THE HEBREW BIBLE COURSE GUIDE

Professor Lawrence H. Schiffman NEW YORK UNIVERSITY The Hebrew Bible

Professor Lawrence H. Schiffman New York University

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Lecture content ©2008 by Lawrence H. Schiffman Course guide ©2008 by Recorded Books, LLC 72008 by Recorded Books, LLC Cover image: ©James Steidl/shutterstock.com #UT118 ISBN: 978-1-4361-0590-3 All beliefs and opinions expressed in this audio/video program and accompanying course guide are those of the author and not of Recorded Books, LLC, or its employees. Course Syllabus

The Hebrew Bible

About Your Professor ...... 4

Introduction ...... 5

Lecture 1 Bible, Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament: The Nature of the Collection ...... 6

Lecture 2 Who Wrote the Bible?: Authors, Editors, and Scrolls ...... 11

Lecture 3 Archaeology and the Bible ...... 16

Lecture 4 Origins of the World, Humanity, and the People of Israel: Genesis and Exodus ...... 21

Lecture 5 Codes of Biblical Law: Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy ...... 25

Lecture 6 History and Identity: Joshua and Judges ...... 29

Lecture 7 Portrayal of History: Samuel and Kings ...... 33

Lecture 8 Temple and Sacrifice: Leviticus, Numbers, Ezekiel ...... 38

Lecture 9 The Prophets and Their Writings ...... 43

Lecture 10 Words of Wisdom: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes ...... 48

Lecture 11 God and Humanity in the Hebrew Bible ...... 53

Lecture 12 Handing Down the Bible: The Dead Sea Scrolls ...... 57

Lecture 13 The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament: Jewish Interpretation: Midrash ...... 61

Lecture 14 The Bible and Western Culture ...... 66

Course Materials ...... 72

3 n a m f f i h c S . H e c n e r w a L f o y

s About Your Professor e t r u o c o t o h

P Lawrence H. Schiffman

Lawrence H. Schiffman is chairman of New York University’s Skirball Department of Hebrew and Judaic Studies and serves as Ethel and Irvin A. Edelman Professor of Hebrew and Judaic Studies. He is also a member of the University’s Centers for Ancient Studies and Near Eastern Studies. He is a past president of the Association for Jewish Studies. He currently serves as editor-in-chief of the Center for Online Judaic Studies in New York. Professor Schiffman was featured in the PBS Nova television series docu - mentary, Secrets of the Dead Sea Scrolls , as well as in four BBC documen - taries on the Scrolls, the McNeil-Lehrer program, and a Discovery special. He appears regularly in the popular educational series Mysteries of the Bible , which appears on Arts & Entertainment (A&E), and he appeared in Kingdom of David on PBS. Professor Schiffman received his B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees from the Department of Near Eastern and Judaic Studies at Brandeis University. He is a specialist in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Judaism in late antiquity, the history of Jewish law, and Talmudic literature. His publications include The Halakhah at Qumran (E.J. Brill, 1975); Sectarian Law in the Dead Sea Scrolls: Courts, Testimony, and the Penal Code (Scholars Press, 1983); Who Was a Jew? Rabbinic Perspectives on the Jewish-Christian Schism (Ktav, 1985); From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism (Ktav, 1991); a Hebrew book entitled Halakhah, Halikhah u-Meshihiyut be-Khat Midbar Yehudah (Law, Custom, and Messianism in the Dead Sea Sect) (Merkaz Shazar, 1993); the jointly authored monograph, Hebrew and Aramaic Magical Texts from the Cairo Genizah (Sheffield, 1992); Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls (Jewish Publication Society, 1994; Doubleday paperback, in the Anchor Research Library, 1995); and almost two hundred articles on the Dead Sea Scrolls and Rabbinic Judaism. His most recent book is Texts and Traditions: A Source Reader for the Study of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism (Ktav, 1998).

4 m o c . k c o t s r e t t u h s / l d i e t S s e m a J ©

Introduction The Hebrew Bible, known to Jews as the Tanakh and to Christians as the Old Testament, is the basis of our tradition of monotheism as well as the main avenue by which the ethics and teachings of the Hebrew spirit entered Western civilization. In the lectures that follow, we will discuss how that collec - tion came into being and how it was passed down and interpreted throughout the ages. We will see how this tradition developed into the basis of Judaism and Christianity and how it continues to mold our society and culture today. Along the way we will consider the complex issues of the historicity of the biblical account as well as the deep theological and religious ideas that the Bible teaches. We will sample approaches both traditional and modern, mak - ing use of the works of all kinds of scholars, ancient, medieval, and modern, to understand the message of the Hebrew Scriptures and the story they tell. Archaeology and the perspectives gained from our knowledge of the Ancient Near East will be at the forefront, allowing us to approach the Bible with the help of the manifold tools of modern research while retaining respect for the Bible and its ancient message.

5 Lecture 1: Bible, Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament: The Nature of the Collection

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Bible, Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament: The Nature of the Collection,” pp. 777 –809, in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

e are going to be talking in this set of lectures about a series of texts that have had tremendous impact on our Western civilization and that constitute the basis of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Called the Bible by the Jews and the Old Testament by the Christians, it is also referred to by scholars as the Hebrew Scriptures. In this first lecture, we will look at the various names for the Bible, outline some of its contents, and come to an understanding of its nature and the impact it has had on our culture. The first books of the Bible are the Five Books of Moses, in Hebrew, the Torah, or by its Greek name, the Pentateuch, meaning “five books.” Torah originally is a term for a specific body of law, but by 540 BCE or so, the Torah included all five books attributed to or transmitted by Moses. The root of the word Torah means “to teach” or “to shoot,” because a teacher shows some - one in what direction to shoot. So the word Torah can mean “direction,” a compilation meant to direct the lives of human beings. The term Bible derives from Greek ta biblia , mean - ing “the books.” Apparently this term referred already by that time to those books within what we call a canon, a collection of authoritative books. For the Hebrew Scriptures the canon was divided into three parts. The abbreviation TaNaKh symbolizes the tripar - tite nature of the Jewish canon, including in it Torah (the Five Books of Moses), Nevi’im (the Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings; the literary prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel; the Twelve Minor prophets, each of shorter length than the earlier books), and Ketuvim (the Writings: Psalms, Proverbs, Job, the Five Scrolls, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles). Christians have a completely different term for this Jewish canon that constitutes about one half of the Christian Bible. Because Christians have an addi - tional set of texts, namely, the Gospels and the Epistles, Christians refer to the earlier material as the Old Testament in contradis - m o c

tinction to the New Testament. This is, in . E k c N o t s

fact, a theologically loaded term. The New r O e t t u h E Testament is adopted from the term S R ©

U “new covenant” mentioned in T

C Jeremiah. To the Jews this was a The Five Books of Moses in Hebrew and English E L

6 reconstituted and renewed covenant, but for Christians it meant a new covenant that came into being at the coming of Jesus. In early Christianity this meant that the Jewish covenant was canceled, and hence aspects of the Old Testament were obsolete. This idea is called supersessionism—the idea that Christianity superseded Judaism. In recent times, especially after the Holocaust, the Catholic Church and some other Christian denominations have backed away from this theology, believing that the covenant with the Jews remains for them, but the covenant of the New Testament is valid for the rest of the world. This view serves to encourage tolerance and respect. Scholars have begun to use the term Hebrew Scriptures, meaning “that which is written.” Another Hebrew term for the Bible is Miqra, “that which is read,” and it is used as often as Tanakh. The Jewish Bible was collected in ancient days in the land of Israel over a long period of time. The Torah was collected by the Persian period (540 BCE). The Prophets were collected at least before the time of Daniel during the Babylonian Exile (586 BCE) and the Writings were collected for the most part by the Second Temple period, but there was still continued debate in the first century CE. The collection of books accepted by Jews and Protestants today was the ancient Palestinian canon, the books that were held to be authoritative by Jews in the land of Israel. Beginning in about 240 BCE, the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek and known as the Septuagint. The Greek Bible col - lected the Scriptures and ordered them in a different way so that it did not contain the three parts that the Jews were used to, and there were additional books that we call the Apocrypha, certain books that were written during the Second Temple period. Some of these books are authoritative in the Roman Catholic Church, and some of them are authoritative for various Eastern m o c . k c o t s r e t t u h S ©

Cover of an antique Hebrew Bible.

7 LECTURE ONE 8 BCE, la to li th mun th e fi nd or esn Ca chu Wh A zat te es lth th A tholi 5 5 5 1 Si 1 7 9 1 1 1 (d st r wo io ra o at iti e che e 4 8 9 2 8 2 5 0 2 2 ou ep xte ut 0 6 7 50 0 2 0 0 0 0 n th ti of m t be rd endig exts is 0– s c a s gh BC BC BC BC BC e ai c— s. th ly s the o or g B B B B w the nth 1 H e f ing aca d m CE CE CE CE T ho E E E E E de 5 h th eln come me an he ea n. 0 ow bilca on nat or or e cen r – – hol or n ba 9 1 how emi ancie B 930 tr ad it io na l the 50 0 ure istc durin d of 14 t C ? B se in g ury E the y i cs Biblca t B th 50 d Je b of BCE is BCE se ar ch in g period. C of g o e BCE o do t da wish, B E oks t BCE n Near the Helnistc he a ibl e te t n d) he ve rs e, me di ev al ot historca or migh e Protes aut hori tati ve, Cath vents Sept wis h Ea th e st, t we olic, h uagint, to ave ant era—18 tok fr an ci en t comi the Se tradi exi Mal Em Pe destro Jews Ba N Jerusa Ki Asyr (Israe The The Mona So D United the Conque Israelit l co m ar e om backg rel y ebucha avi n a cond rsian byl uther l Reform gdom, e pi achi ben Tem Judge nd ti place d, Exodus Patri ng re ly in g the me nt at or s— Je wi sh re; t o ians oni rchy upo lit r bu o yed, evoltd, som etim es ns le and P Mona roun es 0 tr , th s n st of ple Empire Tem t Jews m an r Bronze dneza an sl a E otesan comp n en left e e K s exil o wan destro in the zra, split ation, BCE vole ca chs B ing the S f la d E ( on terd abyloni Ha ple rchy th anciet olmn xile ou pture nd o alowed Gre d ti on der e letd f and Jer tra diti ons th es e into oms gai, to t suce th r, and Age of yed lan t Protesa in the (Kings s— wh et he r the onl y eks Bible e usalem p 40 d to d Isr Neh North artil d pe ) in by (Israe Israel, Rabinc in th Apocryha n Zach and late fa i a ael; lan riod to the y e nd th BCE, Exile s ds the th or e miah); of Sa No d to r ern re nts the r p co mm un it ie and ari l Ba Judaism second ebuildng of ok from turn de Ch ri eriod the and ul, on can rthen presvd altho an bylonia Can Iron sert) shape. Gr ee k, h, e tim T fai th st ia n— d fro b . Judah) tel l empl of whic iblca o That es; ugh Age f m the century us of com of La ti s. the is to wha t civ up the - n, - The Bible was, therefore, not written in a vacuum but was influenced by its environment. Modern biblical scholarship has been fueled by discovery of information about those civilizations—ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Canaan, Ras Shamra (Ugarit). The more we learn about these civilizations, the more we can understand the background of the Bible. Two terms that I have been using interchangeably are often distinguished in scholarly literature, namely, “Israelite” and “Jewish.” “Israelite” is a term for the ancient people and their traditions in the First Temple and even up to Second Temple times. “Jewish” indicates a transfer from the religion of ancient Israel to what we call Judaism, and from Israel as a land-based peo - ple to a religion that can be observed anywhere in the world. Some scholars want to be purists in maintaining this distinction. It seems to me that there is no specific place where we can draw the line between biblical religion and post-biblical religion. What we call Judaism was derived from the biblical tra - dition and developed within it, essentially as its major interpretation. What do we mean by approaching the Bible in an academic, objective man - ner? One of the problems here is that the primary interpreters of the Bible throughout history have been the faith communities of Judaism and Christianity. Yet in modern times we have gained a number of disciplinary aids—archaeology, literary criticism, and religious studies. When we come to the Bible, we have tools that our ancestors never had. We have been influ - enced since the European Enlightenment, and especially in the nineteenth century, to believe that humans possess the power through reason to come to advanced understanding of all the sciences. Necessarily there were attempts to study religion objectively and to divorce religious materials from the views of the believers. We are going to try as much as pos - sible to follow such an approach, first to let the Bible speak for itself in as objective a manner as possible, and then to try to understand it within the context of our own beliefs and predilections. I hope this will be a worthwhile introduction to the issues discussed in the academic study of the Bible. m o c . k c o t s

A statue depicting Moses with the r e t t u

Ten Commandments. h S ©

9 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What is meant by supersessionism? 2. How did the Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant Bibles take shape?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Bible, Hebrew Scriptures, Old Testament: The Nature of the Collection,” pp. 777 –809. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Other Books of Interest

Berlin, A., and M.Z. Brettler, eds. The Jewish Study Bible . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 1 –16 . Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. E N O E R U T C E L

10 Lecture 2: Who Wrote the Bible?: Authors, Editors, and Scrolls

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Who Wrote the Bible? Authors, Editors and Scrolls ,” pp. 459 –88 and 544 –64 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

ll too often we hear simplistic discussions of the question, “Who wrote the Bible?” The Hebrew Scriptures is a collection of works, some of which purport to come from as early as 1200 BCE and some from as late as the second century BCE. We are dealing here with an anthology of materials that constitute a great part of the cultural and religious heritage of ancient Israel, although not all of it, as at least twenty-two ancient books mentioned in the Bible do not survive. In discussing who wrote the Bible, therefore, we must take into account the various works, their dates of composition, and the processes by which they were edited. This biblical collection has been gathered together in a series of steps. Some of the books originated as disparate parts that were pieced together to create a whole book. In this case we may speak of authors for the disparate parts and editors or redactors for the book as a whole. Later they were gath - ered into protocollections under some sort of religious authority and then accepted as part of the bib - lical canon by consensus. A very important feature of the Bible is that it speaks in manifold voices. In Genesis there are two creation sto - ries. In Isaiah, God is imma - nent, while in Ezekiel, He is transcendent. It seems that contradictory materials have been edited together into the Holy Scriptures. This typifies the way the Bible communicates throughout the ages and poses a prob - lem for the biblical reader or interpreter. It argues against a simplistic, fundamentalist reading and for an interpre - tation that understands the

complexity of the material m o c . t r before us. It causes us to a p i l C think about the relationship © between humans, between Pharisees and Scribes humans and God, and our by Alexandre Bida place in the universe. From The Gospel Life by Edward Eggleston, 1874

11 LECTURE TWO 1 2 we wh com e h t m a r f lo of tio wh be hu tie mo la ra re Job Jacob bu ar an re Jew gr n i wo id th Hi exp la Pla Bo Ta th e m o s i t a l a d o t e h t , y l o h h w A O T C An Pe e v g ti e n g . n o i t in at ti ce i l o msel ra n d sen. ig l m t d e a bern e n r o o e r t a ica iev as d th o d wt i e ld. gs, , l d o t ns nt mo t u a d a e D s, k n rea an i p n i dit o tog n. ans, ern ive t a h y par C lon r o w e ou actu p or of eo h os e w s a brou f t ra o l f o , or hri th le he h t o c a io It a h W o f t A de r o h or f rs acle s f a s n o Al of eth ry he g Isr E l nd ts it tion their or at e i c n f clo h bilca Jo na t h t stian nd of e w is act to io der lite aly l l a c cle mo e Mo Bible r e rn p k t s i und time t s S t ael. cale ght of e h s e ten g ven er of he the pro roce ns b the l this se s i th n s, a e t u t i ual uide Mo r o r ( vie scholar a n a c der n e c ab at the it is p i of re cre siate, the h t by e s, e i c n e w t er t y w l a c i b tog phe bu s, say h T we ure n d N S s e m i t if se, ws velations a iblca s d fe e f o ide th ith sto d e n t a ra b and stud s r t he . s l l o r c ate se ew some oes Go t tem e g d u j th i und r efo t atu eth e s u e r b e H e vin re l a sch q e re t n diton tic no s u o i r a v e hum e h t r i u q n i of a held e th wa se e u is .s ship d b se d on a d a Te s e u s s i e g re ies re e of s w e J l in pora at Docu e re iblca wor not tise ver nd o olar t s th iven s actuly t h t r ther th r s n e s n o c ek u raditon—h spech. ly ankid ne stamen so daction. moder au the tha in r f e n o N t e n o i som cont e w e tha e y he a underst al ev has m o d. the a in to sh ry to rt s by on Penta th e t a c defintv pro p i r c S men lwa r a p a m sum a difer t e dea T Ma o ca of dr h t ority ip the m r h is ten e t constr in t o n n n t staing f e h t orah dom the s e l e h t he as asume Sina, phets t a eams, n ys s t ued y no. f e h t e h w divne to em a revals sp ny orm tary s u es th t-shrine , e l b i B But e r u t t T teuch. h Rega and od ent kind u c c o le im entir n a c a m prob or pr solve eaks e v a orah. ain phasize r p o m was f o d t e uct in es, hat esnt f , s Hypothe of as bilca s odern to e v o answer par r e n n auth to tha M M th al thro t a h w e b the inspr o of s e i p d rding lem r o e h r t i e w insprato a ishna, ose, f have e to Himself a p the th Th To given d It r o ts th t in th s Go divne art way c c a d l ifcult r o d l O Chu b ors. ugh e m s m e e mediva stae Mose at us n i en r a es rah in ody of o n the a c i l b i b scho s a w ation. boks e o an d. d oth . the of ca e d e t p e thes h w si xtensiv r e h t re the r p s i wit g just t At T rch it of at symbo S was m u s s a od no t to the wildern can m a t s e s ceivd of the er e h influe was p h c i directly o h n, hu lars h t a aser the life Sin tha e v o Te roblem be fathe face s y a w l b b l a the a boks t a of l man a Bib s ’ e l b i B s k o o efor s cademi bo Mid and is o g nevr n e m o s com nt ai, nd t from e i d u t edit end r do iven part e h t l the t n e a g n i th s r e s s a th Bible ts come . t o n le es), ce, o proh to rs nswer. rash, ks bu or tha er e f evil n to elm , d e r e d i s n o c s tha o t a b of the Me Bible of ot face. a for al o t s the of b no t realy b tha rep entar vison b e c n e d i v e Abr t I y the n i s n o i t s k o o . y a d d e x i f e b by ut wer c i s th th is t a they a with divn tion eting, thes ecis scholarip Christan. God g and peo cept various t nd resntd bilca e e nta n a no a s e o ahm, For nt a fa u a w Late i l T ies bok, Bib s. dialogue t s know e W orah ce last par er of t ple nume in r e e r a o t s i l are ci m e d a c a fou t a t i r o h t the y to a f exa from In t u o h t i w t a h t som bo revla le, for divne the the r and e n i v i d us ts l dir r o h t u a r Mose, f o n i d r a g e r ent writen w o n k p prohe q the Psalm, dialec oks docume Isa Talm itself prohe God tradion rophet, mple, cer d e t o u both in ect rous in e later ,s k o o b e w chron com God, con This ac e v i has the at result r tion, this tain of are insp rev ev e r ud t s h t , at i o l l o f he tic. say Jews the posi stan ya by dn a ts th b ta ni o ts g - nts for u i - - e - - - t w l - known as the redactor. Priestly literature, the material regarding sacrifice, was assumed to have been written as a separate text. The divine names that were used in the narratives in Genesis and Exodus indicated a combination of two authors living at different locations. Sometime during the period of the Kings, one author had written in Judea and another probably in the north. Later on, these materials were compiled into one. Deuteronomy might have been written during the period of the Kings, and finally all these materials were put together during the Babylonian Exile. This theory has constituted a great challenge in modern times to traditional religion. It argues against the Torah as a direct divine revelation and as divinely authoritative. Over the years simplistic traditional approaches have flatly rejected the Documentary Hypothesis. Others believing in religious tradition have tried to harmonize these approaches. The religious believer may agree that the liter - ary characteristics observed by the Documentary Hypothesis are true, but he/she explains that God gave the text in a way that conforms to human liter - ary characteristics. These approaches have allowed believers to accept mod - ern literary criticism and to continue their fundamental beliefs. In any case, the Documentary Hypothesis has informed the entire historical study of the Bible. We can see from internal evidence that the elements of the Torah did circu - late separately and affected readers separately. By the historical period of the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles, we can see that the entire Torah is functioning as a unity. So whatever one may believe about who actually composed the Five Books of Moses, there is no question that the contribution of the Documentary Hypothesis to our understanding of its circulation and the manner in which it influenced the other books is exceedingly important. Thanks to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls we can say some things about the way the Bible circulated. In the minor textual issues, that is, on a m o c . k c o t s r e t t u h S ©

