<<

A N N A L E S 81,9(56,7$7,60$5,$(&85,(6.à2'2:6.$ /8%/,1±32/21,$ 92/;;,; 6(&7,2)) 

=DNáDG-Ċ]\ND$QJLHOVNLHJR8QLZHUV\WHW:DUV]DZVNL:DUV]DZD

021,.$23$/,ē6.$

Metre and interpretation of the Book 0HWUXPLLQWHUSUHWDFMDHOHJLL]Exter Book

SUMMARY

7KHSUHVHQWSDSHULVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKH2OG(QJOLVKYHUVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHP DQGWKHPHDQLQJRISRHWLFDOSDVVDJHVZULWWHQLQWKHYHUQDFXODU6HOHFWHGH[DPSOHVIURPWKHWK- FHQWXU\([HWHU&RGH[HOHJLHV 7KH/LEUDU\RI'HDQDQG&KDSWHU([HWHU0V GLVFXVVHGLQWKH SDSHUVKRZWKDWWKHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHIXQGDPHQWDOPHWULFDOUXOHVSDYHVWKHZD\WRWKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJ RILQWULFDWHDQGVHPDQWLFDOO\FKDOOHQJLQJSRHWLFDOFUXFHV([DPLQDWLRQRIPHWULFDOSDWWHUQVKHOSVWR EULGJHWKHJDSEHWZHHQWKHSXUHO\OLWHUDU\GHVFULSWLRQVDQGWKHOLQJXLVWLFDQDO\VLVRIWKH$QJOR6D[RQ YHUVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHP&RQWHPSRUDU\VWXGLHVRIPHWUHFRQVWUDLQLQWXLWLYHVROXWLRQVE\HVWDEOLVKLQJ XQGHUO\LQJSDWWHUQVFRPPRQWRERWKSRHWLFDOFRPSRVLWLRQDQGODQJXDJH&ORVHDQDO\VLVRIVRPH DPELJXRXVSRHWLFDOSDVVDJHVIURPWKHHOHJLHVLQGLFDWHVWKDWVXFKIRUPDODSSURDFKHV RIIHUDQREMHFWLYHZD\WRUHVROYHFRQWURYHUVLDOSRHWLFDOYHUVHV

Keywords2OG(QJOLVKYHUVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHPPHDQLQJRISRHWLFDOSDVVDJHVPHWULFDOUXOHV VHPDQWLFVRIWH[W

0HWULFDOVWXGLHVRI2OG(QJOLVKSRHWU\JREDFNWRWKHHQGRIWKHWKFHQWXU\ ZKHQ(GXDUG6LHYHUVSURSRVHGDGHVFULSWLYHWD[RQRP\RIROG*HUPDQLFDOOLWHUDWLYH YHUVH OLQHV 7KH FODVVL¿FDWLRQ RI PHWULFDO W\SHV DQG SDWWHUQV SUHVHQWHG LQ KLV $OWJHUPDQLVFKH0HWULNKDVVHUYHGDVUHIHUHQFHIRUDOOWKHVWXGLHVFRQFHUQHGZLWK ROG*HUPDQLFPHWULFVHYHUVLQFHZKHQWKHERRNZDVSXEOLVKHG$OWKRXJK

3DUWVRIWKHERRNZHUHWUDQVODWHGLQWR(QJOLVKE\%HVVLQJHUDQG.DUODQGSXEOLVKHGLQ LQWKH(VVHQWLDO$UWLFOHVIRUWKH6WXG\RI2OG(QJOLVK3RHWU\$FRPSUHKHQVLYHRXWOLQHRI6LHYHUV¶ WKHRU\IXUQLVKHGZLWKVRPHFRQWHPSRUDU\DGYDQFHVLQWKH¿HOGLVSUHVHQWHGLQDQLQWURGXFWRU\ HVVD\RQYHUVL¿FDWLRQE\5'))XONLQ3RSH ±  8 021,.$23$/,ē6.$

WKHRUHWLFDODGHTXDF\RI6LHYHUV¶DQDO\VLVLVGHEDWDEOHLWVGHVFULSWLYHDFFXUDF\LV LQGLVSXWDEOH%HLQJVRIXQGDPHQWDO6LHYHUV¶ZRUNUHPDLQV³DERRNZKLFKVFKRODUV ZLOOFRQWLQXHWRXVHRUQHJOHFWDWWKHLUSHULO´2 ,QWKHHDUO\WKLUWLHVRIWKHWKFHQWXU\D3ROLVKOLQJXLVW-HU]\.XU\áRZLF] SXEOLVKHGDQXPEHURIVWXGLHVFRQFHUQHGZLWK,QGR(XURSHDQPHWULFVLQZKLFK KH WUDFHG WKH UHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ OLQJXLVWLF FDWHJRULHV DQG PHWUH3 :RUNLQJ RQ FRPSDUDWLYH PDWHULDO KH ZDV DEOH WR ¿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ormal Approaches to ULJKWO\FODLPWKDW³>L@WLVRQO\DPDWWHURIWLPHEHIRUH VWXGHQWV RI OLWHUDWXUH UHGLVFRYHU PHWULFDO DQDO\VLV´ FI 'UHVKHU DQG )ULHGEHUJ    (DUO\ *HUPDQLF DOOLWHUDWLYH YHUVHV DUH ZLWKLQ WKH VFRSH RI FXUUHQW GHYHORSPHQWVLQWKHWKHRU\RIPHWUH FI'UHVKHUDQG/DKLUL5XVVRP ÈUQDVRQ ,QWKHOLJKWRIXQVHWWOHGFRQWURYHUVLHVFRQFHUQLQJWKLVSRHWLFDO WUDGLWLRQ WKH DQDO\VLV RI 2OG (QJOLVK PHWULFDO V\VWHP EHFRPHV DQ LQWULQVLFDOO\ LQWHUHVWLQJLVVXHLQLWVHOI$VVXFKLWKDVEHHQWKHVXEMHFWRIQXPHURXVDQGRIWHQ FRQWUDGLFWRU\VWXGLHVRYHUWKHSDVW\HDUV FI0F&XOO\DQG$QGHUVRQ 

27KLVTXRWDWLRQHFKRHVWKHZRUGVRI1HLO.HUDGGUHVVHGDWKLVJUDQGSUHGHFHVVRU±WKHWK- FHQWXU\ SDODHRJUDSKHU +XPSKUH\ :DQOH\ OLNH KLPVHOI HQJDJHG LQ FDWDORJXLQJ $QJOR6D[RQ PDQXVFULSWV ,Q WKH ,QWURGXFWLRQ WR KLV &DWDORJXH RI 0DQXVFULSWV &RQWDLQLQJ $QJOR6D[RQ.HU SD\VKRPDJHWRWKHDFKLHYHPHQWVRIKLVUHQRZQHGIRUHUXQQHUDQGHPSKDVL]HVWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\ RIKLVIROORZHUV FI.HU[LLL (GXDUG6LHYHUV¶SRVLWLRQLQWKH¿HOGRIKLVWRULFDOOLQJXLVWLFV LVFRPSDUDEOHWRWKDWRI:DQOH\LQWKHGRPDLQRISDODHRJUDSK\DQGGRFXPHQWDU\VWXGLHV6LHYHUV¶ FRPSDUDWLYHVWXGLHVOHGKLPWRLPSRUWDQWFRQFOXVLRQVFRQFHUQLQJWKHSKRQRORJ\RIHDUO\*HUPDQLF ODQJXDJHV LH6LHYHUV¶/DZ $OVRIHZODWHUJUDPPDULDQVZHUHDEOHWRVXUSDVVWKHLQVLJKWDQGWKH DEXQGDQFHRIGDWDZKLFKFKDUDFWHUL]HKLVGHVFULSWLYH*UDPPDURI2OG(QJOLVKDERRNUHLVVXHG VHYHUDOWLPHV7KHLPSDFWRI6LHYHUV¶ZRUNLVE\QRPHDQVFRQ¿QHGWRKLVWRULFDOGDWD6RPHRI KLVOLQJXLVWLFREVHUYDWLRQVOLNHWKH¿QHGLVWLQFWLRQVLQWKHGHJUHHRIFRQVRQDQWDOVRQRULW\DUHVWLOO UHFRJQL]HGLQFRQWHPSRUDU\SKRQRORJ\ 3 .XU\áRZLF] SUHVHQWHG WKH UHVXOWV RI KLV WKHRU\ RI PHWULFDO HTXLYDOHQFH LQ D IHZ SDSHUV QRWDEO\=ZLą]NLPHWU\NL]MĊ]\NLHPSRWRF]Q\P  DQG and Germanic   %RWK SDSHUVDSSHDUDOVRLQ(VTXLVVHV/LQJXLVWLTXHVSXEOLVKHGLQ,QWKHV.XU\áRZLF]SXEOLVKHG DQRWKHUSDSHUDQGWZRERRNVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWKHUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQOLQJXLVWLFFDWHJRULHVDQGSRHWLF PHWUH 0HWULNXQG6SUDFKJHVFKLFKWH7KH/LQJXLVWLF)RXQGDWLRQVRI0HWUH DQGZLWK ROG*HUPDQLFPHWULFV 'LHVSUDFKOLFKHQ*UXQGODJHQGHUDOWJHUPDQLVFKHQ0HWULN  0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 9

