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A COURSEBOOK OF SOCIAL STUDIES

Our team of experts:

Sadaquat Ali Ansari Namrata Agrawal Asha Sangal Content Reviewers for the Series

Vrinda Loiwal Consultant for Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

Subhashish Roy Consultant for Design

K6056 Acknowledgements The Publishers would like to acknowledge Shutterstock for granting us permission to use the photographs and images listed below :

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Publishing office:Unit 1102, 11th Floor, DLF Tower B, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi-110025 Registered office: Navneet Bhavan, Bhavani Shankar Road, Dadar (West), Mumbai–400028, Maharashtra, India. Phone: 022-66626565, Website: navneet.com, e-mail: [email protected]

Illustrations by: Green Tree Designing Studio Pvt. Ltd. Published by Navneet Education Limited, Mumbai/Ahmedabad/New Delhi Printed by Navneet Education Limited, Mumbai/Dantali 2001 PREFACE

Elements 1-8 —is a new Social Studies series for Primary and Middle Schools based on the NCERT curriculum. Adhering to the NCF 2005, it aims at laying the foundation of basic concepts of Social Studies by introducing students to the world around in a simple and interactive way. While it equips them with the knowledge and understanding of the past necessary for coping with the present and planning for the future, it seeks to sensitise them to current issues. This process is executed through active participation of the learner. The sources of information are always varied as as verified. Here are some special features of Elements 6-8:

Each chapter starts with a Warming up exercise that sets the tone for the chapter by stimulating the student’s thought process. In addition to this the chapters have many in-chapter features: Activity calls for research and analysis of data Fact capsules supplement the main text with additional nuggets of information that will be of great interest to the students. Case studies add empirical strength to the content and provide a realistic scenario to the students. A slice from... is a unique that helps students correlate subjects, as no subject can be studied in isolation. Milestones is a brief summary of the chapter given at the conclusion of each chapter, while Word wise is a mini-dictionary of terms introduced in the chapter. In addition to this there is a Let’s explore section at the end which has Fun activities and Projects, that students are sure to enjoy and learn from. There are also Critical thinking questions that require the student to apply knowledge and think out of the box to problem solve. Wrapping up this unique package are links to curated websites that provide additional information on the topic for those students who are hungry for more. The process of putting together this new series has been an exciting and enlightening journey for us, and we hope that you find this series useful and interesting to learn as well as teach.

Authors IN THE SERIES ELEMENTS 6-8 Each chapter works like this...

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Learning Objectives give students a preliminary idea as to what they are going to learn in the chapter

A WARMING UP WARMING UP: THINK! exercise sets the tone for the chapter by See this picture. It is a village scene showing people at work. List the occupations you can make out from the picture in your notebook. stimulating the student’s thought process.

ACTIVITIES Stimulating Activities and Questions call for research and analysis to help students ideate

HISTORY/CIVICS/ A SLICE FROM GEOGRAPHY TALK CIVICS provide discussion topics to enhance Subject connect student’s intellectual ability CASE BONUS READ STUDY Traditionally, the is believed to have begun some 2.5 million years THE PLANTATION ago because the oldest discovered stone belong to that period. However, SLAVES in 2015, researchers excavating a dry riverbed near Kenya’s Lake Turkana For nearly two centuries, between the 1600s Figure 2.1: Abraham Lincoln discovered primitive stone tools, dating 3.3 million years ago. and 1800s, there was a booming trade in http://abolition.e2bn.org/sl African people who were kidnapped and sold avery_69.htmlhttps://www as slaves. These black slaves were treated like .britannica.com/biography cattle by the white plantation owners of the /Abraham-Lincoln United States, and sold to people who paid the highest price, because they thought they were more civilized and superior. The slaves lived under unhygienic conditions, without any rights and pay.

The 16th US President, Abraham Lincoln, Interesting information for students outlawed slavery in the mid-1800s.

Although free by law, the black people had to constantly fight for their right to dignity and equality for over a century. In the 1960s they acquired equal rights as citizens under the leadership of Dr Martin Luther King who led the non- violent Civil Disobedience protests. ZRG'S MILESTONES FUN FACTS case studies enliven information A brief summary of the chapter

is a mini-dictionary of terms introduced in the chapter WORDWISE Prejudice : When someone is judged or someone has an idea about someone else without actually knowing anything about them. Stereotype : An often unfair and untrue belief that many people have about all people or things with a particular characteristic, such as their gender or race. Discrimination : If someone is being treated badly because of their gender, race, religion, disability or being just ‘different’.

LET’S LET’S EXPLORE EXPLORE Social awareness SEL Critical thinking Value it Evaluation of knowledge and It has been said that India’s diversity is the Rahul’s family was based in Tamil Nadu. Recently his source of its strength. Do you think this father, who was employed in a government job, got understanding through statement is true? If yes, then why? transferred to Delhi. Rahul has joined a new school in Delhi. However, on the very first day in school, his Civi Project classmates made fun of his speech. The way he spoke Let’s Explore section at the end English and Hindi was completely different from that MY ORIGINS of his classmates. If you were one of his classmates, which has Fun activities and Locate the region your family comes from how would you treat Rahul? on a map of India. Projects. There are also Write a short essay about the region by Civi Fun gathering information from elders and Organise a ‘Show and Tell’ in the class. Each of you Critical thinking questions the Internet. How has the geography and can bring something special from the place you come history of your region influenced your from and speak about it in class for 2 minutes. It tha require the student to apply family's culture and traditions? can be a craft item, utensil, textile or even a fruit or knowledge and think out of the box vegetable that grows there. to problem solve. Wrapping up this unique package are links to curated websites that provide additional information on the topic for those students who are hungry for more. TABLE OF CONTENTS HISTORY Chapter Name Sub-Topics

1.0 What is History? 1.1 Why do we study History? 1. Knowing Our Past 1.2 Division of past 1.3 Chronology and timeline 1.4 Looking back 1.5 Sources of History

2.0 Life of hunter-gatherers 2.1 Stone Age 2.2 Types of stone tools 2.3 Stone 2. Life of Early 2.4 Three periods of stone Age 2.5 Discovery of fire 2.6 Age 2.7 Age

