CHAPTER 5: FOREST BIOTA

5.1Flora

5.1.1 Habitat Profile Large tracts of Koyna WLS comprise natural habitats including forests, perennial and seasonal wetlands, hill-capped plateaux and grasslands. However, some parts of the buffer zone of the protected area are modified for agricultural purposes, habitations, access routes, tourism and its related ancillary facilities and windfarms. (Plates 5-1).

5.1.1.1 Forest Types

According to the Champion and Seth revised Classification of Indian Forests (1968) the vegetation of Koyna WLS represents the following different forest-types (Figure 5-1 and Figure 5-2.).

1A/C4 (Group 1 – Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests, Sub-group A – Southern Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests, Sub-type C4 – West Coast Tropical Evergreen Forests)

These forests occur throughout the tropical portion of the country and more extensively along the Western Ghats. They are associated with rainfall more than 2000 mm, altitude ranging between 800-1500 m. These forests are lofty, dense and characterised by the large number of species of that occur together. The crown canopy is 70-80 %, epiphytes are numerous mainly ferns, mosses and orchids and cauliflory is evident. In the top storey, trees with long cylindrical boles usually with smooth bark are typical and a few of them are buttressed. Leaves are usually thick, coriaceous and glossy. Grasses are absent, regeneration of dominant species is frequent and the forest floors are covered with thick layer of leaf litter. (Plate 5-2).

In Koyna WLS, evergreen forests are fragmented and occur in discrete patches, generally in the vicinity of perennial streams. This type of forests are distributed in areas such as Kala Mura in Karanjwade, on way to Vasota Fort, Dicholi, Shirshingi and Jungati beats, Panchdhara, Ramban and Navja.

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The tall components in these forests are Canarium strictum, Holigarna grahmii, Myristica dactyloides, Persea macrantha, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Lophopetalum wightianum, Dysoxylum gotadhora, Beilschmiedia dalzellii, Mangifera indica, Drypetes venusta, etc.

The understorey mainly comprise of lawii, Aglaia elaeagnoidea, Nothopegia castanaefolia, Flacourtia montana, Turpinia malabarica, Harpullia arborea, Mimusops elengi, Cinnamomum spp., Litsea spp., Eugenia gardneri, Dimorphocalyx glabellus var. lawianus, Psydrax umbellata . Smaller trees in these forests are Agrostistachys indica, Meiogyne pannosa, Diospyros montana, Cleidion spiciflorum, Ancistrocladus heyneanus etc. Shrubby components are comprised of Psychotria truncata, Ixora pavetta, Mallotus philippensis, Lasianthus acuminatus, etc. In riparian areas in such forests, gregarious thickets of Pandanus odorifer are evident.

A few woody climbers in such forests are Gnetum ula, Embelia drupacea, Entada rheedei, Chonemorpha fragrans, Ancistrocladus heyneanus, Luvunga eleutherandra, Paramignya monophylla and Toddalia asiatica. Undergrowth is formed by Glycosmis pentaphylla, heyneanus, Dracaena terniflora and a few species belonging to Cyperaceae and Asteraceae families.

Epiphytic in evergreen forests are restricted to family Orchidaceae belonging to the genera like Aerides, Bulbophyllum, Eria and Vanda and Apocynaceae Hoya wightii.

 Type 2A/C2 (Group 2 – Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests, Sub-group A – Southern Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests, Sub-type C2 – West Coast Semi- evergreen Forests)

This type of forests is intermediate between the tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forms and usually includes groups that are fairly typical of both. The type occurs throughout the moister parts of southern tropical region and is always occur in association with true evergreen forests. This type forms closed high forests consisting big dimension trees. In such forests, many of the emergent trees are deciduous whereas the canopy and understorey are composed of evergreen species. Buttressed stems are quite frequent and occur in both evergreen and deciduous species. Bark of

2 trees tends to be rougher and cauliflory rarer. Presence of xylocarpa is evident in these forests. The general canopy and undergrowth as well is copious but less dense than evergreen forests; climbers tend to be very heavy and epiphytes are abundant including ferns and orchids. (Plate 5-3).

In Koyna WLS, semi-evergreen forests are dominant and forms large contiguous patches along hill slopes throughout the sanctuary. This type of forest is well represented in the areas like Ozarde, Navja, Takvali, Shirshingi, Dicholi, Karanjwade, Maldev and Metindavali.

Top canopy layer in these forests comprises of species like Dimocarpus longan, Memecylon umbellatum, bellerica, Garcinia talbotii, Garcinia indica, Carallia brachiata, Prunus ceylanica, nervosa, Chionanthus mala- elengi, Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica, Olea dioica, Sageraea laurifolia, Litsea josephii, , Sterculia guttata, Chukrasia tabularis, Elaeocarpus serratus, Diospyros sylvatica, etc. The second storey in this type is dominated by Actinodaphne gullavara, Cinnamomum spp., Litsea josephii, Nothopodytes nimmoniana, Euonymus indicus, Glochidion ellipticum, etc.

The shrub species in undergrowth consists of Allophylus cobbe, Crotalaria retusa, Canthium angustifolium, Maytenus rothiana, Premna coriacea, Mallotus resinosus, Pavetta siphonantha, Symplocos racemosa. Herbaceous species typical to this type are Strobilanthes heyneana, Ophiorrhiza rugosa var. prostrata, Gymnostachyum glabrum, Rubia cordifolia, Justicia terminalis, Piper trichostachyon. A grass species Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum and ground orchids such as Cheirostylis parvifolia and Peristylus aristatus are evident and typical to the type in the sanctuary. Dominant woody climbers are Eleagnus conferta, Moullava spicata, Oxyceros rugulosus, Embelia ribes, Caesalpinia cucullata, Mucuna monosperma, Combretum albidum, etc.

An epiphytic flora of these forests includes orchids such as Oberonia recurva, Oberonia brunoniana, Smithsonia viridiflora, Aerides maculosa, Dendrobium macrostachyum, Dendrobium microbulbon, etc.

