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THE DUKE OF YORK: FATHER OF AMERICA’S SLAVE SOCIETY

© Edward Doten, 2020 All rights reserved, except as set forth below.

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The Father of America’s Slave Society

TWO IMPORTANT WARNINGS First, if you are sensitive or squeamish, then you may prefer not to read this book. The book contains phenomenally gruesome violence described herein. I was disturbed on many occasions by my research and by the information I believe necessary to convey in order to provide an accurate description of slavery. This is not your typically carefully-censored and whitewashed high school discussion of slavery. Second, the language of the time was rough and crude, and often would be considered to be deeply offensive today. I have chosen to quote directly from books by or about Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, Sojourner Truth, Solomon Northup, Harriet Jacobs, William Wells Brown, David Walker, and others, who themselves are quoting, or were, slaveholders or others who disrespected African-Americans. The books, and the quotations, use dialect. To be true to the historical value of the material, I deliberately have not deleted words they used, even if those words may offend. Again, if you disagree with that approach, or if you are sensitive or squeamish, then you may prefer not to read this book. I do not condone racism, discrimination, or prejudice of any kind. The Father of America’s Slave Society

In memory and recognition of America’s Slave Heroes—Harriet Tubman, Frederick Douglass, Sojourner Truth, Harriet Jacobs, Solomon Northup, William Wells Brown, Lt. Juan Bautista (Prince) Witten and the Florida Army of Black Warriors, Nat Turner, David Walker, and many other brave African-Americans, both slave and “free”—far too numerous to name—who fought bravely and valiantly against their bondage and discrimination to attain great heights and success, and in addition, in memory of the abolitionists, both “free” African- Americans—especially William Still, the Father of the Underground Railroad—and whites, who provided invaluable assistance to slaves, often in violation of federal and state laws and at great risk of harm to themselves

§ § §

It is time for America to recognize, and to teach our children that, through their exemplary courage, words and actions, these African-American heroes contributed mightily to American history and culture and should be held up to America’s youth as role models

§ § §

Their contributions to America were so significant that America’s Slave Heroes deserve to be recognized in America’s history on a par with the Founding Fathers (including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson) and Abraham Lincoln, each of whom also contributed significantly to America

The Father of America’s Slave Society

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: MEET AMERICA’S SLAVE SOCIETY ...... 1 Meet America’s Slave Society ...... 2 The Birth of America’s Reign of Terror in the 1660s...... 11 Why The Duke of York Is the Father of America’s Slave Society ...... 14 Time Line: The Monarchy Creates a Monster ...... 27 The Terrorist Slave Society ...... 30 Exceptional Inhumanity of American Slavery, Even in Its Time ...... 32 America Chose Despotic Repression Over Humanity ...... 36 Rationalizing Slavery: “For Their Own Good” ...... 40 A Boiling Pot: The Depraved Slave Society ...... 43 An “Actual Reign of Terror” ...... 46 Recognize and Honor America’s Slave Heroes ...... 51

CHAPTER TWO: AMERICA’S SLAVE SOCIETY WAS A TERROR SOCIETY ...... 57 Slaves Are Things, Animals...... 60 Slaves Society’s Power of Control ...... 60 Denial of Common Comforts and Conveniences of Life ...... 63 Sexual Dominance ...... 63 Family Prevention and Destruction ...... 63 Denial of Legal Rights ...... 64 No Freedom ...... 64 Infliction of Terror ...... 64 Governmental Protection for Slavery ...... 65 Instruments of Terror ...... 65 Ultimate Terror Message ...... 67

CHAPTER THREE: THE DUKE OF YORK PROMOTES SLAVERY ...... 68 English Defeat of Dutch Led to New York’s Honoring the Duke ...... 69

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Duke of York as Key Governmental Slave Trader: Royal African Company ...... 72 Duke of York’s Key Role in Promoting American Slavery ...... 77 Why Charles II and the Duke of York Promoted Slavery: Follow the Money ...... 85 The “Duke’s Laws” and His Opposition to Representative Government ...... 90 The Duke’s Daughter, Queen Anne, Continued His Slavery Promotion ...... 99