3.0 Neolithic Age 3.1 Neolithic Age in the Indian Subcontinent 3.2 Settling down 3.3 Invention of Neolithic Age- A great Leap 3.4 3.5 Tools 3. 3.6 Burial rituals 3.7 Age 3.8 Neolithic sites in the Indian Subcontinent

4.0 Bronze Age Civilizations 4.1 Indus Valley Civilization 4.2 Extent of Indus Valley Civilization 4. Indus Valley Civilization 4.3 Features of Indus Valley Civilization 4.4 Harappan economy 4.5 Technology and crafts 4.6 Decline of Harappan Civilization

5.0 Beginning of the Vedic Age 5.1 Aryans and Sanskrit 5. Vedic Age 5.2 The Vedas 5.3 Rigveda—Religion and society 5.4 Social Structure 5.5 Social practices and

6.0 Emergence of new political entities—Janapadas and Mahajanapadas 6. Emergence of Kings and 6.1 Janapadas 6.2 Mahajanapadas Kingdoms 6.3 New developments in 6.4 Athenian democracy

7.0 Society in Late Vedic Age 7. New Ideas and 7.1 Factors leading to emergence of new ideas and religions New Religions 7.2 Emergence of new ideas and religions 7.3 Upanishads 7.4 Buddhism 7.5 Jainism 7.6 Sanghas and monasteries 7.7 System of ashramas

8.0 Rise of Magadha 8.1 Alexander the Great in India 8.2 The rise of the Mauryan dynasty 8.3 Chandragupta 8. Ashoka and the 8.4 Emperor Ashoka—Change of heart 8.5 Bindusara Mauryan Empire 8.6 Mauryan administration 8.7 Decline of the Mauryan Empire 8.8 India after the collapse of the Mauryan Empire 9. Rising Cities and 9.0 The Second Urbanisation 9.1 Emergence of cities Changing Villages 9.2 Rural population and rural economy

10.0 New Kingdoms in the North and North-west 10.1 The Satavahanas—New rulers in the West 10. New Kingdoms, 10.2 Muvendar-New kingdoms in Buddhism and Trade 10.3 Foreign trade 10.4 Spread of Buddhism 10.5 Buddhist pilgrims from China 10.6 Bhakti movement

11.0 Gupta Rule—The Golden Age 11.1 Chandragupta I 11.2 Samudragupta 11.3 Chandragupta II 11. New Empires and 11.4 Notable developments during Gupta reign Kingdoms of India 11.5 Decline of Gupta Empire 11.6 Reign of Harshavardhana 11.7 Ruling dynasties of South India 11.8 Life of ordinary people

12.0 Tamil epics 12.1 Literature of Hindu religion 12. Buildings, Paintings 12.2 Mahabharata and Ramayna and Literature 12.3 Literary expression of common people 12.4 Books on science 12.5 , and - Indian craftsmanship

CIVICS

Chapter Name Sub-Topics

1.0 Diversity is interesting 1.1 Diversity in our lives Understanding Diversity 1. 1.2 India: A melting pot 1.3 Diversity today

2.1 Diversity and prejudice 2.2 Other stereotypes 2. Prejudice and 2.3 Discrimination Discrimination 2.4 Discrimination in India 2.5 What our constitution says

3.1 Government : Meaning and need 3.2 Functions of a government 3.3 Levels of government 3.4 Branches of the government 3.5 Types of government 3. Our Government 3.6 Types of democratic governments 3.7 Universal Adult Franchise 3.8 Anti -Apartheid struggle 3.9 The significance of democracy 4.1 Democratic government 4. Key Elements of 4.2 Democratic participation Democracy 4.3 System of checks and balances 4.4 Conflict resolution in democracy 4.5 Equality and justice.

5.1 Panchayati Raj 5.2 Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat 5. Local Self Government 5.3 Panchayat's role 5.4 Panchayat and women

6.1 What is urbanisation? 6.2 Local self-government in urban areas 6. Urban Local 6.3 Municipal Corporation Self Government 6.4 E-governance 6.5 Grievance redressal against municipal bodies

7.1 Rural conflict 7.2 Police force District Administration 7.3 Administrative -up 7.4 Land records and revenue 7. 7.5 Daughters' rights Hindu Succession Act, 2005 7.6 Civil administration

8.1 Rural occupations 8. Rural Livelihoods 8.2 Farmers with large and small landholdings 8.3 Landless peasants 8.4 Bhoodan Movement 8.5 Village fair/Village handicraft

9.1 Types of occupations Urban Livelihoods 9.2 Individuals and their occupations 9. 9.3 Organised and un-organised sector 9.4 Migration 9.5 Case studies: Migration

GEOGRAPHY

Chapter Name Sub-Topics

1.0 Introduction 1.1 A Galaxy called Milky Way 1. The Earth in the 1.2 The is a star too 1.3 The Sun and its family Solar System 1.4 Our home, the Earth 1.5 The Moon, Earth's only natural satellite 1.6 The other members of the Sun's family

2. The Globe: Understanding 2.0 Introduction 2.1 What is globe? Our Earth 2.2 How a globe is different from a map? 2.3 Latitudes 2.4 Longitudes 2.5 Why do we need latitudes and longitudes? 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Rotation: Spinning on the axis 3. How the Earth Moves 3.2 Revolution: Going around the Sun 3.3 Seasons 3.4 Solstices and equinoxes

4.0 Introduction 4.1 What is a Map? 4. What Map Tells Us 4.2 Types of Maps 4.3 Reading a Map 4.4 Sketch and Plan

5.0 Introduction 5.1 Lithosphere 5. The Four Spheres 5.2 Hydrosphere 5.3 Atmosphere of the Earth 5.4 Biosphere 5.5 How do the spheres interact with each other?

