The Computer Games Journal Ltd Registered Company No

ISSN 2052-773X

The Computer Games Journal Ltd Registered company no. SC 441838

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journal website: www.computergamesjournal.com journal enquiries: [email protected]

The Computer Games Journal

Volume 2 Edition 1 Candlemas 2013

The Computer Games Journal 2(1) Candlemas 2013

Editor-in-Chief

Dr John N Sutherland BSc, MSc, EdD, CEng, CISE, CISP, MBCS

Deputy Editors-in-Chief

Dr Tony Maude BSc (Hons), PhD, BD (Hons) Dr Malcolm Sutherland BSc (Hons), PhD

Editorial Board

Prof. Alonzo Addison, University of California Prof. Ian Marshall, Coventry University Aaron Allport, Blitz Games Studios Dr Kenny MacAlpine, University of Abertay Dundee Jennifer Ash, IBM Dr Hannah Marston, Deutsche Sporthochschule, Koln Brian Baglow, Revolver PR Alex McGivern, Reality Council Dawn Beasley, Mission Resourcing Ltd Stephen McGlinchey, Eurocom Developments Ltd Pauline Belford, Edinburgh Telford College Simon Meek, Tern Digital Matt Black, Blitz Games Studios Andy Miah, Creative Futures Research Council Kim Blake, Blitz Games Studios John Nash, Blitz Games Studios Peter Bloomfield; Software Engineer, Vertual Ltd Walter Patterson, e3Net Prof. Paul Bourke, University of Western Australia Gary Penn, Denki Ltd Dr Fiona Cameron, University of Western Sydney Eve Penford-Dennis (freelance game developer) Dr Gianna Cassidy, Glasgow Caledonian University Dr Mike Reddy, Newport University Phil Carlisle, Namaste Prof. Skip Rizzo, University of Southern California Dr Prathap Chandran, Smartlearn Telcomp Derek Robertson, Learning and Teaching Scotland Pierre Corbeil, retired professor, Quebec Sheila Robinson, Solvebrand Gordon Dow, PowerLunchClub Ltd Karl Royle, University of Wolverhampton Barry Elder, Digital Minds Mario Santana, VSMM Society Laurence Emms, Pixar Lol Scragg, Gamify Consultancy David Farrell, Glasgow Caledonian University Matt Seeney, Gameology Consultancy Dr Antonio Ramires, Universidade do Minho Stuart Slater, University of Wolverhampton Ross Forshaw, Linx Online Ltd Martin Williamson Smith, University of the West of Scotland Bill Gallacher, Reid Kerr College Colin Smyth, Blitz Games Studios Alan Gauld, BT Prof. Ian Smythe, Newport University Remi Gillig, Asobo Studio Mazen Sukkar, Headstrong Games Jullian Gold, Short Fuse Ltd David Thomson, founder of Ludometrics Natalie Griffith, Blitz Games Studios Prof. Jim Terkeurst, University of Winsconsin Richard Hackett, Blitz Games Studios Prof. Harold Thwaites, Multimedia University Cyberjaya Muhammad Nouman Hanif, Radius Interactive Prof. Olga de Troyer, Vrije Universiteit Brussel Douglas Henry, Bigpoint Chris Viggers, Blitz Games Studios Michael Heron, Epitaph Online Dr Krzysztof Walczak, Poznan University of Economics Mark Hobbs, Natural Motion Peter Walsh, Vancouver Film School Prof. Charalampos Karagiannidis, University of Thessaly Shaun Wilson, RMIT University Romana Khan, Caledonian University Chris Wright, Games Analytics Chris van der Kuyl, Brightsolid Anne Wuebbenhorst, Digital Goldfish

Aims of The Computer Games Journal

The focus of The Computer Games Journal is on new and emerging technologies, market trends and other critical issues facing the computer games industry. The journal draws particular attention to research by undergraduate and postgraduate students, and commentary by industry professionals. The intention is to promote and publish information, which is of direct relevance to both computer games entrepreneurs and to students who are intent on developing a career in the industry.

The Computer Games Journal 2(1) Candlemas 2013

The Computer Games Journal

Volume 2 edition 1 (Candlemas 2013): contents

Editorial

Games, Ghandi and wrecked trains Mike Reddy 3 - 5

Papers

Exploring user experience in game interface: a case study of The Sims 3 Nazlena Mohamad Ali, Siti Zahidah Abdullah, Juhana Salim, Hyowon Lee 6 - 18

A quantitative study exploring the difference between gaming genre preferences Anil Bilgihan, Cihan Cobanoglu, Khaldoon Nusair, Fevzi Okumus, Milos Bujisic 19 - 40

Correctly and accurately combining normal maps in 3D engines Christopher Dutton 41 - 54

“Likely to be eaten by a Grue” – the relevance of text games in the modern era Michael Heron 55 – 67

Learning to “do history” through gameplay Maria Mavrommati, Despina Makridou Bousiou, Pierre Corbeil 68 - 84

Real time muscle texture morphing Greg Penninck 85 - 99

The Computer Games Journal 2(1) Candlemas 2013

Editorial: games, Ghandi and wrecked trains

Written by Dr Mike Reddy

Lecturer and course leader

Address: Faculty of Arts and Business, The University of Wales Newport, City Campus, Newport, Wales (UK) (post-code: NP20 2BP) e-mail: [email protected]

By the time you read this, one of the best computer games degrees in the UK (at the University of Wales Newport) will be no more. (The institution itself will not exist much longer, due to Welsh Assembly-led, government-imposed restructuring and institutional mergers.) I say, with some conviction, that this degree course was one of the best, owing more to the achievements and commitment of the students, than those of the teaching staff. This was evidenced by a string of achievements, including BAFTA nominations; Dare to be Digital awards; international recognition of a number of graduate-seeded indie developers; and, an enviable employment rate in the UK Games industry. This should serve as a warning that being the best does not save a degree course from closure (although it is acknowledged that universities in the UK have an over-provision of games related awards, if direct employment in the industry is the main factor under consideration).

The BSc in Games Development and A.I. began in late 2004 and lasted just under a decade, during most of which I had the honour to be teaching some of the many specialist modules. Towards the end, I was the only lecturer and programme leader, due to redundancies and funding council cuts in what we now recognise is a retracting HE sector. When I arrived at Newport in 2005, I knew I had my work cut out for me. My mission was to raise the standard of the award so it would survive the inevitable deflation of vocational awards aimed at the creative industries, when promised graduate employment did not materialise for many. It was not that Newport‟s BSc degree (designed by a colleague and friend Dr. Shane Lee) was inappropriate; rather, it was (like many novice institutions) that we lacked recognition and industry support. This problem was made more difficult by not being geographically situated beside an existing cluster of game developers. Another factor was preparation for Skillset accreditation, but most of all, we needed to consider graduate employability in a fiercely competitive first jobs market.