3UDFWLFDOO\DOOFRPSUHKHQVLYHDQDO\VHVRI2OG(QJOLVKPHWUHDUHEDVHGRQ %HRZXOI±µDXQLTXHORQJSRHPLQWUDGLWLRQDOVW\OHGHDOLQJZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOVXEMHFW PDWWHU¶ FI5XVVRP 7KLVLVKDUGO\VXUSULVLQJLQYLHZRIWKHOHQJWKDQG LQWHUQDOFRKHUHQFHRIWKHWH[W7KHXQLTXH%HRZXOIPDQXVFULSW %ULWLVK0XVHXP &RWWRQ9LWHOOLXV$;9 ZDVSDUWLDOO\GDPDJHGLQWKH¿UHRIZLWKWKHORVVRI DIHZZRUGVDWWKHWRSDQGWKHRXWHUSDUWRIPDQ\OHDYHV+RZHYHUWKHUHDGLQJDQG SXQFWXDWLRQRIWKHXQFHUWDLQRUORVWSDVVDJHVFDXVHGE\FUXPEOLQJRIWKHEXUQW HGJHVFDQEHYHUL¿HGDQGDWOHDVWSDUWLDOO\UHVWRUHGRZLQJWR7KRUNHOLQ¶VWUDQVFULSW QRZ&RSHQKDJHQ1\.RQJHOLNH6DPOR PDGHLQZKHQWKHWH[WZDV IDUPRUHOHJLEOH7KHSRHPFRQWDLQHGEHWZHHQWKHIROLRV±YRI&RWWRQ 9LWHOLXVDQGZULWWHQE\WZRVFULEHVLQFOXGHVDOOLWHUDWLYHOLQHV7KHFUDPSHG KDQGZULWLQJDWWKHHQGRIIROLRPD\VXJJHVWVFULEDOHIIRUWWRFRPSOHWHWKHWH[W VLQFHWKLVLVWKHYHUVRRIWKHODVWSDJHRIWKHTXLUH7KHFRPSRXQGDGMHFWLYHORȸI JHRUQRVW PRVWHDJHUIRUIDPH ZULWWHQDWWKHERWWRPPDUJLQRIWKLVIROLRPD\ KDYHWKXVEHHQWKHODVWZRUGRI%HRZXOI

40HWULVWVXVXDOO\HPSKDVL]HQRWRQO\WKHOHQJWKRIDQDQDO\VHGWH[WEXWDOVRLWVFRQWHQWVRU WKHPH FI5XVVRPI (GGLFSRHPVRQQDWLYH6FDQGLQDYLDQVXEMHFWVZULWWHQLQWKHIRUPRI IRUQ\U'LVODJ WKHPHWUHRIWKHROGVD\LQJV XVXDOO\UHJDUGHGDVWKH1RUVHHTXLYDOHQWRI2OG(QJOLVK PHWUHKDYHSDUDOOHOVWDWXVWR%HRZXOI2QWKHRWKHUKDQGPXFKDVWKHOHQJWKRIWKH2OG6D[RQ Heliand LVLWVGLVWLQFWDGYDQWDJHWUDGLWLRQDOPHWULFDOVWUDWHJLHVVRPHWLPHVVHHPWREHLQFRQVLVWHQW ZLWKWKHVDFUHGWKHPHRIWKHSRHP FI5XVVRPII  5$FRS\RIWKHGRQDWLRQOLVWDSSHDUVRQIROYERXQGLQZLWKCodex Exoniensis$QHOHFWURQLF HGLWLRQRIWKHHQWLUHFRGH[DORQJZLWKWKHFULWLFDODSSDUDWXVXSGDWHGELEOLRJUDSK\DQGFRGLFRORJLFDO GHWDLOVZDVSUHSDUHGE\0XLU   6 1RWDEO\ WKH -XQLXV 0DQXVFULSW -XQLXV  %RGOHLDQ /LEUDU\ 2[IRUG  LV DQRWKHU PDMRU FRGH[RI$QJOR6D[RQYHUQDFXODUSRHWU\HQWLUHO\LQYHUVH,QFRQWUDVWWRWKHExeter Book-XQLXV FRQWDLQVIHZHUEXWORQJHUDQGWKHPDWLFDOO\DNLQWH[WV7KH¿UVWRILWVIRXUELEOLFDOSRHPVGenesis H[WHQGVRYHUYHUVHOLQHVZKLFKQHDUO\UHDFKHVWKHQXPEHURIOLQHVLQ%HRZXOI+RZHYHUWKH  021,.$23$/,ē6.$

QRWDEOH H[FHSWLRQV GLYHUJLQJ IURP WKH VWDQGDUG SDWWHUQV DUHThe 5LPLQJ 3RHP IROVU±Y ZKLFKFRPELQHVDOOLWHUDWLRQDQGUK\PHVDQGThe Phoenix IROV Y±Y ZKLFKFRQWDLQVDQ$QJOR/DWLQPDFDURQLFSDVVDJH$IHZRWKHUWH[WV IRUH[DPSOH IROVU±Y :XOIDQG(DGZDFHU IROVY±U DQGThe 5XLQ IROVY±Y DOVREHDUVLJQVRIIRUHLJQLQÀXHQFHDQGQRQLQGLJHQRXV SDWWHUQVRIYHUVHFRPSRVLWLRQ2QIXUWKHULQVSHFWLRQCodex Exoniensis WXUQVRXW WREHDPLVFHOODQHRXVFROOHFWLRQLQZKLFKWUDGLWLRQDOSLHFHVVXFKDVThe Wanderer RUERUGHURQSUD\HUVULGGOHVVDLQWV¶OLYHVPD[LPVUHOLJLRXVSRHPV DQGDQXPEHURIRWKHUSRHWLFDOWH[WVZKLFKHOXGHPRGHUQFODVVL¿FDWRU\FULWHULD 7KH SRHPV YDU\ LQ OHQJWK EXW QRQH RI WKHP PD\ EH FRPSDUHG WR %HRZXOIDV UHJDUGVWKHQXPEHURIYHUVHOLQHV0DQXVFULSWFROODWLRQOLNHZLVHVXJJHVWVFRPSOH[ KLVWRU\DQGPXOWLSOHVRXUFHVEHKLQGWKHYDULRXVSRHPVERXQGLQZLWKWKHExeter Book)XUWKHUPRUHWKHWH[WVPD\KDYHKDGKHWHURJHQHRXVGLDOHFWDOSURYHQDQFH $OWKRXJKWKHWH[WXDOPDWHULDOZDV¿OWHUHGWKURXJKWKHKDQGVRIDVLQJOHVFULEH VRPH WUDFHV RI LWV RULJLQDO OLQJXLVWLF IHDWXUHV IXUWKHU FRQWULEXWH WR WKH LQWHUQDO GLYHUVL¿FDWLRQRIWKHFRUSXV0DQ\IROLRVQRZPLVVLQJLQPRUHWKDQRQHRIWKH CodexJDWKHULQJVPD\KDYHFRQWDLQHGVSHFLPHQVRIDQHYHQPRUHYDULHGVWUXFWXUH DQGKLVWRU\ &OHDUO\WKHVHUHDVRQVSUHFOXGHDWWHPSWVWRWUHDWWKHSRHWLFDOWH[WVJDWKHUHG LQ0VDVDFRUSXVHTXLYDOHQWWR%HRZXOIHYHQWKRXJKWKHWRWDOQXPEHURI SRHWLFDOOLQHVLQWKHIRUPHUJURVVO\H[FHHGVWKDWLQWKHODWWHU

VXEMHFWPDWWHURIWKHIRUPHUWH[WKDVVXEVWDQWLDOLQÀXHQFHRQLWVOH[LFDOVWUXFWXUHZKLFKDERXQGV LQELEOLFDOWHUPVDQGQDPHV7KHHIIRUWVWRDFFRPPRGDWHWKHVHIRUHLJQZRUGVWRWKHDOOLWHUDWLYH FRQWRXUDUHFOHDUO\YLVLEOHEXWRWKHUPHWULFDOUHODWLRQVIRUH[DPSOHWKHGLVWULEXWLRQRIVWUHVVHGDQG XQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVRUV\OODEOHZHLJKWDUHKDUGO\FRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKHVWDQGDUGSDUDGLJP 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