6.0 Introduction 6.1 What are landforms? The Many Facets of Land 6. 6.2 Mountains 6.3 Plateaus 6.4 Plains

7.0 Introduction 7.1 India, politically speaking India: Our Country 7. 7.2 India's physical features

8.0 Introduction 8.1 What are seasons? 8.2 Seasons in India 8.3 Tropical Evergreen Forests 8. How the Climate of India 8.4 Tropical Deciduous Forests Affects Vegetation and 8.5 Dry Deciduous Forests and Scrubs Wildlife 8.6 Semi-arid or Desert Vegetation 8.7 Mountain Vegetation 8.8 Tidal or Mangrove Forests 8.9 Deforestation—a rising concern 8.10 India's wildlife and Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

Navneet Education Limited has always striven to keep learning relevant to the needs of the 21st century learner, and make the process of learning a joyful one. Keeping in mind these commitments, we strongly advocate a shift away from rote-based learning, towards learning that is connected to student inquiries. Moreover, we consider it our duty to not just support students’ academic needs, but also to nurture their innate curiosity and compassion, nourish their awareness of themselves and the world, and enhance their ability to make ethical choices.

In this endeavour, learners will find in our series, a gentle emphasis on social and emotional learning (SEL). Social and emotional learning is the process through which children and adults understand and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, and make responsible decisions (cite CASEL).

Application of SEL There are many ways teachers can integrate SEL into their instructional practices. The following are some indicators of an SEL-integrated classroom: ● A friendly, fear-free and inclusive learning environment for all learners. ● Engaged, active and participative learners. ● Instruction that is both accessible for every learner and rigorous for every learner. ● Encouragement for learners to think, discuss, inquire and create knowledge. ● Lessons and activities that help learners reflect on both academic learning and SEL.

In the series, Elements, our focus on SEL is seen in the selection of texts and in the questions we invite the learner to explore. SEL is also the backbone of our Life Skills section. SEL competencies are integrated into our lessons and in the lesson plans in the Teachers Books.

We encourage teachers, caregivers, guardians and parents to help in the building of these competencies in the learner. This will make their growing understanding of language more meaningful to their futures.

THE 5 SEL COMPETENCIES Self awareness: Know your strengths and limitations, with a well-grounded sense of confidence, optimism, and a “growth mindset”. Self management: Effectively manage stress, control impulses and motivate yourself to set and achieve goals. Social awareness: Understand the perspectives of others and empathize with them, including those from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Responsible decision making: Make constructive choices about personal behaviour and social interactions based on ethical standards, safety and social norms. Relationship skills: Communicate clearly, listen well, cooperate with others, resist inappropriate social pressure, negotiate conflict constructively, and seek and offer help when needed. TABLE OF CONTENTS HISTORY Chapter Name Page No.

1. Knowing Our Past 12 2. Life of Early Humans 21 3. Neolithic age- A great leap 34 4. Indus Valley Civilization 44 5. Vedic Age 56 6. Emergence of Kings and Kingdoms 66 7. New Ideas and New Religions 76 8. Ashoka and the Mauryan Empire 87 9. Rising Cities and Changing Villages 101 10. New Kingdoms, Buddhism and Trade 110 11. New Empires and Kingdoms of India 123 12. Buildings, Paintings and Literature 134 CHAPTER 1 KNOWING OUR PAST

In this chapter we will learn about: LEARNING The idea of history OBJECTIVES The need to study history , history and proto-history The sources used to study history The influence of geography on history

Sometimes, the elders in our family tell us stories of their childhood. These stories are actually events in the past. They help us to understand many important aspects of the society in which they grew up. By comparing their childhood with ours, we can understand how the times have changed. So, history is a window through which we can look into the past, right up to the origin of human life on the Earth.

WHAT IS HISTORY? History, in its broadest sense, is everything that has ever happened. The following definition gives a more clear idea of the term. History is the study of the lives of people who lived long ago. The word 'history' originates from the Greek word historia, meaning 'inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation'. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who lived about 2500 years ago, is often referred to as ‘The Father of History’. His book, The Histories, is a detailed record of his inquiry on the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars. The events that affected the lives of people significantly are also studied in history. For example, the effects of the actions of the rulers on their subjects and the causes and outcomes of the battles fought in the past are studied in history. Figure 1.1: Herodotus

12 In the case of well-known individuals like Mahatma Gandhi, American President Abraham Lincoln and scientist Albert Einstein, history means studying their lives closely and analysing their contribution towards human development.

WHY WE STUDY HISTORY The life we lead today is linked to history in many ways. Our ACTIVITIES food, clothes, languages, religions, festivals, folk songs and Recall any two important events/ dances and traditional sports are all linked to our past. These developments that have occurred in your city/ village in the last five years. Describe have evolved over hundreds and thousands of years and the effects of these events/developments have been passed on from one generation to another. on the daily life of people. History enables us to understand human transformation from To gather information for this activity, talk to your parents, grandparents and hunter-gatherers to settled and civilized beings. It lists the elders in your neighbourhood. events and the developments which brought about this great change over thousands of years. History may act as a guiding force to the future generation; the idea is very well summed up by Spanish-American philosopher George Santayana in the following words: “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it”.

DIVISIONS OF HUMAN PAST Primarily, our past is divided into three periods—prehistory, proto- history and history.

Divisions of Human Past

Prehistory Proto-history History

Prehistory Prehistory is the period when humans did not have a written method of communication.

Proto-history There is a period of transition from prehistory to history, which is known as proto-history. Proto-history refers to the period or stage of human development or of a particular culture immediately prior to the emergence of writing. In proto-history, humans are believed to have started developing writing skills.

History History refers to the period for which written records are available.

13 CHRONOLOGY AND TIMELINE Chronology refers to arranging events in the ascending order of their occurrence. The events that occurred earlier are placed first, followed by the events that occurred later. The chronological representation of Can history guide us historical events is called a timeline. The following is the timeline of on our future course of actions? In what way can prehistory and history. it guide us?

PREHISTORY HISTORY 3 Million years to 3000 BCE 3000 BCE to present

Paleolithic Neolithic Ancient age Medieval age Modern age Contemporary age 3 Million 10000 BCE 3000 BCE to 476 CE 1492 to 2000 CE 10000 CE 476 CE to 1492 CE 2000 CE to present

Use of fire Agriculture 1 million BCE begins 10000 BCE Fall of Western Roman Empire 476 CE

First human species Columbus French Revolution 2.5 million BCE Invention of discovered America 1789 CE writing 3000 BCE 1492 CE

LOOKING BACK While writing dates in history, we use two abbreviations—BCE/BC and CE/AD.