CHAPTER FOUR: AMERICA’S SLAVERY CONTRADICTIONS ...... 101 America’s Becomes a Nation in 1776, and Chooses to Perpetuate the Reign of Terror ...... 102 Four Key Events ...... 103 English Defeat of the Dutch (1664) ...... 104 Declaration of Independence and Constitution (1776/1788) ...... 105 Invention of Cotton Gin (1793) ...... 106 13th Amendment’s Ratification (1865) ...... 110 The Revolution Was About Freedom, But Not for Slaves ...... 112 Northwest Ordinance ...... 118 The Constitution Contemplated and Protected Slavery ...... 122 George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, John Jay, and Other Founding Fathers ...... 128 Founding Fathers’ Slavery Contradictions ...... 128 Presidents and Other Founding Fathers ...... 128 Contradictions ...... 132 The Slave Society’s Persistence ...... 133 Thomas Jefferson ...... 135 George Washington ...... 138 Supreme Court Justices ...... 142 Chief Justice John Jay ...... 142 Chief Justice John Marshall ...... 143 Chief Justice Roger Taney ...... 145 Summary ...... 146 Abraham Lincoln ...... 148 Difficult Choices ...... 148 Lincoln’s Opposition to Slavery ...... 150 Lincoln’s Evolution ...... 153 Emancipation Proclamation ...... 154

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Gettysburg Address ...... 157 President Lincoln and Frederick Douglass ...... 157 Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address ...... 158 Summary ...... 160

CHAPTER FIVE: THE DUKE’S SLAVE TRADING LEGACY ...... 162 Africans in Transition: From People to Things ...... 163 Genocide and Holocaust ...... 166 The Triangular Trade and the Middle Passage: Key Role in Genocide ...... 169 Triangular Trade ...... 169 Middle Passage ...... 171 Kidnapping, Purchase, and Storage in Africa ...... 171 The Story of Ottobah Cugoano’s Capture in Africa ...... 175 Deaths and Floating Tombs ...... 179 Packing the Ships ...... 180 Slaves as “Investments” ...... 188 Disease and Filth ...... 188 Suicide ...... 192 Insurrection and Punishment ...... 195 The Story of the Amistad ...... 199 Rape ...... 201 Slave Society’s Perspective ...... 201 Arrival in the New World ...... 202 Slave Trading Continued ...... 205 Summary ...... 205 The Internal Slave Trade: Coffles and Auctions ...... 206

CHAPTER SIX: THE DUKE OF YORK’S CREATION ON A RAMPAGE ...... 214 The Slave Society’s Reign of Terror Prospers ...... 215 Who Were the Slaves? ...... 218 A Bill of Sale ...... 223 The Myth of the “Kind” Slaveholder ...... 227 Still More Myths About Slavery ...... 230

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Slaves’ Daily Lives ...... 232 Slaves’ Work Days ...... 234 A Gallery of Slave Labor ...... 236 Food ...... 240 Clothing ...... 246 Housing ...... 248 Medical Care ...... 252 The Story of Henrietta’s and Mary’s Daily Lives ...... 258 The Story of Luke’s Daily Life ...... 260 The Story of Harriet Jacobs’ Life in an Attic ...... 261 The Story of Eliza: Children Torn from a Mother’s Arms ...... 268 The Story of Patsey: Uncontrolled Whipping for Nothing ...... 283 The Story of Aunt Esther’s Wretched Existence ...... 295 The Story of Nelly’s “Impudence” ...... 298 The Story of Fed’s Heat-Stroke Experiment and Other Trials ...... 301 The Story of Sam’s Grin ...... 306 The Story of Bomefree: Death of a Lonely Loyal Servant ...... 307 The Story of Demby’s Demise and Other Murders ...... 313 The Story of George: How He Lost His Head ...... 316 The Burning of Jerry: Attending His Own Funeral ...... 323 The Story of Wiley: Gotta Have a “Pass” ...... 325 The Story of Augustus and the Bloodhounds ...... 329 Slaves’ Desire for Freedom: Accounts By a South Carolina Supreme Court Justice’s Daughter ...... 331 The Story of Henry “Box” Brown: Shipping Himself to Freedom ...... 334 The Story of Josiah’s Joyous Escape ...... 339 The Story of Charles Nalle’s Narrow Escape: The Fugitive Slave Law in Action ...... 345 Slave Holder Advertisements for Runaway Slaves ...... 348 The Slave Society’s War on Abolitionists ...... 354 Slave Society’s Repression ...... 354 Discarding the Bill of Rights ...... 355 Attacks on Abolitionists Even Across State Lines ...... 358