People in the games industry have criticised some games courses as being nothing more than “bums on seats”, under resourced, and out of date. Common complaints from industry have included (i) lack of real experience of the team-based nature of games development; and, (ii) the inability to specialise in the homogenous learning environment of a university – made worse in some institutions by the majority of modules being shared with other computing awards (due to economies of scale more than naked duplicity) – when careers in games development are strongly disciplined. Graduate recruitment - conservatively forecast by some spokespeople at 25% - was considered the gold standard for evaluating an institution‟s worth; not unreasonably, given that networking and “whom you know” are important determining factors for entering many creative industries.

After hard-won consultations with several prominent development studios, the need for direct experience of cross-disciplinary development practices in large groups was identified as essential for Newport graduates, along with exposure to standard industry practices. However, such heterogeneous experience was at odds with traditional, standardised individual HE assessment.

Collaboration over the last ten years with a variety of fellow lecturers involved with the BA Games Design degree (thankfully not yet under threat of closure) has proven that it is possible to provide relevant experience despite the following obstacles: (i) the culture clash between students from

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disparate disciplines; (ii) the emphasis on process rather than product; (iii) the need for fair assessment of individual performance; and, (iv) the necessity of the importance of pipelines for production.

The first year of the “train wreck” module was a result of ESF KEF Innovation Strategy Funding, which oiled the machinery of inter-departmental politics. As we had received external resources, eyes were on us to achieve collaboration, when traditional animosities between disciplines might otherwise have prevented such a venture. It helped when the external evaluator for the KEF programme identified Newport‟s part as an “example of best practice” in collaboration; and it must be said that friction between the lecturers delivering this shared teaching was non-existent (but was apparent in attitudes of colleagues and some managers).

Thus was born what Newport games lecturers proudly referred to as “the train wreck module”, where traditionally about twelve BSc and thirty BA Year 2 students were involved. Participants were assigned to four or five groups, usually consisting of two or three programming students, with seven to nine Arts students (reflecting a typical balance in the industry). The groups were allocated previously designed game proposals, most often coming from existing game designers in the Industry (some former graduates). Groups were then encouraged to allocate members to distinct roles: BA students were responsible for team management, interpretation of the design briefs and game assets development; while BSc students focussed upon tool development and game implementation. Lecturers acted in the role of producers, with responsibility for approving and signing off work on a weekly basis. This structure lasted until last year (2012), and it was being assessed by individual reflective accounts; portfolios of assets and game files; as well as formal group presentations. All students provided evidence for assessment via construction diaries and traditional meeting minutes. Cross marking was originally performed by the two lecturers, providing a further level of inter-school collaboration.

Industry representatives acting as mentors to the teams (who usually provided the original live briefs for the teams) agreed that this approach to providing vocationally focussed experience for both Arts and Computing students was directly relevant and uniquely effective in addressing many concerns expressed by potential employers about games courses provided by HE institutions. Students did not always enjoy the team experience, but they also provided positive feedback on the process. Their ability to specialise within a heterogeneous team, along with the additional experience of large group work, was extremely valuable in producing rounded graduates who were better able to promote these skills in their search for employment. The approach required a large amount of good will, and it was difficult to timetable the projects, and to provide time and resources to students from two different schools. Nevertheless, the results more than outweighed the obstacles.

Participants have universally agreed after the module, and in some cases a long time afterwards, that the “train wreck” module was one of the most useful experiences of their academic careers. It prepared them for interviews and even the Dare to be Digital competition. The University of Wales Newport was the first, and possibly only institution outside of the organisers (Abertay University), to have two teams accepted in one year, and it has an impressive 75% success rate in being accepted into the competition, when only 16 teams are selected each year out of over 100 applications. It must be re-emphasised that these results were primarily a reflection of the student participants (but not without some resistance and occasional animosity).

As Freire pointed out in his work Pedagogy of the Oppressed, the most ardent advocates of the status quo are often those with the most to gain by constructive criticism of the „norm‟. Our experience at Newport was that many, if not most, students actively resisted the ideas behind the “train wreck” module: (i) working with the „other‟ students (artists and programmers exhibited an unusual degree of

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antagonism towards each other); (ii) restricted creative freedom (working to implement the idea of another designer, which would likely be the norm in a typical development environment for a recent graduate); (iii) the group product rather than individual effort (measured by quality rather than quantity), and (iv) the importance of a work-inspired simulation over standard academic assessment (the idea of being „employed‟ by the lecturer, rather than effectively employing them through the payment of student fees).

Occasionally, these creative differences ascended into confrontation with a few of the students. I am not proud to say that I threatened one or two students with instant Fail grades when the creative process was frustrated by obstruction of the simulated working environment. I wasn‟t alone in losing my temper, although the handful of Arts-based lecturers with whom I shared the “train wreck” module over the years have entered into fewer incidents in total than my own. (It is clear that they would make better employers than me.) However, to their credit, all but one of my student opponents eventually agreed that situations arose through „prima donna‟ attitudes, usually exacerbated by stress over grades, and an unjustified concern that working in a group was going to be detrimental to their degree classification. The one exception resulted in „an agreement to disagree‟, which taught us both a valuable lesson in avoiding direct conflict. All of the lecturers involved over the years had to engage in “good cop, bad cop” behaviour at times, but we tried later on to engage predominantly in „Nonviolent Resistance‟; hence the „Ghandi‟ reference in the title.

The “train wreck” module was an interesting experiment in nonviolent resistance, both to the university power hierarchy and the student cohort, which elicited a number of personal revelations:

1) Placing responsibility for effective group work squarely on the shoulders of the students themselves (i.e. if there is a problem with a member of the team, it is a problem for the whole team, and not just the individual member). 2) Recognising that “breaking the silence” was necessary when problems arose (e.g. multidisciplinary culture shock and personality clashes, or concern over lack of contribution by doing too little or the control freakery of doing too much, all of which threatened the pipeline of production). 3) Mediation and moderation (avoiding the “automatic obedience” of being a tutor in what is increasingly a student dominated relationship; as well as team selection based around meritocracy, rather than random or „best with worst‟ approaches). 4) Reconciliation rather than retribution (including the occasional „sit in‟ to facilitate recognition that the experience of process is far more important than the product).

When I have presented at conferences or informally discussed the “train wreck” module in the past, I have received numerous explanations from academic colleagues (and even students) as to why it couldn‟t work in such a such environment: (i) lecturers shouldn‟t control who works with whom; (ii) the students wouldn‟t put up with a module without lecturers actually teaching (or spoon-feeding information, to put it bluntly); (iii) the faculty could not approve it; (iv) inter-departmental collaboration had been tried in the past and failed; and so on. It sounds like the apocryphal bumblebee‟s inability to fly, in that theoretically, it should not be able to.

That, I have always said, is the point. If a games graduate attended a job interview for a games company and said (s)he was an excellent team player and worked well with others, his/her answer would hardly be credible. If, on the other hand, (s)he looked the interviewer in the eye and exclaimed wearily that (s)he had first-hand experience, and knew at least a few of the ways in which large group projects can fail horribly, his/her answer might sound a bit more convincing.