Before Christ (BC) or Before Common Era (BCE) The abbreviation BC stands for Before Christ and is used to represent the period before the birth of Jesus Christ. The years before the birth of Christ are written backwards. For example, the year 20 comes before the year 16. Some historians use the abbreviation BCE (Before Common Era) instead of BC.

14 Anno Domini (AD) or Common Era (CE) The abbreviation AD stands for Anno Domini which means ‘the Year of our Lord’ and is used to represent the period after the birth of Jesus Christ. The year of Christ’s birth is taken as the first year of this period. Now we are living in the 21st century after the birth of Christ. Any year in all these 21 centuries is written with AD. For example, India got independence in 1947 AD. Some historians use the abbreviation CE (Common Era) instead of AD.

Circa The word 'circa' or its abbreviated form 'ca' is used to mention the period of those events for which exact dates of occurrence are not known. For example, we mention the date of building of the Great of Pharaoh as circa 2550 because the exact period spanning several years of its construction is not known.

SOURCES OF HISTORY Historians and archaeologists study history by analysing the objects and remains left by the people who lived or the societies that existed hundreds or thousands of years ago. The science of exploring and excavating the remains of the past is called archaeology. The people who pursue archaeology are known as archaeologists.

Archaeological Sources Archaeological sources include , inscriptions, artefacts, and coins. Let us understand the importance of these sources in the study of history.

Monuments Buildings of historical significance are called monuments. India has a large of monuments such as palaces, forts, temples, mosques and . Their architecture bears the influences of social, religious and cultural life of the people of that era. So, architecture is also a means to understand various aspects of the life of people during a period of history. Sanchi , Konark Sun , and Ajanta Caves are some notable monuments of India. Figure 1.2: Konark Sun Temple was built by King Narasingha Deva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty in circa 1250 CE.

15 Inscriptions The writings inscribed or engraved on pillars and walls of temples, forts, palaces and caves and clay/ copper tablets are called inscriptions. Many of these inscriptions are messages of kings for their subjects. They provide us with the important details such as the names of kings, the periods of their reign, their achievements, the spread of their kingdom and the objectives of inscriptions. The inscriptions of Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Figure 1.3: The Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription is the first dynasty have been found in various parts of the known inscription of Emperor Ashoka, written in the tenth year of his reign (260 BCE). This inscription, written in Classical Greek Indian subcontinent. This indicates that Emperor and Aramaic, was found on a rock on the mountainside of Chehel Ashoka ruled the entire Indian subcontinent. Zina near Kandahar, Afghanistan. In the inscription, Emperor Ashoka advocates the adoption of 'piety' to the Greek community. Coins Coins issued by ancient kings provide us with valuable information about their rule. They were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, etc. The metal used in coins gives us an idea of the financial position of the king who issued them. For example, gold coins indicate that the king had lots of gold. The dates mentioned on coins tell us about the period of a king’s rule. Also, the discovery of a king’s coins in foreign lands indicates the extent of his trade outside his kingdom. The design of ancient coins provides a Social awareness SEL Figure 1.4: The coin shows King glimpse of the art Samudragupta playing veena (right). The of that time. Also, other side of the coin shows Goddess Lakshmi. depiction of religious symbols on coins tells us about the religion of the king. One If you were the king/queen and had ancient coin shows King Samudragupta of Gupta Dynasty to pick a material to make the coins, playing veena. This indicates Samudragupta’s interest in what would you pick and why? music. Samudragupta ruled between 335–375 CE.

Artefacts Man-made objects which have historical and cultural significance are called artefacts. These objects include pottery, utensils, ornaments, toys, weapons, tools and implements. Artefacts provide important information about people’s day-to-day life in the past. Interestingly, toys have been found in the artefacts excavated from the Figure 1.5: A toy found at a site of the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. Indus Valley Civilization

16 Literary sources In the context of history, a manuscript is a document written by hand. The earliest literary works have been found in the form of manuscripts made of tree leaves or bark. Before the invention of paper and printing technology, man used to write by hand on palm leaves and the bark of birch trees. The ancient manuscripts serve as an important literary source of history. Literary sources are of two types— religious literature and secular literature.

Religious literature Religious literature provides us with important information about the evolution of various religious beliefs and rituals in a society. The Indian culture is rich in religious literature which includes the Vedas and Puranas, epics Mahabharata and Ramayana and the Buddhist texts. The Rigveda, one of the four Vedas, is believed to be the earliest literary work in Sanskrit. It dates back to 3500 years. Even today many of these beliefs and rituals are an integral part of the Hindu religion. Secular literature Those writings which do not deal with religion are called secular literature. This literature includes biographies of kings, accounts of foreign travellers, poems and stories about common people and literary works on politics and science. Among prominent secular works of ancient India are Kautilya’s Arthashastra, King Harshvardhana’s biography written by Banabhatta and Figure 1.6: A historical manuscript Megasthenes’ Indica. Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of King Chandragupta Maurya. History Talk Discuss among yourselves Accounts of Chinese travellers Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsang also serve about the reliability of as important secular sources of information about ancient India. different sources of history. These accounts provide us with an outsider’s view of India, which List them hierarchically could be different from the one written by the historians employed from the most reliable to the least. by Indian kings or independent Indian historians.

A SLICE FROM GEOGRAPHY

Geography plays an important role in shaping the history of a place. Since water was essential for human survival, ancient civilizations flourished along the river banks. In the Indian subcontinent, the Indus Valley Civilization came up along the banks of the Indus River about 4700 years ago. Similarly, human habitations came up close to the banks of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and Narmada. The ancient Egyptian Civilization in northeast Africa came up along

17 the River. Also, the civilization in (now Iraq) grew in the areas along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Imposing as the Himalayas are, its many passes facilitated the arrival of foreigners like the Greeks and the Iranians in ancient times. The Medieval era saw the arrival of Muslims from Central Asia using the same route. All these peoples influenced the life and politics of the subcontinent greatly.