One of the caves at Qumran near the Dead Sea that contained some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Inset: A facsimile of one of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

13 LECTURE TWO 1 4 tim pi th com th gu te th pa De fr of to som th th exp tio Some vid e h t n i In in wr ha Th la th t r o p l a c g n i d i c e d d u m l a T o w U F om le te r ose at em, xt at at ne em. ro it n t ge a se r n th a ey a u d r e e h d ten t r ansi ges. fo nci w e N d al t s p e x e m a i pret r have e th w s t i hi s t to le ti re y b rtu n w he b ti d t e Sea wh na Scr e G w s scr mes exc s t o e t um me iblca x b e h o t on nt dow ay can e r ation p n t nat B el . y re the S e o w mely, n w s e four pro o e T h w rob ext ols, ols T ib serv ber s e o scribe p Dead man o co th h care e i f i t wh p k ely, b le d r t s re the n h c i w f ces e e pre a tion ably y th e s o t , int pied th m a xam s s in dec h e of by at includ e l e N ld the an s t H w en y s t x uscrip e centu he d we fuly sen b i b erp t r e , l e v an est aly s eb er scro e t Se is w the d w B o as e in in n tra we it. writng er sor. n o i cient te l a c i l f o a ib rew co it d t t. t vo a e n e m a t s e T man e h rli ro comn t o ad the c xts le The ined ls r wa ry taio e h ts. h t Scrols nsider date ab n a h .s lvin ask, er g le n cor de. ocure r e v e Bible s k o o b BCE). ot sem s the times t Th e l b i B uscript basi in d ha g e H n autho The i d e g style tran in s, have ectd y an from “Who e tod peo ap t ed Tora This w e r b e m a s prea resu a cr we d loked s smited in t re To e h t r i c ay’s r e w se T for d eation the ple we to o aren rs s w o h s he is the the the ften h, ca t a l u c e to in rah em wrot lt cause ha a the ven p i r c S e ed r b e H fro ring t can wh bilca spe syn nd n wh use yield g n i h tly ear pe o h t u a Dead ve in to scrol m had se e in d e o Protes mor of ich editor as riod d i v e agou parch lin ha w e bilca lie de th r u t h e th e in wr th auth n e h w ave xist a n i e a s e th st emp it g ciru e termin e a t i r , s e ote the Sea t b e l b i B e c n e of Bible? alwys ext, proble ye was at o i r a v o o o Bible in etr s ed, ments f oritave r ben e ant fical e v i t the ar h t l a worke ty most parts Jewish th les th la t i t scr S i and m afor e e being ted e s u sh 10 o p s t x e t cr transl rea d n a ” Dead h g u o m man f es wor ols th syn ols. kep existd, ets we Heb s k a e t acu and o i s r e v boks of e h e d what as b ding, ding ( g i l s ecaus texs ds comu althou agou r o a h tha uscript. CE. it transm t mu elations rew t a i r a v ver five Thu h t Sea tions in on in rately d g n i v y l t h u o b a an n e r e own, wide is st . s n or boxes caligrphy. cirulated Ne long of the s, wha d but Bib separ gh its ad e Sc n o i n i expa nity into the a ited. o t someti n I v S t an are from hip e r mit les erth interp end editors, aces rols, e h t the criptue, this The r e d r o t years t c e r r o c a f h t we o or nature s e m i t today Westrn nsio , t c exmplars ngoi of as tha t a te els, a r script and predil an in ea find and reta as th ’s i b b boks. r r u c c o eh t we o t cient jars to rliest e to it an ne h w and il b i b wer ind pu s of w t in com after ec know dates ion. and it ext d . as lan the i is the - - de - - A - a - FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What is the biblical “canon”? 2. What do the Dead Sea Scrolls show about the way in which the books of the Bible circulated?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Who Wrote the Bible? Authors, Editors and Scrolls,” pp. 459 –88 and 544 –64 . The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

Davies, G.I. “Introduction to the Pentateuch,” pp. 12 –38. The Oxford Bible Commentary . Eds. J. Barton and J. Muddiman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Kaufmann, Y. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. New York: Schocken, 1972.

15 Lecture 3: Archaeology and the Bible

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Archaeology and the Bible ,” pp. 53 –98 and 567 –78 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

ne of the hallmarks of the academic study of the Bible is the use of archaeology. It has brought to life the entire world against which the events of the Bible took place and tremendously enriched our under - standing of what it was like to live in those days. First, a few definitions. Originally “archaeology” meant “history,” the study of that which was ancient. Later it came to mean the unearthing of material remains, including epigraphic or written materials. “History” tended to be used for the investigation of the sequence of human life based on a variety of sources, including traditions. Presently, the term “archaeology” refers to things that were dug up out of the ground rather than traditions that were communicated over the ages. Therefore, much of it was not available to earlier historians. “Biblical archaeology” is the use of archaeology to illumine the Bible. When it first came into being, it was used as a handmaiden to Scripture, that is, to prove the truth of the biblical account. In the eighteenth and nineteenth cen - turies, many Europeans arriving in the Near East were missionaries who sought to find information that had a bearing on the “truth” of the Bible. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, archaeological evidence was seen as indeed confirming the account of the Bible, but sometimes the evidence was greatly exaggerated or partial evidence was turned into the whole. Scholars argued that the archaeology of the ancient Near East ought to be pursued for its own sake, and not in the attempt to explain, let alone prove, the text of the Hebrew Bible. Our days have seen an overreaction to those old methods of biblical archae - ology. Some state that archaeology should be conducted as though there were no Bible, and they claim that there is absolutely no evidence—indeed no possibility—for the early history of Israel to be true as related in the Bible. Instead, they argue that early Israel up through the United Monarchy is essentially an invention of later writers seeking to create an identity for a peo - ple that came into being in the land of Israel. In Israel and in Copenhagen there has arisen recently a revisionist school that is connected to contempo - rary politics. According to some Israeli archaeologists, there is no evidence of the conquest or the early kingdom of Israel. The agenda of these so-called “minimalists” corresponds with that of the post-Zionists who reject settling and E

E maintaining a Jewish state in the land of Israel. The Copenhagen school R

H states explicitly that the lack of archaeological evidence of the conquest and T

E the extent of the ancient Israelite empire under Kings David and Solomon has R

U a direct relationship to the modern-day issues of Israel, the Palestinians, and T

C the peace process. In this case, archaeology has become modern ideology. E L

16 The so-called “maximalists,” really middle-of-the-road scholars, argue for much more careful and nuanced evaluation of archaeological evidence and its relation to the biblical accounts. What we have to do is gather together all the archaeological evidence—excavations of ancient cities and texts that survive, like the clay tablets of Mesopotamia or the texts of ancient Israel—that will give us a perspective on the Bible. So I would argue that biblical archaeology is a legitimate activity. Biblical archaeology, then, may be defined as archaeol - ogy used to better understand the background of or events in the Bible as well as the literature of the Bible. Such an approach calls for careful examination of evidence that provides for the most part, not proof, but rather a plausible back - ground for events described in the Bible. Indeed, it seems that this approach has won out for the Divided Monarchy, Exile, and Persian periods. The conquest of the land of Canaan has come under serious question from modern archaeologists. Earlier archaeologists stated that the towns men - tioned in the book of Joshua were indeed destroyed by invaders ca. 1200 BCE. Later archaeologists found that there was a much more gradual process of conquest than that. Some archaeologists then jumped to the con - clusion that the entire notion of an Israelite conquest is false. We would argue that the process of conquest was not as immediate as in the Book of Joshua, but a much more complex process, as described in the Book of Judges. And some of the evidence being quoted by the revisionists actually supports the gradual conquest of the Book of Judges. There are two accounts in the Bible, and we now know which one is the more accurate. Let’s mention a few archaeological discoveries that have been significant for understanding the Bible and how it fits into the wider context of the ancient Near East. Archaeological discoveries (the Amarna Letters, fourteenth centu - ry BCE) have shown that the land of Canaan in the years before the Israelite conquest was under the cultural and political domination of Egypt. There were city-states with a variety of ethnic groups, such as those men - tioned in the Bible, and the ability of the Israelites to establish them - selves, even slowly, was depen - dent on the weakness of Egypt in Canaan. When those governments were weaker, the Israelites were able to gain, such as in the time of Solomon. When these powers were stronger, Israelite control would shrink to a smaller area . s e i t i u q i t n A n a i t

One of the Amarna letters, this clay tablet p y g E

written in Babylonian cunieform was found f o m

in the ruins of Pharaoh Akhenaton’s capital u e s city el-Amarna. The Amarna letters make u M / m

reference to the Hapiru , depicted as roving o c . k bands of stateless people whom some c o t s r e

scholars believe formed the basis of the t t u h

biblical Hebrews. S ©

17 We have strong evidence in the archaeological record for the history of the Divided Monarchy. King Mesha of Moab struggled against Kings Omri and Ahab of Israel, who oppressed the Moabites until they rebelled. The Bible records the domination of Israel over Moab, and a Moabite inscription records the successful rebellion against Israel. The Tel Dan stele (stone inscription) of the mid-ninth century BCE corrobo - rates the continued rule of the House of David in Judah. This text also sheds light on the struggle and constant warfare between the Northern Israelite Kingdom and Aram, what is now Syria. Assyrian records of their wars against other countries detail their domination of Northern Israel during the Divided Monarchy. The records of Shalmanesser III mention King Ahab and Yehu, who overthrew the House of Omri, and, of course, Shalmanesser’s efforts to maintain control of the land. The nature of the bureaucracy of ancient Israel, especially in the south, has been illuminated by the discovery of numerous seals used as a way of authenticating official signatures. Some of them are the names of actual peo - ple known from the Bible. The Deir Allah text (ca. 700 BCE) refers to Balaam, son of Beor, who was a known prophet. This is the same man mentioned in the Book of Numbers. This document proves that Balaam was an important figure in the lore and tradition of the nations surrounding ancient Israel. An important set of discoveries pertains to the invasion of Israel by King Sennacherib of Assyria, who besieged Judea in 701 BCE. For defensive purposes, King Hezekiah created an extensive tunnel in order to bring water under the city walls of Jerusalem. The 1,750 foot long tunnel was excavated in two directions until the workmen met in the middle and the water started flowing through. At this point they erected an inscription (now in a museum in Istanbul) explaining how they dug the tunnel. Sennacherib’s annals state that he “shut up Hezekiah like a bird in a cage.” The Lachish Letters on mili - tary affairs also mention this campaign. Assyrian sources say that their army received news that there was a rebellion in Assyria, causing the troops to abandon Jerusalem and return home. The result was that Jerusalem sur - vived until 586 BCE. In the Bible, lepers from outside the city of Jerusalem reported that Sennacherib’s army had suddenly and miraculously aban - doned their siege. Another discovery is the amulets that were found at Ketef Hinnom (600 BCE). They contain the biblical priestly blessing of Numbers, “May the Lord bless you and keep you.” Archaeology then is a double-edged sword. For while it might corroborate some information from the Bible, the Bible often deals with the situation from the point of view of ancient Israel, rather than the other nations sur -

E rounding it. In the archaeological record we often see the other side, and E

R so we have to take all sources into account in order to reach a decision on H

T what is historical fact. E

R The lack of evidence for the period of the United Monarchy does not allow U

T us to compare the sources. We only have the Bible and the archaeological C

E remains of buildings. The “minimalists” have argued that the United Monarchy L

18 was an unimportant chapter in history and have downplayed the extensive architectural evidence. The United Monarchy started out modestly in the time of Saul, came to its peak with Solomon, and was destroyed shortly thereafter. It was not of interest to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian sources as the Land of Israel was later on when these powers were seeking to con - quer and destroy it. The architectural evidence shows the extensive spread of the united kingdom and its cultural developments, and gives us a sense that this monarchy was significant within the context of the ancient Near East.

19 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What are the different approaches taken by biblical “maximalists” and “minimalists”? 2. What is found in the Deir Allah text?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Archaeology and the Bible,” pp. 53 –98 and 567 –78. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

Avi-Yonah, M., ed. The Archaeology of the Land of Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1982. Hoffmeier, J.K., and A. Millard, eds. The Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2004. E E R H T E R U T C E L

20 Lecture 4: Origins of the World, Humanity, and the People of Israel: Genesis and Exodus

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Origins of the World, Humanity and the People of Israel ,” pp. 1–54 , in Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple , H. Shanks, ed.

he Bible gives its own view of the ori - gin of the world, humanity, and the people of Israel in the books of Genesis and Exodus. The Bible wants to emphasize certain key religious values and ideas revealed in the details of creation. The initial accounts of creation present two different schemes. In one, the world came into being by God’s word, that is, His divine will, and in the other He was more closely involved in the creation of the various living things. In either case, God is the Master of the world, and we have to follow His ways. m o

It is the first of these creation stories that c . t r a p i culminates in the Sabbath, the Bible’s l C genius invention of the day of rest on a © weekly basis. Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden by Albrecht Dürer, 1507 The Bible then presents us the Garden of Eden story, meant to teach us the nature of the relationships between men and women, God and humanity, God and nature, and the rest of history that is to come. After the idyllic Garden of Eden, where Adam and Eve fail to keep the one commandment not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge, mankind henceforth suffers pain, struggle, the need to make a living, and death. The intent of the biblical text was to teach us fun - damental lessons about the nature of the world and how we are to live in it. As such, it is not a history book, but a book of ethics and morals. The same is the case with the continuing story of the history of civilization that we find in the Bible—the first music, farming, husbandry, etc. Rabbinic sources are quick to point out how the origins of humanity show that we all have one father and mother. The entirety of what modern scholars would call prehistory is subsumed under the seven days of creation (of the first account), the Garden of Eden story, the flood, and the Tower of Babel, which explains the spread of humanity throughout the entire world. Here we note that some biblical stories, most notably the second creation story and the flood story, have parallels in ancient Mesopotamian mythology. According to the Bible, Hebrew civilization was derived ultimately from Sumeria, Babylonia, and Assyria, the major areas, running south to north, of ancient Mesopo- tamia. The migration of Abraham and his family is probably to be set in the large-scale south-north migrations that took place after the destruction of Ur