Sadly, for me at least, the train has pulled out of the station for the final time.

The Computer Games Journal 2(1) Candlemas 2013

Exploring user experience in game interface: a case study of The Sims 3

Nazlena Mohamad Ali* 1, Siti Zahidah Abdullah1, Juhana Salim 2, Hyowon Lee 3

1 Institute of Visual Informatics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43000, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia * e-mail: [email protected] 2 Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43000, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia 3 Singapore University of Technology and Design, 20 Dover Drive, Singapore

Abstract

User interfaces are a crucial factor in successful computer games design. Well-designed user interactions in a computer game can enhance user experience in terms of playfulness, immersion and flow, resulting in better user engagement during game playing. The aim of this paper is to better understand the elements of user interface designs in games by measuring the user experience while engaged in playing the game. An experiment was conducted using The Sims 3, an extremely popular social and life simulation game featuring real 3D graphics, to measure various facets of user experiences while interacting with the game. A Game Engagement Questionnaire (GEQ) was customised and administered to 35 participants aged between 20 and 28, and their responses were analysed. The findings show that most participants enjoyed the game. Overall, participants provided positive feedback on the user interface.

Keywords: game interface, interaction design, user experience, engagement

Article Information

Received: November 2012 Accepted: March 2013 Available: online April 2013

1: Introduction

Designing engaging user interfaces is probably one of the most promising current research areas in the computer gaming industry. Interactions between the player and the game usually occur through the user interface. Pinelle et al. (2008) claimed that failure to design a usable game interface could interfere with the user experience and have a negative effect on the overall quality and success rate of a game. There are a variety of computer game genres (first-person shooter, role-playing, adventure, strategy, etc.) and types (arcade, handheld, console, online collaborative, etc.) and thus user experiences in playing games also differ. A player interacts with and adapts to the user interface and is then immersed to a certain level into the game world environment. The interface includes controller buttons, mouse clicks, menus, status bars, and field of view. Kuts (2009) provided an overview of user interface characteristics that affect playfulness. From the study, she found that a playful user interface can create a positive user experience. This aspect is particularly important especially in game interface design as a playful user experience is often the purpose for playing the game in the first place. 1-3

The contribution of this paper is to explore the facets of game user interface that influence the user experience. In an in-depth case study of game players, we investigated whether and how the different

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design elements of a game interface positively or negatively influence user engagement. We examined one of the most popular computer games called The Sims 3. The Sims 3 is a 2009 strategic life simulation computer game developed by The Sims Studio, published by Electronic Arts using Nintendo 3DS. 4

The paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the background work in game user experience and Section 3 explains the features of the game in our case study. This is followed by a description of the methods and procedures employed in Section 4 and finally Section 5 discusses the results and findings of the study.

2: Game User Experience

Evaluations of user experience have been discussed recently in several publications. However, the measuring of gaming experiences is not like evaluating applications in business and the software industry. Productivity and gaming applications clearly have very different goals and it is not sufficient to focus exclusively on conventional usability-related metrics. Since games are played for the experience, they are more subjective and more ill-defined, and thus trickier to study and understand with traditional usability methods that are typically applied in the field of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI). In order to describe, define and measure user experiences in game designs, the concepts such as Flow, Immersion, Fun and Playability have been adopted and studied. 5-13

Flow in game has been widely used in game evaluation study. Flow is the term defined by M. Csikszentmihalyi used to describe the feelings of enjoyment that occur when a balance between skill and challenge is achieved in the process of performing an intrinsically rewarding activity. Flow experience is a concept to describe the moments or states when someone is completely absorbed in an activity or task being carried out. This activity can be a work task or a leisure pursuit and indeed the user can become so absorbed that s/he is not aware whether it is work or play. The involvement in the activity makes it seem that nothing else matters and the user does not notice that the time passes quickly because s/he is so immersed in the activity that is being engaged in. The activities that can produce the sense of flow are varied, and can include creative art, athletic competition, engaging in hobbies and engaging in work for example reading a novel, gardening or even cooking. Csikszentmihalyi identified eight components of enjoyment that lead to flow: (1) a challenging activity that requires skills; (2) the merging of action and awareness; (3) clear goals and feedback; (4) concentration on the task at hand; (5) the paradox of control; (6) the loss of self-consciousness; (7) the transformation of time; and (8) autotelic experience. 14

The flow concept is also becoming popular in interaction design for user experiences of websites, interactive products, and computer games. B.P. Smith argued that flow, a psychological state, contributes to the enjoyment of playing video games. Sweetser and Wyeth (2005), and Cowley et al. (2008) adopted Csikszentmihalyi‟s concept of flow in their model of player enjoyment. Sweetser and Wyeth (2005) presented a GameFlow as a possible concept of evaluating user experience in games while Cowley et al. expanded this theory into an information systems framework called Cowley‟s user- system-experience (USE) model. Zagal et al. (2010) developed a survey instrument to measure Csikszentmihalyi‟s all eight components of enjoyment/flow consisting of three stages (i.e. creation, scale development, and testing). Indeed, flow is a well-established construct for examining experience in gameplay study. 9,10-11,15

Another term in measuring game experience is immersion. Immersion is described as an experience where people feel cut off and detached from reality such that the game is all that matters. Brown and Cairns (2004) used immersion to refer to the degree of involvement or engagement one experiences

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in a game. They proposed a Grounded Theory to construct a robust division of immersion into three levels: engagement, engrossment and total immersion. Questions were designed to prompt the interviewee about issues of immersion, for example, asking the gamers about a sense of presence and their experience of time while playing. From the interview sessions with the gamers about their experiences of gaming and immersion, the study suggests that gamers experienced different levels of engagement with a game, with the most engaged level being equated with immersion. They added that the empathy with the in-game characters as well as atmosphere created by the graphics, plot, and sounds were important factors to get totally immersed. 12

The element of Presence has been studied in several of different media and addressed reliable element in measuring games experience. The most of common definition used for presence is the "sense of being there" in one place or environment even when one is physically situated in another. Weibel et al. (2007) described presence as a state of consciousness that gives experience of being physically present in a virtual world. Briefly it means that the participant experiences presence, when he feels or acknowledges that the environment is being presented to him through some type of media. These ideas correspond well with the features found in digital games in which player feel a sense of similarity between real-world and game world objects. IJsselsteijn et al. highlighted immersion and presence as potential candidates for evaluating gameplay. They developed the Game Engagement Questionnaire (GEQ) which covers a range of digital game experiences that have been identified through reviewing theoretical accounts of player experiences. 8,16-19