IUHTXHQF\ 7KH VLPSOH FDVHV H[KLELW RQHWRRQH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ PHWULFDO SRVLWLRQVDQGV\OODEOHV+RZHYHULWLVRIWHQWKHFDVHWKDWPRUHV\OODEOHV¿OOHDFK SRVLWLRQ7KLVH[WHQVLRQLVE\QRPHDQVFRQ¿QHGWRWKHZHDNRQHV$VWURQJPHWULFDO SRVLWLRQFDQEH¿OOHGHLWKHUE\DVLQJOHKHDY\ RUORQJ V\OODEOHRUE\DVHTXHQFH RIWZROLJKW RUVKRUW V\OODEOHV77KHSKHQRPHQRQRIPHWULFDOHTXLYDOHQFHNQRZQ DV5HVROXWLRQZDV¿UVWGLVFXVVHGDWOHQJWKE\-HU]\.XU\áRZLF]   DQGODWHUE\RWKHUPHWULVWV80HWULFDODFFHQWVFRLQFLGHZLWKOH[LFDOFDWHJRULHVLQ DZD\WKDWEURDGO\UHÀHFWVSKUDVDOVWUHVV1DPHO\FRQWHQWZRUGVRFFXS\VWURQJ SRVLWLRQVZKLOHIXQFWLRQZRUGV±WKHZHDNRQHV7KLVGLVWLQFWLRQLVDGGLWLRQDOO\ KLJKOLJKWHGE\WKHDOOLWHUDWLYHFRQWRXUZKLFKQRUPDOO\WLHVWKHPHWULFDOO\VDOLHQW OH[LFDOZRUG V RIWKH¿UVWYHUVHZLWKDQREOLJDWRU\VLQJOHDOOLWHUDWLYHHOHPHQWLQ WKHVHFRQGKHPLVWLFK9 (YHQWKRXJKPDQ\DVSHFWVRIWKH2OG(QJOLVKYHUVL¿FDWLRQV\VWHPUHPDLQ FRQWURYHUVLDOWKHEDVLFFRQVWLWXHQWVDQGLQWHUQDOKLHUDUFK\RIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHYHUVH OLQHKDYHEHHQHVWDEOLVKHGZLWKVRPHFHUWDLQW\,QWKHDSSDUHQWO\PRQRWRQRXV DQGUHSHWLWLYHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQRI2OG(QJOLVKYHUVHVWKHVHPHWULFDOHOHPHQWV RFFDVLRQDOO\DFWDVVHPDQWLFFXHV0HWULFDOFRKHUHQFHRIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHYHUVHOLQH LVWKHVLJQSRVWWRWKHKLGGHQPHDQLQJRIVRPHLQWULFDWHDQGVHPDQWLFDOO\REVFXUH SDVVDJHVRI$QJOR6D[RQSRHWU\6HOHFWHGH[DPSOHVIURPWKHExeter Book HOHJLHV GLVFXVVHGEHORZVKRZWKDWPHWUHFDQLQWHUDFWZLWKWKHJUDPPDUDQGPHDQLQJRI SRHWU\LQVXEWOHDQG\HWHQOLJKWHQLQJZD\V $OOLWHUDWLRQWKHPRVWFRQVSLFXRXVHOHPHQWRIROG*HUPDQLFYHUVHVWUXFWXUH RIWHQ DFFHQWXDWHV WKH ZRUGV ZKLFK DUH LPSRUWDQW WR WKH XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH PHVVDJHRUDSSUHFLDWLRQRIDSRHP¶VLQWHUQDOFRPSRVLWLRQ7KHPRVWQRWLFHDEOH FDVHVLQYROYHSDVVDJHVLQZKLFKVWULFWDOOLWHUDWLRQUXOHVDUHLQVRPHZD\VUHOD[HG 7KHUHSHWLWLYHSKUDVHRIDeorì VRIHUHRGHìLVVHVVZDP JZKLFKVHUYHVWKH IXQFWLRQRIDTXDVLUHIUDLQLVDVDOLHQWH[DPSOHRIVXFKLQWHQWLRQDOH[WHQVLRQRI PHWULFDOFRQVWUDLQWV+HUHWKHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQKLQJHVRQWKHUHSHWLWLRQRIDQ LQWHUGHQWDOIULFDWLYHLQWZRIXQFWLRQZRUGVì VDQGìLVVHV7KHHPSKDVLVODLG

77KHLVVXHRIV\OODEOHZHLJKWLVLQIDFWPRUHFRPSOH[)RUWKHVDNHRIWKHSUHVHQWSDSHU VXII¿FHLWWRVD\WKDWLQ*HUPDQLFODQJXDJHVDKHDY\V\OODEOHPD\EHLPSOHPHQWHGE\DORQJQXFOHXV 9ȸ RUDVKRUWYRFDOLFQXFOHXVIROORZHGE\DFRQVRQDQWLQWKHFRGD 9& )RUGHWDLOVVHHIRU H[DPSOH.DWDPED  /DVV II 'UHVKHUDQG/DKLUL   8 5HVROXWLRQ ZKLFK KDV LWV FRUUHODWH LQ 2OG (QJOLVK SKRQRORJ\ LH WKH SURFHVV RI +LJK 9RZHO'HOHWLRQZKLFKGHOHWHVKLJKYRZHOVDIWHUDVLQJOHKHDY\V\OODEOHRUDIWHUWZROLJKWRQHV  VKRZVDI¿QLWLHVZLWKVLPLODUSKHQRPHQDLQRWKHUPHWULFDOV\VWHPVDQGFUXFLDOO\LVVXSSRUWHGE\ D QXPEHU RI FRPSHOOLQJ H[DPSOHV IURP$QJOR6D[RQ YHUQDFXODU YHUVHV FI 'UHVKHU DQG /DKLUL  1HYHUWKHOHVVLWLVVWLOOUHJDUGHGDVFRQWURYHUVLDOE\VRPHPHWULVWV 9 ,W LV FRPPRQO\ DVVXPHG WKDW WKH ¿UVW KHPLVWLFK PD\ FRQWDLQ PD[LPDOO\ WZR DOOLWHUDWLYH DFFHQWVZKHUHDVWKHVHFRQG±RQO\RQH:KLOHWKHSULQFLSOHLVWUXHLQWKHPDMRULW\RIFDVHVWKH H[DPSOHVGLVFXVVHGEHORZVKRZWKDWLQUHVLGXDOLQVWDQFHVWKHFRQVWUDLQWPD\EHVXVSHQGHGLQWKH DYHUVH  021,.$23$/,ē6.$

RQWKHVHGHLFWLFSURQRXQVLQWURGXFHVFRQWUDVWEHWZHHQWKHSDVWDQGWKHSUHVHQW GUDZLQJDVXEWOHERXQGDU\EHWZHHQELWWHUUHVLJQDWLRQDQGSDWLHQWHQGXUDQFHRI KXPDQYLFLVVLWXGHVLQWKHOLJKWRI&KULVWLDQRUGHU ,QDGGLWLRQWRVXFKRXWVWDQGLQJH[DPSOHVWKHUHDUHPDQ\RWKHUVLQZKLFK DXUDOFXHVFRLQFLGHLQDGLVFUHHWDQGQDWXUDOZD\ZLWKWKHVWUXFWXUDODQGVHPDQWLF RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI YHUVHV$PRQJ VXFK VHPDQWLFDOO\ FKDOOHQJLQJ DQG VWUXFWXUDOO\ FRKHUHQWSDVVDJHVDUHVRPHOLQHVIURPThe WandererDQExeter BookHOHJ\ 7KH DOOLWHUDWLYH SDWWHUQ RI WKH RSHQLQJ OLQH RI The Wanderer DFFHQWXDWHV WKH LQLWLDO V\OODEOH RI WKH QRXQ DȸQKDJD RQH RI WKH NH\ ZRUGV GHVLJQDWLQJ WKH SULQFLSDO SHUVRQDRIWKHSRHP VHHD $SDUDOOHOVWUXFWXUHRFFXUVDOVRLQOLQHZKHUH YRFDOLFDOOLWHUDWLRQGUDZVDWWHQWLRQWRWKHVDPHLQWLWLDOFRPSRQHQWRIWKHFRPSRXQG QRXQDȸQKRJDQ VHHE 

 The WandererOLQHVDȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD DOLQH ÊRIWKLPÊDȸQdKDJD_ _   Ê D ȸ U H  J H Ê E L ȸ G H ' EOLQH ÊHDUPQHÊDȸQdKRJDQ__ÊRIWJHÊELQGD'