21 LECTURE FOUR 2 2 do de Isr tr di wh acou cer re th at fr ri th ro Exodu pr Wit Egypt of en up of Isa us fr wa con to di an ta cla pr Jud ma Ca ab To th Ge th in T I T A D tu ib om om t r vo er io em kes es em d ya o i he he th ael ect w n se. ces o d o e Israel th h we i e s im. n ac, nesi w very e tai a n hi emp ject s n, necti aism ce n ut ba ol e n. ther rce an e l l d. ose Mou i a n i prob t t th q l it nl r n in pa y o Meso Jaco , he he i at nt pla e a a n t s t s Th e le If Ja s ue s of ing a of ut T h an s y No p viden nd cou Ca i ti a l ter s i it t n im l no place e his a gitm on tes ace, at of w he laces th on. com d nt shor a sla Ca not and cob, ce e stion et the Bab of very d lema had h fro e ab nd e na po b’s er the its mat ist P har the pa pot scen dire M b to f very na stor E w in h nts. m ent orm e Posi atr hor ecau ce conte rta es ate sla ory t oria in ave rec el, C impa gyp s rt hile and cre en n th ami d histor w in tic tim t in ter o its fou ct hrista flue he iarch its h nt y nites. o in re f e den ca int very. as lab F o ter of l Eg f of of h, the atin t. th an ha ce to evidnc e, se evid bscur la i i or nce ho l b rth a th th imp ves mpor t sp . o ct an h n e The a n ed ly or, spect Egypt th th wher te show ypt. is 1 ts n ict d s ce p t s e e existnc. n w exampl, -ce of he g o land is d 20 histo tury n tr lace e e r t Yet be enc f of rint twelv t Bo Mern the . who hes Isr ity, Can aditons or a and y a one sign th also the es t Paso patri ary So ultimae ntury Jews hat Jo e er o cal f . aelit e t am o n BCE. a f on of ricty h h the Bible This the k the the se f the lega nciet this d such if as e su famin sacr und from evid of exc wou so of th wel ica o Israe ily ptah fr ph th Isr so fering BCE ver are chal ar es Exodus om t b urces sacrife imp n , the Gen un he e co tha erstan tex nce of la l But toa ifces ecom enc. ns. The ot aelits th has ts, ld is edingly re thin Egypt ev re e Je nd questio nque l. holiday. ey stel Egyptian t en God conque ortan ca storie sto demp sold he b in pres family esi n Eg ly w Jaco T no doe in would ecom kin family for ovels, wa nts sla once gr ry his h ish Can in ds ry Exo yptian devo West ad in ia st eat sone to to a g t s for ved s by of hum a vario the o as n tion b’s impor is nted cult th pe nig historcal nd of leitmo o po se not f le st, rescu retu dus is Isa so Fur di becom f e his pers the th an, esn trave plays, ted ople th ading the re sed Can th to dr mon an to the o rn urces from e histora it us m r e ocupie ral cords e ther, in faith rignal eam exist tan is b n P c d is Isr sa his tie to cr Holy civlzato sacrife rothe to Je oes if h p ls early many to in t cution. linked and r tialy o crife eation aelits the aroh an. e la mon from eason theisc in and slavery the wi ind e the in contex. its of for whe the at ces p k as ntire do n it evry sh art story, Temp rs by Jewish the Ther d ica religo pla Ab n Bethl, self-co fam part ap Ma a in Israe aspect p Abrah fre , not n cites with a theism pe wh to of Mose, of res the and te story rah ce, build a practied n. nd family o la th ble netho, mesag. eing ily s e ear, at ople. ther Can ich Isac the le of moven th ter it m ey us Unfo lite an m is Pa th m the ncep of the at is m peol entio to in am, and Exodus ved ing for ay of e indcate akes c h brough storie an, mean tha of triachs cultra tha a slavery of impo the onquerd althoug joins in istor Je lok questio ra s rtunaely, b begin flo the tea actuly exampl, constr the tion thro in ut se n our rusalem, God’s ised yet by od, Patri the the taking it ches y it, the tled sible It ing this exclusion and for t him Jew t presn ugh expr of the cult uns of and for is and their to or e in an or peol n uc same e of nter is only c th l vi s ther of us liber ure. be the d ea etl th tion it om chs its with to e - of i e - - d t - - d . therefore, some scholars assume that it never happened. They assert that a myth was promulgated for purposes of creating a self-identity. Others would say that such a myth would not be logical because people do not usually cre - ate stories of their own slavery and disgrace. Manetho, the historian who gave us the whole chronology of the Egyptian dynasties, tells two versions of the Exodus that he claims he copied from ancient Egyptian temple records. In one version the Israelites were connected with the Hyksos, who were expelled as the rulers of Egypt ca. 1500 BCE, and in the other, the Israelites were expelled as lepers, a scenario that purports to have taken place about 1250 BCE. These two dates correspond to the two possible times that modern scholars believe the Exodus might have occurred. Scholars also have sought to give explanations for the biblical Ten Plagues, the destruction of the Egyptians, and the protection of the Israelites in the desert. The Bible itself views these as miracles told from the point of view of those experiencing them. Israel was redeemed from the lowest position in society through no power of its own, and the miraculous attainment of their freedom could not have been accomplished without divine help. This version contrasts with Manetho, who tells of expulsion or escape of a low group of society guilty of dastardly deeds. There is a great contrast in how the two civ - ilizations saw the events of the Exodus. So probably there was an Exodus, but we cannot prove it from archaeology or direct evidence from ancient Egypt, nor can we date it exactly or know all the particulars. We can look at the archaeological correspondences with events mentioned in the Bible in later periods; the correspondence is striking and it appears that the biblical account fits well within the evidence that we have for the place and role of ancient Israel. The effect of the Exodus on later Jewish tradition is great. We have the hol - iday of Passover and the fall celebration of Sukkot. The Sabbath in the Ten Commandments of Deuteronomy is to be observed in commemoration of the redemption from Egypt, and servants and animals are to be given a day of rest as well because “You were slaves in Egypt.” The Exodus becomes a social motif regarding treatment of strangers and workers. Thus, the Exodus is a model for liberation, freedom, and human rights and an example for how to treat others when in power over them. All the stories in the Bible manifest the development of civilization according to the divine will. It was Israel’s destiny to spread the divine word among the nations of the world. The Exodus from Egypt and the receipt of the codes of law was the means by which this was to m be accomplished. o c . t r a p i l C © An illustration depicting the beginning of the Exodus.

23 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What is the intent of the Garden of Eden story? 2. What questions are there concerning the historicity of the Exodus?

Suggested Reading

Shanks, H. “Origins of the World, Humanity and the People of Israel,” pp. 1 –54. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999.

Other Books of Interest

Coogan, M.D., ed. The Oxford History of the Biblical World, pp. 3 –122. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 17 –32 . Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. R U O F E R U T C E L

24 Lecture 5: Codes of Biblical Law: Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Codes of Biblical Law ,” pp. 351 –61 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

fundamental idea of the Bible and later Judaism is that law does not simply encompass buying and selling, criminal behavior, and other activity, but has to do with all aspects of life. Legal codes are com - mon in the Five Books of Moses, and, even if they were composed separately, they still seem to have a unitary framework behind them. The Book of Exodus contains the legal code, promulgated, according to the narrative, after the revelation of the Ten Commandments at Sinai. Called the Book of the Covenant by scholars, this code, dealing primarily with civil law, is written in a literary form similar to that of the Code of Hammurabi. Apodictic statements begin with “Thou shalt.” Casuistic law, most typical of the ancient Near East, appears in the form “i f then.” The code of law in Exodus is most - ly casuistic, as is the code of Hamជmurabi. The Code of the Covenant differs from Mesopotamian law in which “an eye for an eye” is taken literally. In the Bible such punishments have been converted to monetary compensation. Exodus assumes all citizens to be equal before the law, a feature not found in Mesopotamian society. The biblical code recognizes slavery, however, and slaves have certain protections, although they do not have the same rights as free people. Should we be surprised to find that the biblical law code is simi - lar to an ancient Mesopotamian code? How would we explain this if we believe that the Bible is a divine revelation? Here we have to invoke a rabbinic statement, “the Torah speaks in the lan - guage of humans,” meaning that when the Torah sought to make Israel into a people that was more refined and more connected with God than those peoples around them, it sought to do this by making use of certain things that come from the surrounding civilizations. It seems as though y n u l C e d e

é Scrolls of the Torah s u M

/ and the m o c

. Ten Commandments t r a p i l Artist unknown, ca. 1797 C ©

25 someone who knew the legal system of ancient Mesopotamia borrowed it, improved it, and placed it into the Bible. Some prescriptive codes regarding the festival calendar and the building of the tabernacle, the portable tent sanctuary in the desert, also appear in Exodus. These festivals remained an obligation when Solomon built the First Temple. There are also festival calendars in Leviticus 23, Numbers 28 –29, and Deuteronomy. Later Jewish tradition read these calendars together and derived from them the sacrifices and observances for each festival. Some of the differences in these codes relative to the festivals were resolved later by the Talmudic tradition. Leviticus includes codes regarding ritual. Leviticus discusses sacrificial law, spelling out the various offerings brought for expiation, thanking God, ritual purity, celebrating festivals and other such holy occasions. These offerings must be conducted in ritual purity. Ritual impurity may come about through contact with the dead or certain creatures, or experiencing certain bodily flux - es. A person must purify himself before entering the Tabernacle, or later, the Temple. Sacrifice of sheep, goats, or bovines, meal offerings, or birds, with oil, wine, and flour are symbolically meals taken with God. Deuteronomy also includes codes of law, as it purports to be a speech of Moses reviewing laws previously set out in the Torah. This section resembles ancient Near Eastern treaties and includes sections on war, captives, purity, permitted and forbidden foods, festivals, marriage, divorce, rape, and civil and criminal matters. In this literary form, Israel enters a treaty as the vassal of God. In the Book of Ezekiel there are indications that there were other law codes circulating in ancient Israel, different from our canonical Torah. Some scholars claim that these codes were not written at the time of Moses, but much later. Nevertheless complex legal codes did exist throughout the history of Israel. A question has been raised about how to deal with the contradictions between these several codes. Midrash was one method of solving these problems. It interpreted one passage in light of another. In Judaism it is believed that these harmonizations stem from the oral law. Some modern scholars see in these contradictions evidence for the independent composi - tion of different parts of the Torah, leading to the Documentary Hypothesis, the claim that the Pentateuch is made up of various documents that were put together by a final redactor. The traditional viewpoint would argue that these texts are all one unity promulgated simultaneously and constitute a consistent system. The various codes of the Torah, when united in one common work, speak in multifarious voices that only when combined constitute the message of the overall text. This characteristic applies not only to the legal codes but the numerous other kinds of passages as well, in which similar stories appear to be told more than once or in which different versions of poetic texts or histori - E V

I cal accounts may occur within the Bible. F

E Deuteronomy contains a section known as the Law of the King stating what R

U the king’s powers are and limiting his government to what we might call a T

C constitutional monarchy. Yet the idea of having a king is considered as E L

26 though it is obligatory. On the other hand, in the Book of Samuel, the people beg the prophet for a king to help them better defend themselves against their enemies by means of a central monarchy. Samuel argues against appointing a king by alluding to Deuteronomy. He says that everything that Deuteronomy prohibits the king from doing, he will ultimately do. This pas - sage in Samuel proves the preexistence of Deuteronomy. In forbidding certain types of activity on the Sabbath, one would have expected Isaiah to quote some of the material in the Pentateuch forbidding labor on the Sabbath. Yet the Book of Isaiah prohibits business activity and travel, activities that are not mentioned at all in the earlier biblical codes. Eventually the Talmudic system of Jewish law gathered all these examples together and forbade all these activities on the Sabbath, no matter where they are mentioned. Ezra and Nehemiah, however, in their Sabbath law, always say “as is written in the book of Moses” and allude to the Pentateuchal proscriptions. Apparently, later books had different codes at hand. Some adhere more closely to preexistent codes, and some seem to be adding to them. This gives us the sense that, even if the Torah had already come into existence, it was still circulating not as a unified text but rather in sections. As long as these sections circulated separately, it was possible for parts of the Torah to be influential in different books and historical contexts. The entire collection was clearly a unit by the Persian period. The notion behind all this biblical law is that every single action of the human being can be regulated by law and by obligation. Everything one does has to be sanctified by being done in accordance with the law. Is the extent of regu - lation in the Torah greater or less than that of later Judaism? It is possible that the rabbinical interpretations of later Judaism extended the system beyond what the Bible required. This was the divide between Judaism and Christianity. The Pharisaic-rab - binic tradition, which gained ascendancy after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, required that every action be done under the legal system. However, even though Jesus himself lived under this legal system, Paul took the view that those who joined his new church and probably also the Jews need not live under this law. Judaism remained a religion anchored in the interpretation of the biblical legal codes while Christianity became a religion in which only the moral and ethical requirements behind these legal codes remained obligatory. All the rest became superseded with the coming of Jesus. Jews saw legal regulation of life as a positive thing, and Christians saw it as a negative . In the Hebrew Scriptures, legal codes both dominate and sanctify the whole of human life, including one’s thoughts. When performing a positive action, the intent must be pure. The Bible also has an absolute prohibition on hatred: “Love thy neighbor as thyself,” and “Thou shalt not hate thy neighbor in thy heart.” These laws testify to the notion of purity of thought as well as of action.

27 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. Is it surprising that the biblical law code is similar to the ancient Mesopotamian code? 2. What is the Documentary Hypothesis?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Codes of Biblical Law,” pp. 351 –61. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 61 –72 . Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. E V I F E R U T C E L

28 Lecture 6: History and Identity: Joshua and Judges

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “History and Identity ,” pp. 123 –218 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

n this lecture we will turn to the conquest of the land of Israel and the early years of Israelite occupation. Specifically, we will be referring to material in the historical books of Joshua and Judges. These are the first two books of what are called the Former Prophets (Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings) because of the prophetic nature of those who are understood to have written these books. They appear to be gathered together from some preexistent material and edited by somebody who takes a view of history based on the ideology of the Book of Deuteronomy. The author of Judges (and the end of Joshua) constantly argues that the people transgressed by not following the Torah. As a result, they suffered, but when they repented, their suffering ceased, only to be renewed when they trans - gressed again. Joshua and Judges tell two different stories about the occupation of the land by the Israelites. Joshua says it was an immediate conquest. After the Jews came out of Egypt, the land was apportioned to the different tribes. They went about conquering this land by killing all the Canaanites (in accord with the Deuteronomic command). There are two problems with this account. It appears from later history of the second part of Judges, Samuel, and Kings that it did not happen that way, and the archaeological record agrees. The second problem is that the account is contradicted by the early chapters of Judges. If, as Joshua tells it, there was an immediate and total conquest of all the territory, it would then be impossible to explain why tribes are still trying to conquer the land assigned to them in the beginning of Judges. It appears that chapters 1 and 2 of Judges are an alternative account of the conquest of the land. This gradu - alist account has tribes assisting one another in conquering specific territories over a period of time. This version of the settlements in the land of Canaan seems to be more in accord with the archaeological evidence as it has been revealed in modern times. In fact, many of the places inhabited by Canaanites before the Israelites entered the land, including some designated in the Merneptah stele, continued to be occupied by Canaanites long into the Israelite period. The version of Joshua is an idealistic picture that wants to say that the Torah’s will in Deuteronomy, to see the Canaanites destroyed, was, in fact, put into effect. But in Judges we have a much more accurate picture of the gradual and difficult nature of the task of the Israelites to con - quer their land. What were some of the things that made it so difficult? The Israelites remained in the Bronze Age when the neighboring Canaanites were already in the Iron Age. What helped the Israelites tremendously was the discovery of

29 LECTURE SIX 3 0 e r o m . y r a h c a e i w pl con Exodu tio ma am an th sim an no wh ba bi a th ar th la pe e u q no sed o r p myt up sto re an Th s u d r s I be Ca Ca ho T T T O T B a n u e e e r n a m u h o vo t he he he e h n u d d t t o m p d tw w e a e ne e h o n n ce at nch ry ke o T und o p il quest h entar t le ple er-c con Israe wa Bat e r al an an o ngst adi lut r f a w to ar I s i h e h t en to to io e w l sra Bo Bo se s . o c c a f wi th r t m o a a d s th as o t s mi di n o l io God t som n i y e lte c c the t t c sm u at qu w he la th s the le con . t i i i he ro k vison w a k o elits tes tes ert n o a n se d l u o h s litar y l. b - a ould pun th t s r u k rn k o c c com y g E ilct as co f g ugh he ering it t of e t l me n u t u B a be Th Exo wo s a t ain e co hea o i t e of of o c t a ative d wa o fter lime d had o t w t uld claim y end n r Je t m ish ef C n u came t e e d e e alte . nqu n an t p er e we Joshu Joshu n make n i conf th divne l ver xten o c o dus: h t an en ir b t a ls eat venly o r t sto richo a n i t w of d e ed, ston f o acu at er e s u a p e a ed e e n lve e g d u J s e v i ag s m e e s e u q n p own rna th nly a emy se hic est scap sio d n no e r f f d l l l a m s s ng efo osit ry cit lict; le t e f o t r o th ra ju ven re lo n t t th a a a e t tr u s, o tive o ns—the y r a ha o is . a t it in a lan . e to r s simlated us, ca p t a h ib presnt e a C . plo re r e f to es ian a nd pro contrl aft ed T t e b it e it but s conti cast Israe es e h T e r e h ve es. Achan, the s t i th enmy, a his co have iatve pable times, h d t new o t is asu line c s n ,s e b i r n i g e b er ts s so until, ad ea at perty r e h t from m enviro n a a rds take t t a the a l o h eb T t i r r e hes story for is city e r o rthly as wi lit t his to o t com he cistern elit imeda ua . mes b e not the es. . tha of t s n o us and en Egypt. hin a a ocu o I e m s r . - e r e w o ver - m a conque batle f tha - kind ment. Aga low rose o h w a o i t n Ca Joshua slave s time, py t tr s a r t to th naite te in ansfer countr of Th n s the in s e b i to a r e s m u s ey A Th g stor we co ring. e m o s reas ar schem is m Jo the w the u o i e ose and wer i nque set al leav d- sh g n i are h w e y l n s ni ove ua Can The y l s top of ot socie wa by net t e ou um a o who ilogcay r e h atic l st fa r e t l the e o ve s r ent ter. e t bl e u q char adi and nce ced t Isr e t n ver us with e im ry e ty t a n ng wa becam do h- hig nites aelits a h t In n o i t s e o d e r su impro the ce iots slave. justife w th with r. rdina e v i fro divne n. g n e t tu Th enr re relating count Isr h t h t could m gr with ry w e i v h t the ae baly e r e was e ry. adul ocupied ch p d more e s e l Israelit al i e n a l astor te gu ro itself iron ry question For s s mo s a w terms, be an idance d ar o a e v e tha with li se f ound and d n a al thograp examp foundati conq wh intera h with n a tlemn. s t n w o s th space els. an the Jer mor walk no c e ox e to uerd of the dn a icho le, depict l why e - - n as -

© Clipart.com loosely affiliated tribes make short-term alliances with each other. Their mili - tary chieftains, serving temporarily, take the land over a long period of time. The “judges” of the Book of Judges seem to have been charismatic military leaders rather than actual judges. They saved Israel by heroic actions or by leading victorious armies. The second part of Judges takes up the theme of the Philistine threat that ultimately led to the creation of a monarchy. The biggest problem facing the Israelites after displacing enough of the Canaanite inhabitants was what to do about the Philistines, who were constantly raiding, destroying, and pressuring the Israelites from their base in today’s Gaza. Most of the stories in this book are about the assemblage of small military bands whose job it was to fight against the Philistines. These judges are part of a Heroic Age in a kind of Wild West atmosphere—no unified country, no unifying ruler, and under external threats and harassment. Some judges are described in entire literary units because the editor had enough material about them. Other minor judges, about whom little is known, are treated sketchily. An example of a detailed tale is that of Ehud of the tribe of Benjamin. Ehud subdued the Moabites by assassinating their king and is neither a military leader nor a judge, but a heroic individual. Both prose and a poetic account of Deborah, a quite well-known judge, deal with her military exploits. These stories fit the pattern of sin, resulting misfortune, subsequent return to God, and salvation. At the end of this period (ca. 1000 BCE) there is a transition to the leader - ship of prophets and kings. The characteristics of a judge as a leader who comes forth to meet a certain challenge are still the characteristics of the prophet Samuel and of Israel’s first kings. The forging of Israelite identity begins with the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai and the making of a nation. Yet the picture of Judges shows that every group saw itself as part of their particular clan or tribe, and there was no national entity. The period of the Judges pushed Israel toward a more com - mon way of life and toward a more established identity as the Jewish people, a nation of Israel. The growth of identity took place in response to the exter - nal pressures from their enemies. A further problem arises between Joshua and Chronicles. Joshua testifies to areas that were never conquered, but in Chronicles they appear to have been occupied, especially in Manasseh and Ephraim. Each of the judges con - quered a small area from the Canaanites or rescued a particular territory, and yet the total area of Israelite occupation was greater than the sum of those parts. It therefore seems logical that there were Israelites who stayed behind when the family of Jacob went down to Egypt during the famine and who reintegrated into Israelite society when the Jews returned from Egypt. In the next lecture we will see how the loose, informal conglomeration of tribes was forced to unite into a central government with an overall strategy, taxing authority, and a standing, well-equipped army to withstand the Philistines. So from the entry into the land through the period of the judges constitutes a transitional period that ends with the appointment of King Saul.