Other than the studies to theoretically frame the nature of gaming experiences, there are more empirical approaches in understanding and measuring game experience. Mandryk et al (2005) used physiological techniques to measure user experience with entertainment technologies. Bernhaupt et al (2008) introduced new forms of interaction techniques such as gestures, eye-tracking and bio- physiological input and feedback as evaluation methods for an enhanced user experience. Brockmyer et al. (2009) developed a Game Engagement Questionnaire (GEQ) using both classical and Rasch analysis in determining deep engagement in video game-playing, focusing on the impact of playing violent video games. Evaluation of user experience with questionnaires is of interest to both those doing academic research and those in the software industry. Questionnaires are widely used for collecting data from respondents, and various kinds of questionnaires have been used in user experience evaluation. Gaming experience is one of the areas where questionnaires have been used extensively to evaluate user experience. 5,8,11,13,20-22

3: Case Study: The Sims 3

The Sims is one of the most successful computer games ever, consistently selling well over time and is the most popular game featuring domestic space. Since its release in the year 2000, The Sims has been a topic in a large number of discussions in the field of game research. Scott Evans, General Manager of The Sims Studio said, “The Sims series continues to be one of the most successful video games of all time by providing universally appealing content and focusing on the player's imagination, emergent gameplay mechanics, and the innate humour evident in the virtual world of The Sims. 23-26

In the genre of a „simulation‟ or „real life‟ game, the main purpose and activities in The Sims consist of creating and controlling virtual characters in a virtual world. This game has no win or loses conditions, unlike other games where the main goal is to win. The player normally wants to achieve and maintain a level of success for their Sims character over time. Within the game, players control some key variables in the game, including physical features and personality properties of characters, careers of characters, behavioural interactions between characters, interactions between characters and objects

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in the environment and physical characteristics of character‟s homes. Figure 1 shows a screen shot of the user-interface and game controls in The Sims 3 (The Sims Studio, 2009). 27,28

Figure 1: User-interface and game controls in The Sims 3 (The Sims Studio, 2009).

There are several stages of play in The Sims. In the first stage, the player needs to create an avatar (The Sims character); in the second, the player needs to insert the avatar into the house or neighbourhood which is the place where the player will make the traditional game decisions (e.g. where to go, what to do, with whom to interact, etc.). The third stage of play is defined by the possibility of buying furniture and constructing items for the house in order to fulfil the avatar‟s needs. The player controls the actions and behaviour of avatar characters (Sims) within its community. Sims can live alone or with a family, homes must be furnished and comfortable, and the characters can go out to work, or stay at home. They need to interact with others, such as have friends or form close relationships, get married, have babies, or care for children. If their basic needs are not fulfilled, they will die, or at least fail to thrive. The game allows the player to customize the avatar‟s body shape, and make-up is available for both genders. These are features that can be customised by the player in order to have a more fun game experience. 23

The quality of engagement in The Sims was acknowledged earlier by a number of researchers. In the findings of these studies, younger people were physically engaged with the game. When children played The Sims, they did not switch windows. They focused only on the game, as they controlled and watched their people interact in the environments which they, themselves, had constructed. They were absorbed in imaginative play. In his study, Flanagan (2003) said, “after purchasing the game, most new Sims players spent hours (and usually days) in non-stop manipulation of the simulated house”. These are the reasons for using The Sims in this study. We wanted to explore how some of the main features embedded in the game interface positively or negatively influence user engagement. An experiment using The Sims 3 (The Sims Studio, 2009) as a case study was carried out to explore the interaction between the player and the game interface. 23-24,28

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4: User Experiment

The objective of this experiment was to explore user experience in the game interface by examining user interaction with the game interface.

4.1: Materials and procedure

35 students from the Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia voluntarily participated in this study. In this experiment, the game options were saved as „free will‟ so that players could act on their own. The participants were introduced to The Sims 3 (The Sims Studio, 2009) game and had some tutorials before the experiment began. Participants were shown how to interact with the game by using the menu options (i.e. game interface). The experiment took place in a silent room where only one participant and researcher were present. During the experiment, participants were given an information sheet about the game and a list of controls. Participants were told they would have forty five minutes to play the game. They were given three specific tasks: 1) create a Sims character (e.g. set personalities, gender etc.), 2) decorate the house (e.g. design and buy furniture), and 3) fulfil the Sims‟ basic needs (e.g. hunger, bladder, energy etc.). The goal of the game in this experiment was to keep the Sims characters happy, fed, clean, and nurtured.

After forty five minutes of play, participants were asked to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of several sections such as demographic information, game engagement and the user-interface.

4.2: Measurements

The questionnaire consisted of three sections. The ﬁrst section included a few questions to elicit the player‟s demographic information (i.e. age, race, frequency of playing PC games). Players also listed their previous experience in playing computer games such as the time they spent playing computer games, including their current level of knowledge and experience with The Sims 3 (The Sims Studio, 2009).

The second section consisted of 15 questions of game engagement after the session. A questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale with 1 (Strongly Disagree) and 5 (Strongly Agree) was employed. The measurement of game engagement was based on the Game Engagement Questionnaire (GEQ) used by Brockmyer et al. (2009). This GEQ is associated with four elements (Absorption, Presence, Flow and Immersion) is used to measure a user‟s potential for becoming engaged in video games. In this experiment, the GEQ was customised for the purpose of the study and to suit the game environment (see Table 1). The Sims is a type of „simulation‟ or „real life‟ game consists of creating and controlling virtual characters in a virtual world. This game has no win or loses conditions, unlike other games where the main goal is to win. Therefore, the Absorption element was been remove because some questions in the Absorption‟s element were not related to the game genre used in the experiment (i.e. “I feel scared”). 21,27

The third section consisted of questions on the game‟s user interface elements including graphics, sound and music, buttons and icons, position of message box, and information message appeared in the game. Finally, for the exit questionnaires we asked about user satisfaction and their overall comments on the game and experiment. All data collected from the questionnaire were analysed using SPSS (20.0).

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Table 1: 15 items in GEQ used in the experiment (source: Brockmyer et al, 2009)

5: Results and Discussion

Participants in this study were 35 students (22 female, 13 male) with ages ranging from 20 to 28 years, with an average age of 22 years. All of them were computer literate and used computers every day.

The ethnic representation of the sample is as follows: Malay (63%), Chinese (30%), Indian (3%) and others - Indonesian and Middle Eastern (14%). All were experienced in playing general computer games. The average time participants had spent playing computer games varied from one to two times a year (29%), once a month (34%), once a week (20%) and everyday (17%). Only eight participants reported that they had experience in playing The Sims game. The rest of the participants had no prior experience with The Sims (77% novice, 23% non-novice). The detailed demographic information is summarised in Table 2.

Reliability analyses were performed on each set of items concerning GEQ (Flow, Immersion and Presence). Cronbach‟s alpha value for the 15 items of the GEQ was .875, showing no increase in the alpha level when an item was deleted. Table 3 is a frequency table of participants‟ responses on their experience during the experiment task. On average, participants reported the game was attractive and fun (mean=4.20 and 4.23 respectively). This resulted in total immersion or presence in the game. For immersion (e.g. “I really get into the game”) the mean score was 4.14 (n=25). This was consistent with the aspect of presence as a majority of the participants agreed with the question “The game feels real” with a mean of 4.14 (n=30). For example in Table 3, 74.3% of participants acknowledged that they were deeply involved with the game (n=26), and 42.9% of the participants lost track of time (n= 15).