MILESTONES • History is a record of the life of mankind. • Primarily, the past of mankind is divided into two periods—prehistory and history. The period for which no written records are available is called prehistory. • There is a period of transition from prehistory to history, which is called proto-history, which is immediately prior to the emergence of writing. • Chronology refers to arranging events in the ascending order of their occurrence. The chronological representation of historical events is called a timeline. • Historians and archaeologists study history by analysing the objects and remains associated with the people who lived in the past. These are sources of history. • The sources of history are of two types—archaeological sources and literary sources. • Geography plays an important role in shaping the history of a place. Since water was essential for human survival, ancient civilizations grew along the river banks.

engraved: cut or carve a text or design on (a hard object) transition: change rituals: action performed in a ceremony biography: an account of someone's life written by someone else tombs: a to the memory of a dead person, erected over their burial place hunter-gatherer: the ancient humans who gathered forest produce and hunted animals for food afterlife: life after death : a dead body that has been treated with special substances and wrapped in cloth to prevent it from decaying

18 LET'S REVIEW

A. Choose the correct option. 1. ______is known as the ‘Father of History’. a) Socrates b) Plato c) Herodotus d) Aristotle 2. The ______representation of historical events is called a timeline. a) chronological b) mathematical c) scientific d) physical 3. Before Common Era is used to represent the period ______. a) before the birth of Jesus Christ b) after the birth of Jesus Christ c) on the birth of Jesus d) none of the above 4. Which one of these is an archaeological source? ______a) Arthashastra b) coins c) Rig veda d) Puranas 5. Fa Hien was a/an ______. a) Australian traveller b) Japanese merchant c) Chinese merchant d) Chinese traveller

B. Match the Column A with Column B.

Column A Column B

1. Proto-history a) Indus Valley Civilization 2. Toy artefacts b) The earliest work in Sanskrit 3. Rigveda c) Period of transition from Prehistory to History 4. Kautilya’s Arthashastra d) Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription 5. Emperor Ashoka e) Secular literature

C. Fill in the blanks. 1. ______is the study of the life of people who lived long ago. 2. Primarily, the past of mankind is divided into two periods ______and ______. 3. The chronological representation of historical events is called a ______. 4. Writings which do not deal with religion are called ______literature. 5. Megasthenes was the ______ambassador in the court of King Chandragupta Maurya.

D. Define the following terms. 1. Prehistory 2. Inscription 3. Artefacts 4. Proto-history

19 E. Answer the following questions briefly. 1. What do you understand by the idea of history? 2. Name the important sources of history. 3. What does the architecture of monuments tell us about the past? 4. Name some important works of secular and religious literature about the history of India. 5. What do inscriptions tell us about the kings who ruled in the past?

F. Answer the following questions in detail. 1. Why do we need to study history? 2. What are archaeological sources? How are they important for writing history? 3. What are the two literary sources of history? How do they contribute to writing history? 4. How did geographical factors play a role in settling down of ancient people? 5. How are different abbreviations used to represent historical dates?

LET’S EXPLORE Responsible decision making SEL

Critical Thinking Value it 1. How can you differentiate between a rich Vandalism at historical sites has been an issue person and a poor person by looking at for a very long time. Tourists from all over their burials? the world who come to India to explore are 2. How does finding toys at an archaeological often disappointed with the state of these site act as a good source of historical monuments. Suggest some ways to help the information? government tackle this issue.

History Project This is a rock carving at the Ajanta caves. Find out more about the history of Ajanta Ellora caves. Why is this place important in the context of Indian history?

(https://www.tripsavvy.com/ajanta-and-ellora-caves-travel- guide-1539340)

Map it Mark the important passes of India—Khyber Pass, Rohtang Pass, Pir Panjal, Karakoram Pass, Khardung La, Shipki La, Nathu La, Tunga Pass.

History Fun Pyramids are associated with many mythological stories. Find out more about them and prepare a presentation for the class.

20 CHAPTER 2 LIFE OF EARLY HUMANS

In this chapter we will learn about: Life of early humans as hunter-gatherers LEARNING Development and usage of different tools by early humans OBJECTIVES in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods Discovery of fire and significant changes brought by it Important Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sites Gradual evolution of human intelligence and emergence of art and culture in Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods

Today, we have easy access to food, clothing and shelter—the three basic necessities for survival. However the early humans struggled hard to get these necessities fulfilled. Sometimes they lost their lives while struggling to find food. They learnt to survive in the life-threatening environment of dense forests and rugged mountains, which were their only habitat.

LIFE OF HUNTER-GATHERERS The early humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture and building houses. They led a nomadic life. They lived in hilly areas, caves and near rivers. They used animal hides, leaves and bark of trees for clothing. They got their food by hunting wild animals, catching fish and gathering fruits, roots and tubers. Their tools and weapons were made of stones, bones and wood. The early humans moved as nomads from one place to another due to the following four reasons. 1. Depletion of sources of food: The early humans used to exhaust all the plant and animal resources available at a particular place. Then they would move to new places in search of these resources. 2. Seasonal growth of plants: Most of the fruits, roots and tubers grew in their respective seasons. After finishing the seasonal fruits, roots and tubers of a particular area, the early humans used to move to a new place to get access to other fruits and plants growing in that area.

21 3. Access to water: Many rivers, streams and lakes had water during a particular season. The early humans generally lived near water sources. When these sources dried up they moved to new places where water was available. 4. Mov ement of animals: Animals too moved to new places in search of plants and small prey. As the early humans hunted animals for food, they also moved to these places along with them.

Figure 2.1: The Early humans hunting

Hunters and gatherers lived an extremely tough life in the scarcity of resources. If today, for some reasons, you find yourself in a situation where supply of food and aterw is restricted in your area, how will you cope with the situation?

BONUS READ Discovery of Tools in Kenya extends Stone Age Traditionally, the Stone Age is believed to have begun some 2.5 million years ago because the oldest discovered stone tools belong to that period. However, in 2015, researchers excavating a dry riverbed near Kenya’s Lake Turkana discovered primitive stone tools, dating 3.3 million years ago. This discovery indicates the possibility that -making or the Stone Age began one million years earlier than the traditionally accepted period.

STONE AGE The Stone Age refers to a period during which the early humans learnt to make stone tools and use them. They used stone tools to hunt animals, cut fruits and meat, chop trees and scrape animal skin and tree barks. The Stone Age is believed to have begun about 3.3 million years ago because the oldest known stone tools belong to that period. Since stone tools did not rot, they were found at old prehistoric sites that have survived till today. Therefore, stone tools serve as an important archaeological source to study human life in the Stone Age. The Stone Age ended with the first use of bronze around 3300 BCE. This also marked the beginning of the Bronze Age.