7KHH[DFWPHDQLQJDQGRULJLQRIERWKIRUPVDȸQKDJDDQGLWVPXFKPRUH UDUHYDULDQWDȸQKRJDDUHXQFHUWDLQ7KH¿UVWFRQVWLWXHQWDȸQRIWHQDFWVLQ2OG (QJOLVKDVDIXQFWLRQZRUG µDDQRQH¶ DQGLVRXWVLGHWKHDOOLWHUDWLYHVFDQVLRQ ,QPDQ\FDVHVKRZHYHUDȸQ DQGLWVIHPLQLQHIRUPDȸQD DFTXLUHVWKHVHQVH DQDORJRXVWRWKH/DWLQWHUPVXQXVDQGVROXV7KLVHTXLYDOHQFHHPHUJHVLQ2OG (QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQVRIELEOLFDOSDVVDJHV)RUH[DPSOHWKH/DWLQSDVVXVEt ipse VROXV in terra $QGKH>ZDV@DOODORQHLQWKHODQG LVUHQGHUHGLQ2OG(QJOLVKDV2QG he aȸnaZ VRQODQGHZKLOH'HXVXQXV scit OLW*RGLVWKHRQO\RQHZKRNQRZV  EHFRPHVMetod aȸna wat7KHDVSHFWRIVROLWXGHH[SUHVVHGYLDWKHDGMHFWLYDO FRQVWLWXHQWDȸQLVSUHVHQWLQ%HRZXOI OLQH ZKHUHWKHKHUREHFRPHVearm DȸQKDJDDVWKHVROHVXUYLYRURI+\JHODF¶VUDLGRQWKH)UDQNV,QWKH2OG(QJOLVK Phoenix OLQHV WKHELUGLVFDOOHGDȸQKRJD%HLQJXQLFDDYLV±WKHRQO\ RQHRILWVNLQGLWLVWUXO\XQLTXH6RLVWKHFUXHOGHDWK±HQJHDȸQKRJDIURPThe OLIHRI6W*XWKODF OLQH 

 +HUH DQG EHORZ LH LQ SRLQWV ±  WKH IROORZLQJ QRWDWLRQDO FRQYHQWLRQ KDV EHHQ XVHG DOOLWHUDWLRQ LV PDUNHG E\ XQGHUOLQLQJ VWURQJ PHWULFDO SRVLWLRQ LH PHWULFDO OLIW  LV UHSUHVHQWHG E\>@ZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGVWRSULPDU\VWUHVV>Ê@VHFRQGDU\VWUHVV>d@FRLQFLGHVZLWKKDOIOLIW>?@ XQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVDUHPDUNHGE\DQ>[@5HVROXWLRQRIOLJKWV\OODEOHVLQDVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ LVUHSUHVHQWHGE\>@)RRWERXQGDU\LVPDUNHGE\DVLQJOHYHUWLFDOOLQH>_@ZKLOHFDHVXUD±E\ DGRXEOHYHUWLFDOOLQH>__@ $FFRUGLQJWRVRPHVRXUFHVDȸQKDJDDQGDȸQKRJDPD\UHSUHVHQWWZRLQGHSHQGHQWOH[HPHV UDWKHU WKDQ FRRFFXUULQJ YDULDQWV RI WKH VDPH ZRUG L@WLVLPSRVVLEOHWRGLVFHUQDQ\GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRI PHDQLQJFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQRIIRUP¶DQGDGGWKDWµERWKIRUPVDSSHDUDSSDUHQWO\ ZLWKLGHQWLFDOUHIHUHQFHLQThe WandererDQGThe Phoenix¶. 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

7KH DGMHFWLYH DSSHDUV LQ D VLPLODU FRPSRXQG LQ The Seafarer OLQH   – DȸQÀRJD RQH ZKR ÀLHV DORQH D VROLWDU\ ÀLHU  DQG DQRWKHU RQH LQ %HRZXOI OLQHVDQG ±DȸQJHQJD RQHZKRZDONVDORQH ,QERWKLQVWDQFHVWKH VHFRQGGH¿QLQJHOHPHQWRIDFRPSRXQGFDQEHGHULYHGGLUHFWO\IURPDUHODWHG YHUEWKDWLVÀHRJDQ WRÀ\ DQGJDQJDQ WRZDON UHVSHFWLYHO\,QWKHFDVHRI DȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD WKHUH LV QR DJUHHPHQW ZKHWKHU WKH ¿QDO FRQVWLWXHQW VKRXOG EHGHULYHGIURPWKHYHUEK\FJDQ WRWKLQN RUUDWKHUIURPWKHQRXQKDJD IHQFH HQFORVXUH LQWKHDEVHQFHRIDGHQRPLQDWLYHYHUE KHFJDQ WRHQFORVH ZKLFKLV XQUHFRUGHG FI 'XQQLQJ DQG %OLVV    3HU DQDORJLDP WR WKH H[DPSOHV IURP The Seafarer DQG %HRZXOI JLYHQ DERYH WKH WZR OH[LFDO HOHPHQWV WKDW LV DȸQ DQG KDJD~KRJD VXSSRVHGO\ FRPSOHPHQW HDFK RWKHU VHPDQWLFDOO\7KXV WKHDȸQKDJDPD\EHVRPHRQHZKROLNH$QGUHDVWKHVDLQWKHUPLWIURPDQ$QJOR 6D[RQSRHPE\WKHVDPHWLWOHHQFORVHVKLPVHOIWREHDOODORQHWRPHGLWDWHLQ VHFOXVLRQ FIOLQH 6ROLWXGHSHFXOLDUWRHUHPLWLFDOH[LVWHQFHPD\ EHDOVRGLVFHUQHGLQD/DPEHWK3VDOWHUJORVVWRWKH/DWLQVROLWDULXVDȸQKRJDRèèH DȸQZXQLHQGH 0RGHUQWUDQVODWRUVRIThe Wanderer RIWHQFLUFXPYHQWWKLVDVSHFWRIORQHOLQHVV DQGLVRODWLRQ6RPHWUDQVODWHDȸQKDJDE\WKHUHODWLYHO\QHXWUDOEXWYDJXHSKUDVH µWKH VROLWDU\ PDQ¶ FI %DQWRFN   *RUGRQ  7UHKDUQH DQG:X  RUµWKHPDQRQKLVRZQ¶ %UDGOH\ 2WKHUVHTXDWHLWZLWK WKHIROORZLQJeardstapa ZDQGHUHUOLQHFI&URVVOH\+ROODQG5DIIHO  

'XQQLQJDQG%OLVV ± FODLPWKDWWKHWHUPVDȸQKRJDDQGDȸQZXQLHQGH SUHVHQW SDUWLFLSOH FI ZXQLDQ µWR OLYH WR GZHOO¶  QHHG QRW EH V\QRQ\PRXV 2Q WKH FRQWUDU\ WKH HGLWRUV VXJJHVWWKDWWKHJORVVDWRUPD\KDYH¿UVWUHQGHUHGWKHWHFKQLFDOWHUPµKHUPLW¶ DȸQKRJD DQGWKHQ DGGWKHPRUHSURVDLFDQGHW\PRORJLFDOPHDQLQJµRQHZKROLYHVDORQH¶7KXVDȸQKDJDaDȸQKRJD PD\EH³VRPHRQHµZKRisDORQH¶LUUHVSHFWLYHRIWKHFLUFXPVWDQFHVRIWKHVROLWXGH´ ,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWRQRWHWKDWeardstapaLQOLQHOLNHZLVHIRUPVSDUWRIDQDOOLWHUDWLYHSDWWHUQ $VLQOLQHDQGDOVRLQWKLVFDVHDOOLWHUDWLRQLQYROYHVYRZHOV6ZDFZ 'ÊHDUGVWDSD__ÊHDUIH'D JHP\QGLJ,IWKHUXOHVRI2OG,FHODQGLFYHUVL¿FDWLRQZHUHSDQ*HUPDQLFWKLVOLQHODFNVWKHSUHVFULEHG HOHJDQFHDVWKHDOOLWHUDWLRQKHUHLQYROYHVYRFDOLFHOHPHQWVRILGHQWLFDOTXDOLW\LHWKHGLSKWKRQJ D$SSDUHQWO\ WKH LGHQWLW\ FRQGLWLRQ HVVHQWLDO LQ WKH FDVH RI FRQVRQDQWV ZDV VXVSHQGHG IRU YRZHOVDWOHDVWLQ2OG,FHODQGLF$FFRUGLQJWR6QRUUL6WXUUOXVVRQWKHXVHRILGHQWLFDOYRZHOVLQDQ DOOLWHUDWLYHOLQHZDVPLVEHJRWWHQ  021,.$23$/,ē6.$