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Table 2: demographic profile of participants

Demographic profile Men Women Total (n = 13) (n = 22) (N = 35)

Age 20-24 9 (69.23%) 19 (86.36%) 28 (80.0%) 25 and above 4 (30.77%) 3 (13.64%) 7 (20.0%)

Race Malay 4 (30.77%) 18 (81.82%) 22 (62.86%) Chinese 4 (30.77%) 2 (9.09%) 6 (17.14%) Indian 1 (7.69%) 1 (4.55%) 2 (5.71%) Others 4 (30.77%) 1 (4.55%) 5 (14.29%)

Frequency of Playing PC Games Everyday 4 (30.77%) 2 (9.09%) 6 (17.14%) Once a week 7 (53.85%) 2 (9.09%) 9 (25.71%) Once a month 2 (15.38%) 8 (36.36%) 10 (28.57%) 1-2 a year 1 (7.69%) 9 (40.91%) 10 (28.57%)

The Sims experience Non-Novice 5 (38.46%) 3 (13.64%) 8 (22.86%) Novice 8 (61.54%) 19 (86.36%) 27 (77.14%)

Table 3: frequency analysis for each item in GEQ

Scores (N=35) GEQ items 1 2 3 4 5 Mean

The game is attractive 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 1(2.9) 26(74.3) 8(22.9) 4.20 The game is fun 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 3(8.6) 21(60.0) 11(31.4) 4.23 I play without thinking how to play 2(5.7) 11(31.4) 12(34.3) 5(14.3) 5(14.3) 3.00 I feel like I can‟t stop playing 1(2.9) 6(17.1) 3(8.6) 15(42.9) 10(28.6) 3.77 I feel excited with the game 1(2.9) 0(0.00) 8(22.9) 16(45.7) 10(28.6) 3.97 I am focused on the game 1(2.9) 0(0.00) 8(22.9) 19(54.3) 7(20.0) 3.91 If someone talks to me I don‟t hear 6(17.1) 12(34.3) 11(31.4) 3(8.6) 3(8.6) 2.57 them I do not need to use a manual to play 9(25.7) 0(0.00) 13(37.1) 10(28.6) 3(8.6) 3.20 I need to have skills to play this game 2(5.7) 11(31.4) 8(22.9) 11(31.4) 3(8.6) 3.06 I played longer than I meant to 0(0.00) 4(11.4) 14(40.0) 7(20.0) 10(28.6) 3.66

I become deeply involved with the 1(2.9) 2(5.7) 6(17.1) 22(62.9) 4(11.4) 3.74 game I cannot sense my surrounding 1(2.9) 11(31.4) 13(37.1) 7(20.0) 3(8.6) 3.00 I lose track of time 1(2.9) 2(5.7) 17(48.6) 7(20.0) 8(22.9) 3.54 The game feels real 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 5(14.3) 20(57.1) 10(28.6) 4.14 I really get into the game 1(2.9) 4(11.4) 5(14.3) 22(62.9) 3(8.6) 4.14

Notes: (1= strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree)

According to Table 4, overall, participants gave positive feedback on the user-interface. 80% of participants liked the interface of this game (n=28), 51.5% found that the sounds used in the game gave them meaningful feedback (n=18), 77.2% experienced the game story as a part of the game play (n=27), 71.4% were interested in the game story (n=25) and 85.7% were interested in the game

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character (n=30). However, most of the participants were not very familiar with the game and thus had difficulty with the game menu and controls. Only 42.9% of participant understood the menu (n=15), and 34.3% felt the game control was easy (n=12). They also had some difficulties and required tutorials and guidance from the instructor prior to the experiment task.

Table 4: items of game interface

Scores (N=35) Game Interface items 1 2 3 4 5 Mean

I like the interface used in this game 0(0.00) 1(2.09) 6(17.1) 16(45.7) 12(34.3) 4.11 I experience using the menu as a part 0(0.00) 1(2.09) 11(31.4) 17(48.6) 6(17.1) 3.80 of the game It is easy to understand the menu 1(2.09) 5(14.3) 14(40.0) 9(25.7) 6(17.1) 3.40 The game control is easy 2(5.7) 6(17.1) 15(42.9) 8(22.9) 4(11.4) 3.17 Sounds from the game gave me 1(2.09) 2(5.7) 14(40.0) 15(42.9) 3(8.6) 3.49 meaningful feedback I experience the game story as part of 0(0.00) 0(0.00) 8(22.9) 24(68.6) 3(8.6) 3.86 the game play I am interested in the game story 0(0.00) 1(2.09) 9(25.7) 21(60.0) 4(11.4) 3.80 I am interested in the Sims character 0(0.00) 1(2.09) 4(11.4) 21(60.0) 9(25.7) 4.06

Notes: (1= strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutral; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree)

We explored the interface satisfaction for this experiment with five items (see Table 5). The majority of the participants (88.5%) felt that the game had interesting graphics, and 82.8% were satisfied with the sound and music from the game. Novice users (7.2%), on the other hand, were confused with the game buttons and icons. However, overall, participants acknowledged that they were satisfied with the game interface (97.1%) and had a wonderful experience with the game experiment (85.7%). Nessbit and Hoskens (2008) stated that the game interface can improve a user‟s satisfaction but not performance, and suggested that developing multi-sensory game interfaces could improve a player‟s experience. For example, the background music, sound effects and haptic displays can assist players to become more immersed in the game. Kuts (2009), in her study of playful user interface, mentioned that users can playfully navigate in user interface. 3

More than half of the participants in our experiment had no prior Sims experience and must thus be regarded as novices (77%, n= 27).They had difficulties in the game control and in understanding the game menu. Some (7.4%) were confused with the game menu and icons. 74.3% of them commented that the information messages (i.e. tutorial box from the game interface) were helpful. Experienced players might have developed skills in controlling the game, but a lack of skills can influence a user‟s interaction with the game interface. Despite these differences in the experience, most of the participants (80%) felt addicted to the game and would like to play the game again in the future. Besides, 51.4% of the participants (n=18) were satisfied with the time given but some of them, 40% (n=14) commented that time given was not enough. Some of the participants did not complete the task by the given time. The majority of novice users wanted to spend more time on Task 1 (create a Sims character) and Task 2 (decorate the house) and did not have enough time for Task 3 (fulfil the Sims‟ basic needs). This scenario corresponds to the observation by Flanagan (2003) that most new Sims players spent hours (and usually days) in non-stop manipulation of the simulated house. 24

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Table 5: assessment aspects of user interface

Assessment aspects (N=35, %)

Graphics Interesting 88.5 Uninteresting 0.00 Sound and Music Satisfied 82.8 Unsatisfied 2.9 Buttons and Icons Clear 68.6 Confusing 7.2 Position of message box Consistent 68.5 Inconsistent 11.5 Information message Helpful 74.3 Unhelpful 2.9

Based on Csikszentmihalyi‟s positive psychology research, when a person totally focuses into an activity and forgets about time and pressure, he reaches the optimal experience of flow. Chen (2007) stated that, in order to reach flow, the player needs to feel a sense of personal control over the game activity. Observation from the experiments shows some condition of flow which is player comments that: 29

“This game is like a reality and we are controlling the character (Sims) in the game. Nice and relaxing” (Participant 1, female).