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 Type 2B/E4 (Group 2 – Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests, Sub-group B – Northern Tropical Semi-evergreen Forests, Edaphic type – Lateritic Semi- evergreen Forests) An edaphic sub type of tropical semi-evergreen forests associated with lateritic soils in Peninsular is found typically distributed along the margins of lateritic plateaux in the sanctuary. These forests exhibit a few common features as they consists some of the species that are evident in subtype 2A. However, these forests differ in overall formation that of the high semi-evergreen type by smaller size of trees and a presence of few characteristic species. species associated with this type includes Memecylon umbellatum, Syzygium spp., Alseodaphne semecarpifolia, Hymenodictyon obovatum, Mallotus philippensis, Ficus racemosa, Ficus arnottiana, tetrandra, Atalantia racemosa, etc. Common shrub species includes Rauvolfia verticillata, Bridelia stipularis, Flueggea virosa, Ziziphus rugosa, Capparis moonii, Leea setuligera, Grewia spp., Woodfordia fruticosa, Gnidia glauca, etc. Climbers typical to these forests are Anodendron paniculatum, Carissa inermis, Arnicratea grahamii, Dioscorea spp., Combretum spp., etc. Epiphytes and parasites are much dominant in this type than that of the other. Some common epiphytic species are Dendrobium aqueum, Helixanthera hookeriana, Helicanthes elastica, Conchidium spp., Hoya wightii, etc.  Type 3B/C2 (Group 3 – Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub-group B – South Indian Moist Deciduous Forests, Sub- type C2– Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forests) This type of forests is common and distributed throughout the country. Within Koyna sanctuary, these forests are confined in low altitude areas where rainfall is comparatively low. This type is well distributed in the northern parts of the sanctuary including Kusapur, Khirkhindi, Uchat, Arav, Akalpe, Shindi, Valvan, Pimpri and on the outskirts of Navja, Ghatmatha, Avasari, Pali, Deur and Vele in the southeast. (Plate 5-4). The common tree species associated to this type of forest are Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia tomentosa, Syzygium spp., Macaranga peltata, Dillenia pentagyna, Bombax spp., Bridelia retusa, Careya arborea, Anogeissus latifolia, Xantolis tomentosa, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, etc.

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Shrubs such as Catunaregum spinosa, Meyna laxiflora, Murraya koenigii, Glochidion ellipticum, Allophyllus cobbe, Scutia myrtina, Carissa congesta, Grewia spp. etc. Undergrowth in this forest type is dominated by thick mat of Strobilanthes callosa and open slopes are covered by Gnidia glauca, Holarrhena pubescens, Ixora brachiata, Woodfordia fruticosa, Scutia myrtina, etc. Climbers and stranglers such as Cissus spp., Smilax ovalifolium, Moullava spicata, Hemidesmus indicum, Calycopteris floribunda, Derris spp., Dalbergia spp., etc.

5.1.1.2 Lateritic Plateaus Lateritic plateaus are a distinct geographical feature of Northern Western Ghats of India (Lekhak & Yadav, 2012). Plateaus are specialized habitats that support a unique variety of ephemeral and annual herbaceous flora. Factors such as high extent of species diversity and richness, range of adaptations in species, high percentage of endemism have always been topics of interest for botanists and ecologists. However, rocky plateaus along northern Western Ghats were remained unexplored for long time. Chavan et al. (1973) have enumerated 128 species from Kas area including forests, slopes and cliffs around Kas ferricretes. Porembski et al. (1994, 1997); Porembski & Watve (2005) were first to describe the vegetation of rock outcrops. Lekhak & Yadav (2012) contributed to document the diversity of herbaceous angiosperms and rare, endemic and threatened taxa of the plateaus. Watve (2013) has recorded status of six representative sites, of which two are located in Satara district. Lekhak & Yadav (2012) dealt with floristics of ten selected plateaus across northern Western Ghats, of which four are situated in Satara district. However, no reports on floristic diversity of plateaus located in Koyna WLS are available so far, and which could be attributed to inaccessibility of these areas. Present study is the first attempt to record the floristic diversity and status and distribution of endemic and threatened taxa associated with a set of plateaus within Koyna WLS that covers considerably large portion of a series of plateaus along northern Western Ghats.

Lateritic plateaus in Koyna WLS area are contiguous and spreading over large areas ranging 75-125 acres. Flat-topped hills surrounding the villages Humbarali and Gokul, near Koynanagar forms a chain of plateaus viz. Humbarali plaeau, Chital plateau and Kaeil plateau. These long stretched plateaus meet origin of Ozarde waterfall, at Navja towards north and Ghatmatha towards west.

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A few other plateaus such as Dicholi plateau, Shirshingi plateau and Kusumalata plateau are located in the interior forests and also cover significantly large area. The plateau is named after the forest beats viz. Kusavade, Maldev and Takwali those shares the area in which the plateau is situated (Plate 5-6).

This specialized habitat type is further divisible into typical microhabitats that support characteristic species assemblages (Lekhak & Yadav, 2012; Watve, 2013). Plants inhabiting the plateaus and their associations with each of the microhabitats are unique as these species are adapted to particular conditions such as edaphic properties, availability of water and species composition (Lekhak & Yadav, 2012). The most common micro-habitat types observed on the plateaus in the study area are as follows (Plates 5-7, 5-8).

i. Loose boulders: isolated or grouped rocks of various sizes. Species typically associated with them includes Indopoa paupercula, Neanotis spp., Mollugo pentaphylla, Conchidium braccatum, Begonia crenata, Sonerila scapigera, Utricularia striatula, etc. ii. Rock crevices: fissures and cracks along the flat rock surfaces. Species such as Utricularia albocaerulea, Neanotis foetida, Striga gesnerioides, Flemingia nilgheriensis, Murdannia semiteres, Indigofera dalzellii, Eriocaulon sp., Cyanotis fasciculata, Glyphochloa forficulata, Glyphochloa mysorensis and a few Poaceae members typically occurs along such crevices. iii. Ephemeral shallow pools: potholes or shallow depressions along rock crust that remains water-filled for a few days and dries soon as rain stops. Eriocaulon spp., Aponogeton satarensis and Rotala densiflora are observed to be exclusively associated with such pools. iv. Seasonal ponds: deep ponds that retain water till end of winter but dry out completely in summer. Floating as well as rooted hydrophytes such as green algae, Nymphoides indica, Cyperus spp., etc. v. Ephemeral flush vegetation: flat, seasonally wet surfaces covered by shallow soil layer through which water seeps through continuously. These habitats usually form dense mats comprising large populations of Eriocaulon sedgwickii, Eriocaulon ritchieanum, Utricularia spp. and few species of Poaceae. vi. Shallow soil-filled areas: depressions, flat areas and interspaces along boulders that covered with soils up to 20 cm deep. Species such as Impatiens lawii,

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Murdannia lanuginosa, Pogostemon deccanensis, Senecio spp., Isachne swaminathanii, Curcuma caulina, Jansenella griffithiana and Jansenella neglecta are observed to populate this micro-habitat. vii. Deep soil-filled areas: depressions and flat areas containing soils up to 1 m. Pleocaulus ritchei, Cyanotis tuberosa, Smithia spp., Habenaria rariflora, Dipcadi montanum are some of the species typically associated with these.