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Trial in North Carolina for Speech ...... 363 Summary ...... 367 Slavery Was a National Institution: North and South ...... 368 New York’s Gradual Emancipation Law ...... 369 New York Was the Financial and Business Center of Slavery ...... 370 All Americans Benefited from Slavery ...... 371 Northerners Discriminated Extensively Against African-Americans ...... 372 Fugitive Slave Law Was a National Law ...... 377 Early History ...... 378 Slavery’s Violence Grows ...... 383 Expansion of Slavery in the North ...... 385 North’s Role in Slave Trade ...... 388 Vitality of North’s Slavery Business Relationships with the South ...... 390 New York’s Sympathy for the South ...... 394 Summary ...... 395 Sanitizing History Is Fraudulent Education ...... 397 School Sanitization ...... 398 My Deceptive Education ...... 400 Deliberate Falsification ...... 403 Southampton, Virginia, White Bicentennial ...... 404 Deliberate Falsification in Virginia Education ...... 406 False Education and Faux Patriotism Contribute to America’s Racial Divide ...... 407 Who Was the Patriot? Who Was the Traitor? ...... 410 Slavery After Slavery? ...... 412 Black Codes ...... 413 Share Cropping and the Elaine, Arkansas Massacre ...... 415 Share Cropping ...... 415 The Elaine Massacre ...... 416 Lynchings and Denial of Justice ...... 421 Racial Massacres ...... 425 President Woodrow Wilson ...... 414 Conditions Today ...... 427

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CHAPTER SEVEN: MOVING FORWARD?? ...... 428 Moving Forward?? ...... 429 1960s Civil Rights Laws and Discrimination Today ...... 429 Slavery’s Father, Duke of York: Still Honored Today ...... 431 Remnants of Slavery: Intolerable Discrimination in Education ...... 432 The Slave Society Forbade Slave Education...... 432 America’s Educational Emergency ...... 435 Money Alone Is Not the Answer ...... 439 Wealth Inequality Has Increased Since Enactment of the Civil Rights Laws ...... 440 Charter Schools’ Competition Is Constructively Disruptive Innovation ...... 441 District Schools, Teachers’ Unions, and Politicians Block Progress ...... 446 Private Schools Are Far Superior for African-American Children ...... 449 Politicians’ Self-Interests Prevent Equality of Education ...... 451 Remnants of Slavery: White Fear, African-American Distrust, “Obedience,” and Enforcement ...... 452 Violence Against African-Americans Today ...... 452 Slave Society Laws Repressing Slaves ...... 453 A History of Disrespect and Violence ...... 456 Today’s Remnants of the Slave Society’s Violence ...... 457 Re-Examination of Police Practices ...... 458 Peaceful Protests Are Essential ...... 460 What To Do? ...... 463 Bringing It All Together ...... 465

APPENDIX I: AMERICAN SLAVERY TIME LINE ...... I-1

APPENDIX II: KING CHARLES II’S 1664 CHARTER GRANTING TO THE DUKE OF YORK AUTHORITY OVER NEW YORK ...... II-1 Acknowledgements ...... A-1 A Note on Organization and Sources ...... S-1 Organization and Style ...... S-1 Sources ...... S-2 Academic Publications ...... S-2