“I like when I can control the Sims in the house and can create our own character. It became more interesting since I start playing with the game” (Participant 22, female).

A basic characteristic of immersion is that players feel they are in the game, that is, they experience the interactive possibilities from the graphics, plot, and sounds to get immersed in the game. From observation, novice players seemed more influenced by the user interface and graphics, while non- novice players were invariably immersed in the game regardless of these factors. Two non-novice players summarized these kinds of experience well:

“Like a real life event. I can learn additional things that related to real world.” (Participant 17, female)

“Interesting game; quickly absorbs the player into the game.” (Participant 18, male)

Beyond the immersion, the players commented on their experiences of gaming and the elements of presence. The feeling of being there and realistic is related to the concept of presence. In a study by McMahan (2003), it was suggested that virtual reality design in 3D video games (e.g. The Sims 3) might enable us to explore a possibility of an enhanced presence element in the game. According to the questionnaire responses, players felt it was like a real situation or environment: 30

“I like the character; I can choose whatever character I want. It feels real!” (Participant 6, female)

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“Like a real life game. I am satisfied.” (Participant 9, male)

“This game is like our daily activity. How we play this game may be in line with our character. Mostly I like this game.” (Participant 21, male)

“Like a real life. The graphics are impressive. Very interesting!” (Participant 32, male)

Another issue identified was the relationship between gender of the user and the genre of the game, as this has been studied by previous researchers. As a real life genre and simulation game type, The Sims has been known to be preferred more by females than males. Over 50% of new players are women, and approximately 40% of all players are women (according to Flanagan, 2003). Although the user interface and the graphics are important, in this case, the game genre plays an important factor in user preference. Most of the female players in this experiment commented that they were satisfied with the game interface and enjoyed it. According to the questionnaire responses, most of our female players felt it was fun and enjoyable, more noticeably than our male players did: 23-24,31-32

“I like the character in The Sims. Happy to play the game.” (Participant 2, female)

“I like to decorate the house and create the Sims. I enjoy playing The Sims and it‟s addictive.” (Participant 10, female)

“I like the interface of the game. I also like the way we interact with the Sims, because I feel it is quite easy to play with guidance. I enjoyed the game.” (Participant 15, female)

“Game interface is interesting and dynamic for players. Feel engaged with the character in the game. Same with the player‟s daily life. May continue to play with The Sims in the future.” (Participant 23, female)

“The graphics are nice. Potential to be a very addictive game.” (Participant 29, female)

Ultimately, of course, the user interface is an interesting and important component of the HCI in games. Overall, the participants acknowledged that they were satisfied with the game interface and had a good experience with the experiment itself. However, there are other factors that can influence the user experience while playing the game, like the game genre. We also asked participants what they liked about the game. Most of the participants responded that they liked the „simulation‟ and „real life‟ genre of the game. However, two participants did not like the game genre and gave negative feedback about the game experiment. One of them was a participant who did not like simulation/real life games (like The Sims 3) and commented that “It was fun to be given the chance to customize but it became boring after a while” (Participant 8, novice, male). To them, the game was boring because they preferred more challenging or more dynamic strategy games. 33

6: Conclusion

Understanding the relationship between the elements of a gaming user interface and their overall impact on user experience in terms of flow, immersion and presence will be one of the key factors in designing more effective and engaging games in the coming years. In this paper, we explored this issue by capturing gamers‟ subjective opinions on user interface elements and their overall experiences when they were engaged in playing The Sims 3 life simulation game.

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This study revealed interesting findings on positive user experiences while interacting with the game interface. This paper is a preliminary exploration of user experience when playing The Sims game. An attractive game interface is able to positively influence players‟ satisfaction and enjoyment levels. For future work, we will explore not only one type of genre („simulation‟ or „real life‟ genre in The Sims), but other game genres and types and will involve a larger number of participants, which will lead to a better understanding of the interactions between players and games through the interface.

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by a university research grant (UKM-TT-03-FRGS0135-2010).

References

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12 Brown, E., & Cairns, P., 2004, „A grounded investigation of game immersion‟ Proceeding CHI EA '04 CHI '04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1297-1300, ISBN:1-58113-703-6 doi:10.1145/985921.986048.

13 Bernhaupt, R., Boldt, A., Mirlacher, T., Wilfinger, D., & Tscheligi, M., 2007, „Using emotion in games: emotional flowers‟ Proceedings of the International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology, ACE '07, pp. 41-48, ISBN: 978-1-59593-640-0.

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21 Brockmyer, J. H., Fox, C. M., Curtiss, K. A., McBroom, E., Burkhart, K. M., Pidruzny, J. N., 2009, „The development of the Game Engagement Questionnaire: A measure of engagement in video game- playing‟, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 624–634.

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29 Chen, J., 2007, „Flow in games (and everything else)‟. Communications of the ACM, 50(4), 31-34.

30 McMahan, A., 2003. Chapter 3: Immersion, engagement and presence – a method for analysing 3D video games. Available from: http://people.ict.usc.edu/~morie/SupplementalReadings/ch3- McMahanrev.pdf[accessed 02/03/2013]

31 Beavis, C., & Charles, C., 2005, „Challenging Notions of Gendered Game Play: Teenagers Playing The Sims‟, Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 26(3), 355-367.

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A quantitative study exploring the difference between gaming genre preferences

Anil Bilgihan1, Cihan Cobanoglu2, Khaldoon Nusair3, Fevzi Okumus4, Milos Bujisic5

1 The Ohio State University, USA (email: [email protected]) 2 University of South Florida, Florida, USA (email: [email protected]) 3 University of Central Florida, USA (email: [email protected]) 4 University of Central Florida, USA (email: [email protected]) 5 University of Central Florida, USA (email: [email protected])

Abstract

Although gaming technologies have been in use for more than thirty years, there is a lack of academic research in this area. Specifically, the purpose of this study is to identify the difference between age and gender in gaming genre preferences. A cross sectional online survey was administered with a sample size of 408. It was found that there is a statistical difference between age groups and their gaming preferences with the older generation focusing more on strategic gaming offerings while the younger generation tended to side more with action games. The findings of this study provide insights for game developers.