5.1.1.3 Grasslands

Grasslands in Koyna WLS are of secondary type (grassland formed in areas where forests were felled, and thus grasses and herb cover is seen instead of regenerating forest. Grasslands in the sanctuary are mainly confined to the hill slopes, hilltops and open patches in the deciduous forests. According to a survey conducted in the year 1999, grassland occupied approximately 52 sq. km area within sanctuary (Pande, 2005). In Kisrule, Pali, Pimpri, Valvan, Shirshingi, Khirkhindi beats hilly grasslands are dominant and forest grasslands are largely distributed in Metindavali, Kusapur and Maldev beats. Eulalia trispicata, Arthraxon spp. and Themeda spp. forms major populations of grasslands. (Plate 5-5).

5.1.2 General Vegetation

5.1.2.1 Aquatic Plants

Cook (1996) has given comprehensive account of c. 670 species of aquatic plants from India. Karthikeyan et al. (1982) enumerated 279 species of hydrophytic angiosperms from Maharashtra. Gaikwad et al. (2004) have reported 303 species of aquatic angiosperms from South-western Maharashtra. Kumar et al. (2011) recorded the status and distribution of aquatic plants of Western Ghats recording 608 species of aquatic angiosperms. In Koyna WLS, Shivsagar reservoir forms a large wetland in area and harbours a number of aquatic species. Several perennial streams flowing across the sanctuary also provides an important habitat to the species that are typically associated with shady places along banks and boulder islets along the streams.( Plate 5-9).

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At least 94 species of plants that are associated with aquatic habitats like river and stream banks, marshy places and seasonal pools have been recorded from Koyna WLS. Aeschynomene indica, Ammannia baccifera ssp. aegyptica, Aponogeton satarensis, Bacopa hamiltoniana, Bergia ammanioides, Brachiaria eruciformis, Bulbostylis densa, Burmannia pusilla, Centella asiatica, Centranthera indica, Coelachne simplicisuscula, Coldenia procumbens, Colocasia esculanta, Commelina benghalensis, Commelina diffusa, Commelina hasskarlii, Cyathocline purpurea, Cyperus alulatus, Cyperus difformis, Cyperus distans, Cyperus iria, Cyperus pangorei, Cyperus procerus, Cyperus rotundus, Cyperus tenuispica, Drosera burmanii, Drosera indica, Echinochloa colona, Echinochloa frumantacea, Eclipta prostrate, Eragrostis uniloides, Eriocaulon sedgwickii, Eriocaulon stelullatum, Fimbristylis aestivalis, Fimbristylis bisumbellata, Fimbristylis dichotoma, Fimbristylis littolaris, Floscopa scandens, Geissapsis cristata, Grangea maderaspatana, Hedyotis corymbosa, Hedyotis diffusa, Heliotropium indicum, Hydrilla verticillata, Hygrophila schulii, Hygrophila serpyllum, Ischaemum indicum, Kyllinga brevifolia, Limnophila heterophylla, Limnophila indica, Lindernia anagallis, Lindernia ciliata, Lindernia crustacea, Lindernia oppositifolia, Lindernia procumbens, Lindernia pusilla, Lobelia alsinoides, Lobelia heyneana, Ludwigia octovalvis ssp. sessiliflora, Ludwigia perennis, Mariscus paniceus, Mariscus squarrosus, Mariscus sumatrensis, Murdania semiteres, Murdania spirata, Murdannia simplex, Nymphoides indica, Oryza sativa, Panicum psilopodium, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Paspalum canarae, Persicaria glabra, Polycarpon prostratum, Polygonum plebeium, Polypleurum stylosum, Pycreus pumilus, Pycreus sanguinolentus, Rhamphicarpa longiflora, Rotala densiflora, Rotala floribunda, Rotala rotundifolia, Rotala serpyllifolia, Rotula aquatica, Sacciolepis indica, Sacciolepis interrupta, Schoenoplectus lateriflorus, Sphaeranthus indicus, Spilanthus calva, Spirodela polyrhiza, Urochloa panicoides, Utricularia arcuata, Utricularia caerulea, Utricularia reticulata, Utricularia striatula, Utricularia uliginosa, Vallisneria spiralis.