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Online Resources ...... S-2 Materials Narrated by Slaves and Former Slaves ...... S-2 Abolitionist Materials ...... S-3 Pro-Slavery Materials ...... S-4 Emphasis on America’s Slave Heroes as Positive Role Models ...... S-6 Summary ...... S-7 Bibliography ...... B-1

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APPENDIX I: AMERICAN SLAVERY TIME LINE

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TIME LINE OF SELECTED EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH OR AFFECTING AMERICAN SLAVERY

The following Time Line1055 lists briefly certain selected events associated with or affecting slavery in America. Even with “brief” identification of events, the Time Line is extensive.

The listing demonstrates the central significance of slavery to, and pervasive domination of slavery in, American society and cultural life for hundreds of years. Initially, the Time Line reflects the imposition in the American colonies, beginning in the 1660s, of the brutal English form of slavery that contrasted with the forms of servitude practiced in Virginia and Maryland prior to that time and with the contemporaneous Dutch, Spanish, French and West African forms of slavery. Following the Declaration of Independence, virtually every significant political event in America evoked bitter disputes regarding slavery.

Contrary to the impression that schools have created by their fraudulent sanitization of slavery, the Time Line also provides a degree of insight into how resistant slaves were to their fate. I briefly cite a number of the more prominent slave revolts. Even the revolts in the Caribbean and Guyana had an impact by pressuring Britain to emancipate slaves in its colonies, which it did in 1834.

There were many, many more revolts, possibly in the hundreds, than I reflect in the Time Line.1056

1055 Sources: A GUIDE TO THE HISTORY OF SLAVERY IN MARYLAND (MD State Archives and Univ. of MD 2007); Beckles, “Slave Voyages—The Transatlantic Trade in Enslaved Africans” (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); Brewer, “Slavery, Sovereignty, and ‘Inheritable Blood’: Reconsidering John Locke and the Origins of American Slavery” (American Historical Review Vol. 122, Issue 4, Oct. 2017); E. McManus, BLACK BONDAGE IN THE NORTH (Syracuse Univ. Press 1973); E. McManus, A HISTORY OF NEGRO SLAVERY IN NEW YORK (Syracuse University Press 1996); L. Harris, IN THE SHADOW OF SLAVERY—AFRICAN-AMERICANS IN NEW YORK CITY, 1626- 1863 (Univ. of Chicago Press 2003); D. Davis, THE PROBLEM OF SLAVERY IN THE AGE OF EMANCIPATION (Vintage Books, 2014) ;D. Davis, THE PROBLEM OF SLAVERY IN THE AGE OF REVOLUTION, 1770-1823 (Oxford Univ. Press, 1999); I. Berlin, MANY THOUSANDS GONE: THE FIRST TWO CENTURIES OF SLAVERY IN NORTH AMERICA (Harvard Univ. Press 1998); “Gloucester County Conspiracy (1663)” at www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Gloucester_County_Conspiracy_1663, accessed Nov. 12, 2020; Harper, “Slavery in the North,” at slavenorth.com; Blackpast.com; History.com; NPS.gov; “Who Are New Afrikans” at newafrikan77.wordpress.com, accessed Nov. 12, 2020; Blackfacts.com.

1056 See also Chapter Six: The Duke of York’s Creation on a Rampage—Slave Holder Advertisements for Runaway Slaves.”

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Year Event(s)

1526 Spanish bring slaves to Florida; Spanish slaves have certain rights as human beings that the English later denied

1526 First slave revolt in what is now America at Spanish colony of Vasquez de Allyon (now in South Carolina); revolt stymies Spanish settlement

1528-36 Illustrating greater rights of Spanish slaves, Spanish slave, Esteban, leads Spanish expedition across North America 300 years before Lewis & Clark; later is appointed as de facto military commander in search of the Seven Lost Cities of Gold

1619 Captives are taken by the English from a Portuguese ship and are traded for food at Point Comfort, Virginia; the captives are treated as indentured servants with certain rights as human beings that the English later denied 1620 Pilgrims land at Plymouth with indentured servants