Key words: age differences; gender differences; video game; video game genre; leisure activities

Article Information

Received: September 2012 Accepted: November 2012 Available: online April 2013

1: Introduction

Video games have been in use for over thirty years. The tennis game Pong first made its way onto TV sets in the mid-1970s, and since then the fad for video games has turned into an industry worth almost ten billion dollars (in US$). Early video gaming machines had a limited number of games and thus were replaced by more versatile and computationally powerful machines. Some examples of such machines include the Nintendo NES (1986), Nintendo Gameboy (1989), and Sega Genesis (1989), as well as PlayStation (1995) and the Nintendo 64 (1996). More recent additions to the spectrum of available game consoles have included the PlayStation 2 (2000), X-Box (2001), X-Box 360 (2005), PlayStation 3 (2006), and most recently the Nintendo Wii (2006), and the X-Box 360 Kinect (2010). 1,2

The most recent generation of game systems (X-Box 360, PS3, and Wii) has enhanced interactivity and realism to previously unachieved heights, using processing speeds, graphics, sound, and interface devices far more sophisticated than earlier game systems. Further, unlike earlier generations of game consoles, more recent platforms have tremendously increased the libraries of games. For example, Sony claimed that more than 1,500 games have been created for the PlayStation since the first release of the original platform in September 1995; and the Imagine Games Network has reviewed over 30,000 games between 1996 and 2005 alone. Recently, a wide variety of

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game genres have been developed. For example, Doom, a first-person shooter game, has been used to train military personnel to kill. Table 1 identifies and describes the game genres, and gives some example games in each category. 3-5

The Entertainment Software Association, a professional organization for the U.S. video game industry, recently reported that 67% of Americans now play video games and that the average age of the American game player is 34 years. Similar numbers of players exist in Europe and gaming is even more popular in Asian countries (e.g. Japan and Korea). 41% of Americans have either purchased or planned to purchase one or more games in 2010. Accordingly, both the number of gaming technologies and the number of people playing video games increased significantly over the last thirty years. However the academic research that examines them is less well developed. Furthermore, it is important to note that the video game industry is growing as IT develops and interest in video games is rising. Consequently, the economic contribution of the video game industry in US is large. 1,2,6,7

Table 1: Video Game Genres and Descriptions 8

Genre Description Examples

Strategy Games that use strategic Command & Conquer, Civilization, planning skills Age of Empires Puzzle Games that can be solved, no Tetris, Free Cell element of chance Fantasy/role playing Games that let you assume a Final Fantasy, Legend of Zelda character role Action/adventure Games where you go on an Resident Evil, Tomb Raider, adventure Assassins‟ Creed Sports Games based on athletic teams and NBA Live, FIFA, Pro Evaluation events Soccer Simulation Games where you create a SimCity, Sims simulation Racing/speed Games that focus on going fast Need for Speed, Grand Turismo, Forza, Mario Kart Shooter Games where you shoot other Call of Duty, BioShock characters Fighter Games that focus on martial arts or Street fighter, Mortal Combat hand to hand combat Arcade Games based on original arcade Pac Man, Pinball games Card/dice Games that have an element of Solitaire chance Quiz/trivia Games that test your knowledge Who wants to be a millionaire Classic board games Video game versions of old-time Monopoly favourites

The demographic profile for video gaming is diverse and transcends the teenage male stereotype as increasing numbers of women are entering the video game market. This paper is a response to De Schutter‟s (2011) call for more quantitative research solving sampling issues in regards to gaming genre studies. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore video game preference among different age groups and gender types. Consistent with this purpose, the research question is: are there any significant differences in a respondent‟s choice of gaming genre according to age and gender? If so, what are the differences in terms of age and gender preferences?” 7,9

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2: Literature Review

2.1: Gender Differences

Several previous studies have addressed the issue of difference between genders in terms of selection of video games. Sherry and Lucas (2003) found that college males spent more time playing video games than females. As Wilder, Mackie, and Cooper (1985) revealed, at a young age children attribute certain video games as more appropriate for boys than for girls. Livingstone (2002), in a survey of British teenagers, found that about three-quarters of the male respondents had a game system at home, compared to about half the females, indicating that game play may be more popular among males across several age levels. 10-18

As such we hypothesize that:

- Hypothesis 1 (H1): Males will spend more time playing video games than females; - Hypothesis 2 (H2): Males will be multi-console users whereas females will be single console users.

Funk and Buchman (1996) noted that “the origin of gender differences in game-playing habits has not yet been established (p. 27).” Lucas and Sherry (2004) found that most video games paralleled the types of games that boys typically play and highlighted game contexts that appealed more to boys because of the rules and structure of those games. Therefore we hypothesize that: 8,19

- Hypothesis 3 (H3): Video game genre preferences will differ between males and females.

2.2: Age Differences

Gender differences have received significant academic attention in gaming research. However, very few studies have addressed whether individuals of different ages demonstrate differences in time spent playing video games. Given well-documented developmental differences across different-age ranges, it seems critical to explore age differences to best inform game producers and designers.

- Hypothesis 4 (H4): Video game playing time will differ among age groups, with younger individuals giving more time to video games than older individuals; - Hypothesis 5 (H5): Video game genre preferences will differ by age.

Finally since female and males developmental stages differ throughout the aging process (Geary, 1998; Hayward, 2003), it is beneficial to explore the interaction between age and gender on playing time and genre preference. As a result, we hypothesize that: 20,21

- Hypothesis 6 (H6): There will be an interaction effect of gender and age on video game playing time and genre preference.

3: Methodology

3.1: Questionnaire

A self-administered questionnaire was created based on the information obtained from the literature review. Furthermore, a pilot study of the questionnaire was conducted among gamers to test the

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efficacy and clarity of the questionnaire. Revisions of the questionnaire were made based on the recommendations of the respondents in the pilot study:

- The first section consisted of questions related to technology usage at home and business.

- The second section listed attributes related to video games such as behaviors toward gaming, preference of different game genres, average time spent for video games, and gaming consoles

- The third and final section of the survey consisted of demographic questions of gender, marital status, age, educational background, and job title. This study employed online survey methodology. The variables that were used in this study were gender, age, number of gaming consoles, game genre preferences as measured by strategy, racing, role playing, action/adventure, shooter, fighting, puzzles/cards, and sports video games. For hypotheses H1 & H2 the dependent variable was frequency of play and number of consoles respectfully while the independent variable was gender. For hypotheses H3-H6, the dependent variables were genre preferences as measured by questions such as, “How often do you play strategy video games (1=never, 7=daily).” The independent variables for these hypotheses were age and gender.