22 TYPES OF STONE TOOLS Millions of years ago, when metals were not discovered, the early humans had access to stones, animal bones and wood only. Therefore, they used these raw materials to make stone tools. Palaeolithic tools were made by chipping stones. These tools have been classified into three main categories—core tools, flake tools and tools.

Core tools These were the first tools developed by the early humans. The core tools were made by chipping and shaping large stones or hand-sized pebbles. The stone, which is left after chipping, is called core. Core tools were usually oval or pear-shaped.

Figure 2.2: Core tools of the Palaeolithic Age on display at Museum of Toulouse, France

They were mostly used as hand for cutting trees, digging the earth for roots and tubers. Some were used as cleavers for cutting large pieces of meat.

Figure 2.3: A hand Flake tools Flake tools were made from the sharp pieces or flakes that broke off when shaping core tools. These tools were used for chopping meat and skinning animals. To make flake tools, most often flint was used because it could be flaked off easily and it had sharp cutting edges.

Figure 2.4: A flake tool discovered in the Western Desert,

Blade tools These tools had very sharp edges. Gradually, , and evolved from blade tools.

STONE TOOL TECHNOLOGY The early humans used two techniques to make stone tools. Figure 2.5: Blade tools made from flint on These were stone-on-stone technique and pressure flaking. display in Museum of Toulouse, France

Stone-on-stone technique In this technique, the early humans held two stones in their hands. One stone was used as a hammer to strike off flakes from the other to create a sharpened edge or obtain a desired shape.A tool called

23 was the earliest product of this technique. The chopper could be used for cutting or sawing. Its blunt end could be used for smashing or crushing.

Pressure flaking In this technique, a stone was placed on a firm surface or a big stone. Then to make a tool of the desired shape, List some of the tools that you use in flakes were removed from this stone using another stone your daily life. Can you think of some tools that you would like to have, but as a hammer. do not exist? If yes, then describe.

THREE PERIODS OF STONE AGE Based on the types of stone tools used, the Stone Age is divided into three periods.

TIMELINE OF STONE AGE 2.5 MLLION YEARS 15,000 YEARS AGO 11,000 YEARS AGO PALAEOLITHIC MESOLITHIC NEOLITHIC OR OR OR OLD STONE AGE NEW STONE AGE

PALAEOLITHIC AGE The term Palaeolithic comes from the Greek word palaios, which means old and lithos, which means stone. The Palaeolithic Age or the Old Stone Age represents an ancient level of human development. In this period, the early humans used basic chipped stone tools. The Palaeolithic Age is the longest of the three periods of the Stone Age. It began 3.3 million years ago and ended about 12,000 years ago with the end of the last Ice Age.

Types of Palaeolithic sites Based on archaeological evidence, Palaeolithic sites are classified into the following three types. Habitation sites: These sites include natural caves and rock shelters where the early humans lived. In India, such Palaeolithic habitation sites are located in the Vindhyas and the Deccan Plateau. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) is one such habitation site. Factory sites: These are the sites where finished and unfinished Palaeolithic tools have been found. At these sites, raw material or stones for making tools have also been found in plenty. At factory sites, stone tools were made on a large scale. Habitation-cum-factory sites: At some factory sites, ash and animal remains have been found. This suggests that people made tools and also lived at these sites for a long period. These sites are called habitation-cum-factory sites. The Palaeolithic sites of Hunsagi in Karnataka contain many habitation- cum-factory sites.

24 A SLICE FROM GEOGRAPHY

Human evolution in Palaeolithic Age The most outstanding feature of the Palaeolithic Age was the evolution of the Homo sapiens from an ape-like creature called . All humans belong to the species of Homo sapiens. This species evolved in Africa’s Great Rift Valley during a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years ago. Today, the Rift Valley area includes parts of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania. From Africa, the early humans continuously travelled in all directions in search of food and habitation. There were also other species of the early humans. But they all became extinct with the passage of time. Only homo sapiens survived because they successfully adapted to the changing environment over millions of years. The early homo sapiens were hunter-gatherers.

Phases of Palaeolithic Age The Palaeolithic Age has further been divided into three phases. HISTORY FACT 1. Lower Palaeolithic Period Ice age is the period during which the temperature of the Earth reduced. This resulted in the expansion 2. Middle Palaeolithic Period of continental and polar ice sheets. 3. Upper Palaeolithic Period

STONE AGE MESOLITHIC NEOLITHIC

LOWER MIDDLE 10,000 END OF 4,000 ICE AGE

UPPER

2.6 M 1.5 1 M 120 K 24 K 3,300 homo homo First humans in painting More advances habilis erectus Europe homo sapiens Altamira Spain in agriculture M = million K = thousand

1. Low er Palaeolithic Period: The first stone tools were made in this period. These tools included cleavers, choppers, and hand axes. These tools were mainly used for cutting, digging, and skinning the prey. In the Lower Palaeolithic Period, the climate was extremely cold as many parts of the earth were covered in ice. In India, the stone tools of this period were found at the Belan Valley of Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh), Didwana (Rajasthan), Narmada Valley and Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh).

25 2. Middle Palaeolithic Period: The stone tools of this period were mainly scrapers, borers and pointed tools. These tools were carved out from flakes. Evidences have been found of the use of needles to sew furs and skins which they used to cover their body with. In this period, people began to live in groups. They also started making cave paintings. The practice of burying the dead began in this period. 3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: In the last phase of the Palaeolithic Age, the climate turned Figure 2.6: An artist's rendering of a temporary wood house of the Lower Palaeolithic Age, based on evidence found at the archaeological site of Terra Amata, Nice, France. The evidence dates back to 400,000 years ago.

warmer as this was also the last phase of the Ice Age. Even though the Upper Palaeolithic Age covered only one-tenth of the total Palaeolithic Period, it saw a great progress in stone tool- making technology. Bone, teeth, and horns were also used for making tools. The tools of this age consisted of large flake blades, scrapers, and burins. In this period, people started hunting Figure 2.7: A flint from the together, taking their first steps towards community living. Upper Palaeolithic Age Evidence of extensive fishing has also been found.