1626 Dutch West India Company imports 11 Africans as slaves in New Netherland; slaves in New Netherland have certain rights as human beings that the English later denied

1641 Massachusetts enacts statute legalizing ownership of slaves taken captive in wars or purchased from others, which is incorporated into the Articles of the New England Confederation 1652 Rhode Island adopts similar statute

Illustrating the rights of the early Virginia captives, Anthony Johnson, an early captive who became a free black slave holder and land ca. 1655 owner through land grants, wins a dispute in court against a white property owner over ownership of a slave claimed by Mr. Johnson

1660 Restoration of the Monarchy in England; King Charles II takes the throne, then appoints his brother, James Stuart, Duke of York, as Admiral of the Navy Royal Adventurers, an English government slave trading monopoly, is formed; after reorganization, the company is named the Royal 1660 African Company; during the Duke's control, the Royal African Company shipped more than 100,000 slaves to the New World, branding many, if not all, of them with the Duke's initials, "DY" 1661 King Charles II appeals to colonial governors to enact laws supporting slavery and the Royal African Company

1661-75 England, in alliance with Portugal, fights for and ultimately gains control of Dutch forts on West African coast; the forts and associated African trading relationships, prisons, and other facilities are vital to the English slave trade

1662 King Charles II marries Catherine de Braganza, a Portuguese princess, whose dowry includes claims of West African forts controlled by the Dutch

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1662 Virginia begins enacting restrictive laws formalizing brutal slavery at direction of English monarchy 1663 Slaves and indentured servants plot rebellion in Gloucester, Virginia; plot is disclosed; four plotters hanged 1663 Royal African Company officials offer land to Carolina settlers purchasing slaves

1664 English aggressively promote land-for-slaves policy, rewarding slave purchasers; the more slaves, the more land awarded (in Virginia, 50 acres per slave; in New Jersey, 60-75 acres per slave) 1664 Maryland begins enacting restrictive laws formalizing brutal slavery at direction of English monarchy

1664 Duke of York defeats Dutch in New Amsterdam and receives Charter from King Charles II granting the Duke control of the colony; New York is named "in honor" of the Duke

1664-88 James Stuart, as Duke of York and later as King James II, opposes representative government in New York and vetoes a Charter of Liberties petitioned by the people 1665 New York, under Duke of York, begins enacting restrictive laws, known as the "Duke's Laws," enshrining brutal slavery

1685 Duke of York takes English throne as King James II following death of King Charles II; continues slave policies and denial of representative government 1685 French King Louis XIV promulgates the Code Noir, granting slaves certain rights as human beings denied by the English

1686 Spanish government begins offering escaped slaves sanctuary in Florida, with rights as free citizens; over time, slaves escape to Florida in large numbers 1688 King James II is deposed; William and Mary assume English throne 1702 Queen Anne, second daughter of the Duke of York (King James II), assumes English throne

1702 et seq . English enact additional laws placing even more restrictions on slaves; still more restrictive enactments occur over many years

1708 Slaves revolt on Long Island, killing a white family; two male slaves are hanged, a slave woman is burned at the stake

1712-13 Queen Anne obtains the Assiento, a slave-trading monopoly contract with the Spanish, pursuant to which the English supply hundreds of thousands of slaves to the New World over several decades

1712 Slave rebellion in New York; kill seven whites and set fires; dozens of slaves arrested; several slaves commit suicide to avoid capture; more than 20 slaves executed; slaves burned at the stake and broken on the wheel 1738 Fort Mose, a free black town, is established in Florida under Spanish authority

I-4 The Father of America’s Slave Society Stono Rebellion in South Carolina; up to 100 slaves attempt to reach Fort Mose, Florida; kill approximately 23 whites, leaving some 1739 heads on the front steps of a store; slaves are confronted by militia, many are killed or captured, but some appear to make their escape to Florida