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5.1.2.5 Economically Important Plants i. Fodder Plants Common fodder plants occuring in the sanctuary includes Alloteropsis cimicina, Apluda mutica, Arundinella leptochloa, Capparis moonii, Dalbergia volubilis, Dichanthium annulatum, Echinochloa colona, Elephantopus scaber, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis gangetica, Eragrostis japonica, Eragrostis pilosa, Eulalia trispicata, Flacourtia indica, Kydia calycina, Lophopogon tridentatus, Meyna laxiflora (ftuits), Oplismenus compositus, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pseudanthistriria heteroclita, Sacciolepis interrupta, Themeda quadrivalvis, etc.. ii. Timber Plants Common timber plants found in the sanctuary are Bombax ceiba, Bridelia retusa, Carallia brachiata, Chukrasia tabularis, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Mangifera indica, Radermachera xylocarpa, Syzygium cumini, Termminalia paniculata, Terminalia cuneata, Terminalia elliptica, Vitex laucoxylon, Xylia xylocarpa, etc. iii. Medicinal Plants About 125 species of flowering plants recorded from the sanctuary are used as medicines by locals. Ancitrocladus heyneanus, Argyreia cuneata, Argyreia sericea, Arisaema murrayi, Asparagus racemosus, Bauhinia racemosa, Begonia crenata, Blumea lacera, Blumea malcolmii, Butea monosperma, Cajanus lineatus, Calamus pseudotenuis, Callicarpa tomentosa, Calycopteris floribunda, Canscora diffusa, Canthium angustifolium, Canthium dicoccum, Capparis moonii, Capparis rotundifolia, Careya arborea, Casearia championii, Casearia graveolens, Cassia fistula, Catunaregum spinosa, Celastrus paniculatus, Celosia argentea, Cinnamomum verum, Clematis gouriana, Clerodendrum multiflorum, Clerodendrum serratum, Clerodendrum viscosum, Clitoria ternatea, Colocasia esculenta, Cordia dichotoma, Cordia macleodii, Crateva magna, Crotalaria retusa, Curculigo orchioides, Cuscuta reflexa, Cyclea peltata, Cynarospermum asperrimum, Dendrobium barbatulatum, Dendrocalamus strictus, Desmodium laxiflorum, Desmodium triangulare, Desmodium triquetrum, Diospyros montana, Elephantopus scaber, Embelia ribes, Ensete superbum, Entada rheedii, Eranthemum roseum, Erinocarpus nimmonii, Erythrina variegata, Euphorbia laeta, Falconeria insignis, Ficus arnottiana, Ficus

9 benghalensis, Ficus exasperata, Ficus hispida, Ficus racemosa, Flemingia strobilifer, Gloriosa superba, Gmelina arborea, Gnidia glauca, Grewia tiliifolia, Helicanthes elastica, Helicters isora, Hemidesmus indicus, Holarrhena pubescens, Holigarna grahmii, Hygrophila schulli, Jasminum malabaricum, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Lawsonia inermis, Leea indica, Leucas ciliata, Leucas stelligera, Lobelia nicotianaefolia, Macaranga peltata, Mallotus philippensis, Memecylon umbellatum, Meyna laxiflora, Mimusoups elengi, Momordica dioica, Mucuna monosperma, Mucuna pruriens, Myristica dactyloides, Olea dioica, Oroxylum indicum, Paracalyx scariosus, Pavetta crassicaulis, Persicaria auriculata, Pinda concanense, Piper longum, Pittosporum dasycaulon, Plectranthus mollis, Pogostemon benghalensis, Pogostemon deccanensis, Polygonum glabrum, Reinwardtia indica, Remussatia vivipara, Rubia cordifolia, Rungia repens, Sida acuta, Smilax zeylanica, Solanum anguivi, Solanum virgnianum, Sopubia delphinifolia, Spilanthus calva, Swertia densifolia, Symplocos racemosa, Syzygium cumini, Terminalia arjuna, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia chebula, Terminalia paniculata, Toddalia asiatica var. asiatica, Trichosanthes tricuspidatus, Verbascum chinense, Vernonia cinerea, Viscum angulatum, Vigna vexillata, Vitex negundo, Woodfordia fruticosa, Zingiber neesanum, etc. iv. Wild Edible Plants of Anacardium occidentale, Artocarpus heterophyllus (pulp and seeds), Carissa spinarum, Cordia dichotoma , Dillenia pentagyna, Elaeagnus conferta, Ficus racemosa (receptacles), Flacourtia montana, Garcinia indica, Mangifera indica, Meyna laxiflora, Mimusops elengi, Phyllanthus emblica, Solanum anguivi, Syzygium cumini, Ziziphus jujuba, Ziziphus rugosa, etc.; leaves of Begonia crenata, Celosia argentea, Murraya koenigii, Nervilia concolor and Rotheca serrata, etc.; inflorescence of Dioscorea pentaphylla are some of the important wild edile plants consumed by local people in the study area. v. Fish poison Sphaeranthus indicus, Gnidia glauca, Catunaregum spinosa (fruits), Falconeria insignis are generally used as fish poison for easy catching by the local people in the study area.

10 vi. Spices Cinnamomum verum, Zanthoxylum rhetsa are the important spice plants found in the sanctuary.

The medicinal and other uses for certain species are mentioned in the enumeration.

5.2 Fauna Koyna WLS and its surrounding areas are recognized for their faunal diversity and richness since historical times. The sanctuary harbours and protects considerably large number of fauna belonging to both invertebrate and vertebrate groups.This section of the chapter presents data collected on important faunal groups through primary observations and desk studies. The details of each group are described in separate sub-sections in tabular form including scientific name, common name, global conservation status assigned to each of the species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and Schedule of Indian Wildlife (Protection Act), 1972.

The conservation categories mentioned as per the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species are as below:

CR- Critically Endangered EN- Endangered VU- Vulnerable

NT- Near Threatened LC- Least Concern DD-Data Deficient

NA- Not Assessed

5.2.1 Aquatic Fauna

5.2.1.1 Sponges Three species of sponges namely Spongilla perviridis, Spongilla sumatrana var. gravelyi and Arcidopsis footei have been reported from the waters of Koyna river by Kunte (ed.) (1974). No recent records revealing the status of these species are found.

5.2.1.2 Fishes A total of 58 species of freshwater fishes have been recorded belonging to 16 families and 35 genera from Koyna river (Jadhav et al. 2011) (Table 5-1). Of these,

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22 species are known to be endemic to the Western Ghats and 11 of these are recorded as restricted to the Krishna River system. Eight endemic fish species are ‘Vulnerable’ to the various anthropogenic activities in the recorded ranges of these species. However, fish fauna of Koyna river is relatively less susceptible to such threats due to low intensity of interference and no records of any alien fish fishes in the waters of Koyna. Within the catchment area of Shivsagar reservoir fishing activities are totally prohibited ensuring complete protection to the aquatic fauna.

