composed of more than one qualificative, in Sesotho. Adopting interviews, questionnaires and documents, the study seeks to investigate the syntactic sequence of qualificatives, their relation to the modified head word and influence of such ordering pattern in the phrase. Structurally, qualificatives comprise two components, namely the qualificative concord and stem. The qualificative serves to give varied information about the implicit or explicit substantive resulting in seven types of qualificatives in Sesotho, be they the Adjective, Demonstrative, Enumerative, Interrogative, Possessive, Quantifier and Relative. From the Minimalist perspective, the qualificative is recursive. The study established a maximum of five qualificatives in a single phrase. The number is generally achieved by recurrence of the Adjective, the Possessive and the Relative up to a maximum of four of the same qualificative in a single phrase. It is observed that the recurrence of the Demonstrative, Interrogative, Enumerative and Quantifier is proscribed in Sesotho.
    [Show full text]
  • Sesotho Personal Names As Epithets: a Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach
    Sesotho Personal Names as Epithets: A Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach [PP: 43-56] Masechaba Mahloli L Mokhathi-Mbhele Faculty of Humanities, National University of Lesotho Lesotho ABSTRACT This study examined how the epithet feature of the nominal group described by Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theory characterized independent clause Sesotho personal names. These names were described as authentic social discourse that exchanges information. Their semantics of interaction displayed speech roles such as statements, demands and commands, as questions and as the exclamative. The aim was to explore how these epithet personal names structured with features of these speech roles give the name awarder’s evaluation of the situation (modality) and context in which the child was born. They function as enacted messages pointing in various ways because these speech roles enfold the art of negotiating attitudes and through this art modality is highly incorporated. Data was collected from national examinations pass lists, admissions, telephone directories, media and employment roll lists from Public, Private, Tertiary and Orphanage institutions. Methodology is qualitative and it allows the researcher to make sense of or interpret phenomena in terms of meanings that people bring to them. It explores and describes the names within a specific context of Basotho and thus attempts to make meanings from the language users’ view, not fabricated views. In this way it displays modality and the negotiated attitudes. These help investigate the “why” and the “how” of the people’s decision making. The contribution by this article extends SFL-Onomastica relation and literature and opens up grammatical description functionally using material resourced from the speakers’ creative potential.
    [Show full text]
  • Modeling Word and Morpheme Order in Natural Language As an Efficient Tradeoff of Memory and Surprisal
    Modeling word and morpheme order in natural language as an efficient tradeoff of memory and surprisal Michael Hahn, Judith Degen, Richard Futrell June 24, 2020 Abstract Memory limitations are known to constrain language comprehension and production, and have been argued to account for crosslinguistic word order regularities. However, a systematic assessment of the role of memory limitations in language structure has proven elusive, in part because it is hard to ex- tract precise large-scale quantitative generalizations about language from existing mechanistic models of memory use in sentence processing. We provide an architecture-independent information-theoretic formalization of memory limitations which enables a simple calculation of the memory efficiency of languages. Our notion of memory efficiency is based on the idea of a memory–surprisal tradeoff : a certain level of average surprisal per word can only be achieved at the cost of storing some amount of information about past context. Based on this notion of memory usage, we advance the Efficient Tradeoff Hypothesis: the order of elements in natural language is under pressure to enable favorable memory- surprisal tradeoffs. We derive that languages enable more efficient tradeoffs when they exhibit informa- tion locality: when predictive information about an element is concentrated in its recent past. We provide empirical evidence from three test domains in support of the Efficient Tradeoff Hypothesis: a reanalysis of a miniature artificial language learning experiment, a large-scale study of word order in corpora of 54 languages, and an analysis of morpheme order in two agglutinative languages. These results suggest that principles of order in natural language can be explained via highly generic cognitively motivated principles and lend support to efficiency-based models of the structure of human language.