31 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What factors made it difficult for the Israelites to conquer their land? 2. How is the Battle of Jericho a combination of heavenly and earthly battle?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “History and Identity,” pp. 123 –218. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey , pp. 88 –112. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. X I S E R U T C E L

32 Lecture 7: Portrayal of History: Samuel and Kings

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Portrayal of History ,” pp. 221 –366 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

e now look at the books of Samuel and Kings that tell what hap - pened when a monarchy replaced the informal system of govern - ment that had been operating until then. In the book of 1 Samuel, the world of the judges is giving way to the monarchy, but this monarchy still had a tremendous amount in common with the period of the judges. It is possible to look at King Saul as if he were a judge and not a king. Saul was appointed in a time of emergency by Samuel, who was both prophet and judge, a charismatic figure who had no formal appointment. The people had come to Samuel to demand a king, and Samuel replied by quot - ing the Law of the King from Deuteronomy. However, he quoted it in negative terms, saying that the people should be warned that whatever is required of the king in Deuteronomy will be violated by an actual king. Nevertheless, the people wanted a king in order to be like all the other nations and to defend themselves against the Philistine threat. Saul, a charismatic hero of the tribe of Benjamin, delivered the people during a time of oppression, but after he was anointed, he turned out to be a tragic figure. He seemed to have suffered from some kind of mental illness and was constantly in fear of David. He transgressed and was eventually rejected by God, and he became depressed and could no longer govern. We have only to look at the nature of the government that Saul put into place to see him as a kind of judge. He had only one real official, a relative. His was not really a professional administrative system. We have quite of bit of information about the problem of the equilibrium between the Israelites and the Philistines. The Philistines were among the so- called Sea Peoples who came into Canaan in about 1200 BCE. They ruled from the Philistine Plain, what we call Gaza today. They seem to have assim - ilated the Canaanite culture and advanced by means of an excellent army. At one point they even conquered the Ark of the Covenant and carried it away. The Israelites had to fight guerrilla wars against them. Saul did not have a tax system and so he had to get tribute voluntarily. He began the process of statehood. He recruited a standing army of three mili - tary units, and he carried on his duties as required even in his periods of depression. He moved Israel much closer to having a central government to defend it against its enemies even though he did not really succeed in doing that in his lifetime. He made the first steps that came to fruition later on in 2 Samuel with the rule of David. He was not able to arrange for hereditary succession. Instead, David became king. David did not really start out as a candidate for king. He was a military chief - tain and also a good friend of Jonathan, son of King Saul. Saul wanted

33 LECTURE SEVEN 3 4 bu ho ba th le cover by be wi He fe wo an ro wa Bat no le sho Me sio be an ru th fo pe do city in we th po sytem, in is hi ru When de wh Sau Jon O T I Wi D n m n te to m e l e l e o l l th he d t m n came ed d er d o m w fe a ne man s o n r il gers h r st f f hs th th in had escri e r w ath d, ple vid Uri Hi rom mo Israe iba e l tha we ers, by i as forei e fer , n sa the . of her w m. wa an banish n e p ab d b a Over w o t l D u fr a t o S a ro , an w al o y na fte rs. eb f t ite in pr wa ca ki p e da lking t om s avid ve he h bath He rela w l aul th he C be the the and w e w and . p nt gn mise D lite com in ng a oph t r rchy cha a. , t er ling said h V reg rd e to he e He er s he avidc to w d he u p be ristan to time Isr Ju ar t . trie e s tions die ed re lan the know D he nitg Ho alce key ing ith su we su in on al ecy she g e le p na r io e of aut eith avid aw dea the ael. la in o r div U rob d tha pisod d, hu d, ced cesio D use ow us 2 w nged f h , tion the first a riah the w beg sto a to aite avid if 2 er d a he t Sa of er nd s D an ns, Ph - h ul a esc r, Da the so - we be Sam . at w avid ed s. s o ries tra 2 in mu ki d e also kin d il o ns f , vid J b cause w a , their le end him It Samue uld stine t David country of whom only erusalm p to y n he kend after hic el g ue th se o is had d descn in Ki the was ing get gained f with is and alwys ble or l as the ng David gover de the 7 t ms he ca . s ts. Egypt the folwer r melt and S the sin h pi l di king, evolt able positn of an au suce Chro e used 7, and cti kingd opr F th . l time o sa a nme urthe th sen not l David also g at actu convie n ist ca nts d real to e and w but o placing of h en nicles. the f l him sion a ad s om, su hap the tuniy as s of condut way. for A rmo thoug o in t at w Jon l gove port b Meso f was alred was of Davidc, Solmn hi sto sytem a salom. to Sau pen Hebro a tha resultin l e compe nar ry a d His athn e, its rule T gain D to ht rnme t ful-scae th re p hes sup a l, potam of t auto vi tim romised he establih lat capitl y ba em t rule such d n hat tive. the ed be Eventua of supo in pl g a tles e pr , wh mesianc tior osed ays maticly. nd stor to th i en in t. a adm n the they efr was ia, no nd o e as 1 David It use intrg hi later at a to given Samuel pr ies civl rthen sou th rt s star an end nd to so instrao Jona a fo harp th oclaimed should h e ly, am d their is pr dyna rev lo et e th ues e di two So ts se Da also of nlarge ove ongst a al to son David to ide than 16. contiu tribes k with rna rvice, ncie lomnic da vid n sothe a terioy D major sty. like. thes as ot be a nd . n b tha avid l ys ’s n David egan al dynast. David and him ’s atemp the of his t kin exampl violen Even to son, a who ed Jebus the suce along, ther the world and cha taxio g, e acept Judeans. king his to to a mpires, to to me ilng and as would J after be ce. l - his entr be co ews ite - to was an T - so king n the h to u - e r t in

© Clipart.com he could not come home and have relations with his wife because that would cause him to become ritually impure, and soldiers had to remain pure. David then sent a message to the battle line that Uriah should be put in a danger - ous position so that he would be killed in battle. When Uriah was killed, David was free to marry Bathsheba. The first son of his marriage to Bathsheba died as a result of this sin. David appointed their second son, Solomon, as his successor. Ultimately, Solomon attained the throne because he had the sup - port of the prophet Nathan and Bathsheba. David’s goal was to build a great empire and he succeeded. He wanted to bring the Ark of the Lord to his central city, Jerusalem, and to use its location to unite the northern and southern tribes. His last dream was to build the Temple in Jerusalem, but he could not achieve it. The Temple was later built by Solomon, who also made the Jewish nation a true world power. Despite all the literary evidence we have for these stories in Samuel and in Chronicles, there is not any external direct evidence for these events in any of the texts of antiquity. In fact, the “minimalist” Bible critics regard the sto - ries of Saul, David, and Solomon as never having taken place. David is dis - missed as a fictional hero, a kind of Jewish King Arthur. We have an archae - ological find that mentions the House of David, proving that there was a strong tradition in ancient Israel that David had been the originator of the dynasty. There is also architectural evidence in Jerusalem that we believe points to David. Right now in Jerusalem there is a project to uncover a gigantic building dating from approximately 1000 BCE that may be David’s palace. This archaeological evidence argues against those who would say there was no Davidic empire. When we consider the geogra - phy of David’s kingdom, it appears that David began by con - quering the area of Hebron in the south, but he decided that Hebron would not be appropriate as the capital of his kingdom. Apparently, there was an ad hoc alliance of the northern and south - ern tribes for defense against their enemies all along during the reigns of Saul, David, and Solomon. But there were always tendencies and tensions that pulled them apart, culminating in the split after the death of Solomon. In reality, David was ruler of two segments, north and m

south. That was why he put the o c . t r a p

Temple in an area that was a no i l C man’s land that no tribe could © claim. It was on the border King David leads celebrants as they parade into between the two segments, and Jerusalem with the Ark of the Covenant in this nine - teenth-century illustration.

35 LECTURE SEVEN 3 6 en fr We pr ha myt th re th li po lo er ha an li chy, be sep th pl mu sta i H th n o m o l o S l c m o r f n i t n e c s r e d n u t r o p , s i s a b n i e h t s i h t e l p o e p o w . s e i m e h th x a t he G Wh W kel ved om s s a g e e at e e is o co s. a r e r c h c i h w ce, p r ve, d e iven , s k r ica nd e l i h s e ch cou r e h n i se ted hi arte wer s n sto empi taxes u r e J y ke m re s a w en s r e nstru Then th So s i h Juda t t si cal mor n i t a t b he l. e h a t i l i m e H a h t b sp ca h u (e o at y o r o ry ld d u t b u d n a K ut ow p the he , e l n a p F f e t r be e l a s e t i ven y the ect, pital r d, n i e texu el o p arch o or n ha use d t g T o ct t e e a a r c h s a w l a a a o a d the by w b o l a y r o g f h die, d r y skin d n y r o t diver t d h c acu w a t a g i l b i s s a e rn in e vin h t w e e e h men D fo th emp h o b d h t m o S emo t . e f cur he xam as sid hou o r s i aeo h ha r u ebo the e al o f rm ta e a a h n e ar t e t w K t f o b a g ad he g he e h T o i t “ F n o m o l m e l e e J ke o c r ingd cha e r a n t chae d ca e st ra sity tr So ts. d e t , e l p m e ora tr e m o r h s t a r c u a ate nstr n w gh e l h c i h w lo of ple mig ra Te s n ad . e w i b o i t u l o v so d i v a D ou a u e l a s u r c e b ow te. f t r l d e t c e l l o c n o i t using th orce d e d a r gical lo , s e s i r p e n h, The or le t a ry e t s y s re om mp . iton o version H of , uth b til b u s r e w e atin mo olg ht rt. h t It So k t n the ng le e s u a e th sembld e k a t he s i ar contra t f o the l d e with loks he be sucked d a h e e s a w in n’s prose e h and metis makin ers picture. s t c e j m e g d n a n it m i r p tha c e l l o c an ical labo o s m aco h t i w . l e a r s I deta as po n e v i g tha 586 to a n a bilca the d T a v d a u t c a n i K son, gem r e h t u t s n i a g o thes? estruc to a a etic m e Israel v n i a dictory be a l y l i r a d f dat a of d n is r, t d n a ils t n i h unt g e h t acoun r e t n i s earlist his u g d i th BCE. d e t f an ou p but d e v l o y l l a f i t r o ” closet the nifer. g a t n e ove We tho t Reho a e h t e m o l o S . e l rela n o nt. o we nds count a l r e t n k of g e A rule. e h t source while ad n h “ io r a p x a t in g n i k c o l d o he deal” Th ugh n o i t a c i o c c a pro rextn m i s A dat r e f f i n w o might He te n f p o t e i v e l e Judge h the r i d n t hoc n i met, th boam, , s e e t As , n a e ave o versio tok f o d n a a se t n o o S Th ncefor d e e n o to o f e the f tha t n e pear t x e f o h s i l p m ir f o t th ap betw north e h t s r o f an a r o f in co st ose n o m o l the judge e h t t de s d a h no say ale s t i c and e t i t e v i s n e a i s A hold p p u s e h t the t a h poe d a t s i d untry and d e c ste . s n con of s i h er was ears No a a e p a t s - y a e p p th, such tr ar u o c s wh . a o and m o c tha e v t e n o N en d e y Joshu wrong th p s bilca p tic . T e h s t c i r pea er f rthe to chaeol s ’ cernig d s i w t r o n i M th o b a l ther e c hes to th o e is y r told y r t n t i l for to , s e t the d e r be of h c u m e sto t r a h e inde co x e l p e e d a r evidn ancie e l u figu to . t i e l t t i l o t f o , r o n con xternal n o be r m o stor t r , s s e l e h Solm a d mplain ry mor wo tha e h to North ad remo e H Kingd l l a p o t s a w two d l i u b was e h t e e m a c is re fensibl. e s o p m i n a older a gical , stan n i m d a evo videnc the y. vice m d n a nt be o t e p s e sep e v o t e not, h c r a o m g r o ce o e d a r d he e r o e r i p m e p For ut r his o d ve a lo on’s lved source a d e t i u r c e olitca u E i c om ed conquest an arte h t n h s r reco gical d e z i n a h d t and but h expa what , s e i t later . so o , s e i y l l a i c o tory e e v i t a r t s i legndary s i e h t ivde d n i d e ad . e p o r d exampl, e H wer in n a ht n o m - y b - we d i d projects, T h t i w from n o p u and South g n i d l i u b we g n i t h g i f con rd . he chose to r o u o c 72 and nsio is d e t a w t e H version). enti is , d n e k o o try ht i w omains, de e c c u s is tha adjust asume a h c u M o t righ tains no North tc i r t s i d e mo ;a c i r f A most the is .y r t n videnc eh t most d -t s r i f to B y s per ha s t r d i w - nar CE sup t to pu of t: a we s eh in lay me t s en e fo ta h pe d - to n to sci fo - - - - o in - - - FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. How was Saul a tragic figure? 2. How was King Solomon able to accomplish so much?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Portrayal of History,” pp. 221 –366. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey , pp. 118 –43. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005.

37 Lecture 8: Temple and Sacrifice: Leviticus, Numbers, Ezekiel

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is “Temple and Sacrifice ,” pp. 319 –50 , in The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies , J.W. Rogerson and Judith M. Lieu, eds.

ur purpose in this lecture is to explain the concept of animal sacrifice and the role of the priests of the Temple in biblical religion. These themes are concentrated in the books of Leviticus, Numbers, and the end of Ezekiel, but there are references all over the Bible to these concepts. Sacrifices or cultic acts were part of the religion of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in the Book of Genesis. In the Book of Exodus, when the Israelites were wandering in the desert, God commanded them to build a tent-shrine or Tabernacle. It was made out of wooden beams with various curtains creating an enclosure that housed the Ark of the Covenant containing the Ten Commandments. The Tabernacle stood in the middle of the desert camp, symbolizing the Israelites’ close and permanent connection with God. This shrine had a set of courtyards. In front of it was a courtyard in which the Israelites gathered. In a second courtyard only the priests could enter, and into the innermost chamber, the Holy of Holies, only the high priest could enter on the Day of Atonement. There was an outside courtyard surrounded by the encampment of the Twelve Tribes of Israel in a square configuration. The Tabernacle was the center of sacrificial rites and the place where God communicated with Moses. It was a special locus in which the presence of God was concentrated. When Leviticus and Numbers speak of the Tabernacle, we find a full description of the sacrificial system that was later continued into Solomon’s First Temple and into the Second Temple as well.