Table 5-1: Freshwater Fishes of Koyna WLS

S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Western Krishna No. Status Ghats River Endemics System Endemics 1 Notopterus n otopterus - LC - - 2 Anguilla bengalensis Indian Mottled Eel NT - - 3 Barilius barna Barna Baril LC - - 4 Barilius bendelisis - LC - - 5 Cirrhinus fulungee Deccan White Carp LC * * 6 Crossocheilus latius Gangetic Latia LC - - 7 Devario aequipinnatus - LC - - 8 Garra bicornuta Tunga Garra NT * * 9 Garra gotyla stenorhynchus - NA * - 10 Garra mullya Mullya Garra LC - - 11 Gonoproktopterus curmuca - EN * - 12 Labeo boga - LC - - 13 Labeo boggut - LC - - 14 Labeo calbasu - LC - - 15 Labeo porcellus - LC - - 16 Osteobrama vigorsii Godavari LC - - Osteobrama 17 Osteochilichthys nashii Nash Barb LC * - 18 Osteochilichthys - - * - godavarienesis

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19 Puntius amphibius - DD - - 20 Puntius jerdoni - LC * - 21 Puntius sahyadriensis Khavli Barb LC * - 22 Puntius sarana subnasutus - - * - 23 Puntius sophore Spotfin Swamp LC - - Barb 24 Puntius ticto - - - - 25 Rasbora daniconius Slender Barb LC - - 26 Rohtee ogilbii Vatani Rohtee LC * * 27 Salmophasia balookee Bloch Razorbelly LC - - Minnow 28 Salmophasia boopis Boopis Razorbelly LC * - Minnow 29 Salmophasia novacula Novacula LC * - Razorbelly Minnow 30 Schismatorhynchos nukta Nukta EN * - 31 Tor khudree Black Mahseer EN * - 32 Parapsilorhynchus Khandalla Minnow LC - - tentaculatus 33 Parapsilorhynchus Ratnagiri Minnow VU * * discophorus 34 Acanthocobitis mooreh - NA - - 35 Indoreonectes evezardi - LC - - 36 Nemachilichthys ruppelli - NA * * 37 Noemacheilus anguilla - NA * * 38 Schistura denisoni - LC - - 39 Botia striata Zebra Loach EN * * 40 Lepidocephalichthys - LC - - thermalis 41 Mystus bleekeri - LC - - 42 Mystus malabaricus - NT * - 43 Mystus seengtee - LC - -

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44 Sperata seenghala - LC - - 45 - NT - - 46 Clupisoma taakree - - - - 47 Neotropius khavalchor - DD - - 48 Glyptothorax lonah - LC - - 49 Glyptothorax poonaensis - EN * * 50 Glyptothorax trewavasae - VU * * 51 Xenentodon cancila - LC - - 52 Mnopterus cf. indicus - - * * 53 Chanda nama Elongate Glass LC - - Perchlet 54 Pseudambassis ranga - - - - 55 Glossogobius giuris Barey Goby LC - - 56 Channa gachua Dwarf Snakhead LC - - 57 Channa marulius - LC - - 58 Mastacembelus armatus - - - -

5.2.2 Herpetofauna

5.2.2.1 Amphibians A number of suitable habitats in the sanctuary support presence of almost 33 species of amphibians including 31 species of frogs and toads, 2 species of caecilians and 2 species of freshwater turtles recorded from Koyna WLS (Padhye & Ghate 2012). (Table 5-2). Of these, one species is globally identified as Critically Endangered and two as Endangered and one species is exclusively known to be recorded from Koyna sanctuary. During the breeding season, coinciding with the monsoon, waterholes in the sanctuary becomes more remarkable by continuous loud calls of male frogs and toads advertising their presence at the breeding site. Table 5-2: Amphibians of Koyna WLS S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN WPA No. Status Schedule Frogs and Toads 1 Xanthophryne Humbarli Village Toad EN - koynayensis

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2 Duttaphrynus Black-spectacled Toad LC - melanostictus 3 Duttaphrynus stomaticus Assam Toad LC - 4 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Skittering Frog LC - 5 Microhyla rubra Red Narrow-mouthed Frog LC - 6 Pedostibes tuberculosus Malabar Tree Toad EN IV 7 Ramanella variegata Eluru Dot Frog LC - 8 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis - LC - 9 Euphlyctis hexadactylus Indian Pond Frog LC IV 10 Fejervarya brevipalmata Short Webbed Frog DD - 11 Fejervarya keralensis Kerala Warty Frog LC - 12 Fejervarya rufescens Rufescent Burrowing Frog LC - 13 Fejervarya syhadrensis Bombay Wart Frog LC - 14 Hoplobatrachus crassus Jerdon's Bullfrog LC IV 15 Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Indian Bullfrog LC IV 16 Hylarana malabarica Fungoid Frog LC - 17 Hylarana temporalis Bronze Frog NT - 18 Indirana beddomii Beddome's Indin Frog LC - 19 Indirana leithii Mathran Indian Frog VU - 20 Microhyla ornata Ornate Narrow-mouthed LC - Frog 21 Nyctibatrachus danieli Daniel's Night Frog - - 22 Nyctibatrachus humayuni Bomaby Night Frog VU - 23 Polypedates maculatus Himalayan Tree Frog LC - 24 Pseudophilautus amboli Amboli Bush Frog CR - 25 Ramanella montana Jerdon's Ramanella NT - 26 Raorchestes bombayensis Maharashtra Bush Frog VU - 27 Raorchestes glandulosus Southern Buble-nest Frog VU - 28 Raorchestes Kudremukkh Budh Frog DD - tuberohumerus 29 Sphaerotheca breviceps Indian Burrowing Frog LC - 30 Sphaerotheca dobsonii Dobson's Burrowing Frog LC - 31 Uperodon globulosus Indian Ballon Frog LC -

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Caecilian 32 Ichthyophis bombayensis Bombay Caecilian LC - 33 Indotyphlus Humbarli Caecilian DD - maharashtraensis

Freshwater Turtles 34 Lissemys punctata Indian Flapshell Turtle NA I

35 Nilssonia leithii Leith’s Softshell Turtle VU I

5.2.2.2 Reptiles Various studies on the reptiles of Western Ghats suggest that Koyna WLS supports presence of 45 species of snakes and 11 species of geckos and lizards ((Das, 2002; Dagupta et al. 2012) (Table 5-3).

Malabar Pit Viper, Bamboo Pit Viper are occasionally seen on litter-covered grounds of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Boulders and crevices along the long- stretching plateaux also provide an important microhabitat to species such as Russell's Viper and Sitana. Common Vine Snake is seen throughout the sanctuary and Banded Kukri, Indian Rat Snake are commonly seen near villages. Amongst lizards and geckos, Forest Calotes, Common Skink, Rock Gecko are very commonly seen in all parts of the sanctuary.

