Practices of Proximity: Appropriation in the Australian Contact Zone Katherine E. Russo A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, Schools of English, The University of New South Wales, in partial fulfilment of the degree of PhD 2007 To special relationships, To my mother Abstract In the last thirty years appropriation has been studied as the practice of reworking earlier works of art or literature by presenting them in new contexts, or to challenge notions of individual creativity or authenticity in art. However, the term “appropriation” is hotly debated in the fields of Indigenous and Post-colonial studies for technologies such as the English language, writing and visual art have for a long time assumed the connotation of ‘colonial property’. The object of this enquiry is to explore the extent to which Indigenous Australian appropriations of the English language, writing and visual art, provide – though they differ widely in terms of themes, strategies and styles – a terrain for discussing unexplored issues of intercultural representation, epistemology and interpretation. The dissertation offers a close reading of literary and visual “practices of proximity”, such as interlanguages, editorial relations and cross-cultural exhibitions, in order to demonstrate that Indigenous Australian appropriations variously disrupt neo/colonial claims of property. This dissertation is organized thematically, and consists of three parts entitled “Interlanguages”, “Intertextual Performances” and “Contested Sights”. Each part consists of three chapters, which move from an initial questioning of technology as colonial property, to the close analysis of some Indigenous appropriations and non-Indigenous counter- appropriations. Situated at the crossroads between Indigenous and Post- colonial studies, the dissertation offers insights into the timely debates on sovereignty, difference and subject positioning. The combination of theories of “appropriation” and “intersubjectivity” illuminates a new path in theorizing Australian intercultural relations. The Australian contact zone is unveiled as a place of Indigenous sovereignty where the colonial subject iv is ontologically and epistemologically constituted in correlation with Indigenous peoples. Thereby, the Indigenous/non-Indigenous intersubjective relation is recognised as the ground from which notions of the colonial self and other derive and which colonial reifying self- reflection has misconceived as separate. v Acknowledgements It has been quite a journey, but often the best part of travelling are the people you meet along the way. This thesis has benefited from many conversations and discussions with two wonderful scholars: my supervisors, Senior Lecturer Anne Brewster and Prof. Bill Ashcroft. To both, for inspiring, guiding and supporting me with invaluable expertise, critical encouragement and friendship, goes my infinite and most sincere gratitude. I am indebted to both: to Anne, for continuing her supervision while she was in Germany for an exchange lecturing program, and to Bill, for accepting to continue his supervision although he moved to Hong Kong to be Chair Professor of English. I am also grateful to Dr. Shalmalee Palekar for her precious feed-back on some late drafts of the thesis. I could not have commenced the project without the support of my undergraduate supervisors, Prof. Iain Chambers and Prof. Jane Wilkinson. Your work is contagious and prompted me to start this journey. Today, it continues to stimulate me more than I can say. The School of English of the University of New South Wales provided a challenging environment and is unique in its generosity towards young scholars. Special thanks go to Prof. Bruce Johnson for vi encouraging me and showing interest in my work at all times. I am grateful to Ass. Prof. Sue Kossew, for her warm words as postgraduate coordinator during the time of my candidature, and to Senior Lecturer Elizabeth McMahon, for her sensitivity and constructive criticism at times when I most needed it. I am also grateful to Senior Lecturer, Suzanne Eggins, for suggesting that I should upgrade to a PhD. Moreover, I would like to sincerely thank Susan Price, who has a pivotal role in making things happen at the School of English. Although I cannot mention everyone here, I would like to thank Senior Lecturer Brigitta Olubas, Dr. Paul Dawson, Dr. Bill Walker, Prof. Christine Alexander and Prof. Peter Alexander for making the School of English such a stimulating environment. My warmest thanks go to the postgraduate students and friends of the School of English. I have fond memories of my time spent with Tim Roberts, Warwick Shapcott, Bronwyn Rivers, Diana Percy, Sandra Knowles, Joan Phillips, Motoko Sugano, Agnes Vogler, Adriana