Illustration depicting the Tabernacle in the desert. T H G I E E R U m o T c . t r C a p i l E C L ©

38 The Bible rejects human sacrifice, as can be seen from the story in which Abraham is first commanded by God to sacrifice his son, Isaac, but is then prevented from doing it. Although in the Bible humans are commanded to sacrifice animals, it is hard for us to understand, partly because we gravitate toward prayer, charity, and helping others as the ways in which we serve God. Yet in biblical times, sacrificing an animal was the ultimate way of mak - ing a connection between God and humans. Behind sacrifice are several theories. One is the substitution theory. In the case of sin and guilt offerings (expiation), atonement for an accidental trans - gression is only possible through sacrifice. Although the human deserves punishment for his sin, the animal substitutes for human life. Sacrifice may be seen as a shared meal with the divine. In Genesis, some - times God is called the “clansman” of Jacob. God is, as it were, part of the family, clan, or nation. The shelamim sacrifice is a meal, offered to God, that is shared between Him and the person who offers the sacrifice. Another notion of sacrifice is that God needs to be fed, a more primitive idea. The “holocaust” offering, that which is wholly burnt, brings enjoyment to God as if he had eaten a meal. This meal must include bread, oil, and wine. The ancient Israelites did not really think that they were feeding their God, but perhaps it was something carried over from pre-Israelite religion. Some schol - ars see remnants of these more primitive ideas in the sacrificial system. I take the view that Israelite religion, by the time that the sacrificial system can be observed in action, was already at the point of understanding these things in a nonliteral, symbolic manner. One of the key actions in the preparation of sacrifices was the spilling of the blood representing the life essence of the animal. Its blood, not its meat, constituted the core of the offering, giving the sacrifice its validity. There are specific instructions, especially in Leviticus and Numbers, as to the sprin - kling of the blood on the altar. We cannot explain why the blood must be sprinkled in one direction or another or poured at the base of the altar. Nevertheless, these details of how to perform the sacrifices are important and have ancient backgrounds. In Ugarit (Ras Shamra) many clay tablets were found with ritual texts containing intricate details on how sacrifices were to be offered. There was great symbolism in the details in ancient times that we obviously cannot fathom. This system of worship in the Tabernacle can be observed through the accounts of the Israelites wandering in the desert. Some scholars date the Priestly document from the period of the Divided Monarchy or the Babylonian Exile. According to that point of view, we are not dealing here with the actual mode of worship in the desert, but rather some type of retrojection of the wor - ship in the Jerusalem Temple onto the Israelites of the desert. In the immediate post-conquest period, people worshiped in various high places. These locations were syncretistic in that they also involved certain Canaanite rituals of which the prophets or the authors of the historical books, especially Samuel and Kings, did not approve. This worship sometimes crossed the line between Israelite and Canaanite, including perhaps human or child sacrifice, sexual rites, and other rituals. Solomon intended the

39 LECTURE EIGHT 4 0 ar wa al an th dr He cha com er Te wh be bi ke pl pu wo 58 gr at pe San It fo 28 acord to Te Is r at e Se gi ni c th is so pl th saw He Te T I Si U F S n th b a o a e io r e w ch o e e he ro ur o ae d a ts 6 r – n th mp mpl mpl co e shin r ich u zekia n li n us ces us, cte at iod the bi as od oug pel. n ping on uti 29 a li we perio cal ct en ld ce p m ce it h eir BC i h ke l. trie fo nd n b Tem ec le o r ig le , if n ou pil ful e. d e, , es a li bu d, oft s st Un fo r af te r b rw f t ie do spe g, a t fa th Ki x h he w h cal per th E com l he , co tur C eg d h th l l T gr tiona , se th d at e bu i pe ct fu l 1 a d ithfu built it ild at , co n en h ar D ng o shou mina e stor le em pl the r ple t e s a h nte m imag e cont e e er an nly H cifyng o time Kin of io eu ) time d ar nd th T co l mit the th e str using th tu na te ly , t ou an d lo ca pe S w d, incr c em a a l by an l age ly, ter the mpo u Te h h e by olm gs e mp c as pr ld nt symbo e to u Jo ains lt i se. le semi- ople ad is iv ed plan a t e s of cr ea ti on cen cture her ple on cale ho us e iest mp eas the ma te ly H de te d t a wo ent arch siah So d a 8 he the sim o et kin buildn ea ra fo ls o er suc thr Sol semb f In on st r th e is le tral a rsh b r lo th m th e furthe od for gs, p nda th e ch pagn Templ d y as ila , n e e ecam Te we S l. al we it oy ed ’s al a ut il iz e wa mon, ic e h strug bu the evn with synag ectural econd alter mo ip. House fo The r t shr festival descripton a by Isra a mple id in I and he re g r ideas A sect kinds of sra ildng to lked ce r do le: gar of ea ital r plan sanctiy pro n Go d k ine, th S th e th e the the Gr native fro and or elits. elits. was Bo during th e o sacrife no t of Th le ol om on io the mo ogue ose of itself n, ject Mou thr T buildng eat. m d . ns featu syncre of of desig ok itself, th e Un i ar ch ae ol og ic al to e em roya cen ( ofer a ntua T re ce the next an g h ough pro the t he God equipm T wh he o ce nt ra l reatly av e replac in o s, nt design and ple It nt ra l te On empl of Al of f Co ve na nt tral f the an th re of l phets natig Temp in in o Temp 18 d th was Ezekil, more be ca us e condut stod s and pa the tisc to a the g. an y T the or it. t of so the e Mo na of fou im sanctu provid Divde er pla empl la sh ri ne BCE it ag ro po mo rp h T ent, The ught Je Bet sh Te the a es, ce. th was was empl festival nd for sacred le the con le top are ar ch ae ol og ic al ce cult. imp the on politca rusalem e ri n in mple rc hy , se Scrol di espcialy Ha-Mikd The in T special ed writen th p in wals of st o secration to e, hig th of ortan alwys realy a tha as re ma a empl, ortic. f rved Te ry. e Th Mo L Je ru sa le m. e th the ase smal smal a chan th e was the the evitcus h T by spa a mple Ki n Tem He ro di an e is b empl narchy, wer is m, p was from we t . un if ie r and in s eautifl h ritu as la Te mp le stru a d hil afte Te str g mblag table igh ce: ge not The istancg den ces. re ther ple h dweling Templ sh, Da vi d, the als. of as uctre. mple il, as of nevr in theol wa gle the celb r a . decora p the 2 prima re ma ounc th e th nd s e co Late po laces the fo r the th 3 no the if for L ce s e. So He en la rg em en t ent for e was ater Dead e an ntaied in Go rtico Ho a becom t expa lasted nter Fi rs t th e d rate ac co rd in g , Greco-R built. it Tem p gical th Holy r i ing lar throug d rancewy, Je ru sa le m Not rily wa nt ed estrucion ns butcherin pla a lace im d ly ted, on, servd becaus e co on, Numbe ge kind pe op le ne ed ed was d purity for of nd vast of Sea ce the Te mp le . a ple nsta until Ezekil’s cent or her K thr and toward palc loca lavers Kings Holies th e in the the for the of h wider with ought to platfo Sc g as igh ut man K and rs to g Fi rs t the tion of royal G of in H reli r . th cr e ing won o a rols e alter the the od a To key erod f ou r ey for th e on - rm - . - - offerings, various types of vessels for the purpose of performing sacrifices, and the golden menorah (candelabrum). The role of the Temple was to symbolize the relationship of Israelite monotheism to the Israelite monarchy. The Temple served for all those who came up to Jerusalem as a center for their religious activities. It generated var - ious economic activities beyond its original purposes, such as farmers’ and merchants’ selling of their produce. Throughout the Divided Monarchy, the Temple was a symbol of the fortune of the Jews. As long as it stood, it repre - sented the Israelites’ ability to keep the Assyrians and Babylonians at bay. According to Exodus, sacrifices made on behalf of the people were sup - posed to be funded by the half-shekel tax. It was a one-time payment at age twenty that was collected and placed in a chamber in the Temple. The priests used this fund to buy animals to sacrifice for the daily and festival offerings. The Temple may be seen in one of two ways. It might be a Temple for all Israel, indeed, of all humanity, as the prophet Isaiah says. Sacrifices are a collective offering in which the high priest is the agent of the people of Israel. Another view holds that it was a Temple of vicarious experience whose rituals were conducted by the high priest using his own money. As if the priest had some special power, he offered sacrifices on everyone else’s behalf and so provided the people as a whole a means to attain a connection with God. We must imagine the beautiful pomp and ceremony that surrounded these sacrifices. Priests and Levites were dressed in beautiful costumes; the Levites were singing beautiful prayers during the sacrifices; the animals were being paraded back and forth; the priest took the parts of the animals to the altar or to the people who were permitted to eat them in beautiful proces - sions. There was a festive environment in the Temple, creating an aesthetic and religious experience for those who were present. Perhaps we cannot understand sacrifice from our point of view, but we must try to picture it from the point of view of those who came to the Temple to participate in the pro - ceedings and the high level of religious meaning that it had for them. The Temple was the divine dwelling place on earth where the transcendent God became available and immanent. Here was the cosmic center of the universe where heaven and earth converged, giving authority and prestige to the king and to the government. The Temple was the place in which utmost purity was assumed to reign, and anyone who approached it had to be ritu - ally pure because of the divine nearness. The continuum from the secular to the most sacred as one went farther and farther into the Temple complex symbolized the idea that human beings could move closer and closer to God in terms of moral and religious perfection. Finally, the Ten Commandments were physically kept in the First Temple, symbolizing God’s revelation of law and morality. The visual effects made people feel that it really did symbolize God’s presence. Even after the split of the kingdom, the Northerners could not be weaned away from the Temple. It resisted syncretistic worship many times because it was always the symbol of the relationship of the one God to the Jewish people.

41 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What is the shelamim sacrifice? 2. What are the three sections of inner sacred space in the Temple?

Suggested Reading

Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Temple and Sacrifice,” pp. 319 –50. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Other Books of Interest

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey , pp. 33 –72 and 336 –54. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. T H G I E E R U T C E L

42 Lecture 9: The Prophets and Their Writings

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 270 –327 and 384 –468.

ssentially, a prophet is a spokesperson for God, and prophecy is the divine word being revealed to humanity. We refer to the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets, pre-classical or popular versus classical or literary prophets. Actually, the earlier prophets were essentially figures of religious influence over the people, but they did not compose great literary works. For example, Elijah and Elisha left only isolated stories of events or teachings that eventually found their way into the edited books. In addition, none of the prophecies preserved for us by the great prophets such as Jeremiah, Amos, or Hosea are simply penned by the prophet and handed to us as a book. Rather, these are anthologies of the works of one or more prophets put together by a scribe, although they look like unitary books of prophecy. The premise of Israelite prophecy is that God wants to make known His will to some chosen individuals who have a certain kind of charisma, a divine gift, to receive revelations from God and to impart them to others. Hence, they become spokesmen for the deity even if they resist prophesying. Prophets are often seen as radical iconoclasts. They have a message, not to foretell the future, but to warn the nation what will happen in the future if the behavior of the people does not change. Often they have to deliver the divine word to an indifferent or hostile audience. The origins of prophecy go back into the ancient Near East. The first real Israelite prophet is Moses, who encountered God face-to-face, probably not to be taken literally, but to be understood as indicating the closeness of Moses’s experience of God. Prophets other than Moses experienced God less directly, in dreams or visions. Looking at the Bible from a contemporary point of view, we must understand the Bible’s concept of prophecy as a vehi - cle for God’s communication with humanity. The classical prophets emphasized the need for morality in ritual contexts. They said that a sacrifice is invalid if a person is unethical. God is the God of the whole universe and no one should worship the local gods. One must treat the poor with respect and eliminate suffering. Some Christian interpreters, and even some recent Jewish interpreters, give the impression that the prophets were against sacrifice and ritual. This is false. When the prophets rail against sacrifice and ritual in the context of moral transgression, they argue that sacrifices are a means of getting close to God. However, in order to be successful with that ritual, one first has to live the social part of one’s life righteously. The Prophets constantly repeat the dual message of calling on the people to abandon idolatry while at the same time excoriating them for mistreating the poor. Great social and economic

43 LECTURE NINE ch becaus 4 The 4 hyp Isa on Pro la ar up Scri con te Jer Bab th str pe ab de eco di ar I We sai te vis r e e ges ong e r o m iah e p t iod parts phet oth ti nomi ut hro Secon ptu D yl ro a mia ands a o nue sh on agin an s on h f phet of ; 75 i esizd i re t u s o t n s th w h s, th h, he i i gh c el, uld a 0; e s of o to as cam eir w e E st—and tha d n de b 627 a com m li hic se N H t I ut jah con be fter worship he T saih som o d ost velop or o em ne ate e cond tha clase sea – the i s wr th es side D into 5 the the d her q e ple of 80 e t ep iten Elijah w uo to men ad disa aro le o pa in ce i a th f re mur first cte chalengs , Israel (du ve te Ba s d an rt Ha the e d Sea und ntur d d de up dvant de with l a ts of m ring by i l an an n gai end. depo b r an str nort ost beyo oks t y until of—Na Isaih, hi 540; in d Scrols d the anth the s BCE. oyed t the Elisha he th ilustr com h a rtaion Th ged nd nd Jews 40 e 7 in un both pro and of olgy. destru en 40 p ation scr in from the the Z eriod in be Asyrian – echa or ther to and up 7 to hets the 730 of to n 2 trea contr New prohesizng ulosn abo so ction t In b cha his 59 he be of oks pr ; riah, BCE); in when the is ted Isa 7, son ut ophe pter Ch the to ol Testa es t some religon of he p 8 ia s, of Midle pro in ristan in roba 50 h of Divde late t t for ts o Ze he the Grek an a th in the Je ment ob BCE; bout who ty erly e phani “po bly zebl y First tain the to per deat and Dea era. indv on Ages, st-pro be die their b 520 and Bibles. cal iod sou Mona , hs best Am y Templ d ap po includ h, Amon d of the Sea . proe o th os pear ual. for a litca rab ilustraed phe peol King 63 Prophetic f rou rchy the in in in 0 It the binc ed g Scro cy” divual. Yet s – ty. ); nd Ahab 742 l could th 62 cultre thes He to Ezekil beca in rebuildng e 570; contiug alredy by the – ls litera date brew north and ; the 695 her works date and use wo Bible Jezbl the wer ture. false to (th in in rks of is as lat e of -

© Shutterstock.com much later than the first part, and some scholars believe there may even be three prophets called Isaiah. The prophecies were gathered together over time into the book through a scribal process of editing so that it covers a very long period of history. As Assyrian expansion continued and various attempts to oppose it were not successful, Isaiah argued over and over that redemption would only come through repentance and trust in the Lord. Prophets were arguing that the political problems Israel faced could be dealt with only from a situation of righteousness. If people repented, a “remnant,” in Isaiah’s words, would sur - vive to a period of redemption. The prophets often suggested that the kings avoid rebellion. To them, even vassal status in the Mesopotamian kingdom was desirable, provided that there would be religious and political freedom within it. Most of First Isaiah deals with that circumstance. Eventually Isaiah began to prophesy to King Hezekiah who, in 701 BCE, watched the Assyrians abandon their attempt to conquer the Southern Kingdom. By 722 BCE, the North had been destroyed, and so Isaiah’s prophetic message of repentance to prevent the destruction of the South should have hit hard. Chapters forty to fifty-five, most scholars believe, were authored by a second prophet whose theme was the promise of redemption. This section speaks of Cyrus the Great, who ruled over Persia and Medea from 540 BCE. He allowed the Jews to return to build the Second Commonwealth of Judea and the Second Temple. Very important to Isaiah is the notion of the servant of the Lord (chapters forty-two to fifty-three). Israel is the servant of God amongst all the nations. Christians eventually took these passages to refer to the suffering servant, namely the suffering Messiah, who would be Jesus. There is a vast amount of literature about the meaning of this passage. It shows the greatness of Isaiah, who already set forth the future agenda of Judaism and Christianity and their disagreements with one another. Another important prophet is Jeremiah, whose book circulated in at least two literary editions that have been preserved in the Greek Bibles and the Hebrew texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Jeremiah was even more involved with politics than was Isaiah. He preached that Israel should make peace with the Babylonians and opposed those who believed that Egypt would come in on the side of Israel. Ultimately the rebellions failed, and Jeremiah proved to be right. His preaching of following the Torah, its ethics and morals, and for making accommodations with the Babylonians even caused him to be jailed. In 597 BCE, the king of Judah was taken into exile with some of the nobles. That should have been a warning to stop the rebellion. Yet again King Zedekiah rebelled in 586 BCE, leading the Babylonians to destroy the Temple, the city of Jerusalem, and the rest of the country that had been rebuilt since 701. The Babylonians then appointed a governor named Gedaliah who, in about 582 BCE, was assassinated. By this time Jeremiah was taken to Egypt along with some of his supporters in order to save them from the Babylonians, although his whole life had been spent as a preacher of peace with the Babylonians.

45 LECTURE NINE 4 6 Sol re fin Jer th con shi Go de mo an po fice spe ver wa wa ar ea mo Gr in de th th Sea im de ab wa te fice bo wr th ab pr an of op th th ha O T At An e ro e n es e e m e o he a p o b ek sti o o r stru si o th o d p d th vera p s s s d u r se r omn li phe s s, l ti rove ng ci o oth the th r ut ut ose nat la by kin Lord nat ali e ne, almost re er, sal e e rise g g co a S nue ny: red wi th can as al i Tw te e re re t the ro and ty i p crols cti ho et Va di s g er a t wa r. Eze t ion t l ming ent e o r ro re en h pr d s, mo wa at wing em nd Isr hical t , fe God e m, g s on over of on th up w he Je w R le close im phe gr Isr lig wil op by a th s lve over s. d he ails. m up the il ep s ae e kie ra sp r to ption M the w H y eat the e e the of pro io and as of ael hesying m as ystical T a pr . to th sur l ish nt ebr ag l of ts ect ca M be wil com ns. un tr sacr l, b he ain co ned layou t w nta m e op the he ansg Th uild ve f sam inor its the w lite eq vison of spirtu og rom exa r is t vie. il til ew ajor raise de, ries he and fact rest can el. gre o hets rewa nce e sin plet uivalen ifca th mat o b wicked de ra f th B b ( do vison a g e, n e p socia oft t Dry Pr with re y o ro ry the a th e ored, Ot s in s st fort rophets th C of hapen t ok The th co e tne al or the abern timuls erials sion wil eratd op ugh a th of b en rd e pre of l ruction hristan at p her the lt e elivd destruc the servic. nquer e Bon centr h ro T dea o to ho hets al t s or l tha t re Te he caled much or se f wil lea in sanct the irespo phet leading of t of g Ezekil No ugh r he s, city the ah, p of epn mple wil nt. es: simlar reat t great T d . unish cle toa beca cond God. of alwys e violen for rth, empl, social to in T Israe covena se tradio to ra. d. of That was tha it tha the her io of of t b , Go this Fur he y 7 a vison tance l e nsiblty. later b n th He is the 2 b but use tra emn An ba Jeru it of to ut t futre t a Israel oks The g e o to pro l peol her ce, therm Go fou must Eze was o and coven f man nsgreio tles wil the a other ge BCE, a h also cirulated p ap ns. world, ne the th the Jewish nd er they unishme phets salem. d mesian t n nd if idolatr corup nera e kiel. th of on be Te is God. not is t h re ifest re aren His in ore, he Mago be pr b wicked pr I pr at e in it t ant of ecam lig Eze the demp of rev a wer mple oblems acord i one ap de ophesi l r g e and in In th sin ob began to efrs who Divn io ret y the oes stly Isra tly tion, in mystic. The mor pear strucion must Israe n. e gap kiel us nt a an th servd ic the aled to urn scrol. th is gre ) T ir , by tion. Isr so and e le el gethr ma o er d on wh empl a ality a e e the ide ra to to and s f insp b nd with North ael genda bet l of a. t sectio peo ev of d wil be moraly time Ch th he egin in bis is tha terial er ment to the the as Like r e the ba th tha wen grea edmp afe no Am histo u wil ariot, ired ren blo n p p of co t . how na nder e is si al Scrol erscution le rophe Tem of The in We sacri b o sem n, Nort mat me the os p an of cts al tions; efor with f becom rem the t. who dshe rop much the g David wed the ry. the senitv; of p the stod th pictured d th God’s have a t rob tion ple, of no back wicked, the fices. he h er e nd sy ey ap supr complains hecy nat e The of Levitcus. North natios to Talmud wanted h and tion d. rich Sina befor howe ably Pentau what ocalypti other is the the trea Hosea liter in the n and em scrol to Sometis ationl emac one entir r a bok to of The of elation the of the and , Da phasize ature light as Dead hav not sacri ver, a and but as the sa G one the ny w th day w to story y S og God’s y cism cri are ho e po he it wr This e er ch u in outh a of to - of - , n a in - it i - - r FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What is the premise of Israelite prophecy? 2. What were the main prophecies of Ezekiel?