1741 Slave conspiracy alleged in New York based on questionable evidence; 30 slaves executed; more than a dozen slaves are burned at the stake; also four alleged white participants are executed

1760 Tacky's Rebellion in Jamaica; slaves take two plantations, but are defeated by militia; additional revolts occur across Jamaica

1764 Slave trading ship named "Hope" from Rhode Island taken over by slaves on the high seas; kill nine crew members; Spanish capture the ship 1770 Boston Massacre; Crispus Attucks, reported to have been an escaped slave, is the first to die in the American Revolution Lord Dunmore, as English Governor of Virginia, having been driven out of Virginia by revolutionaries, issues a proclamation from a ship 1775 at sea, offering freedom to slaves who escape to British

1775-83 Revolutionary War; thousands of slaves escape to British lines 1776 Declaration of Independence 1777 Vermont separates from New York; adopts State Constitution prohibiting slavery

1780 Pennsylvania statute adopts gradual abolition in which existing slaves are not freed, but their children born after the date of the statute are indentured servants to be free at age 28 1781 New York frees slaves who fought with the revolutionaries in the War 1783 Massachusetts abolishes slavery through judicial interpretation of State Constitution

1784 Rhode Island statute adopts gradual abolition in which existing slaves are not freed, but their children born after a specified date are apprentices to be free upon achieving designated ages (girls at 18, boys at 21)

1784 Connecticut statute adopts gradual abolition in which existing slaves are not freed, but their children born after a specified date are to be free upon achieving age 25

Congress of the American Confederacy enacts the Northwest Ordinance; territories West of the Appalachian Mountains and North of the Ohio River are declared to be "free" territories; slave holders from slave states have the right to capture and return of fugitive 1787 slaves; the Northwest Ordinance is re-enacted in 1789 by the federal Congress after the Constitution is ratified; in 1860, Abraham Lincoln cites the Northwest Ordinance as justification for federal regulation of slavery in new territories

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1788 Doctors Riot in New York occurs when African-Americans discover extensive grave robbing by medical students and doctors seeking cadavers 1788 Constitution ratified; contemplates slavery in three provisions, including capture and return of fugitive slaves

1790 Thomas Jefferson, as Secretary of State, negotiates an end to Spain's policy of granting sanctuary to escaped slaves; slaves continue to escape into Florida interior and swamps and to Native American settlements 1791 Hattian Revolution begins

Cotton Gin invented, creating conditions for vast expansion of internal slave trade from Upper South to Deep South and West for cotton 1794 planters; destroying families, slave traders force over a million slaves to migrate, many of them on foot, chained in slave coffles

1799 New York statute adopts gradual abolition in which existing slaves are not freed, but their children born after a specified date are indentured servants to be free at stated ages (women at 25, men at 28)

1800 Gabriel Prosser, a slave, plots a rebellion in Virginia involving slaves marching on Richmond to take officials prisoner and capture arms; the plot fails after a heavy storm destroys roads and the plot is disclosed

Early 1800s Underground Railroad begins operation to assist slaves in escaping North; activity expands over time as America acquires Florida in 1821 and abolitionism grows during 1800s

1803 In Louisiana Purchase, America gains substantial new territory that opens increasing disputes over potential expansion of slavery

1804 Haitian slaves finally achieve national independence; the word spreads, giving American slaves inspiration and the slave society fear of a repetition

1804 New Jersey adopts gradual abolition approach; existing slaves are not freed, but future children are freed at ages of 25 for males and 21 for females; New Jersey does not free its last slaves until the 13th Amendment is ratified 1808 International slave trade prohibited by America (Britain in 1807)

German Coast Rebellion; up to approximately 100 slaves revolt near New Orleans, Louisiana; kill some whites; defeated by U.S. Army 1811 after slaves run out of ammunition; slaves' heads are posted on spikes along roads; leader tortured, mutilated, shot, and burned to death