DISCOVERY OF FIRE Discovery of fire was a revolutionary development in the Palaeolithic Age. Learning to make fire and using it intelligently gave humans advantage over other animals. Fire proved immensely beneficial to them. It allowed them to stay warm in the Ice Age, cook food and scare away wild animals. All this helped them to live a better life. While making tools, the early humans might have rubbed two stones together and discovered fire. Remains of ash have been found at some Palaeolithic sites, which led to Figure 2.8: Early humans enjoying the warmth of fire the conclusion that fire was known to the Palaeolithic people. In India, ash has been found at the Palaeolithic sites in Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh).

26 ACTIVITIES Discovery of fire enhanced the chances of survival of the Palaeolithic people. It made their life easy. Imagine yourself Discovery of fire changed the life of living without any use of fire one day. Write five points early humans. Which technological about your possible experiences on that day. development according to you, changed the life of modern man? Palaeolithic Age in India In India, the Palaeolithic Age extended from 600,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE. According to the nature of stone tools and the change in the climate, the Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into the following three phases. • Lower Palaeolithic Age: It extended from 600,000 BCE to 150,000 BCE. The lower Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in Punjab, Kashmir, UP and Rajasthan. • Middle Palaeolithic Age: It extended from 150,000 BCE to 40,000 BCE. The middle Palaeolithic sites have been found around the Tungabhadra and Narmada river valleys. • Upper Palaeolithic Age: It extended from 40,000 BCE

to 10,000 BCE. The upper Figure 2.9: Some important archaeological sites Palaeolithic sites have been discovered in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Central Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, southern Uttar Pradesh and the South Bihar Plateau.

Palaeolithic Art and Culture We know that the Palaeolithic people were hunter-gatherers. However, they gradually started living in groups and hunting together. The Palaeolithic people recorded the first accomplishments in the areas of human creativity. Evidences has been found of pit houses, the first man-made shelters and sewn clothing from this age. These people also recorded first expressions of art in the form of personal ornaments, cave paintings, and . They also made necklaces and other personal ornaments using bone, horn, and ivory. They carved out the so-called Venus figures. In India, we find paintings at

27 the Palaeolithic sites of Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur. These paintings give us an idea of the social life and economic activities of the Palaeolithic people. Some important archaeological sites in India

Bhimbetka The archaeological site of Bhimbetka (district Raisen) in Madhya Pradesh shows the earliest traces of human life in the Indian Subcontinent. This Stone Age site is located at the southern edge of the Vindhya hills. It has over 750 rock shelters which are spread over seven hills. As per archaeological evidence, some of these shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago. Some rock shelters have prehistoric cave paintings which represent the oldest known in the Indian subcontinent. These paintings depict animals, hunting and the early evidence of dance. Figure 2.10: A Bhimbetka with a Today, Bhimbetka is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. painting made by the early humans

CASE STUDY Other Palaeolithic sites Hunsagi Valley in the Deccan Plateau: Palaeolithic sites have been found in the Hunsagi Valley. Hunsagi is a town located in the Shorapur taluk of Yadgir district in Karnataka. At the Hunsagi Valley, human habitation is believed to have started about 500000 BCE. The region had both habitation sites and habitation-cum-factory sites. Some of these sites were closer to springs. In these sites, the early humans made tools from that was available locally. About 15000 Palaeolithic stone tools have been found at the Hunsagi sites. These tools include choppers, hand axes, cleavers, scrapers, flake tools and longish blades with sharp edges. Cave of France Lascaux Cave is a large Palaeolithic cave in the Dordogne region of France. The walls of this cave are decorated with about 600 paintings and nearly 1,500 engravings. The paintings are mostly of animals and are about 15000 years old. There is only one human figure depicted in the caves— a bird-headed man. These are among the finest examples of art from the Upper Palaeolithic period. Archaeologists

believe that the cave was used over a long period as a centre Figure 2.11: A Palaeolithic painting of for hunting and religious rites. Lascaux is a UNESCO Lascaux Cave, France World Heritage Site.

28 MESOLITHIC AGE The Mesolithic Age or Middle Stone Age began with the end of the Palaeolithic Age about 12,000 years ago and continued till 10,000 years ago. This period saw important climatic changes because of the end of the Ice Age. These changes brought a huge transformation in the lives of the humans. Let’s learn about these changes. • As the Ice Age ended, the climate became warmer. In the warm climate, new plant varieties developed and grasslands increased rapidly. This provided more food to the grass-eating animals and thus, increased their population. • Living with a rapidly increasing population of animals, the humans were now able to understand their food habits, behaviour and breeding seasons. This helped them in domesticating animals such as dog, cow and goat. Later, these animals proved immensely beneficial to the humans in many ways. • The humans discovered that grains of some plants, such as barley and wheat could be used as food. Gradually, they learnt the lifecycle of these grain crops. This helped them start agriculture on their own. The beginning of agriculture was a revolutionary development in the Mesolithic Age. Today, agriculture has become the primary means of survival for humans. • The beginning of agriculture and of animals brought about a great transformation in the lives of humans. For agriculture and rearing of animals, the humans needed to live at one fixed place. They took first steps to move away from the life of hunter-gatherers. They built primitive houses in river valleys where plenty of water and fertile soil were available for agriculture. These developments contributed to the adoption of a settled life by the humans in the Neolithic Age.

Tools of Mesolithic Age The Mesolithic Age saw application of new techniques for hunting and fishing with the use of new stone tools. The following were the distinguishing features of the Mesolithic tools. • Small tools, called , were the main tools of this age. They were sharp and pointed. • Generally, a was used as a spearhead or as a barb on an . • As the new tools were lighter, people were able to move faster while carrying them during hunting. The use of made the hunting of animals easier from a vantage point. • The use of animal bones as tools was a new development in stone tool technology. Also, tools were made with wooden handles. • Use of hooks and baits made fishing easier.