Table 5-3: Reptiles of Koyna WLS

S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN WPA No. Status Schedule Geckos and Lizards 1 Hemidactylus flaviviridis Northern House Gecko NA - 2 Hemidactylus leschenaultii Bark Gecko NA - 3 Hemidactylus brookii Brook's Gecko NA - 4 Hemidactylus frenatus Common House Gecko LC - 5 Hemidactylus maculatus Rock Gecko, Spotted LC - Leaf-toed Gecko

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6 Calotes versicolor Common Garden Lizard NA - 7 Calotes rouxi Forest Calotes NA - 8 Sitana ponticeriana Fan-throated Lizard LC - 9 Cyrtodactylus deccanensis Gunther's Indian Gecko LC - 10 Mabuya carinata Common Skink LC - 11 Varanus bengalensis Indian Monitor Lizard LC I Snakes 12 Ahaetulla nasuta Common Vine Snake NA - 13 Ahaetulla pulverulenta Brown Vine Snake LC - 14 Amphiesma beddomei Beddome's Keelback LC - 15 Amphiesma stolatum Buff-stripped Keelback NA - 16 Argyrogena fasciolata Banded Racer NA - 17 Boiga beddomei Beddome's Cat Snake DD - 18 Boiga ceylonensis Ceylon Cat Snake NA - 19 Boiga forsteni Reddish Peninsular Cat LC - Snake 20 Boiga trigonata Common Indian Cat Snake LC - 21 Bungarus caerulus Common Indian Krait NA - 22 Calliophis melanurus Slender Coral Snake NA - 23 Calliophis nigrescens Striped Coral Snake LC - 24 Chrysopelea ornata Ornamental Flying Snake NA - 25 Coelognathus helena helena Common Indian Trinket NA - Snake 26 Coelognathus helena Montane Trinket Snake NA - monticollaris 27 Coluber gracilis Graceful Racer DD - 28 Coronella brachyura Indian Smooth Snake LC - 29 Daboia russelii Russell's Viper LC II 30 Dendrelaphis tristis Brozeback Tree Snake NA - 31 Echis carinatus Saw-scaled Viper NA - 32 Eryx conicus Common Sand Boa NA - 33 Eryx johnii John's Sand Boa NA - 34 Eryx whitakeri Whitaker's Boa NA -

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35 Grypotyphlops acutus Beaked Worm Snake LC - 36 Liopeltis calamaria Lesser Striped-necked NA - Snake 37 Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake NA - 38 Lycodon flavomaculatus Yellow-spotted Wolf LC - Snake 39 Lycodon striatus Barred Wolf Snake NA - 40 Lycodon travancoricus Travancore Wolf Snake LC - 41 Macropisthodon plumbicolor Green Keelback NA - 42 Naja naja Spectacled Cobra NA II 43 Oligodon arnensis Banded Kukri NA - 44 Oligodon taeniolatus Streaked Kukri Snake LC - 45 Psammophis condanarus Western Sand Snake LC - 46 Psammophis leithii Leith's Sand Snake NA - 47 Ptyas mucosa Indian Rat Snake NA II 48 Python molurus molurus Indian Rock Python NA I 49 Ramphotyphlops braminus Brahminy Worm Snake NA - 50 Rhabdops olivaceus Olive Forest Snake LC - 51 Sibynophis subpunctatus Black-headed Snake NA - 52 Trimeresurus gramineus Bamboo Pit Viper LC - 53 Trimeresurus malabaricus Malabar Pit Viper LC - 54 Uropeltis macrolepis Bombay Shieldtail LC - 55 Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keelback NA II Water Snake

5.2.3. Availability of variety of host and adult food plant species attracts and supports presence of many species in the sanctuary. Padhye et al. (2013) have reported at least 59 species of butterflies from Koyna and Vasota areas in the sanctuary (Table 5-4). During the course of this study, an enthralling phenomenon of butterfly migrations was regularly observed in Navja area of the sanctuary. Hordes of Tigers and Crows were frequently sighted in large swarms during the months of December–January. Many of the recorded species of butterflies have been sighted in all areas of the sanctuary during the course of field studies.

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Table 5-4: Butterflies of Koyna WLS

S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN Status No. 1 Graphium sarpedon Common Bluebottle NA 2 Graphium doson Common Jay NA 3 Papilio demoleus Lime Butterfly NA 4 Papilio helenus Red Helen NA 5 Papilio polymnestor Blue Mormon NA 6 Papilio polytes Common Mormon NA 7 Catopsilia pomona Common Emigrant NA 8 Cepora nerissa Common Gull NA 9 Eurema hecabe Common grass Yellow NA 10 Pachliopta hector Crimson Rose NA 11 Pachliopta aristolochiae Common Rose NA 12 Appias albina Common Albatross NA 13 Colotis etrida Small Orange Tip NA 14 Delias eucharis Common Jezebel NA 15 Pareronia valeria Common Wanderer NA 16 Ariadne merione Cmmon Castor NA 17 Danaus genutia Striped Tiger NA 18 Euploea core Common Indian Crow LC 19 Euthalia aconthea Common Baron NA 20 Hypolimnas bolina Great Eggfly NA 21 atlites Grey Pansy NA 22 Eurema laeta Spotless Grass Yellow NA 23 Hebomoia glaucippe Great Orange Tip NA 24 Ixias marianne White Orange Tip NA 25 Leptosia nina Psyche NA 26 Pieris canidia Indian Cabbage White NA 27 Acraea violae Twany Coaster NA 28 Athyma perius Common Sergeant NA 29 Tawny Rajah NA