1812-15 War of 1812; thousands of slaves escape to British lines

Patriot War of 1812 in Florida (yes, there was another war in 1812, a secret one); Georgia and Carolina slave holders, with support of 1812-14 American troops, attack Florida, lay siege to St. Augustine; Lt. Juan Bautista (Prince) Witten--an escaped slave who had received freedom in Florida--and Florida's army of black warriors defeat the slave holders and American troops in key battle

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1815 White abolitionist, George Boxley, in Spotsylvania, Virginia, plots rebellion with slaves; plan fails when disclosed; slaves executed or sent South; Mr. Boxley escapes from jail and goes North

1816 Slave revolt in Barbados led by a slave named Bussa spreads to 70 plantations and involves approximately 400 slaves; the revolt is defeated by the colonial military; Bussa is killed, but is a national hero in Barbados

American Colonization Society is formed with goal of sending freed slaves to Africa; Society initially has support of slave holders and 1816 some abolitionists; African-Americans, however, resist leaving the country of their birth for an unknown territory; over time, most abolitionists oppose colonization, and slave holders reduce support as Society endorses immediate emancipation

1817 New York abolishes slavery as of 1827

1817-18 In First Seminole War, U.S. troops led by Andrew Jackson, attack free black towns and enslave free blacks; Florida's army of black warriors aids families in escaping 1821 America acquires Florida, in part with the goal of ending the escape haven for runaway slaves

1821 Missouri Compromise admits Missouri into Union as a slave state, with agreement that, in future, slavery will not be permitted North of Missouri's Southern border; the Compromise is undone by the Kansas-Nebraska Act Liberia is founded through funds appropriated by U.S. Congress and the American Colonization Society for freed slaves from America; 1821 few African-Americans migrate to Liberia; the rate of death from disease, climate and wars with natives was extremely high; the cost of paying for transportation of four million slaves, even if they had been willing to go, which they most definitely were not, was prohibitive

1822 Denmark Vesey conspiracy in South Carolina fails after it is disclosed; approximately 35 persons were hanged, including Mr. Vesey

1823 Approximately 10,000 slaves revolt in what is now Guyana; hundreds of slaves are killed, and more than 25 are executed 1827 New York abolition becomes effective

Mexico abolishes slavery, with an exception for Texas; this action is followed by vacillation and contradictory policies over several 1829 years, creating concerns by slave holders in Texas and by Stephen F. Austin, who was marketing a land development to slave holders

David Walker publishes his book, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, passionately criticizing slavery and whites, as well as slaves for excessive passivity, and urging slaves to be prepared to revolt at the right time; the book is sent to slave states surreptitiously 1829 through traders and sailors, at times sewn into the lining of clothing, and is read to illiterate slaves by those who could read; slave states prevent blacks on ships from leaving at docks for fear of distribution of the Appeal

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1831 Nathaniel Turner's slave rebellion, with 60-70 slaves, kills 55-60 whites; for revenge, whites attack and kill hundreds of slaves randomly; reportedly, whites skin Mr. Turner's body and take body parts as souvenirs; his head is missing

1831-32 Slave revolt in Jamaica results in approximately 14 white deaths and more than 500 black deaths, including in executions; the rebellion becomes an important factor in the abolition of slavery by Britain in its colonies six months later

1835-36 Texas declares independence and fights revolution against Mexico; a key factor is settlers' concern about Mexico's willingness to tolerate slavery after Mexico changes its policies repeatedly

1835-42 Second Seminole War by the U.S. army is waged against African-Americans, as well as Native Americans; Florida black warriors fight fiercely; the lengthy War is settled by allowing the African-Americans to migrate West

1836 Texas adopts Constitution legalizing slavery, preventing Texas Congress from prohibiting slavery or emancipating slaves; forbids emancipation by slave holders without approval by Texas Congress

1839 Slave ship named "Amistad" is taken over on high seas by more than 50 slaves shipped out of Cuba; after wandering for many weeks, the ship docks in New York; the slaves win their freedom after two years in court; they return to Africa

1840 Slave ship named "Creole" is taken over by 135 slaves on high seas; ship sails to Bahamas, where the slaves win their freedom