Tusnea, Blanca Tovias and Joshua Lobb. One of the most precious rewards of my time in Australia, were the countless conversations with my dear colleagues and friends Kate Livett, Grant Hamilton and Alessandro Abbate. I am also grateful to the Centre for Postcolonial Studies of Naples and the Cultural and Postcolonial Studies PhD Seminar Series of the University “L’Orientale” of Naples for offering me hospitality when I most needed it and for the sweet insanity of our exciting discussions. My most sincere admiration goes to all the scholars who nurture this close- knit group: to name only a few, Prof. Lidia Curti, Ass. Prof. Silvana Carotenuto, Ass. Prof. Mara De Chiara, Ass. Prof. Annamaria Cimitile, Dr. Sara Marinelli, Dr. Manuela Coppola, Dr. Serena Guarracino and all the Postgraduate students. vii This thesis would not have been possible without the love and support of my family and friends in Italy, who understood the reasons for my departure, and my family and friends in Australia, who helped me when I was most disoriented. A special thank you goes to Auntie Ruth Fawcett, Lindsay Sturman, Uncle John Fawcett, Auntie Jenny Fawcett, Emily Sturman, Eric Sturman, Julia Fawcett, Andrew Fawcett, Alex Fawcett, Ben Fawcett, Brendan Winter, Meital Winter, Judy Ashcroft, Eleanor McKeough, Madeleine Boulton, Laura, Valentin, Luisa, Michael, Naomi, Wanda, Maria and Peppa. All my gratitude goes to my father for giving me an example of strength, to my brother for inspiring me with his unbound creativity and to my mother for being the most generous person I have ever met. All my love goes to Riccardo, my most precious companion in this journey and devoted listener. And to Matteo, for all the joy and laughter you have brought into my life. viii Contents Abstract iv Acknowledgements vi Contents ix Introduction 1 Part One: Interlanguages Introduction 19 Chapter One 22 Questioning the ‘Use’ of English -Language as Reflection: Naming and Colonial Representation 23 -Relativism, Determinism and Discourse: The English Language 30 and Thinking White -The Dialogism of the English Language 38 Chapter Two 47 A Grammar of Dialogue: Indigenous Australian Appropriations of Language -Cultural Incommensurability and the Metonymic Gap: 49 Glossing and Untranslated Words -Moving Across Language: The English Language Continuum 56 and Code-Switching -Secret Lives and Undercurrents: Relexification and the Strategic 62 Camouflage of Meaning -Interpellating the colonial subject: Intersubjective Re-definitions 72 of Negative Connotations Chapter Three 80 Speaking in the Contact Zone: Interlanguage and Intersubjectivity -Interlanguages: Power, Language and Intersubjective Positionings 81 -Responding to Intercultural Appropriation: Re-appropriations, 87 Re-definitions and Neologisms ix Part Two: Intertextual Performances Introduction 95 Chapter Four 102 Questioning the ‘Use’ of Writing -Writing and the Unquestioned Work of Scientific Recording 103 -Writing as Foreign Knowledge and Perception 110 -Writing and Verbal Art as Intertextual Perfomances 115 Chapter Five 127 Calling Readers to Listen: Indigenous Australian Appropriations of Writing -“Educating” the Audience in Writing 130 -Writing for Self-Representation 138 -Writing for Secret and Shared Experience 155 -Writing to Remember 161 Chapter Six 173 Intersubjective Readings and Responses: The Literary Contact Zone -Writing, Reading and Responding: The Potential 174 of Intercultural Relationality -The Invisible Participants of Literary Productions: 179 Editors, Critics and Readers Part Three: Contested Sights Introduction 200 Chapter Seven 203 Questioning the ‘Use’ of Visual Art -Evidence, Truth and Commodity: Colonial Practices of the Gaze 204 -“Aboriginality” and Discursive Representations 213 -Relating to Ourselves: The Ontological Priority of Intersubjectivity 222 Chapter Eight 230 Overcoming Monopolism: Strategies of Appropriation in Indigenous Visual Art -The “Connectedness” of Burning Sites 232 and the “Incommensurability”of Roads Crossing -Recycling Identity 242 -Scattered Contingencies 249 x Chapter Nine 262 Dispossessing the Gaze: Situating Intersubjective Looking Practices -Contested Sites/Sights: The Ambiguous Location 263 of Indigenous Visual Art -Looking Relations: Appropriations, Collaborations 280 and Intersubjective Positionings Conclusion 294 Illustrations 305 Bibliography 307 xi Introduction It’s the master’s rules, not his tools that are the problem: starting from rule one, that the tools are his and should only be used as and when he directs. (Bob Hodge, “Poetry and Politics in Oodgeroo”) n 1987 Eric Michaels wrote about how the local schoolmaster of I Yuendumu, Terry Davis, commissioned some Warlpiri senior men to paint the local school doors with the available standard school