    [Show full text]
  • Race/Ethnicity And
    Pragmatics 22:3.477-499 (2012) International Pragmatics Association DOI: 10.1075/prag.22.3.06ste ETHNICITY AND CODESWITCHING: ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN GRAMMATICAL AND PRAGMATIC PATTERNS OF CODESWITCHING IN THE FREE STATE Gerald Stell Abstract This article aims to compare three distinct grammatical and conversational patterns of code-switching, which it tentatively links to three different South African ethnoracial labels: White, Coloured and Black. It forms a continuation of a previous article in which correlations were established between Afrikaans- English code-switching patterns and White and Coloured ethnicities. The typological framework used is derived from Muysken, and the hypotheses are based on his predictions as to which type of grammatical CS (i.e. insertional, alternational, congruent lexicalisation) will dominate in which linguistic and sociolinguistic settings. Apart from strengthening the idea of a correlation between patterns of language variation and ethnicity in general, the article explores the theoretical possibility of specific social factors overriding linguistic constraints in determining the grammatical form of CS patterns. In this regard, it will be shown that – on account of specific social factors underlying ethnicity – CS between two typologically unrelated languages, namely Sesotho and English, can exhibit more marks of congruent lexicalization than CS between two typologically related languages, namely Afrikaans and English, while – from the point of view of linguistic constraints – insertional/alternational
    [Show full text]
  • Sesotho Book
    THE SESOTHO BOOK A Language Manual Developed By a Peace Corps Volunteer During Her Service in Lesotho 1 To the reader: I have attempted to make this book as comprehensive and yet as concise as possible. It is largely an adaptation of “Everyday Sesotho Grammar” by M.R.L Sharpe. I have included most of the vocabulary words, phrases, and grammatical points that I WISH someone had explained to me earlier on. I know learning Sesotho can seem like an incredibly daunting task, but it can be done. Here are my words of advice: Start USING Sesotho whenever possible. Carry around a dictionary and a little notebook to look up and write down the new words you come across. The more you practice (and the more mistakes you make), the easier it gets. If you reach a point where your language ability seems to have plateaud and you want to improve quickly, I recommend that you make a firm decision to ONLY speak Sesotho when in your village, explaining to those in your community that you would like them to only speak Sesotho with you as well. The communication barrier will be a big challenge at first, but soon you will start to see a rapid improvement in your language ability. Keep trying out language tutors until you find one that is helpful. It may take many tries, but it’s worth it. Finally, READ any material in Sesotho that you can get your hands on. Reading Sesotho (rather than just listening to people speak a mile a minute) gives you time to pick sentences apart.
    [Show full text]
  • GOO-80-02119 392P
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 228 863 FL 013 634 AUTHOR Hatfield, Deborah H.; And Others TITLE A Survey of Materials for the Study of theUncommonly Taught Languages: Supplement, 1976-1981. INSTITUTION Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, D.C. SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, D.C.Div. of International Education. PUB DATE Jul 82 CONTRACT GOO-79-03415; GOO-80-02119 NOTE 392p.; For related documents, see ED 130 537-538, ED 132 833-835, ED 132 860, and ED 166 949-950. PUB TYPE Reference Materials Bibliographies (131) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC16 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; Dictionaries; *InStructional Materials; Postsecondary Edtmation; *Second Language Instruction; Textbooks; *Uncommonly Taught Languages ABSTRACT This annotated bibliography is a supplement tothe previous survey published in 1976. It coverslanguages and language groups in the following divisions:(1) Western Europe/Pidgins and Creoles (European-based); (2) Eastern Europeand the Soviet Union; (3) the Middle East and North Africa; (4) SouthAsia;(5) Eastern Asia; (6) Sub-Saharan Africa; (7) SoutheastAsia and the Pacific; and (8) North, Central, and South Anerica. The primaryemphasis of the bibliography is on materials for the use of theadult learner whose native language is English. Under each languageheading, the items are arranged as follows:teaching materials, readers, grammars, and dictionaries. The annotations are descriptive.Whenever possible, each entry contains standardbibliographical information, including notations about reprints and accompanyingtapes/records
    [Show full text]
  • Boston University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, 2017
    BOSTON UNIVERSITY GRADUATE SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Dissertation “WISDOM DOES NOT LIVE IN ONE HOUSE”: COMPILING ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE IN LESOTHO, SOUTHERN AFRICA, C.1880-1965 By CHRISTOPHER R. CONZ B.S., University of Hartford, 1999 M.Ed., University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2004 M.A., Boston University, 2013 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2017 ProQuest Number:10267447 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ProQuest 10267447 Published by ProQuest LLC ( 2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 © Copyright by CHRISTOPHER R. CONZ 2017 Approved by First Reader ______________________________________________________ James C. McCann, Ph.D. Professor of History Second Reader ______________________________________________________ Diana Wylie, Ph.D. Professor of History Third Reader _______________________________________________________ Joanna Davidson, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Anthropology ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation was possible only because of others to whom I owe tremendous gratitude. A Fulbright Student Grant and a Graduate Research Abroad Fellowship from Boston University funded my research in 2014-2015. My two homes at Boston University, the Department of History and the African Studies Center and Library, provided me with the intellectual space for sharing my work with graduate students and faculty.