In Prigg v. Pennsylvania , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that federal law--the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793--was supreme over 1842 Pennsylvania State law, with the result that a slave holder was within his rights in capturing a slave woman in Pennsylvania, as well as her children, one of which was "free" 1843 Rhode Island Constitution abolishes slavery 1845 Texas, in financial ruin and diplomatic isolation, is unable to obtain international loans due to its slavery; joins the Union 1846 Within months of Texas' admission, President Polk provokes Texas border dispute, leading to Mexican-American War

In Jones v. Van Zandt, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that, under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, an Ohio abolitionist who assisted a 1847 slave in escaping via the Underground Railroad was liable to a Kentucky slave holder; abolitionist is ruined financially

1847 All slaves in Pennsylvania are freed

1848 Settlement of Mexican-American War results in significant new territory for America, opening bitter disputes over expansion of slavery

1848 Connecticut frees all slaves

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1850 Fugitive Slave Law enacted; obligates officials and citizens in "free" states to assist in capturing fugitive slaves, creating additional bitterness among abolitionists

1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act is enacted, based on concept of "popular sovereignty" to resolve slavery on local basis within territories; results in Civil War in "Bleeding Kansas"

1855-56 John Brown, sons and followers kill slavery sympathizers in Kansas with broadswords, defend Free-State settlements, fight pro-slavery "Bushwackers" and Missouri "Border Ruffians"

Illustrating increasing divisions and bitterness over slavery, on the Senate floor, pro-slavery Congressman Preston Brooks brutally beats U.S. Senator Charles Sumner with a cane (which shattered) into unconsciousness in retaliation for Sumner's passionate speech against 1856 slavery in Kansas and Congressman Brooks' kinsman, U.S. Senator Andrew Butler; due to the extent of his injuries, Senator Sumner does not return to the Senate chamber for three years; Democrats in Congress wear pieces of the cane to show support for Brook

1858 John Brown frees 11 slaves across Kansas border in Missouri, killing one slave holder, and arranges their transport to Canada, resulting in a reward offered by President Buchanan for capture In Dred Scott v. Sanford , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that an African-American could not assert his "free" status in federal court 1857 because African-Americans, slave or "free," were not "citizens" under the Constitution 1859 John Brown's raid on federal armory at Harper's Ferry 1859 et seq .Numerous slave revolts in Civil War era 1860 Lincoln elected; secession begins 1861 South Carolina attacks Fort Sumpter; Civil War begins

1861-65 Civil War results in 1.5 million casualties; 200,000 African-Americans fight on Union side; many thousands of slaves escape to Union lines

In a change of strategy, President Lincoln makes the Civil War a War against slavery, as opposed to a War to preserve the Union; Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862; it is effective on January 1, 1863; the Proclamation declares all 1862-63 slaves in Confederate states to be free, but does not free slaves in several Union states; it also does not free slaves in Confederate states, except where Union troops are in control; the Proclamation is a direct attack on Southern wealth

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Upon effectiveness of the federal draft (which granted exceptions for men who could pay a substitute to take their place), the worst riots in American history erupted in New York; at first, rioters, heavily represented by Irish laborers fearing that freed slaves would 1863 come North to take their jobs, focused on government facilities; rioters turned anger on African-Americans, beating and lynching them; many were required to leave the City; the black orphanage was raided and burned; many hundreds, if not thousands, were killed

1865 On June 19, 1865, Union Major General Gordon Granger declares all slaves in Texas to be free; the date becomes an African-American holiday known as "Juneteenth" Civil War ends; slaves in Union states still are not freed (except in Maryland, which abolished slavery in 1862 and the District of 1865 Columbia, which also did so in 1862 by paying slave holders compensation for their slaves and offering money to freed slaves to leave America) 1865 13th Amendment ratified on December 6, 1865, ending slavery in America

1868 14th Amendment ratified, grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in America and equal protection under the law to all citizens 1870 15th Amendment ratified; grants right to vote regardless of race, color or previous condition of servitude

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