%HLQJ WKH FOHDUO\ GLVFHUQLEOH HOHPHQW RI D PHWULFDO OLQH DOOLWHUDWLRQ DORQH GRHV QRW FRQVWLWXWH LWV VNHOHWRQ 5DWKHU VRXQG UHSHWLWLRQ LV HPEHGGHG LQ WKH LQWHJUDWHG IUDPHZRUN RI PHWULFDO VWUHVVHV ZKLFK DUH LQ WXUQ VHQVLWLYH WR WKH OH[LFDOFRPSRQHQWVRIDJLYHQOLQH$PRQJWKHYHUVHVRIDQRWKHU Exeter Book HOHJ\7KH5XLQRQHFRPHVDFURVVDQDPELJXRXVSDVVDJHWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI ZKLFKLVVWURQJO\GHWHUPLQHGE\LWVPHWULFDOIUDPHZRUN7KHFRQWURYHUV\RYHU OLQHRIWKHSRHPFRQFHUQVWKHPRUSKRV\QWDFWLFUHODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKUHHOH[LFDO HOHPHQWVRIWKH¿UVWKHPLVWLFKweall walan ZLȸUXP6XSSRVHGO\RQHRIWKHVH LWHPVLVDQDXWRQRPRXVOH[LFDOZRUGZKLOHWKHUHPDLQLQJWZRIRUPDQRPLQDO FRPSRXQG,QWKHDEVHQFHRIDQ\H[SOLFLWSDODHRJUDSKLFDOFXHVPRGHUQHGLWRUV DVVXPHRQHRIWZRSRWHQWLDOO\SODXVLEOHYDULDQWVZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP .OLQFN  RUZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP 0XLU 7KHVHHOHPHQWVIRUPSDUWRI DVHQWHQFHZKLFKEHJLQVLQOLQHDQGUHIHUVWRWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHEXLOGLQJV PRȸGPR>«@\QHVZLIWQHJHEU JGKZ WUHGLQKULQJDVK\JHURȸIJHERQGZHDOO ZDODQZLȸUXPZXQGUXPWRJ GUH'XHWRPDQXVFULSWGDPDJHWKHWH[WLVSDUWLDOO\ ORVWEXWWKHDWWHVWHGIUDJPHQWLVODUJHHQRXJKWRUHFRQVWUXFWWKHJHQHUDOVHQVH .OLQFN    WUDQVODWHV WKHVH OLQHV DV IROORZV ³ZLWK ZRQGURXV DUW WKH VWRXWKHDUWHG RQH LQJHQLRXVO\ ERXQG WKH ZDOO WRJHWKHU ZLWK VWULSV RI ZLUH LQWR FLUFXODUVWUXFWXUHV´$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQFRQFXUUHQWZLWKWKHHGLWRU¶V UHDGLQJRIWKHGXELRXVYHUVH LHZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP ZDODQZLȸUXPDUHµPHWDO FUDPSV¶/RRNLQJIRUDUJXPHQWVLQIDYRXURIWKLVYHUVLRQ.OLQFNUHFDOOVDVLPLODU SKUDVHIURP%HRZXOI OLQH ZLȸUXPEHZXQGHQZDODQ µFUHVWZRXQGZLWK ZLUH¶HPHQGHGWRZDOXE\.UDSS'REELHDQGwalaE\.ODHEHU DQGWZRJORVVHV ZDODQDZLȸUD GHVFULELQJWZRVWULSVRIUDLVHGRUQDPHQWDWLRQ.LQJV DQG wala (vibices 7KHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQZDOD Q DQGZLȸULQWZRRWKHUSODFHV ZKLFKVKHXQIRUWXQDWHO\GRHVQRWVSHFLI\OHDGKHUWRFRQFOXGHWKDW³LWLVWKHVH HOHPHQWVZKLFKVKRXOGEHWUHDWHGDVDFRPSRXQGDQGQRWweallwalan´ .OLQFN   $OWHUQDWLYHO\walanPD\VWDQGIRUµIRXQGDWLRQ¶UDWKHUWKDQµVWULSVRIZLUH¶ RU µFUDPSV¶ ,Q FRQMXQFWLRQ ZLWK weall LW ZRXOG WKHQ GHVLJQDWH WKH EDVH RI DEXLOGLQJRUWKHXQGHUO\LQJIUDPHZRUNRIWKHZDOOZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP*UHLQ ± ZKR¿UVWSURSRVHGWKLVVROXWLRQRQWKHEDVLVRI2OG(QJOLVKZ\UW walanJORVVLQJ/DWLQradices URRWV ZDVIROORZHGE\PRVWHGLWRUVQRWDEO\E\ 0XLU  7KHVKLIWRIPRUSKRV\QWDFWLFERXQGDU\FKDQJHVWKHPHDQLQJRIWKH SDVVDJHVLJQL¿FDQWO\.OLQFN¶VUHDGLQJRIYHUVHDVXJJHVWVWKDWLWZDVWKHRXWHU SDUW RI WKH ZDOO ZKLFK ZDV ZRXQG RU VWUHQJWKHQHG ZLWK ZLUH FUDPSV SHUKDSV LQDQRUQDPHQWDOZD\*UHLQ¶VLQWHUSUHWDWLRQE\FRQWUDVWLPSOLHVWKDWWKHZDOO EDVHRULWVIRXQGDWLRQ ZHDOOZDODQ ZDVERXQGZLWKZLUH ZLȸUXP $GMXVWLQJ

$QJOR6D[RQVFULEHVUHSUHVHQWHGFRPSRXQGIRUPDWLRQVLQWKHVDPHZD\DVSKUDVHVWKDWLV HDFKOH[LFDOFRQVWLWXHQWZDVZULWWHQVHSDUDWHO\ )RUIXUWKHUGHWDLOVDQGUHIHUHQFHVVHH.OLQFN ±  0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

.OLQFN¶VRZQZRUGVFLWHGDERYHWRWKLVDOWHUQDWLYHUHDGLQJRQHPD\WUDQVODWH WKHHQWLUHVHFWLRQLQWKHIROORZLQJZD\µZLWKZRQGURXVDUWWKHVWRXWKHDUWHGRQH LQJHQLRXVO\ERXQGWKHIRXQGDWLRQVRIWKHZDOOWRJHWKHUZLWKZLUHLQWRFLUFXODU VWUXFWXUHV¶$SSDUHQWO\WKHDOWHUDWLRQLVQRWWKDWLPSRUWDQW

7KH VWDQGDUG GLFWLRQDU\ RI 2OG (QJOLVK E\ %RVZRUWK DQG 7ROOHU   GLIIHUHQWLDWHVEHWZHHQwal VRPHSDUWRIDKHOPHW VXSSRVHGO\DFRJQDWHRIODWHU 0LGGOH+LJK*HUPDQZ OZ OH FRQWULYDQFHIRUIDVWHQLQJWKHFUHVWRIDKHOPHW  DQGDZHDNPDVFXOLQHwala (-an ZLWKWKHEDVLFVHQVHµURRW¶DQGLWVPHWDSKRULFDO H[WHQWLRQad ( W) walan ³WRWKHURRWRIWKHPDWWHUWRFHUWDLQW\´ DGOLTXLGXP  7KHSUHVHQFHRITXHVWLRQPDUNVQH[WWRERWKHQWULHVLPSOLHVWKDWWKHSURSRVHG GH¿QLWLRQV DUH SODXVLEOH EXW QRW FHUWDLQ

,QVRPHFDVHVDSKUDVHLVPRGHOOHGRQDWUXHFRPSRXQGDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHVIURP %HRZXOIIROFHVFZHȸQ OLQH YHUVXVIROFFZHȸQ OLQH RUEHȸDJDKRUG OLQH YHUVXV EHȸDJKRUGHV  0DQXVFULSWUHQGLWLRQRIERWKJURXSVLVWKHVDPHQDPHO\HDFKZRUGLVZULWWHQ VHSDUDWHO\,QWKHDEVHQFHRIDQ\SDODHRJUDSKLFDOFXHVLQÀHFWLRQDOVXI¿[HVKHUHesLQfolces DQG -aLQEHȸDJDPDUNWKHVHLWHPVDVDXWRQRPRXVQRXQVIRUPLQJSKUDVDOXQLWVZLWKFZHȸQDQGhord UHVSHFWLYHO\ %\FRQWUDVWWKHVDPHOH[LFDOIRUPVUHPDLQXQLQÀHFWHGZKHQXVHGDVIUHHPRUSKHPHV LQDFRPSRXQG 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