    [Show full text]
  • Sesotho Names As Minor Clauses: a Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach
    International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN: 2319-7064 ResearchGate Impact Factor (2018): 0.28 | SJIF (2019): 7.583 Sesotho Names as Minor Clauses: A Systemic Functional Linguistics Approach `Masechaba ML Mokhathi-Mbhele Abstract: This article explores Sesotho personal names as minor clauses from the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) theoretical framework. It discusses these personal names as authentic enacted messages. The study is qualitative and data was collected from class list and employment rolls, radio and TV talk show programmes, neighbourhood, telephone directories and many more. The study displays the evaluation of the awarder in coining the names to reflect the modality of these awarders. It makes new observations that display that Sesotho names function as clauses of exchange thus they maintain the ‘social fabric’. They confirm Halliday’s features about SFL minor clauses. A hybridization of onomastica and Linguistics as well as that of Morphology, Semantics and Grammar reflects. It further displays the reciprocation of the verbal and the nominal groups which show that the verbal group is actually the basis for the nominal group in the onomastica system of Basotho. It concludes that Sesotho names explicate a social function as minor clauses and it recommends that the grammar of Sesotho be taught from the functional view because this approach shall unearth even those issues overlooked by Morpho-syntactic approach currently cherished by Sesotho grammar analysts. This study has implications for education through curriculum design, advertising linguistics, onomastica studies, journalism, sociolinguistics, historical studies and science and linguistics generally. Key words: Minor clauses, vocative, calls, greetings, nominal group, clause as exchange 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Corpus-Based Lexicography for Sesotho
    Corpus-based Lexicography for Sesotho by Mmasibidi Setaka Student Number 10657542 A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts in the Department of African Languages at the Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA, SUPERVISOR: Prof. D.J. Prinsloo August 2018 Acknowledgements Thanks God for allowing this opportunity and forever gracing me with your mercy and blessings. To my queen mama Ellen Setaka and my sister Madibe Setaka and brother Ntsheke Setaka, you have been more than a blessing in my life and I am most grateful for your unwavering support, advices and encouragement. You make my world brighter. To my son Relebohile Setaka, you motivate me to do more. To my late grandparents, I know you are watching over me always. Thank you and Rest in Peace. Prof. Prinsloo, thank you for believing in me. Your contribution in my studies gave me life lessons about patience, hope and success. I cannot thank you enough for all that you have done for me. SADiLaR, all could have been really hard to achieve if it was not for you. Thank you for the opportunity. Pieter Labuschagne, thank you for always helping me. To my prayer warrior, Matlhogonolo Tsae, thank you for your prayers and constantly enquiring about my studies. That is true friendship and I am most grateful to have you in my life. To all my friends and family who stood by me, I salute you. Modimo o le hlohonolofatse. i 1. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... i Abstract ........................................................................................................................ viii Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • 1 an Adversity Passive Analysis of Early Sesotho
    An adversity passive analysis of early Sesotho passives: Reanalyzing a counterexample to Maturation Jean Crawford Boston University 1. Introduction One of the goals of language acquisition research is to discover what linguistic abilities children bring to the language learning process. In their Maturation Hypothesis, Borer and Wexler (henceforth B&W 1987) suggest delayed production of verbal passives and other A- movement constructions in child English and child Hebrew is an indication that grammar is not fully mature at birth and that over time it matures to become adult-like. As they believe it to be a biological deficiency, B&W claim the passive-like constructions children employ before the age where this ability matures (around 4;0) will not be verbal passives, but other constructions that do not have A-movement, such as lexical adjectival passives in English. More generally, children