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30 Charaxes solon Black Rrajah NA 31 Cyrestis thyodamas Common Map NA 32 Danaus chrysippus Plain Tiger NA 33 Elymnias hypermnestra Common Palmfly NA 34 Euthalia lubentina Gaudy Baron NA 35 Euthalia nais Baronet NA 36 Hypolimnas misippus Danaid Eggfly NA 37 Junonia almana Peacock Pansy LC 38 Junonia hierta Yellow Pansy LC 39 Junonia lemonias Lemon Pansy NA 40 Junonia orithya Blue Pansy NA 41 Junonia iphita Chocolate Pansy NA 42 Melanitis leda Common Evening Brown NA 43 Common Sailer NA 44 Pantoporia hordonia Common Lascar NA 45 Parantica aglea Glassy Tiger NA 46 Phalanta phalantha Common Leopard NA 47 Tirumala limniace Blue Tiger NA 48 Ypthima asterope Common Threering NA 49 Caleta caleta Angled Pierrot LC 50 Ypthima baldus Common Fivering NA 51 Ypthima huebneri Common Fourring NA 52 puspa Common Hedge Blue NA 53 Castalius rosimon Common Pierrot NA 54 Catochrysops strabo Forget-Me-Not NA 55 Euchrysops cnejus Gram Blue NA 56 Talicada nyseus Red Pierrot NA 57 Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue NA 58 Abisara echerius Plum Judy NA 59 Kallima horsfieldi Blue Oakleaf NA

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5.4.4 Mammals

Dense and wide spreading forests and plentiful water resources in the sanctuary provides suitable habitats to many mammalian species (Karnat & Panditrao, 2013). Tiger is the flagship species of the protected area. Direct visual records of tiger in the sanctuary area are very rare, however, some indirect evidences such as scats and trails have been recorded the in study area. Amongst other carnivores, Leopards are occasionally recorded through the direct sightings by forest staff and local residents and indirect evidences have been recorded during the field surveys in Navja, Karanjwade, Dicholi, Shirshinge, Takvali beats. Amongst herbivores, herds of Gaurs comprising 6–15 individuals are frequently seen grazing along the hill slopes and banks of Shivsagar reservoir. Sloth Bear is another featured species of the sanctuary. They are generally known to inhabit caves and crevices in the rocky mountainous forested patches across the sanctuary. A direct sighting of Sloth Bear was recorded in the Takvali beat in November 2013. Frequent sightings of Bears are also reported by the Forest Department staff. A few incidents of accidental attacks on humans by Sloth Bears have also been recorded in the sanctuary. Sambar, Indian Crested Porcupine, Indian Grey Mongoose and Wild Boar are some other frquently sighted of the sanctuary. Indian Giant Squirrel, a State of Maharashtra was frequently sighted in Navja, Dicholi and Karanjwade, Vasota beats within the sanctuary.

Table.5-5: Mammals of Koyna WLS

S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN WPA No. Status Schedule Primates 1 Macaca radiata Bonnet Macaque LC II 2 Semnopithecus entellus Northern Plains Langur LC II Even-toed Ungulates 3 Moschiola indica Indian Chevrotain LC I 4 Muntiacus muntjak Indian Muntjac LC III 5 Rusa unicolor Sambar VU III 6 Bos gaurus Gaur VU I 7 Sus scrofa Wild Boar LC III

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Carnivores 8 Panthera tigris Tiger EN I 9 Panthera pardus Common Leopard VU I 10 Paradoxurus Common Palm Civet LC II hermaphroditus 11 Viverricula indica Small Indian Civet LC II 12 Herpestes edwardsii Indian Grey Mongoose LC II 13 Canis aureus Golden Jackal LC II 14 Melursus ursinus Sloth Bear VU I Hare 15 Lepus nigricollis Indian Hare LC IV Pangolin 16 Manis crassicaudata Indian Pangolin EN I Shrews and Moles 17 Anathana ellioti Southern Treeshrew LC II 18 Suncus murinus House Shrew LC - Rodents 19 Hystrix indica Indian Crested LC IV Porcupine 20 Ratufa indica Indian Giant Squirrel LC I 21 Funambulus palmarum Three-striped Palm LC - Squirrel 22 Tatera indica Indian Gerbil LC - 23 Vandeleuria oleracea Indian Long-tailed Tree LC V Mouse 24 Mus musculus House Mouse LC V 25 Millardia meltada Soft-fured Metad LC V 26 Madromys blanfordi White-tailed Rat LC V 27 Bandicota bengalensis Lesser Bandicoot Rat LC V 28 Rattus rattus House Rat LC V Bats 29 Cynopterus sphinx Greater Shortnosed LC V Bat

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30 Pteropus giganteus Indian Flying Fox LC V 31 Rousettus leschenaulti LC V 32 Taphozous longimanus Long-winged Tomb Bat LC - 33 Taphozous melanopogon Black-bearded Tomb LC - Bat 34 Megaderma lyra Greater False Vampire LC - 35 Megaderma spasma Lesser False Vampire LC - 36 Rhinolophus beddomei Beddome's Horseshoe NT V Bat 37 Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth's Horseshoe Bat LC - 38 Rhinolophus rouxii Rufous Horseshoe Bat NT - 39 Hipposideros fulvus Fulvous leaf-nosed Bat LC - 40 Hipposideros galeritus Cantor'sLeaf-nosed Bat NT V 41 Hipposideros speoris Schneider's Leaf-nosed LC - Bat 42 Tadarida aegyptiaca Egyptian Free-tailed Bat LC V 43 Kerivoula picta Painted Woolly Bat LC - 44 Myotis horsfieldii Horsfield's Myotis LC V 45 Pipistrellus coromandra Coromandel Pipistrelle LC - 46 Pipistrellus ceylonicus Kelaart's Pipistrelle LC - 47 Pipistrellus tenuis Least Pipistrelle LC - 48 Scotophilus kuhlii Lesser Asiatic Yellow LC V House Bat

5.4.5 Avifauna

Secondary data suggests that almost 213 species of resident and about 121 migratory birds are having records in Koyna WLS (Grimmett, et al. 2011; Karnat & Panditrao, 2013) Amongst these, eight species are known to be endemic to the Western Ghats. Mehta & Kulkarni (2012) have studied the endemic avifauna of the Western Ghats occurring in Koyna WLS. This study revealed that the species richness in Koyna is second highest among the protected areas and reserve forests in Western Ghats of Maharashtra.

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During the field studies, a number of bird species have been recorded through direct visual sightings and through indirect evidences such as calls and nests. Details of the selected bird species recorded during the course of study are presented below (Table 5-6).