29 Mesolithic art and culture Humans began to make clay pots in the Mesolithic Age. Rock paintings of this age show hunting scenes. Some paintings depict animals running after hunters. Human figures and animals have also been drawn in separate paintings. The rock shelters of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh also have paintings belonging to the Mesolithic Age. The Mesolithic people used to bury their dead. At some Mesolithic sites, remains of human burial have been found. Discovery of food and ornaments at these sites indicates that these things might have been buried along with the dead. History Talk In India, Mesolithic sites have been found along the banks of Why do you think Palaeolithic and Ganga in Allahabad and Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh); along the Mesolithic people started painting figures of animals and humans, Damodar banks in Birbhanpur (West Bengal); in Tilwara and scenes of hunting? Did they want Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh); in Bagor (Rajasthan), and in to preserve their experiences for Langhnaj (Gujarat). coming generations? Discuss

NEOLITHIC AGE The Neolithic Age is the last stage of Stone Age which started around 10,000 years ago till around 3500 BCE. The term Neolithic comes from two words—'neo', or new, and 'lithic', or stone. It is also known as the New Stone Age. It is seen as the final stage of technological and cultural evolution in early humans. During this period, humans started settling down and left their lives as hunter-gatherers behind. You will study more about this period in the next chapter.

MILESTONES • The Stone Age is divided into three periods—Palaeolithic Age (or Old Stone Age), Mesolithic Age (or Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic Age (or New Stone Age). • Throughout the Palaeolithic Age, the early humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture and house building. They led a nomadic life. • Based on archaeological evidence, Palaeolithic sites have been classified into the following three types: habitation sites, factory sites, and habitation-cum-factory sites. • The Palaeolithic Age has been divided into three phases: Lower Palaeolithic Period, Middle Palaeolithic Period and Upper Palaeolithic Period. • Remains of ashes have been found at some Palaeolithic sites, which led to the conclusion that fire was known to the Palaeolithic people. • Small tools, called microliths, were the main tools of the Mesolithic Age. These tools were sharp and pointed.

30 rugged: wild and uneven, not easy to travel on rot: to decay naturally and gradually tuber: the short thick round part of an underground stem or root of some plants, such as potatoes, from which new plants grow burin: a type of hand-held flake tool with a chisel-like edge; it means a cold chisel in French. skinning: taking the skin off an animal, a fruit or a vegetable chipping: cutting or breaking small pieces off something with a tool flake off: to fall off in small thin pieces : a heavy with a broad blade, used for cutting large pieces of meat vantage: a place or position affording a good view of something from a distance bait: a small amount of food on a hook or in a special device used to attract and catch a fish or an animal

LET'S REVIEW A. Choose the correct option. 1. When did the Stone Age start? ______a) 2.5 million years ago b) 3.3 million years ago c) 10,000 years ago d) 3500 BCE 2. Knives have evolved from ______. a) core tools b) flake tools c) blade tools d) 3. The Stone Age covers around ______of the human technological history. a) 99 per cent b) 50 per cent c) 79 per cent d) 64 per cent 4. Stone Age in India lasted for ______. a) 90,000 years b) 600,000 years c) 590,000 years d) 10,000 years 5. Microliths are found in ______period. a) Mesolithic b) Upper Palaeolithic c) Neolithic d) Lower Palaeolithic

B. Match the Column A with Column B.

Column A Column B

1. Stone Age a) Middle Stone Age 2. Flake tools b) Palaeolithic cave paintings 3. Mesolithic Age c) Tool of the Upper Palaeolithic Age 4. Bhimbetka d) Making and using stone tools and weapons 5. Burin e) Made from flakes that broke off when shaping core tools

31 C. Fill in the blanks.

1. Palaeolithic tools were made by ______stones.

2. The stone, which is left after chipping, is called ______.

3. At ______sites, people made tools and also lived for longer periods.

4. In ______technique, one stone was used as a hammer to strike off flakes from the other stone.

5. In the Mesolithic age smaller tools were used extensively and they were called ______

D. Mark true or false for the following statements.

1. Paintings found at Bhimbetka and some other Palaeolithic sites provide important information about socio-economic activities of the early humans.

2. The people living in both the Palaeolithic Age and the Mesolithic Age had knowledge of agriculture.

3. At factory sites stone tools were made on a large scale.

4. The Mesolithic people used to cremate their dead.

5. The Hungsi Valley in Karnataka is an important Mesolithic site.

E. Answer the questions briefly.

1. Define the StoneAge.

2. Describe the pressure flaking technique of stone-making.

3. Describe the tools of the Upper Palaeolithic Age.

4. Describe any two developments related to the art and culture of the Palaeolithic people.

5. How was the development of lighter tools beneficial for the Mesolithic people?

F. Answer the questions in detail.

1. Briefly describe the three types of stone tools.

2. Give reasons why the early humans moved as nomads from one place to another in the Palaeolithic Age.

3. Describe the three types of sites that existed in the Palaeolithic Age.

4. Describe the changes that came about in the lives of people in the Mesolithic age.

5. Write a note on the archaeological site of Bhimbetka.

32 LET’S EXPLORE

Critical thinking The early humans invented stone tools to carry out their mundane needs and make their life better. Do you think that it was technology that enabled them to progress from Palaeolithic Age to modern times? Express your views in 200 words with a suitable example.

Self management SEL Value it Do you think that the tough life of the hunter-gatherers inspires us to face challenges in our life with resilience and courage? Express your views citing an example from contemporary life.

Picture smart Take a look at the picture and answer the following questions: 1. What are these early humans using the fire for? 2. How did they discover fire? 3. How did the discovery of fire benefit them?

Map it On a map of India, mark the important Archaeological sites and classify them on the basis of their time period.

History Fun Imagine yourself living as a hunter-gatherer in the Palaeolithic Age. Think of your possible daily routine as a hunter-gatherer, like making stone tools, hunting animals, gathering food, or suddenly running for safety in an event of a thunderstorm or heavy rain. Write a note on your daily life as a hunter-gatherer.

History Project We see various uses of stone in our modern-day life. For example, marble, which is a type of a limestone, is used for sculpture and as a . Do a research on the various types of stones and their uses. Make a scrapbook by pasting relevant pictures.

History links You can get a better idea about stone tool technology by watching a You Tube video at this link: https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=SrvPOkMs4U4

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