will produce passive-like constructions at an early age only if the language has a syntactic homophone (s-homophone), a construction homophonous with verbal passives, but without A-movement syntax (Babyonyshev et al 2001). Experimental results such as those found in Babyonyshev et al (2001) show that when no s-homophones are available for A- movement constructions in the language, children perform poorly on elicitation tasks. While crosslinguistic acquisition studies showing delayed have supported the Maturation Hypothesis (Japanese, Sugisaki 1998; Spanish, Pierce 1992), other crosslinguistic studies have shown the opposite case. One such counterexample comes from the study of the Bantu language Sesotho (Demuth 1989, 1990, 1992). This acquisition study of spontaneous production data suggests Sesotho-speaking children may acquire the passive as early as 2;8.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 - Zorc, Teaching & Learning Southern Bantu Languages Page - 2
    Problems in Teaching and Learning Southern Bantu Languages R. David Zorc Senior Linguist MRM Inc., Language Research Center When I was drafting the introduction to the grammatical section of the Sotho Newspaper Reader, Reference Grammar & Lexicon (Zorc & Mokabe. 1998. Dunwoody Press), I entitled it “What Makes Sotho Hard.” Our editorial committee rightfully thought that would be off-putting for the student, and so the title became “The Challenges of Sotho Grammar.” There can be no doubt that any student is – in politically-correct terms – “grammatically challenged” by Southern Bantu languages. Although I am a trained linguist, I have worn the learner’s hat for both Sotho and Xhosa, and have found them to be among the most difficult of over eighty languages studied during my lifetime. These difficulties, which require special attention in both the teaching and the learning process, include: 1. a complex system of agreements or concords necessitated by the noun-class system; 2. a number of sound changes that make it difficult to identify a root; 3. an enormous number of homographs (where up to 20 different functions can apply to a single grapheme); 4. the lack of exemplification or explanation in the available literature of parts of the grammatical system. In each case, I suggest we ask “what is the problem?” and propose “what is the solution?” 1. Complex Noun Agreements The noun-class system in and of itself is not so difficult. There are analogies in the gender system of many Indo-European languages and in the alliteration sometimes used in English poetry. It does not help that reference works (be they textbooks, grammars or dictionaries) use different numbering systems for the noun classes.
    [Show full text]
  • Modeling Word and Morpheme Order in Natural Language As an Efficient Tradeoff of Memory and Surprisal
    Modeling word and morpheme order in natural language as an efficient tradeoff of memory and surprisal Michael Hahn Judith Degen Richard Futrell Stanford University Stanford University UC Irvine [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] January 9, 2021 Abstract Memory limitations are known to constrain language comprehension and production, and have been argued to account for crosslinguistic word order regularities. However, a systematic assessment of the role of memory limitations in language structure has proven elusive, in part because it is hard to ex- tract precise large-scale quantitative generalizations about language from existing mechanistic models of memory use in sentence processing. We provide an architecture-independent information-theoretic formalization of memory limitations which enables a simple calculation of the memory efficiency of languages. Our notion of memory efficiency is based on the idea of a memory–surprisal tradeoff : a certain level of average surprisal per word can only be achieved at the cost of storing some amount of information about past context. Based on this notion of memory usage, we advance the Efficient Tradeoff Hypothesis: the order of elements in natural language is under pressure to enable favorable memory- surprisal tradeoffs. We derive that languages enable more efficient tradeoffs when they exhibit informa- tion locality: when predictive information about an element is concentrated in its recent past. We provide empirical evidence from three test domains in support of the Efficient Tradeoff Hypothesis: a reanalysis of a miniature artificial language learning experiment, a large-scale study of word order in corpora of 54 languages, and an analysis of morpheme order in two agglutinative languages.
    [Show full text]