Suggested Reading

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey , pp. 270 –327 and 384 –468. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005.

Other Books of Interest

Podhoretz, N. The Prophets: Who They Were, What They Are. New York: Free Press, 2002. Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. “Prophets and Their Writing,” pp. 385 –96. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

47 Lecture 10: Words of Wisdom: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 182 –96 and 222 –61.

t is no accident that people speak of the Bible as a great work of litera - ture: it is the all-time bestseller. One of the reasons is because the Bible contains various types of literature within it, including a large number of poems and a genre we call wisdom literature. Both of these literary forms had major influences on the development of Judaism and Christianity and the general literature that we read in our culture. The word “psalm” comes from a Greek word for a stringed instrument. Originally psalms were poems or songs to be accompanied by this instru - ment. The Hebrew word for the Book of Psalms is “Tehillim,” meaning “prais - es of God.” There is poetry in other parts of the Bible, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Apocrypha, and in the New Testament. However, the largest number of bibli - cal poems is in the Book of Psalms, containing 150 psalms that may have been read in a cycle corresponding to Torah readings. The earliest psalms may be Canaanite, for in Ras Shamra, in northern Syria, some texts were found that were prototypes of the biblical psalms. Although many of the psalms are ascribed to David, they were composed over a long period of time by various authors and then put into this collection. Some scholars date the Book of Psalms to as late as 164 BCE, the Maccabean period, but this date has been completely disproven by the Dead Sea Scrolls, where books of psalms very similar to ours were found. Biblical evidence points to some psalms that were used in Temple worship in antiphonal singing by the Levites that continued into the Second Temple period from 520 BCE on. This evi - dence is contained in liturgical formulas at the head of some of the psalms, musical superscriptions, words we do not understand, such as Selah, that may be musical notations. The “Song of Ascents” poems, according to tradi - tion, were recited as the priests ascended the steps of the Temple, and wis - dom psalms, praising the Torah as the source of wisdom, link the poetry of the Bible with the wisdom tradition. Scholars have divided the poetry of the Psalms into a number of literary forms. One is the hymn, or song of praise. Hymns include enthronement psalms, perhaps used at a covenant renewal or new year festival celebrating the enthronement of God. A second type of poems are the Royal Psalms. These are prayers for success in war, thanksgiving for victory, oracles for the king, and coronation hymns. Another kind of psalms are public and private laments. In the public lament, N

E the people are assembled at the sanctuary, and some kind of local or nation - T

E al disaster has occurred. We have such an ancient Sumerian lament for the R

U destruction of the city of Ur, and in the Bible, the Book of Lamentations T

C recalls the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. Personal laments include E L

48 those recited at a funeral and have a specific mournful meter, also found in the Book of Lamentations. Many of the individual laments are in the first per - son singular. Psalms of trust, like Psalm 23, “The Lord is my shepherd,” indicate the cer - tainty that a person’s prayers will be heard. The wisdom psalms praise God’s wisdom and identify it with the Torah and the traditions of the Jewish people. A major poetic composition is the Song of Songs, a romantic, even erotic text, later understood symbolically as describing the love between God and Israel. Christians understood it as the love between Jesus and the church. Many attempts have been made to identify the author of the Song of Songs, traditionally attributed to Solomon. Scholarly opinion believes that it was a collection of love poetry put together by someone later on. It has exerted major influence on love poetry throughout history in many contexts, Jewish and Christian, and in literature generally. The Book of Lamentations contains several acrostics, that is, poems the verses of which each begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. This was a common mnemonic device in poetry. Lamentations is traditionally ascribed to Jeremiah, although it, too, is most probably a col - lection of lament poems originally writ - ten by various prophets who lived at the time of the destruction. These texts speak about the horrors of the destruction, attempt to give meaning to it,

to try to understand m o c . t r a

how this could have p i l C happened, and to © affirm that God is still The lamentations of Jeremiah. with his people despite the destruction. Another important genre is wisdom literature. Scholars have often said that the wisdom literature is universalistic in nature and is not particularly linked to Israelite conceptions such as God and the commandments, and they point to its commonality with literature of the ancient Near East. While it is true that we find wisdom literature in Egypt and Babylonia that in many ways resem - bles that of the Hebrew Scriptures, it is also true that sprinkled throughout Israelite wisdom are fundamentally Jewish or Israelite ideas that do differ from those of the other ancient Near Eastern texts. The notion of its being completely universalistic has been exaggerated.

49 LECTURE TEN 5 0 ri de th go th th do at Basi wi im fin pe tio po Al te pr da som pa pa act o l ar c a r t d i a pa d i d o o g (Ecl Eth ma ba Th tio pr Th re coven acord ho O T Pr Pr T g g n a c i g o l o e a e e in eo te nce o c e e i ce sdom he e r e h p a n n ht a o me m r i te r sa r n w er e ne nt iv n o o thi iod supo al abl ics ort gs l —w ls d mpts d s t suf se e i p e c n eo ca d dme ive ve ve w com n wi s esiat n o m f o trac f ty t el s . icy p or o a o ge an wi hem o i o ant s es wi ven a h sd to l d in rb rb fer o us. n I sd e f d n f s evid f f hile a o G y, re ap their if w f th ople, a i , Pr the sd g t nt: th a s s, e r s f pila of om fer also a t t om o o the se o l o ing h t ith “w b o bo tha t it w l i v e l t e ong It f wa Job over e su d o mo h he om icu o etw comp Job e e t t th in en ent om de th f o ow is h o w mo o th u g a tion. te c a a nce b just th bco ” o wo ne Fa h w t y s t x o d s i w s is f lso s), e ks nar m men th oks . oing a e n a f al xts an e b la , to eir an wisdom e g n i t bs, bad at re th time th N t type e thers, ok, rks, e t a an . wi e . may s e p y ter lectio osi of w d an d n ch n r ew e xis e b o J ribu ewar re wisdo m s tion ith d b d s i w o i s s i m b u s of Go m wis n i d y. - arg - st ut ight - the Eclesiat o say Testam not sap ted Hezkiah a r t h f o s i f s d in o ns dom ds. ue , y r o t s i lit m o m f m tha and fol find a c d s i w the er the ien prof ateril to with t th tha , s d or Th ature n a e m trad u g o l a i at Solmn tial Sol ent Apo Israe fa out b o J Bible, n ane m o the roug t l a difer il i one es o t t s it te is in ir are is g u o h crypha and i is mon . s e t o d n a at l xts the e h t hout , e a actuly ab ns th more tha r b — s t x sho tha re not ent y e h T this also e r e h w e ilty , kil of holy in h n i v i d e l c c E t the wrote bu a uld the com vocabu ob —the t wher nciet the the or t a h yo a to t influe c n i lig prima m , f e i bond e ment pract a s a Hebr is u—a e t s a i s do Dea ra void ates odern a e d i e d u l some . n a l p un i bok t a i s e l c c E binc as t i p ting Near la thing io ica coner ew d ced be y ries rathe y h Jo adulter t Israe s i h o c ned s he Sea T wisdom b l of scho twen adulter of e h o K ( Scriptu y e h o f s e t a t s deciso i East by s lit and wise n e r e the the d n u r Ben te in l eratu s e t s Scrols. pr ste to the lars y ed. o d the t n e m acti mate ideas. rig d a , ) h t e l beca d t y kep n i ma res Sira bo se . oes n. d t o n s i m is Hu n ht e, te s n o i s s u c s i r e h t o oks ote an n Proveb texs. e t t i r w s a xt, rial. we way, use man espcia Some , l arg s s e r p x e investga e h t God divne Th considera d n a and tha but of hear ue The et i l e a r s I e the r o h t u a n be wil ’s the editoral o d s i w his th s a of ther s, an law ings, ly com hus is many of a Bib eh t the the a w e tu o b the s. the - arly s ife. - sa h m - le .

© Clipart.com sufferer should react to undeserved suffering. The conclusion is that one can only live by faith because we can never understand God in his wisdom. The book is set as a dialogue between different points of view on the origin of evil and suffering. Job assumes that there is no one rational, simple expla - nation for evil things happening to good people. In the story Satan proposes to prove that Job is not so righteous by testing his faith in the face of adversi - ty. God gives him permission to do this. Job suffers and conducts three dia - logues with three different friends about the causes for his suffering, all of whom conclude that Job must be guilty of some sin. He replies by speaking of God’s majesty and his own innocence. Then Elihu suggests that God has brought suffering on Job to purify him. Finally, God Himself speaks: People are incapable of understanding God’s ways; humans have to approach God with humility. Job replies with his complete submission to the divine will. The only explanation is that we have no explanation. In the epilogue, Job is rewarded by the restoration of all that he had lost. The final text we wish to discuss is Ecclesiastes (Hebrew, Koheleth). The introductory line of the book says that Koheleth is the son of David, and tradi - tion attributes it to Solomon. It is an examination of the apparent futility and vanities of the physical aspects of human life and concludes that the most important thing a person can do is fulfill the word of God and follow His law. Scholars have debated about the authorship and structure of this book. Many of the ideas here seem to be later, even Hellenistic, and for this reason, many scholars date this book as late as the fourth century. Whatever the case, it is a wisdom book that teaches us about the ultimate nature of life. Its vantage point appears to be more general than particularistic relative to other books of the Bible.

51 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What are the different kinds of psalms? 2. What answers, if any, does the Book of Job provide for the problem of the suffering of the righteous?

Suggested Reading

The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey, pp. 182 –96 and 222 –61 . Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005.

Other Books of Interest

Hauer, C.E., and W.A. Young. An Introduction to the Bible: A Journey into Three Worlds , pp. 177 –96. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001. N E T E R U T C E L

52 Lecture 11: God and Humanity in the Hebrew Bible

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is The Jewish Study Bible, pp. 2021 –40, A. Berlin and M.Z. Brettler, eds.

ne of the funda - mental issues that comes up when we talk about the Bible is the nature of its theology, the study of the nature of God. We also want to know about the relation - ship between God and humanity. How did God relate to humans and how did He become part of this world in which we live? The Bible is essen - tially a debate over these issues and expresses various points of view. There is not just one term for God in the Bible. “Elohim” and “El” are m o

used generically and can c . t r a p i also be used to desig - l C nate gods other than the © God of Israel. The Tetragrammaton (four-letter name), sometimes appearing as Yahweh, Adonai, or translated as Lord, cannot be accurately pronounced. Its pronunciation was lost in antiquity because it was deemed too holy to be spoken. It always refers to the God of Israel. Biblical criticism, in an attempt to trace the history of the biblical text, saw the divine names as indicators of the origins of different documents that were put together to create the Torah. Texts that use the name Elohim were taken to indicate Northern origins. When we read the Bible as a whole, these divine names are intermixed. Before Abraham, proto-Israelites were polytheistic, and after they left Egypt and came into the land of Canaan, they confronted an intensely polytheistic society. But by the time we reach the biblical writers, monotheism is the norm. The God of the Hebrew Scriptures speaks and listens. Later Jewish and Christian tradition teaches that God has feelings or thoughts. The Bible wants to speak in these human terms, because it makes God immanent rather than

53 LECTURE ELEVEN 5 4 wh th li sup ar tio Wri in re Pro coven no th coven cal coven en fo be be cre ba an ot coven to an he sel an Mo No tr is Isr Ch r Th hi m wit h a in in but tra G G G G st act d e em re he div e p e n the the ael t. te i cause sed d d l ci a n ro od od od od ich e a ir ng p a se r ti phec and nte is posed Hi wa cep s , tw es cte ent h, ect c w s te rs r In w p n o ug H in ce th ti is o it s t ro gs f b e t m can s it an an an an ha sec ond cre a o we h is d a he e He h e me e y Abr ri em on i a ho ut , h e n d d nde n a -w nto as end ni ty nts s je akes er s, exp ng Isr mor , “ in ter esign y com ma in t t t t, h t t t, pe in ce Go re the Go w ct op and s, ay—t a t w S is is a gs spe is ah pr al i to ae hat God tio n b f come wh s for e re int re ech a ow a rta th in ith w q ut al it. fu d. w d t. som oph a ve . th into rien peo l, se uite insp ai. in t co prim e ort e o e ation spel he ak ich ro nda in m, acc o ed h The re He te T a some al e of t he cho ha ve ima he wil ad cove her e let vena t lso he nd ng, and unity ets, achin C his Th sen Bi etim ce ple ba to p multifa ire Isa the a wid with Go hu me ary ove ha s resu id ed bl e co n s ice unt , g i tha co re pr lo ck s hum of wh hum wo o what man e se, e na God h d t d an th n i is di ff er en t espr nta v hat wer wor ld. is s spo ote a ve to c, revlat n uman gs out t p t o the ha s s enat God. an an pu is at at mptio rld antl nts. d a a with hys God o mak es f th e nat He cetd an and l very fuli an it ct f God some tha d nsib d t was mea ns ord ten sio indcate conep ead Go is le lo th y the b f for s a undam ica to un them T vel ecaus wer im ma ne n becau m roug b bre ath On each F t being is d inary n o io te ns io n ideas Jacob—n he was eings wa genr pre .” iltes it ar inaly, ust dersta forg f wa ys l to in cove re n co th times act uall it for o al n and T e the le rd. Israelit . h f wh lations at th rep sent. of hap pen; his t mand in a g If someth ive insp vel m. indvu the ental s se of kinds. peo r ing e cept iven nat— expr evlation ated the tha know put ting er In Isra of one th of to resnt the nds in a d be the remov t Ra t y th o e nciet escripton he way ir bre ath the fre Go d, re so lv in g t the th f huma mol ding tw ation, em. le. the el Bib le dignty Go d in with op ther, divne han d, specia w e ed sed Heb tha God He human i His ee al. n t God str case h th be hen O g in d His wil, nd g His peo at ortun roup and th e n at ne , d ays, Near sp h n T h ter rew sp whic int o tha t it wil rep but in uman com th es e, ad i he tha in in God s b i insp wil l co l with of eaks wo ple must s ecial t of of Go d the eing he the resp th at can what righ enta te be life. ity His in of thr venat. to Scrip it Noahide al th the is rd t East. Israel, es int o rms close he we ir is ing abilty at hea ven spe aks hum an God His boks ough fo a not holy evi dent ation, t be asume to onsiblte te ns io n. on wh o mean b an d h is One cept. to indvu an God’s re r God hum an forms ecaus olines, ce tures ings. pra ctic e. can Isr of re specia entir b th agr But d p re relatio Scriptues. e the penta in a is His aelits a hysical is to wr can coming know cove lates cord abhors. ncie ta tha bei n emnts to h and Ju da is m he re If in Earth in r tha T of do on earkn ke details esponiblty a al. bei ng w hes cre ate Israel l p o the g an the nship nce God’s g mutal a ord. eopl n ver nat g, wha ea tha o rem oved . The to God , ing mong t hum an on d literay and, treay throu a as ch fir st a from case human pre s the Fre time if re d nd to t He to folws ea rt h Isra of to The is spe ech with an d the the it is is the ans also human lations no- thro spech mak e sent. cha pter s in a the to the tha a we the gh way wh g right a el of c Go y terac w wor ld, rants Tora on . tea ugh are m ity, re, re But to do long il at had eth d ore in - the - is ch is is - h i - The God of the Hebrew Scriptures is the God of history. The world was cre - ated by God, and God guides what will happen. Sometimes He uses the nations to reward his people and sometimes to punish them. Monotheism requires that God is unique. There may have been other gods that linger, in a certain sense, from the past as part of the divine retinue who help God to do His work. Yet God’s unity is many times emphasized in the Bible, and God demands that His people worship no other. One of the essential characteristics of the way in which God acts in this world is that of process. God begins the process of the creation of the world and expects human beings to continue that process. Humans are here in the universe, as we see in the Garden of Eden story, to basically serve and keep the garden, to maintain the world that God has given and to improve it. And in the moral sphere, God has given the law, but it is up to humans to put into effect a legal and judicial system to maintain civil order. So when God starts something, He expects that it will be continued by those human beings who follow His way. Fundamental to the Hebrew Scriptures is the notion that God is the creator. Creation is a continuing act, and the world is only sustained through the ongoing work of God in nature. Even after He created the world, God contin - ues to imbue it with its life essence and runs its historical processes from the very beginning to the eventual redemption of Israel in the end of days. God has elected His people, the Jewish people, to be His representatives on Earth. He has chosen prophets to receive His word and sages to interpret it. God has a very specific purpose for Israel—to teach His word to the rest of humanity. That is why He entered into a special covenant by giving his Scriptures to Israel and teaching them His way of life—moral and ethical laws, ritual and sacrificial laws. They are meant to teach the fundamental ideas behind the Bible’s ideology. Finally, God provides redemption for His people and promises that there will be an eventual age of perfection. Judaism and Christianity have understood that era in somewhat different ways because they perceive the agent of that perfection differently. But they both agree with the underlying notion of the Hebrew Scriptures that redemption will indeed result from a partnership of God and humanity in making this world a perfect world. The human being is understood by the Bible as having a physical body, and, at the same time, not separated from it, but intrinsic to it, the nonphysical aspect that we call the soul or spirit. There is no separation of body and soul in the Hebrew Bible, but this nonphysical aspect constitutes our will, our decision-making power, and our ability to fulfill God’s will. The human being, therefore, is seen as a corporate personality and at different times the body or the soul may come into prominence. When the human body dies, the nonphysical part goes to a place called Sheol, the Netherworld, where it sits in some kind of long-term sleep that one might call an afterlife. Within the tradition of the Bible, whenever someone speaks about the soul, he is speak - ing about the life essence. The thing that transforms the physical part of the human into a human, as opposed to an animal, is the soul.

55 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. How does the Bible attempt to make God immanent? 2. What makes the human being “special” among the other beings of the world?