7KHZDODQZLȸUXPK\SRWKHVLVKLQJHVPDLQO\RQIDLUO\OD[VHPDQWLFSDUDOOHOV DQGVLPLODUOH[LFDOFROORFDWLRQV$SSDUHQWO\LWLVVXSSRUWHGE\PHWULFDODQDO\VLV .OLQFNSLQSRLQWVWKHIDFWWKDWWKHQHZO\JHQHUDWHGIRUP³JLYHVD'W\SHYHUVH>«@ ZLWKUHVROYHGVWUHVVLQWKHVHFRQGOLIW´ .OLQFNI 7KHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ  EHORZLQGLFDWHVWKDWVXFKDQDQDO\VLVLVLQGHHGSRVVLEOH5HVROXWLRQRIWKH OLJKWV\OODEOHLQwalanH[SHFWHGLQWKHVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQFRPSUHVVHVWZR DGMDFHQW V\OODEOHV WR RQH PHWULFDOO\ UHOHYDQW JUDGH$V D UHVXOW WKH HPHUJLQJ PHWULFDO FRQWRXU LPSOHPHQWV 6LHYHUV¶ EDVLF ' SDWWHUQ lift OLIW UHVROYHG  KDOIOLIWdrop

(2) 7KH5XLQOLQH ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP 6LHYHUV¶7\SH'ZLWKUHVROYHGVWUHVV_[?[ÊZHDOOÊZDODQdZLȸUXP

.OLQFNGRHVQRWGHYHORSWKHPHWULFDODUJXPHQWEXWFDUHIXODQDO\VLVRIWKH DOWHUQDWLYH UHDGLQJ ± ZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP ± DFFHSWHG E\ PRVW HGLWRUV UHYHDOV XQH[SHFWHGSUREOHPV$VWKHVHFRQGFRQVWLWXHQWRIDOH[LFDOFRPSRXQGwalanQRZ EHDUV VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV 3UHGLFWDEO\ WKH IROORZLQJ QRXQ ZLȸUXP RFFXSLHV WKH VWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQDQGLWVKHDY\LQLWLDOV\OODEOHFDUULHVSULPDU\VWUHVV7KH HPHUJLQJSDWWHUQRIVWUHVVHGDQGXQVWUHVVHGHOHPHQWVUHSUHVHQWHGLQ D LVQRW FRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQ\RIWKHW\SHVUHFRJQL]HGLQWKH6LHYHUVLDQPRGHO,WVPHWULFDO FRQWRXUVKRZVVRPHDI¿QLWLHVZLWK7\SH(WKHEDVLFIRUPRIZKLFKLQFOXGHVlift KDOIOLIWGURSDQGlift ?[ EXWWKHUHLVDVLJQL¿FDQWGLIIHUHQFH7KHPHWULFDO VFDQVLRQLQ D HQGVLQDQXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHDSKHQRPHQRQXQUHFRUGHGLQWKH H[DPSOHVUHSUHVHQWLQJ7\SH($SSDUHQWO\DVLPLODUFDVHRFFXUVLQYHUVHDRI  ZKLFK HQGV LQ ELV\OODELF QRXQ EUHJX VRYHUHLJQ FKLHI  +RZHYHUDVVKRZQLQ E WKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHRIEUHJXLVOLJKWDQGWKXVUHVROYHG 7KLVPHDQVWKDWWKHWZRV\OODEOHVRIEUHJXFRXQWDVRQHDQGFRPELQHWRIRUP DVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ7KLVPHFKDQLVPGRHVQRWDSSO\WRZLȸUXPIURP D  EHFDXVHKHUHWKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHLVKHDY\

(3) 7KH5XLQYHUVHDYHUVXVThe Battle of MaldonYHUVHD D?[_[ ÊZHDOOdZDODQÊZLȸUXP E?[_[ Ê1RU'dPDQQDÊEUHJX

7KHSUHVHQFHRIWKUHHVWUHVVHGZRUGV weallwalanZLȸUXP LQYHUVHDRI 7KH5XLQDQGFUXFLDOO\WKHXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHLQWKH¿QDOSRVLWLRQRIWKHPHWULFDO GRPDLQPDNHWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQ D VXVSHFW$OWKRXJK6LHYHUVLGHQWL¿HVWZR IXUWKHUVXEW\SHVRI7\SH(QHLWKHURIWKHVHHQGVLQDPHWULFDOGURS,QIDFWLWLV

7KHLQLWLDOV\OODEOHRIwalan D LVQRWUHVROYHGHYHQWKRXJKLWLVOLJKWEHFDXVHLWRFFXSLHV DZHDNPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ$UJXDEO\UHVROXWLRQRIV\OODEOHVFDUU\LQJVHFRQGDU\VWUHVVLVYHU\UDUH VHH 3RSHIQ   021,.$23$/,ē6.$

'W\SHYHUVHWKDWUHJXODUO\WHUPLQDWHVLQDQXQVWUHVVHGV\OODEOH±DGHWDLOZKLFK VHHPVWRVXSSRUW.OLQFN¶VDQDO\VLVUHSUHVHQWHGLQ  8QIRUWXQDWHO\DVDUJXHG DERYHWKHODWWHULQWHUSUHWDWLRQOHDGVWRVHULRXVJUDPPDWLFDOLQFRQJUXLW\7KHUHIRUH WKHIXQGDPHQWDOTXHVWLRQLVZKHWKHUWKHPHWULFDOJUDPPDWLFDOPLVPDWFKRFFXUULQJ LQYHUVHDRI7KH5XLQFDQEHVRPHKRZUHFRQFLOHG $FFRUGLQJ WR VRPH PHWULVWV ³LW PD\ EH XQFOHDU ZKHWKHU FHUWDLQ YHUVHV FRPSULVLQJ WKUHH VWUHVVHG ZRUGV VKRXOG EH FODVVL¿HG DV EHORQJLQJ WR W\SH ' RUW\SH(´ 3RSH 5HODWLYHO\FOHDUFDVHVLQYROYHYHUVHVZLWKGRXEOH DOOLWHUDWLRQ VHHDE 

 ([DPSOHVRI6LHYHUV¶7\SH'DQG7\SH(YHUVHVZLWKGRXEOHDOOLWHUDWLRQ D7\SH'_[[?ÊHDOGÊHQWDJHdZHRUF The WandererYHUVHD E7\SH( ?[_ÊWZHOIdZLQWUDÊWiȸG%HRZXOIYHUVHD

6WUXFWXUDOO\SDUDOOHOYHUVHVZLWKVLQJOHDOOLWHUDWLRQDUHOHVVVWUDLJKWIRUZDUG 0HWULFDORSDFLW\LQVXFKLQVWDQFHVPD\VRPHWLPHVEHFOHDUHGE\V\QWDFWLFDQG VHPDQWLFLQWHJULW\6\QWDFWLFUHODWLRQVLQSDUWLFXODUWHQGWREHPRUHVWULFWZLWKLQ D PHWULFDO IRRW WKDQ DFURVV IRRW ERXQGDULHV )RU H[DPSOH YHUVH E IURP The SeafarerK JOVFXUXPÀHȸDJ KDLOIHOOLQVKRZHUV LVDQH[WHQVLRQRI7\SH' EHFDXVH VFXȸUXP GDW SO  LV XVHG DGYHUELDOO\ DQG PRGL¿HV WKH YHUE ÀHȸDJ VJSDVWWHQVH VHHD%\FRQWUDVWYHUVHEIURPThe  IHODHDOUDJHEDȸG RIWKHVHPDQ\H[SHULHQFHG UHSUHVHQWVW\SH( ZLWKUHVROXWLRQ RIWKHLQLWLDOV\OODEOH VLQFHWKHDGMHFWLYHealra JHQSO GHSHQGVRQfela SURQ XVXDOO\ZLWKJHQ VHHE

 6\QWDFWLFLQWHJULW\ZLWKLQYHUVH D7\SH'_[? K JOVFXȸUXPÀHȸDJ The SeafarerYHUVHE E7\SH([?[_[IHODHDOUDJHEDȸGThe Dream of the Rood YHUVHE