Table 5-6: Avifauna of Koyna WLS

S. Scientific Name Common Name IUCN WPA No. Status Schedule 1 Coturnix chinensis King Quail NA IV 2 Perdicula asiatica Jungle Bush Quail LC IV 3 Gallus sonneratii Grey Junglefowl LC IV 4 Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron LC IV 5 Ardea purpurea Purple Heron LC IV 6 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret LC IV 7 Casmerodius albus Great Egret LC IV 8 Mesophoyx intermedia Intermediate Egret LC IV 9 Falco tinnunculus Common Kestrel LC - 10 Elanus caeruleus Black-winged Kite LC IV 11 Milvus migrans Black Kite LC IV 12 Haliastur indus Brahminy Kite LC IV 13 Ictinaetus malaiensis Black Eagle LC - 14 Neophron percnopterus Egyptian Vulture EN IV 15 Circaetus gallicus Short-toed Snake Eagle LC IV 16 Spilornis cheela LC IV 17 Accipiter badius Shikra LC I 18 Vanellus indicus Red-wattled Lapwing LC IV 19 Charadris dubius Little Ringed Plover LC IV 20 Rostratula bengalensis Greater Painted-snipe NA IV 21 Sterna aurantia River Tern NT - 22 Sterna aucuticauda Black-bellied Tern EN - 23 livia Common Pigeon LC - 24 Ducula aenea Green LC IV 25 Columba elphinstonii Nilgiri Wood Pigeon VU IV

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26 Streptopelia decaocto Eurasian Collared Dove LC IV 27 Stigmatopelia chinensis Spotted Dove LC IV 28 Stigmatopelia senegalensis Laughing Dove LC IV

29 Treron (pompadora)affinis Grey-fronted Green LC IV Pigeon 30 Treron phoenicopterus Yellow-footed Green LC IV Pigeon 31 Psittacula clumboides Malabar Parakeet LC IV 32 Tyto alba Barn Owl LC IV 33 Otus bakkamoena Indian Scops Owl LC IV 34 Glaucidium radiatum Jungle Owlet LC IV 35 Athene brama Spotted Owlet LC IV 36 Caprimulgus indicus Jungle Nightjar LC - 37 Collocalia unicolor Indian Swiftlet LC I 38 Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift LC - 39 Coracias benghalensis Indian Roller LC IV 40 Pelargopsis capensis Stork-billed Kingfisher LC IV 41 Halcyon smyrnensis White-throated LC IV Kingfisher 42 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher LC IV 43 Ceyx erithaca Oriental Dwarf LC IV Kingfisher 44 Ceryle rudis Pied Kingfisher LC IV 45 Merops orientalis Green Bee-eater LC - 46 Anthracoceros coronatus Malabar Pied NT IV

47 Psilopogon viridis White-cheeked Barbet LC IV 48 Psilopogon haemacaphala Coppersmith Barbet LC IV

49 Micropternus brachyurus Rufous Woodpecker LC IV

50 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora - 51 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Small Minivet LC IV

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52 Lanius schach Long-tailed Shrike LC - 53 Lanius meridionalis Southern Grey Shrike LC - 54 Dicrurus macrocercus Black Drongo LC IV 55 Dicrurus caerulescens White-bellied Drongo LC IV 56 Oriolus xanthornus Black-hooded Oriole LC IV 57 Rhipidura aureola White-browed Fantail LC - 58 Terpsiphone paradisi Asian Paradise- LC IV flycatcher 59 Hypothymis azurea Black-naped Monarch LC - 60 Dendrocitta vagabunda Rufous Treepie LC - 61 Corvus (macrorhynchos) Indian Jungle Crow NA - culminatus 62 Parus major Great Tit LC IV 63 Ptyonoprogne concolor Dusky Crag Martin LC - 64 Petrochelidon fluvicola Streak-throated LC - Swallow 65 Hirundo smithii Wire-tailed Swallow LC - 66 Cecropis daurica Red-rumped Swallow LC - 67 Mirafra erythroptera Indian Bushlark LC - 68 Ammomanes phoenicura Rufous-tailed Lark LC IV 69 Galerida malabarica Malabar Lark LC IV 70 Pycnonotus cafer Red-vented LC IV 71 Pycnonotus luteolus White-browed Bulbul LC IV 72 Hypsipetes ganeesa Square-tailed Bulbul LC IV 73 Prinia sylvatica Jungle Prinia LC - 74 Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia LC - 75 Prinia inornata Plain Prinia LC - 76 Cisticola juncidis Zitting Cisticola LC - 77 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird LC - 78 Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Indian Scimitar Babbler LC IV

79 Turdoides subrufa Rufous Babbler LC IV 80 Turdoides caudata Common Babbler LC IV

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81 Turdoides striata Jungle Babbler LC IV 82 Zosterops palpebrosus Oriental White-eye LC - 83 Acridotheres fuscus Jungle Myna LC - 84 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna LC - 85 Sturnia pagodarum Brahminy Starling LC - 86 Myophonus horsfieldii Malabar Whistling LC IV Thrush 87 Zoothera citrina Orange-headed Thrush LC IV 88 Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin LC - 89 Saxicoloides fulicatus Indian Robin LC IV 90 Saxicola caprata Pied Bushchat LC IV 91 Cyornis tickelliae Tickell's Blue LC - Flycatcher 92 Irena puella Asian Fairy Bluebird LC - 93 Leptocoma zeylonica Purple-rumped Sunbird LC IV 94 Cinnyris asiaticus Purple Sunbird LC IV 95 Leptocoma minima Crimson-backed LC IV Sunbird 96 Cinnyris lotenius Loten's Sunbird LC IV 97 Gymnoris xanthocollis Chestnut-shouldered LC - Petronia 98 Ploceus philippinus Baya Weaver LC - 99 Amandava amandava Red Avadavat LC IV 100 Lonchura striata White-rumped Munia LC IV 101 Motacilla maderaspatensis White-browed Wagtail LC -

102 Anthus rufulus Paddyfield Pipit LC - 103 Melophus lathami Crested Bunting LC IV

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Figure 5-1: Map showing Forest Types of Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

Source: Divisional Forest Office, Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

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Figure 5-2: Map showing Vegetation Density of Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

Source: Divisional Forest Office, Sahyadri Tiger Reserve

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