Suggested Reading

Berlin, A., and M.Z. Brettler, eds. The Jewish Study Bible , pp. 2021 –40. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Other Books of Interest

Kaufmann, Y. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile , p p. 1 –149 and 291 –340. New York: Schocken, 1972. N E V E L E E R U T C E L

56 Lecture 12: Handing Down the Bible: The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is Lawrence H. Schiffman’s Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran , pp. 161 –80 and 211 –241.

e have been able to learn a great deal about how the Hebrew Scriptures were transmitted from the biblical period down to our own time by means of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Dead Sea Scrolls constitute an ancient library discovered in caves at Qumran, but many of the books in it originated in other places as well. The people who came to join the sect, called the Dead Sea sect or Essenes, often carried texts of the Bible with them. These manuscripts represent partial evidence for the state of the Bible and its interpretation during the immediate pre- and post-Christian era. One-third of the nine hundred or so manuscripts at Qumran were of the Hebrew Bible. In the Dead Sea Scrolls every book of the Bible is represented except for the Book of Esther. That may be coincidental, or perhaps Esther was not part of the biblical canon of the sect. The second third are apocryphal texts, books about the Bible, like the Bible, or related to the Bible. These books, like the biblical scriptures, are not spe - cific to any group. Rather, they were the literature of large parts of the Jewish people, and had influence upon later rabbinic Judaism and Christianity. The third part of the Dead Sea Scrolls library is a group of sectarian texts, authored by the group that gathered the Scrolls. These manuscripts express its ideology, detail the manner in which one enters into the sect, and catalog the various rules and regulations according to which the Qumran sect lived. According to rabbinic Judaism, there was only one authoritative text of the Bible, the Masoretic text. By the year 1000 a fairly substantial number of man - uscripts of this text existed. These had the same consonantal text, with just a few exceptions, a variety of vowel systems indicating the pronunciation of the words, and cantillation marks to aid in its recitation. The biblical texts from the caves are not completely uniform. At Qumran there are a variety of textual forms. Most are proto-Masoretic (the forerunner of the text from the year 1000); some are proto-Samaritan (like the texts kept by the Samaritans, remnants of the ancient North Israelites exiled by the Assyrians in 722 BCE), and others are proto-Septuagintal (Hebrew texts that resemble the ones from which the Greek Bible, called the Septuagint, was translated). In addition, there are mixed texts that show a variety of textual readings. There is also a type of text that has been edited into the particular dialect of Hebrew of the Qumran sectarians. It is apparent that biblical texts circulated at the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls with greater variation than what we are used to. But as time goes on, there is less variation and greater standardization, as is the case, for example, at

57 LECTURE TWELVE 5 8 ica ba sou de an pl am te can a wa Secon re De th me Ara an can ma Jew pa bo wi of wa use ed po ar h a n h s i M o f e b y n a m d i s n o c i B x e t Kokhb t a i r a v Ma n i e h t An F T O T I u d, e m fe e e l b th d ro he he t sed r o d r o si cano nce l s a y ral s t e h o n i sa i ivat ts— maic o r nt d o n th k ea reva f y rs co out is d m se se ce unt ta e r sta they t c a u a th bl Bi D t o n ist ai da d a h o to s n o i e h fo sep s a w p t Sea e x e ry, ns nsid s d a no e r e io er on f t r w e e t n al. of nd nical h bl c e rm Bibles. e h E to he , Jub cr t a h t c on T ca ad n e tha the e o tr t t tha e a ar sth d h s i w o a ret le ar o em . d n o p m ard m the eat o n n ulatin to an o the e t e d n estr f re po ves be sectar B o c Tor T o wa d atur t ea al se S f red t ile stab o t ajor cha elin y t er) d type h t ted r a v b sla its ple lega ea r a l th b law in ized, al m al e T Bible’s t e y lear es. oks. s no Jew oyed e a e b kin ah o t o of t e So oth a e t e l p g nge s , to n tion v ow an w a f t a i lish g of Scr fou r a d n a t s fro .d u m l p bo ting s t a i r a ians) bi d inte , of v i g ve de l ds f o ot hic ca n e k a t t u a ne Fu m erio pa a b er th d ish o i tra o n an view f e m oks n h nd e t s r i rsu ols e Jud ba f . lic in o in t a h w It tha e s n e d ma rtn rt o d nsive h e t i r o h m w a t s d in sa d 1 f i h d). t scholar f her, , n o istorcal peol r al includes t Proph from he te b itons, 73 35 interp the th h in oly. e h aterils, terp er very a interp e t u t n e c boks. wer aism y crif oks also ich e c a l p , d e z i d of n nd e tradion t s i x the ther was sh th s a h also a d e v i t a Templ CE. e h t CE p m i the religous Bible, de ica the I e ip the bo pesh r imp ets, beliv hide e she a z i d r c a retd taion at e i r eting judge De a wer bates to . o t are t s praye s s e r do l include The Scriptue . nd co histor is Au dispu T a al sytem Qumr ks a d n a the wher s o S ortan ad s o inter d n o d e h d cumen and ntex, e a and n o i t in , E C B how thoria evn ne r . n n o i th ligh ar s the in bilca coletin tha h t Se (th r time t a h t in t i w a T trad Se law e y ther o s te e pret e z i d r to a t an e the it r p the de as t t a h t Se a of e b the nd d u m l q h f to . Bible cond t requ but Q by be o mor oks t. s m u m o e h t uestion, hat iton. ar . T tive Scro int n o (the e scrol. a l n Juda cond se r m u Writngs—h Je p it. hose wer Go Gre ritual y n a d e Aram a u g n to wa th ractie erp eq th texs e l b i B y l to e c i ctarin ther f e wish e l b i B That fo e t a g l e b (rewit Tem d e ls: have ba ntly in n a e ualy t From s of ek st t r o f iblca evn ism, und t e h a m m t i d a r h b Tem who e a andr tha e g ou si aic ad iblca texs taion ane tha T tra n a m ven Sep t s gr ple inte cano o r p d r c s u n s t x e q was includ d l u o w his Juda r in uoted a pra t ts d n a a oups n o i nslatio given bo of b ple Le her th He was uthoria wer bo t y M - o t tuagin sur n dive rpeta early , s t p i r c s u t dize. tha e r liter tha t s im oks at the vi yers n t a can of a t brew oks Bible in h p m e s t p i times. ism. e h Dea a d n a , e l y t s ing es vied at Docu ca ar , t o o l under is disagr m u Q the ature c i t e r o s a it whic lega we ideolgcay to ar on, is s i b b a r e Jewish Qum no tion t), we an to was or r t s n o m e d Je d k tive. (Targum Th ), e Sc fou author n i z i d r d e z i s a into Bible k can k i l Se t o n men p re wish in th re n a r not l h f unbeli e l i h w stod es rom p riptues lain ed o syte also armonizt at nd , e spired place ran ose being the lace a pens consta the f o . t n e t n o c crea used Qumran h t x e t t g Scrols, litera e r e w as in itave, wer y law, sen d a the and with and eh t la c i l b i b t a h t serv bo gn i d u l c n i , m to are s e t a in thre modern vable the thoug the to transmi te sa w dl i w it, or of Bar ( ture, be the in th the with ks de i p o c it one u the eh t a qu b ly ion phys the e s com th a h t is we ut tu B we list a th ot as the at nd , or a it t - it t - - - Temple sacrifices. The Dead Sea sectarians developed complex prayer rites that help us to understand the history of Jewish liturgy. The role of messianism in Jewish theology has its application in the study of both Judaism and Christianity. The Qumran sect had various ideas: the priestly Messiah alongside an Israelite Messiah, or a single, Davidic Messiah. The priestly Messiah influenced the New Testament, and a Davidic Messiah is found in rabbinic literature and the New Testament. The more we learn about the history of Judaism in this period, the more we understand about the rise of Christianity. The role of the Hebrew Scriptures in early Christianity is an extremely important one because, as was the case with Judaism, the Christians constantly appealed to the Bible in order to justi - fy their various practices and to verify their points of view. This is already the case in the Gospels and the Epistles. The early Christians also fit within the sectarian dynamic of the land of Israel in the nature of their leadership. Jesus compares to the Teacher of Righteousness as a leader who taught his follow - ers based on interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. In the theology of the Dead Sea sect, there are also ideas that are reflect - ed in later Christianity. The sectarians believed in absolute predestination that was rejected by most Christian groups, but the concept of the lowliness of humanity emphasized in the Thanksgiving Hymns from Qumran seems to have been paralleled by Paul’s ideology. Another notion, the immediacy of apocalyptic messianism, was shared by the Qumran sect and the early Christians. Nevertheless, we should be wary of exaggerating the role of the Dead Sea sect in the development of Christianity. Just because there are common ele - ments does not mean that the Qumranites were a proto-Christian community. Suffice it to say that the influences were not direct. Traditions of the Qumran sect were themselves passed on to the wider society and were part of a wider trend within Jewish thought. That trend influenced Christianity in many ways. I want to emphasize that most of the ideas that Christianity adopted from Judaism concern the understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures. For example, the concept of messianism stems from the Hebrew Bible. Many notions that passed from Judaism into Christianity were observances and beliefs of the Jews of the time that became part of the religious tradition of the emerging Church. Many of the parallels between Judaism and Christianity stem from the common interpretation of Scripture and can be documented in the Dead Sea Scrolls. A biblical tradition passed on through the Scrolls was supple - mented with rich biblical interpretation. This type of transmission was crucial to the development of later Judaism and Christianity.

59 FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What do the variations in the Bible texts at Qumran demonstrate? 2. How was the Bible considered a partnership document?

Suggested Reading

Schiffman, Lawrence H. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran, pp. 161 –80 and 211 –241. Garden City, NY: Anchor Doubleday, 1995.

Other Books of Interest

VanderKam, J., and P. Flint. The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Significance for Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity , pp. 87 –181. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2002. E V L E W T E R U T C E L

60 Lecture 13: The Hebrew Bible in the New Testament: Jewish Interpretation: Midrash

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is Lawrence H. Schiffman’s From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism, pp. 177 –200 and 220 –36 .

n this lecture we discuss the manner in which the Hebrew Bible appears in the classic texts of Judaism and Christianity. Jewish sages developed Talmudic or rabbinic literature while the Christians produced the New Testament. The prominence of the Hebrew Scriptures in these two cor - pora results from the fact that the Hebrew Scriptures are fundamentally at the base of Judaism and Christianity. This shared heritage allows us easily to compare the two religions. The Bible is quoted over and over in Jewish and Christian literature. In the Jewish texts, the Hebrew Bible is being used directly, and the literature that quotes it is itself written in either Hebrew or Aramaic. The Masoretic (“tradi - tional,” or “received”) text, was authoritative for the rabbis and for Judaism ever since. Certain Jewish texts written in the Greco-Roman environment, like the works of Josephus (late first century CE), or the apocryphal books preserved in the Catholic Bible, use a Greek biblical text. It was based on the Septuagint, a Greek translation written between about 240 BCE and the first century CE. This translation allowed the Bible to become known in Greek- speaking Jewish circles and also to the Christians. The Bible, then, in Hebrew or Greek, became the basis for the use of Scripture in Christianity and Judaism thereafter. m o c . k c o t s r e t t u h S ©

61 LECTURE THIRTEEN 6 2 th Gr De tio ba fr pa Epi fo th set gr er tim Ch in Jew an cen Th pe ed ra asert Go al “i re re sup ha vid Isr tio asume Bab pi li th se an CE I At O O So T cal n om n te ways cked at l e er o b so g al n n ek. sed r te ael d culi d d e ver ne p a o u e e d l ts stl ups bin ardi th s r s tra r k me in ega thi raw by e eriod is yl mud d we rch d pret rpe lut em ta symbo a e tex co b was our e t o t e h on o uth xten w o a Sea ha int o s t et a ti ic ke tim f s, h io on R f nt d n f ri u Gosp on d So nd er l ad w sage t, be d sa in e the in w ma i ve ation g ta ty i the erp p n ab t inte ru a rad ority c b . H and er t t e guide e, som p en ter th ca lan hat ding ditona he the me y th S t me the ma o on a rse ling tha or ebr Scr t of io ictur bi lism e ter w aken f ret at o Mishn nd the t e ict r pr no pr s. n,” he els pr d or th in f times the ra Jud ny the th etim t the mor orm Se tha ia ew style time, ols. the s Gosp oblem a ations io et he of T es up eta ks o . H ed binc long fro e e l to ra sa tha ofte t ns we he ne Th ptu a l e n of xi t th lit a He be Isra l B min bil e in w ah ncie write yea es et tion t m Jew ges wer a h o sten era ins th o Th e is ib t wer t of we t Talm fro ter e o s f the a n ar ypes he b m the . s s w exp ers e th th ve les, ls r rew gint. pa l e utiae. ga re if e eks pired iteraly rs cal di In e ly. e th liter ateril i m pr the ish les wa l complet e ca t e ce ha and rse Gospel He h t n w Gosp Heb sed in d e ve e P laine 7 et thes tha ud third ingre Hebr the design m ealing and nsh tex the in s of ite not 0 ve r atur tex tex bef life. F r ation the ince, abis we e an ic eq to tha the urth and the rew Hebrw isue of n land texu rined to a els Paul of d ore do write take ra ew mode ual could e h dients an re time was Rabinc nd an impe Bible. texs, the armo b Proph ermo bis un the Epistle. b wn no was d with 10 esntia Bible d y is ma huma d d egins confr the Script t someti al of Go o dersta th sent f thes 0 n in th Pent r t ourth in det of was tus th rn o Ep aised y no th e va nize Isra a and CE. alre T f e the tend it spel. Gospe coletins roug ound e, ets e ha lso Jesu. at was orah Sep scholar onted ail istle, n. t riants e is ncoura t with ures. to ateuch o be litera arliest someti put el. ve nd of ly quo ver cen I Aram The asum The d and cou d nterp th dy questio h the es tuagin iferng d evlop , being inte in t T o a e tha ls he th into se t th taions to tury, he rignaly was hey f and f ld Often I a ure lega ound olwed r the Gospe the Epistle ge e various er wer ich . th aic le rpe mate ret con w say be g F ed Mishna liter the the ink othe r goricaly. the enr , are inte ns rom anth some often two iten Writngs. ther was s co ap th bu d ign vey ted tex. tha in th s tha we ed rial aly. of we at Bible form a le ls proach h rpet study t ben r fun es and bout ations. e ored, the Talmud abou ropm ermn fled by can ited. of nume th Tora se ctions a in wer times a ma find God in have ar n F they damen n an , A ek Pau th o rom of q glin Dead e edit tho o conta the imp de rde e This be contr d uotains in b t e and ral The h T es. for m th aditonl mi asic to 45 rou orp eutica co ga by he co This se l inter sem and to Aram o s, idra e o se New ortan ar date Torah d , f 0 d explain mpletd bservation ev Christan ve taly The mpletd s ined Talmu inte literau hism, rash Sea adictons. ra nor the one asum the Gospe ound who en to in princ shim vers pretaions so bis ora the l ry a Testamn, nse 10 to to in rules ea m co rabi interp ic , from round m Scrols. alego difer was th formula single l meanig edival wher tha 0 ds. the be an Tor uld rly vari or es Torah e the ls tha at le con so t an s are CE, hat for ea ah pro the reta age. it of me The time bi ry 2 - - d rli 2 t to - - - 5 - - - Here I point out a significant difference between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Gospels on the one hand and rabbinic literature on the other. With the rabbis, one always had to know the difference between the Bible itself, the word of God, and what was written afterwards, the composition of humans. In fact, rabbinic literature wanted to keep anything that was not the text of the Torah in oral form. It failed in doing that, but at least we have the concept of oral law that characterizes the additional traditions that were not part of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Dead Sea Scrolls radically rewrote biblical texts to include interpreta - tions that then masqueraded as though they were the actual text of the Bible. This explains why sometimes the Gospels contain quotations of biblical vers - es that have been in some way altered in order for the evangelist to make his point. New Testament authors, when quoting the Hebrew Scriptures, had a certain latitude in choosing translations or rewriting or combining passages. The various New Testament formulations often have ways of indicating that what is coming is a biblical verse, like the fulfillment formula, “This comes to fulfill that which is said . . .” followed by the quotation of a Prophet. Another formula is, “As it says . . . ,” a formula also often used by the rabbis in the Mishnah and the Talmud. The fulfillment passages take verses that do not seem to actually refer to the time of the authors of the New Testament and argue that these Hebrew Bible quotations are being fulfilled right then and there in the life of Jesus. This is somewhat parallel to something that is known as pesher , a type of Dead Sea Scrolls interpretation in which the Bible is interpreted as if it refers to the present day of those who are interpreting rather than to a period years before and its events. One of the most interesting phenomena of the New Testament is that occa - sionally different biblical verses are combined in order to create a verse that is a combination of two. This happens occasionally also in rabbinic literature. Sometimes rabbinic literature also has interpretations based on variant texts of the Bible; however, these are fairly rare. One of the differences between rabbinic literature and the New Testament is how they understood the relationship between the Hebrew Scriptures and the texts that came after them. Christians assumed that the Hebrew Scriptures are somehow rendered outmoded by the New Testament and, hence, the Hebrew Bible was called the Old Testament. It was assumed to be the “true” Bible as long as it was understood in the light of the New. To the rabbis, the Hebrew Scriptures could never become outdated or obsolete; they would continue to enunciate God’s word and God’s will to future generations. We have already observed that in the Dead Sea Scrolls we find contempo - rizing interpretation known as pesher , and some of these texts actually occur in the key passages of the New Testament in the Passion narrative. The New Testament quotes the Hebrew Scriptures simply to indicate that the prophecy was fulfilled. In other words, the interpretation is actually known before the text is quoted. In rabbinic midrash, we have instead a dissection of biblical passages on a verse by verse basis.