6RPHYHUVHVIRUH[DPSOHDVLQVRUJQDJHGUHȸDJ WKHPXOWLWXGHRISHUSHWXDO VRUURZ IURPThe Wife’s LamentDUHDPELJXRXV VHH %HLQJDFRPSRXQGVLQ VRUJQD JHQSO VKRXOG¿OOWKH¿UVWIRRW DVLQ7\SH( WRHQVXUHV\QWDFWLFLQWHJULW\ RIWKHYHUVH$VORQJDVWKLVDVSHFWLVJLYHQSULRULW\WKHYHUVHPD\EHDQDO\VHGDV 7\SH(ZLWKIRRWERXQGDU\IROORZLQJVRUJQD VHHD +RZHYHUVLQFHERWKOH[LFDO HOHPHQWV EHJLQ ZLWK WKH VDPH FRQVRQDQW WKH\ SRWHQWLDOO\ IRUP DQ DOOLWHUDWLYH VHTXHQFH)RRWGLYLVLRQLQ7\SH(LQHYLWDEO\HQIRUFHVGRXEOHDOOLWHUDWLRQLQWKH ¿UVWIRRW0RUHRYHUWKHVHFRQGDOOLWHUDWLRQXQLWDQFKRUVDQLOOLFLWFDQGLGDWHVLQFH

7KHH[DPSOHVJLYHQLQ  DQG  DUHTXRWHGDIWHU3RSH I 7KHYHUVHLQ D LV DYDULDWLRQRIWKHEDVLF7\SH'WKH¿QDOXQDFFHQWHGV\OODEOHFKDQJLQJSODFHZLWKWKHVHFRQGDU\ DFFHQW$SDUDOOHOH[WHQVLRQRIWKHEDVLFW\SHLVDWWHVWHGLQ D EHORZ 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

VRUJQD LQ FRQWUDGLVWLQFWLRQ WR JHGUHDJ FDUULHV VHFRQGDU\ VWUHVV DQG WKXV ¿OOV DUHODWLYHO\ZHDNHUPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQ,QRUGHUWRVDWLVI\WKHDOOLWHUDWLYHFRQVWUDLQW WKHIRRWERXQGDU\VKRXOGSUHFHGHVRUJQD VHHE &OHDUO\WKHUHVXOWLQJVWUXFWXUH LQWURGXFHVDVHULRXVPLVPDWFKEHFDXVHIRRWERXQGDU\GRHVQRWFRLQFLGHZLWKZRUG LHFRPSRXQG ERXQGDU\+HQFH E LVQRWDVDWLVIDFWRU\DOWHUQDWLYH

 0HWULFDODQGV\QWDFWLFPLVPDWFKVLQVRUJQDJHGUHȸDJWife’s Lament YHUVHD D   7 \ S H  (    ? [_[ÊVLQdVRUJQDJHÊGUHȸDJ E   7 \ S H  '     _     [ [  ? ÊVLQÊVRUJQD  J H dGUHȸDJ

9HUVHV VXFK DV D IURP The Wife’s Lament DUH UHODWLYHO\ UDUH EHFDXVH FRPSRXQGIRUPDWLRQVVHOGRPEHJLQZLWKLGHQWLFDOSKRQHWLFHOHPHQWV&RPSOH[ YHUVHSDWWHUQVZKLFKFRQWDLQWKUHHSRWHQWLDOO\DOOLWHUDWLQJZRUGVLPSO\WKDWZLWKLQ WKHVDPHGRPDLQVRPHOH[LFDOHOHPHQWVPXVWKDYHEHHQPHWULFDOO\VXERUGLQDWH 6LHYHUV¶FODVVL¿FDWRU\PRGHOLVQRWHTXLSSHGZLWKDQDSSURSULDWHPHFKDQLVPWR FDSWXUHKLHUDUFKLFDORUJDQL]DWLRQDERYHWKHEDVLFOHYHO,WFDQGLIIHUHQWLDWHEHWZHHQ V\OODEOHVFDUU\LQJSULPDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\VWUHVVDQGWKHXQVWUHVVHGRQHVEXWLWLV XQDEOHWRJLYHWKHUDWLRQDOHIRUWKH¿QHGLVWLQFWLRQVLQWKRVHFDVHVZKHUHPHWULFV DQGV\QWD[DUHLUUHFRQFLODEOHRUDWOHDVWFRQWURYHUVLDO&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHHYDOXDWLRQ RIGLVSXWDEOHYHUVHVLVLQHYLWDEO\DUELWUDU\ZLWKLQWKLVSDUDGLJP ,QDQRQOLQHDUWKHRU\RIPHWULFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQZKLFKTXDOL¿HVFRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQVDQGWKHLUIXQFWLRQVXFKVHHPLQJO\FRUUXSWRULUUHJXODU YHUVHV EHFRPH OHJLWLPDWH $PRQJ UHSUHVHQWDWLRQDO PRGHOV 5XVVRP¶V ZRUG EDVHGWKHRU\RIPHWUH  VHHPVWREHHTXLSSHGZLWKDGHTXDWHWRROV WR DFFRXQW IRU VXFK FRQWURYHUVLDO FDVHV 5XVVRP¶V WUHHVWUXFWXUHV JURXQGHG LQ SDWWHUQVRIPHWULFDOSURPLQHQFH ZKLFKZHUHRXWOLQHGE\.XU\áRZLF] DUH EDVHGRQUHODWLRQVZLWKLQPHWULFDOGRPDLQVLHIRRWDQGYHUVH$FFRUGLQJO\WKH UXOH RI DOOLWHUDWLRQ VWDWHV ³>Z@KHQ WZR PHWULFDO FRQVWLWXHQWV DSSHDU ZLWKLQ WKH VDPHPHWULFDOGRPDLQDQGHDFKFRQVWLWXHQWFRQWDLQVDSULPDU\DUVLVODEHOWKH ¿UVWFRQVWLWXHQWVWURQJDQGWKHVHFRQGZHDNDQGPDUNWKHOHIWPRVWSULPDU\DUVLV IRUDOOLWHUDWLRQ´ 5XVVRP 5XVVRPLOOXVWUDWHVWKHPHFKDQLVPZLWK D QXPEHU RI UHJXODU H[DPSOHV LQFOXGLQJ OHȸRI OHȸRGF\QLQJ µEHORYHG QDWLRQ NLQJ¶%HRZXOI YHUVHD ZKHUHIRRWERXQGDULHVFRLQFLGHZLWKZRUGERXQGDULHV DQGDOOLWHUDWLYHHOHPHQWVRFFXULQGHIDXOWSRVLWLRQVHYHQO\GLVWULEXWHGLQHDFKIRRW *LYHQWKHKLHUDFKLFDOVWUXFWXUHLQ D DOOLWHUDWLRQLVEORFNHGRQF\QLQJGXHWR

$V5XVVRP  H[SODLQVWKHSURSRVHGUXOHRIDOOLWHUDWLRQ³GRHVQRWDSSO\WRWKH VWUHVVHGV\OODEOHVRIWKHDFWXDOSKRQHWLFPDWHULDOUDWKHUWRWKHVWURQJPHWULFDOSRVLWLRQVRFFXSLHGE\ WKRVHVWUHVVHGV\OODEOHV´7RSDUDSKUDVH.XU\áRZLF] ± DOOLWHUDWLRQVKRXOGEHUHJDUGHG DV³DSRHWLFLVHGYHUVLRQRIWKH2OG(QJOLVKFRPSRXQGVWUHVVUXOH´ 20 021,.$23$/,ē6.$

GHHSHPEHGGLQJRIWKHQRXQZKLFKLVGRPLQDWHGE\WZRZHDNQRGHV,QFRQWUDVW WR D WKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQ E DOORZVIRURSWLRQDOWKUHHHOHPHQWDOOLWHUDWLRQ20 6LQFH WKH PDMRU FRQVWLWXHQW EUHDN IDOOV DIWHU WKH VHFRQG VWUHVVHG V\OODEOH WKLV WUHHGLDJUDPLVVLJQL¿FDQWO\GLIIHUHQW1RWDEO\WKHWKLUGOH[LFDOHOHPHQWZKLFK LPSOHPHQWVWKHVHFRQGIRRWPD\RSWLRQDOO\DOOLWHUDWHEHFDXVHLWLVGRPLQDWHGE\ DVLQJOHZHDNQRGH

 $OOLWHUDWLRQLQDWUHHVWUXFWXUDOPRGHO FI5XVVRP  DOHȸRIOHȸRGF\QLQJ  EV\QVQ ȸGXPVZHDOK S S

 6 :  6 :

  6:  6:

OHȸRI OHȸRGF\QLQJ V\QVQ ȸGXPVZHDOK

5HWXUQLQJWRWKHGXELRXVDYHUVHIURP7KH5XLQLWLVZRUWKUHFRQVLGHULQJ LWV VWDWXV LQ WKH OLJKW RI WKH WUHHVWUXFWXUDO UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ $SSDUHQWO\ LQ WKH WUDGLWLRQDO6LHYHUVLDQV\VWHPWKLVYHUVHVHHPVWRLPSOHPHQW7\SH'ZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP +RZHYHU WKLV FODVVL¿FDWLRQ LV LPSDLUHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW LW HQIRUFHV D PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQFRUUHFW VWUXFWXUH DV walan SUHVXPDEO\ DQ LQÀHFWHG IRUP DFFVJ LVHQWUDSSHGLQWKHZRUGLQWHUQDOSRVLWLRQ7KHDOWHUQDWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXPUHSDLUVWKHPRUSKRORJLFDOVWUXFWXUHEXWJHQHUDWHVDPHWULFDO SDWWHUQLQFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQ\RIWKHW\SHV