63 LECTURE THIRTEEN 6 4 im th as gr ha wa ma tia th en te an com To ta Jew be no th pr la au fil te T T l ws at e mpt in at xt, e e ment he he p l d ces d t th rah s o ti f at ters, aut rove wa ol apl s on e ve utmod o w th a C the no of H Epi l in rity ctua w e ? ou owing hri to e h y rse i xt e n g ith of r Jud p H orita me y m he bre jo in stian ld stle se ent t asg the t o e he to o ly w or b the h ed. f wh exist nts se a g w h er find T al of s tive . the the ism—cr a D oes f at wa ora ity. ore ir ich Bib are e Th law w the in s es. th C ad or se y the or ne thr d h, told it Th es ev le rea Jewi ey th th ocu s no k th ra a Rat Se w law ou a e e e is of s in pa e nd alre tor. t b n t g T two ment two g Go re, a he wa sh-Critan like binc umcison, f s her, t entil whic rale orm almud farthe hout he Scro what b So spe ni life, but ecaus dy a grou t Old ative he ls, pro P tha cor g the the ls ls a co be h ic th care is ; in ul midrash at ow ps pus. Te an h e nverts pesh lie rab th aches de ages qu e for a re sacrife, the ce d stamen e b ved, they er, d a way acts termin estion bis relat oth oes th sume remon a the For er, sam uthor and e only to to rep the are quot with t Epistle i to de Pa nor hat the o ok Christan t e ns is dea t ial i velopm d Sab re ul t esnt claim to he un t y e it. im the are a ea n tha t t main heir se hat laws ot of be a dersto th lin Fo w e, s rly nd id Gospe ath, h th the take e of partly evn r ther tha have the ow entir th er Chr ey it in b in t and he Je nt y. e y law? terp od question and f d like beg th line orce, i the su. o o Acor stia oes rabis, Jews l veral taken ar f reso ritua to e auth lives. sube et, e ings the the Heb Paul Hebrw ns, read no F Pau fun but lved ding ls or a ors sho like—c authoriy atemp longer place nd, it rew o it Its wer damentl ing quent P t l f pr the akes was interp aul uld had what with to o while interp ovide Bible Scrip of f cerm many in a regad it no conet the the not the Ju rtainl the to conf was our is et of it lo tures daism etaion from find difer th es b confir y view is nger a t onial inter he et iblca time lict y e to cer do ful a n - - . - - - - l FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What are some basic principles of rabbinic interpretation? 2. What are some of the differences between rabbinic literature and the New Testament?

Suggested Reading

Schiffman, Lawrence H. From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism , pp. 177 –200 and 220 –36. Hoboken, NJ: Ktav Publishing, 1991.

Other Books of Interest

Berlin, A., and M.Z. Brettler, eds. The Jewish Study Bible , pp. 1829 –75. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Ehrman, B.D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, pp. 51 –71, 79 –153, and 241 –310. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

65 Lecture 14: The Bible and Western Culture

The Suggested Reading for this lecture is J.C. Exum’s Beyond the Biblical Horizon: The Bible and the Arts .

n this last lecture we will be speaking about the intrinsic importance of the Bible to Western civilization. Some might say that Western civilization really started in Greece and Rome. Although this is an ongoing debate, I would say that Western civilization comes about at the point where the Judeo-Christian tradition comes into contact with the Greco-Roman tradition in a positive way. After all, without monotheism that comes from Judaism, and often in Europe through the medium of Christianity, we cannot speak of the Western tradition. It is not just the synthesis of the Hebrew ideas with the Greek or Hellenistic ideas that constitutes what we call the Western tradition, but there is another ingredient that is essential. Effectively, it was Christianity that supplied this ingredient. The Greco-Roman religions and cults had to be overcome to cre - ate Western civilization as we know it. In this there was already a head start since the ancient Greek traditions in various forms in which they entered into Roman civilization already were waning by the first century. There were internal rea - sons for which these religions were no longer serving the needs of those who lived in the area of the Greco-Roman world, espe - cially the Mediterranean region. Various mystery cults and Eastern religions had tried their hand at wooing them, even in m o c . t

Rome. It would be Christianity, r a p i l

bringing with it the essential ideas C of the Hebrew Scriptures, that © St. Paul the Apostle would succeed. by Claude Vignon, ca. 1620 The Western tradition also brings The conversion of Paul (Saul of Tarsus), the most with it some biblical attitudes notable of the early Christian missionaries, to Christianity took place as he was traveling the road

N about governance. The monar - to Damascus when he experienced a vision of the E

E chies of Europe were often pat - resurrected Jesus. He asserted that he received T the Gospel not from a human, but by the revelation

R terned on the biblical ideology of U monarchy, and they rose when of Jesus Christ. O F the Greco-Roman system of gov - At one point, his teaching in local synagogues in E Damascus got him in trouble and he had to escape. R ernment also broke down. It may Some of his early missionary work was first directed U

T seem a little peculiar for us as at Jewish Christians who had fled Jerusalem to C

E Americans to speak about the rise Antioch in Asia Minor. L

66 of monarchy, let alone medieval monarchy, as a feature of the Western tradi - tion, but those monarchies were an important step in the path to democracy that today typifies Western civilization. There are many areas in which we see the influence of the Bible and its tra - dition. The Bible has been used extensively in art, music, and drama from the Middle Ages to the present. Shakespeare, Milton, T.S. Eliot, Herman Melville, and Henry David Thoreau all used biblical imagery. Since Western civilization is also made up of heavy Greco-Roman components, the commentaries on these works will also note numerous references to Greco-Roman literature, but the biblical effect has been foundational. Ultimately, the moral and ethical messages of our literature are that of the Judeo-Christian approach of the Hebrew Scriptures, not the ones of the pagan authors. Literature, drama, and opera, of course, represent high culture, where the Bible is ubiquitous. There is also a popular culture that often revolves around the Bible itself, even in movies like The Ten Commandments , a blockbuster in its time even though it now seems to us humorous in some ways, or Prince of Egypt . I have personally been involved in numerous documentaries that deal with themes in the Hebrew Bible. These are not religious programs; these are aimed at the general culture. They may involve some information about the religious meaning of these texts, but they also deal with them historically, and they often challenge them, but there is a tremendous interest in these types of materials. Sometimes some of these documentaries are even laughable because they may explore a topic such as doomsday or the Loch Ness Monster to attempt to see what the Bible has to say about it. The Bible is everywhere in entertainment on television. Beginning immediately after the rise of the biblical tradition we observe the building of great buildings, the First Temple, the Second Temple and its expansion under King Herod, one of the wonders of the ancient world, vari - ous synagogues built in ancient Judea and Galilee and throughout the world, Christian churches in the Galilee and spreading abroad primarily in the Greco-Roman world. These buildings were great works of art with beautiful mosaics conveying biblical ideals. This form of serious architecture is a way in which the Bible has left its mark. It continued in the Middle Ages and encompasses the great cathedrals of Europe. Any art museum can demonstrate that the greatest subject of art is the Bible, and sometimes biblical subjects even underlie other types of images. In any story, biblical motifs and themes may be there, often sharing with Greek and Roman literature that have often, as we mentioned, also had a great impact on our culture. A really interesting example of the impact of the biblical tradition is on the concepts of personal liberty and democracy. According to the society envis - aged by Greek thought, the so-called democracy was limited to a small minority, maybe 15 percent of the citizens. But in the biblical ideal, all of Israel constituted the citizenry, and there was protection for various kinds of resident aliens and others who chose to join the Israelites. This approach modified Greco-Roman ideals by the notion of the sanctity of the individual as is found already in Genesis.

67 LECTURE FOURTEEN 6 8 sib of ma de at Th Ede cou of Yal aw th th th al fo spi cul di gi you Co som in di in Ameri acep bi ev sio asp be on re wr th of be th of T An T An T Wh vis o te g d b io te is e e r e e a he he hr it a velop e i h th d e ly. a r tural ma n n—f ni iv li ng i t e) son fre ings nt n. ntry it r n ects o o cti n n uman le me he huma ri emocr n cal re sl e ou en mi fer e B ua ty wi th th on ghts du Bi Bi ai ga th a a The a can w sto vi t ibl Th i a bi g mpor g er er t t an t ot ver o d o n ls t ha e s bl bl w er ti tra h th r al me ndm comp ht he hou sta l blica of emp nce e of equ r om f have es is her ry, e it. e e tex en d it in e n histo re on t the e t o w acy, y hat diton pub stae Gar ca y ivson ch the nt an rte xamp h bilca h wa g ma f B w l esta . On hile w dow t tan a wa e t ir ent to as as o th ts he ha Th l s ible as the ur o ted ithn em one alyze r indv d f lic sto a we gon s den rical ath ny f e A e Fo in s w t t to s ch r noth nd, s o co e ake ou the bli im p elig e f me cr mo in ind ent e co ir le ften no life. re histo tha ry ar ha rote E d in nt un er of E of cre e st me ea shed t t an po , ca is xodu o co he uld xod ar ea with w t rican nu ion iv a h o Bible. su er s co b h t d care ur u the t than chur h of hat ted th s d ate rta ow f h n a egin Ther and ctin ea in ncept be al human h uman dua . t ry ments ng slave urt at cre in o e scho us argue soci stae. ad se m g studen Anyoe in nt s, by en and inaleb major , nevr b is o in th same g we whic icro civl Fa of in ni on pres ation. l oms, in ear f th st Aft such in the e the in th e chur the t use tha s ols of e ory thers he what has wh and ha ty. p the Foun g ofte cosm the black e er display Behind o wer be th religon. opulat in on ts Bible guar se un ur indvu nd r ich d as is imag Un fo at T divual’s ole the servd who al, a Al in the vation rec right n stae in one ilu he a sio oth iverst r le sen society. had const gs m ding -relat ited t althoug tha s ca b his t slave ante of pla ear huma he o it B straing ajor rig ib io over e an perm prob er obse f ntly l a bilca ib ns tha ha sem t the of li n. o th be ced re is is hts Our ly S al the traing ca whic le Fath of as moder antly f as excu nd, e t o role fre The t lay d Go it ates d evidnc lem da supo nity cultre. fr b l it fu entir f the rves h te life self n In Bible ca religon mo en g om a s Jude ther f (includg Con mo nctios redo ys. ers nsio t d a roup the cr o se hey slaver major fact, n . ref q tha in cho slavery in h South f enviro tifs n a divso and eatd uotai Both a ney, establih as o bi our of a nd T gres sed Ame b of o-Christan d ou te in nly world t, re s, he to y ice have iscuon dispute ser m We minster the nsio o lica alwys in t flection to r endo higer evn bein y. pe he th civlzaton an them ne gua our in ern fo b . to co great nmet. a rican n an ved the at the e ns Abolit deb ople nd l al Prin d low with whole o Un o untry in ancestor d someti trad g in d rd ur it public slaveho wed f b omina b ear e or storie th a terp whic iblca Bible, foiste chur d a to ited ate was abo etwn ed ceton s. h re cultre. the civlz o s from of who st a e iton re the over lier f tra mange In ucatio a has pr ide such wit va fa nist al un th ligon revo ut ch Staes G te the sou c b s diton mes the d ayer milar ted e lue champion ther an h , studie and we u iverst lders a ation is s th arden the kinds in o upon and be the Harvd, ildngs, signfcae fre f the th lved of e rce wh responiblty as argu Garden n. Adam ben se Gensi as of —and or live. in e idea Ten . for the n rest it cone with at We Thes stae ecolg pra is ha Bible evry civl of from our the of wil. peol. a how about respon ed tha tha wer creatd nd wh ve The human in ho , ctied. cultr o and are o in the result and the f reli s tha e and f The at o and, ten to ive pe the as the to this cre an f y. two - a - of d - - a l d - Bible, read in a more sensitive way, teaches us to take care of the natural world that has been entrusted to us. Liberation theology harnesses the Bible to defend a kind of radicalism in which various ideas of revolution are justified. Especially in South America, Catholics were divided between those who understood the Bible to require a passive role in regard to the terrible things going on in society, and others who understood the Bible as a call to arms to liberate themselves from mis - treatment and even persecution. Latin America increasingly is moving toward a freer society, but these issues are not yet resolved, and they remain issues as regards the role of the Catholic Church in society. One special area in our own culture in which the Bible has been quite popu - lar is a tremendously wide interest in the Dead Sea Scrolls. There is a gen - uine interest on the part of intelligent, educated people. People learn about the Dead Sea Scrolls; they see that they are our earliest texts of the Hebrew Scriptures; they want to know how they compare to the ones we have now; they want to know how the Scriptures influenced that sect of Jews that most scholars consider to be the Essenes; and they want to know what is the rela - tionship of these scrolls to later Judaism and Christianity. This general inter - est brings people to read books, to watch programs, and view exhibitions of the Dead Sea Scrolls in various museums throughout the country. There is another kind of crazy interest in which people think that the Dead Sea Scrolls hold some kind of to-be-revealed secrets. Some people expect that the Scrolls are going to solve problems in our society, and that if we only knew the true secrets of these documents, we would be free from the difficult responsibilities with which we as a society live. The truth is that the Dead Sea Scrolls do not contain advice on whom to vote for or how to solve the problems of the Middle East. The Scrolls simply are a record of an ancient sectarian group’s grappling with the fundamental questions about the history of Israel, the eventual redemption, the nature of God, and God’s relationship to humanity. In the State of Israel there has been a special role for the Bible and archae - ology because it is the land of the Bible. People say that in Israel archaeolo - gy is the national pastime. People volunteer for digs and visit the biblical sites. The role of the Bible in Jewish culture in the land of Israel is a result of the fact that when the Jews returned to Israel in modern times, much of the culture they created around them was based on the Bible, its stories, and its values. As a political statement, connecting with the biblical past is a confir - mation of the continuity between the ancient people of Israel and the modern Jews living in Israel today. A final role for the Bible in our times is in intergroup relations. Unbelievable progress has been made in Jewish-Christian relations, both with Catholics and Protestants in the way they relate to their Jewish neighbors, both in the United States and other countries. Much of this progress has taken place because of the restudy of the Bible, often together, and because of the understandings reached relative to the common aspects of the culture and religion of Jews and Christians. In our own time, both Jews and Christians are beginning to extend this kind of interaction to Moslems. But there is a dif - ficulty here, because Moslems believe that Jews and Christians have altered

69 LECTURE FOURTEEN 7 0 h c u m t r a p e i r e p x e d e r d i f t u o b a r e h t e r u t th o t i B t u o fo li th it as li Some West ly wi th W T cal ne e v as at rce. e e . e l b l he a s u e a s agre new Bib n i w o n k . e . i d n u h to ci f o n a h w ern y e h W posible ro o t vi o t e v a Th a e t i e W e W of case ho m con l u o le e c n e li s, r o f b e ajor zat d r e cultr the le e r in e , s r of n o c s i t vistng h a h a t tinu hat B g c d s o f is o s e v a io n i e w o a se t l u ible th d e k l h w fo e v of rde a e y n e r n now m e v e s i h t fro e e d Jews r u r ar , n g i r a . ce chu a e o s d a e b B r an ha r e y nd .e m s r t e n i n e e ible - y t n e w t t p d n a t i o h g u y r e v u in d t s ub u rch its , o g a t i w h t its nd y l l a e r t ju an sefu t d in h our e h lic e s e an a t one stify e r e t earlist er m h co d and al t n e c t n i k l o h c u d buildn a , e l b i B h t i w l Christan atck civlza e v i f ntribuo chaleng u t c e l x e m e r its . s i its v i d much their g sta r la n i a l p t tran influ n A o a nu h e n i sn i a man e r gs, e w e. u t l u c tion. in views d to s sl e c i o v - enc s O y s t i so es, e r a p uscript a b a to t e shap n ha articp tions. e r me B in o f t u o th ou e h t Isr such ve u o c Jer d n a on t a m r t e t f m m o ae t a h e r quar a Go p o m usa o m r g l s o i us ased ther chi until ur z i l i v i c as odern e v i e w n t a e d i al lem n n r e d g n i n u ters is l g dr a civlzato th of . nd han e l o r en k l a t in const it s s e e n o i t a down us who c s a ar ou cult the a nd d, h t i w o t temp n i rived h s r a l o h f o can r antly a Judeo- , cult world. u o wo h t ra re a e h t n the n a t u o b b t a r se an uld b as rema l i v i c i u to re, b i B e Bible m o s p p i d nde ra a r Christan p , W sek fr dra we yi art n o d n a or o i t a z i e l om ins e n e m o s s e m i t e r g w reading, s i as hope chaleng of ca e h t at a to listeng h t i w the r p n n the our acurte po remov e H s i c e t d n a expct -y t n e w tr Wailng , they righ ten p a aditon ht i w b yl e r ra e p bi lu c e t . w to - - - Wal -

© Shutterstock.com FOR GR
EATER UNDERSTANDING

Questions

1. What biblical attitudes about governance are contained in the Western tradition? 2. How has biblical tradition impacted the concepts of personal liberty and democracy?

Suggested Reading

Exum, J.C. Beyond the Biblical Horizon: The Bible and the Arts. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.

Other Books of Interest

Bellah, R. Varieties of Civil Religion . San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980.

71 COURSE MATERIALS

Suggested Reading: Berlin, A., and M.Z. Brettler, eds. The Jewish Study Bible . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Exum, J.C. Beyond the Biblical Horizon: The Bible and the Arts. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998. The New Interpreter’s Bible Old Testament Survey. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2005. Rogerson, J.W., and Judith M. Lieu, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Schiffman, Lawrence H. From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple and Rabbinic Judaism . Hoboken, NJ: Ktav Publishing, 1991. ———. Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: The History of Judaism, the Background of Christianity, the Lost Library of Qumran. Garden City, NY: Anchor Doubleday, 1995. Shanks, H. Ancient Israel: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999.

Other Books of Interest: Avi-Yonah, M., ed. The Archaeology of the Land of Israel. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1982. Bellah, R. Varieties of Civil Religion . San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980. Coogan, M.D., ed. The Oxford History of the Biblical World . New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Davies, G.I. The Oxford Bible Commentary . Eds. J. Barton and J. Muddiman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Ehrman, B.D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings . New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Hauer, C.E., and W.A. Young. An Introduction to the Bible: A Journey into Three Worlds . 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001. Hoffmeier, J.K., and A. Millard, eds. The Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2004. Kaufmann, Y. The Religion of Israel: From Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile. New York: Schocken, 1972.

S Podhoretz, N. The Prophets: Who They Were, What They Are. New York: L

A Free Press, 2002. I R

E VanderKam, J., and P. Flint. The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their T

A Significance for Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity . M San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 2002. E S

R These books are available online through www.modernscholar.com U

O or by calling Recorded Books at 1-800-636-3399. C

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