20,QWKHIROORZLQJUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVLH  DQG  6VWDQGVIRUWKHµVWURQJQRGHSRVLWLRQ¶ :±IRUµWKHZHDNQRGHSRVLWLRQ¶7KHDVVRFLDWLRQOLQHVERWKVLQJOHDQGEUDQFKLQJUHYHDOKLHUDUFKLFDO UHODWLRQVDQGGHSHQGHQFLHVEHWZHHQKLJKHUDQGORZHUQRGHVZLWKLQWKHDYHUVH 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 

FODLPVWKDWµWKLVW\SHRIDKDOIOLQHQHYHUKDVWZRDOOLWHUDWLQJV\OODEOHVLQWKHKHDY\ VHFRQGIRRW¶+HQFHWKHSURSRVHGVWUXFWXUDOGLYLVLRQRIWKHPDMRUFRQVWLWXHQWV FRQWUDGLFWVWKHDWWHVWHGGDWD 7KHDOWHUQDWLYHVROXWLRQE\FRQWUDVWFRPSOLHVZLWKWKHWKHRU\SUHGLFWLRQV VHHE 7KHFRQVWLWXHQWEUHDNSRVLWHGDIWHUwalanPDNHVWKH¿UVWIRRWKHDY\,WV WZRHOHPHQWVweallDQGwalan¿OOWKHVWURQJDQGWKHZHDNQRGHVUHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KHVHFRQGIRRWLVOLJKWDQGGRPLQDWHGE\DVLQJOHZHDNQRGH±ZLȸUXP&OHDUO\ WKHQXPEHURIDOOLWHUDWLQJVHJPHQWVUHPDLQVWKHVDPHEXWWKH\DUHVWUXFWXUDOO\ MXVWL¿HG&UXFLDOO\QRQHRIWKHDOOLWHUDWLQJZRUGVLVGRPLQDWHGE\WZRZHDNQRGHV ,Q VXFK FRPSOH[ YHUVHV DOOLWHUDWLRQ LV REOLJDWRU\ RQ WKH OHIWPRVW VWURQJ QRGH 2SWLRQDODOOLWHUDWLRQPD\RFFXS\WKHVHFRQGIRRWZKLFKLVWKHZHDNFRQVWLWXHQW RIDVWURQJFRQVWLWXHQW+RZHYHUDOOLWHUDWLRQLVQRWSUHFOXGHGRQWKHPRUHGHHSO\ HPEHGGHGZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIWKH¿UVWIRRWHLWKHUEHFDXVHLWLVGRPLQDWHGE\ DVWURQJQRGHRQWKHKLJKHUOHYHO

(8) 7KH5XLQYHUVHDZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXPLQQRQOLQHDUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ DZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP   EZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP  6  6

6  :6:

  6 :   6 :

ZHDOOZDODQ ZLȸUXP  ZHDOO ZDODQZLȸUXP

7KHRU\GULYHQ DUJXPHQW PD\ QRW EH GHFLVLYH LQ LWVHOI EXW LW FDUULHV PRUH ZHLJKWLQFRQMXQFWLRQZLWKWKHJUDPPDWLFDODQGOH[LFDOHYLGHQFH.OLQFN¶VUHDGLQJ WKRXJKFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQDWWHVWHGPHWULFDOSDWWHUQLJQRUHVWKHOLQJXLVWLFFXHV HQWLUHO\7KHRULJLQDOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIYHUVHDQDPHO\ZHDOOZDODQZLȸUXP IRXQGHG RQ WKH ORQJVWDQGLQJ SKLORORJLFDO DQG HGLWRULDO WUDGLWLRQ VHHPV WR EH HQGRUVHGE\ERWKWKHOLQJXLVWLFGDWDDQGDQDOWHUQDWLYHPHWULFDODQDO\VLV%RWK YDULDQWV DUH ODUJHO\ FRQMHFWXUDO

W\SHVSURYLGHIRUPDOJURXQGVIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRIDPELJXRXVFDVHVOLNHYHUVHD IURP7KH5XLQ &OHDUO\WKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQDZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIDZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWDQG DZHDNFRQVWLWXHQWRIDVWURQJFRQVWLWXHQWLVVRVXEWOHWKDWLWFDOOVIRUTXHVWLRQV FRQFHUQLQJWKHSV\FKRORJLFDOUHDOLW\RIWKHHQWLWLHV6XFKGLVFUHWHUHODWLRQVDUH QRWYHU\OLNHO\WRKDYHEHHQFRQVFLRXVO\FRQVLGHUHGE\$QJOR6D[RQSRHWV FI 5XVVRP 

675(6=&=(1,(

$UW\NXá RPDZLD QLHNWyUH SUREOHP\ PHWU\NL VWDURDQJLHOVNLHM LOXVWUXMąF MH Z\EUDQ\PL IUDJPHQWDPL XWZRUyZ SRHW\FNLFK ] GDWRZDQHJR QD ZLHN ; .RGHNVX ] ([HWHU 7KH /LEUDU\ RI 'HDQDQG&KDSWHU([HWHU0V $XWRUNDVWDUDVLĊSRND]DüZMDNLVSRVyEU\WPLZHUV\¿NDFMD NV]WDáWXMą]QDF]HQLHNOXF]RZ\FKIUDJPHQWyZXWZRUyZZVSyáJUDMąF]VHPDQW\NąLOHNV\NąWHNVWX 6]F]HJyOQ\QDFLVNSRáRĪRQRQDWHPLHMVFDZNWyU\FKUHODFMHPHWU\F]QHZFKRG]ąZEH]SRĞUHGQL ]ZLą]HN]HVNáDGQLąLVHPDQW\Ną=QDMRPRĞüIXQGDPHQWDOQ\FK]DVDGZHUV\¿NDFMLVWDURDQJLHOVNLHM SR]ZDODQLHNLHG\UR]VWU]\JQąü]QDF]HQLHVSRUQ\FKIUDJPHQWyZQDGDMąFLQWHUSUHWDFMLZLDU\JRGQH SRGVWDZ\2GZRáXMąFHVLĊGRNDWHJRULLMĊ]\NR]QDZF]\FKZVSyáF]HVQHWHRULHZHUV\¿NDFMLVąRERN NODV\F]Q\FK VFKHPDWyZ ZDĪQ\P ĨUyGáHP SR]QDQLD ]DOHĪQRĞFL MDNLH LVWQLHMą SRPLĊG]\ PDWHULą MĊ]\NDVWDURDQJLHOVNLHJRDWNDQNąSRHW\FNąDQJORVDVNLFKXWZRUyZ

6áRZDNOXF]RZHVWDURDQJLHOVNLV\VWHPZHUV\¿NDF\MQ\]QDF]HQLHSU]HMĞüSRHW\FNLFKUHJXá\ PHWU\F]QHVHPDQW\NDWHNVWX

5()(5(1&(6

ÈUQDVRQ.7KHULVHRIWKHTXDWUDLQLQ*HUPDQLFPXVLFDOLW\DQGZRUGEDVHGUK\WKPLQHGGLF metres,Q'UHVKHUDQG)ULHGEHUJ± %DQWRFN*$QKDJD$QYLO3UHVV3RHWU\/RQGRQ %HVVLQJHU-%-U6-.DUO HGV (VVHQWLDO$UWLFOHVIRUWKH6WXG\RI2OG(QJOLVK3RHWU\ $UFKRQ+DPGHQ&7 %RVZRUWK-717ROOHU$Q$QJOR6D[RQ'LFWLRQDU\2832[IRUG %UDGOH\6$-$QJOR6D[RQ3RHWU\'HQW/RQGRQ 0(75($1',17(535(7$7,212)7+((;(7(5%22.(/(*,(6 23

&ODUN+DOO-5$&RQFLVH$QJOR6D[RQ'LFWLRQDU\ WKHGLWLRQ &83&DPEULGJH &URVVOH\+ROODQG.7KH$QJOR6D[RQ:RUOG$Q$QWKRORJ\2832[IRUG 'UHVKHU%()ULHGEHUJ1Formal Approaches to Poetry. Recent Developments in Metrics 0RXWRQGH*UX\WHU%HUOLQ±1HZ