3.2: Sampling Plan

The target population consisted of US residents. An important and complex issue in sampling is to determine the appropriate sample size to be used. This determination largely depends on the statistical estimating precision needed by the researcher and the number of variables. Although larger sample sizes are preferred, a number of respondents of between 300 and 500 is usually recommended and accepted as the critical sample size for multivariate analysis (Pedhazur, 1997). The sample of 2500 Americans was drawn randomly from a national database by rent-a-list.com company. 22

3.3: Data Analysis

Data was coded and analyzed using the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences 18. The first part of the data analysis involved a demographic profile of respondents. Demographic data obtained from the questionnaires was tabulated using frequency tables, means, and percentages. Data analysis was conducted from 408 completed surveys. There were 655 surveys that were initiated but which were not completed. Lastly, net response rate was 16.3%. 23

3.4: Demographic Information of Sample

The demographic characteristics of the research sample are described in Table 2 (which is divided into sub-tables 2a to 2e). About 30 percent of the respondents were male while 66.4% were female respondents. The remaining did not specify their gender. The majority of the male respondents were married with children (40.0%) while only 21.3 percent of the female were single. Almost 30 percent of the respondents were between 35 and 44 years old. More than 20 percent of respondents were between 45 and 54 years old. There were few respondents younger than 25 (10.7%) or older than 65 (2.2%).

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In terms of educational background of respondents, 134 (32.7%) respondents hold at least a bachelor‟s degree while 125 (30.6%) respondents indicated that they have some college degree. There were only 3 (0.7%) of the respondents hold a doctorate degree. The most frequent occupation reported by all respondents was management, professional, and related occupations. Almost 18% of the respondents were retired.

Table 2(a)

Gender Frequency Percent

Male 124 30.4 Female 271 66.4 Sub-total 395 96.8 Missing 13 3.2 Total 408 100.0

Table 2(b)

Age (years) Frequency Percent

<18 3 0.7 18 – 24 41 10.0 25 – 34 90 22.1 35 – 44 118 28.9 45 – 54 95 23.3 55 – 65 39 9.6 65 and over 9 2.2 Missing 13 3.2 Total 408 100.0

Table 2(c)

Education Frequency Percent

Less than high school 7 1.7 High school 69 16.9 GED/some college 125 30.6 2-year college degree 60 14.7 4-year college degree 97 23.8 Masters degree 29 7.1 Doctoral degree 3 0.7 Professional degree 5 1.2 Sub-total 395 96.8 Missing 13 3.2 Total 408 100.0

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Table 2(d)

Marital status Frequency Percent

Single, never married 87 21.3 Married, no children 37 9.1 Married with children 163 40.0 Divorced 50 12.3 Separated 6 1.5 Widowed 9 2.2 Living with partner 43 10.5 Sub-total 395 96.8 Missing 13 3.2 Total 408 100.0

Table 2(e)

Occupation Frequency Percent

Management/professional 102 25.0 and related Service 34 8.3 Sales and office 43 10.5 Farming, fishing, forestry 1 0.2 Construction, extraction and 8 2.0 maintenance Production, transportation 10 2.5 and material-moving Government 19 4.7 Retired 22 5.4 Unemployed 72 17.6 Other 84 20.6 Sub-total 395 96.8 Missing 13 3.2 Total 408 100.0

4: Technology characteristics of respondents

Table 3 shows that about 23% of respondents are the ones who usually first try new technologies. Few respondents (6.1%) agreed that they are the ones who try new technologies last. The most frequent level of agreement for technology adaptation was agreement number 3 (37.0%) followed by agreement number 2 (26.2). This illustrates that the sample are indented to try new technologies.

Table 3: Technology Characteristics of Respondents (N = 408)

Level of agreement F %

1 (I am usually one of the first who tries new technologies) 93 22.8 2 107 26.2 3 151 37.0 4 32 7.8 5 (I am usually one of the last who tries new technologies) 25 6.2 Total 408 100.0

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To discover the gamer profile of the respondents, answers were coded accordingly: if the respondents agreed that they never play video games, they are coded as “non-gamers”. Similarly, if they indicated the choices “Less than 4 times in the past year” or “Less than 4 times in the past year, but used to play more” they are selected as “casual gamers”. Correspondingly, respondents who agreed that they play “1-2 times per month” or “2 hours per week or more” are coded as hardcore gamers.

Table 4: Gamer Profile of the Respondents (N = 408)

Gamer profile F %

Non-gamer 88 21.6 Casual gamer 116 27.7 Hardcore gamer 204 50.7

Analysis results show that half of the respondents (50.7%) are hardcore gamers (See Table 4). In contrast, 21.6% of the respondents are non-gamers, 27.7% of the respondents are casual gamers. Likewise, Table 5 shows that, 24.5% of the respondents with the agreement which offers “I don‟t play videogames and have no interest in ever playing”. Most frequent argument was “I enjoy playing videogames somewhat”. In the same way, 16.2% of the respondents enjoy playing video games a lot.

Table 5: Gaming Statements of the Respondents

Statement F %

I don‟t play videogames and have no interest in ever playing 100 24.5 I don‟t play videogames, but I‟m somewhat interested 62 15.7 I don‟t play videogames, but I‟m very interested 18 4.4 I enjoy playing videogames somewhat 160 39.2 I enjoy playing videogames a lot 68 16.2

Around a quarter of the respondents indicated that they never play video games (Table 6). Alternatively, about 17% of the respondents play video games on a daily basis.

Table 6: Frequency of game playing

Frequency of game playing F %

1 (Never) 108 26.5 2 72 17.6 3 44 10.8 4 54 13.2 5 44 10.8 6 16 3.9 7 (Daily) 70 17.2 Total 408 100.0

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5: Results

Hypothesis H1 stated that males spend more time playing video games than females. Independent t- tests were used to examine the differences among males and females. Table 7 illustrates that there is no statistical difference between males (M=3.06, SD=1.632) and females (M=3.21, SD 1.474) in terms of the length of time playing video games (p>.1, t= -.828, df=218.117). Therefore, the authors conclude that hypothesis 1 can be rejected.

Table 7: Independent samples test between males and females: “how often do you play video games?” (Hypothesis 1)

(Upper cells: equal variances assumed; Lower cells: equal variances not assumed)

Levene‟s Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variance (F) 95% confidence Significance t df Signif. Mean Standard error interval of the (2-tailed) difference difference difference (lower) (upper)

5.352 0.021 -0.860 393 0.391 -0.142 0.165 -0.467 0.183 -0.828 218.117 0.409 -0.142 0.172 -0.481 0.196

Hypothesis H2 stated that males are multi-console users whereas females are single console users. In order to test the differences between males and females in terms of number of consoles, an independent t-test was used. The results (Table 8) indicate that there is a significant difference between the number of consoles men and women (p>.01, t=267.049, df=267.049) owned with women (M=1.8667, SD=1.79342) owning more consoles on average than men (M=1.3710, SD=1.58995). Therefore in terms of hypothesis 2, the authors found statistical significance in the difference between males and females but not in the direction that the literature supported. Therefore hypothesis H2 was rejected with a note that a significant difference in number of consoles owned exists between genders.

Table 8: Independent samples test between males and females: % of consoles owned (Hypothesis 2)

(Upper cells: equal variances assumed; Lower cells: equal variances not assumed)

Levene‟s Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variance (F) 95% confidence Significance t df Signif. Mean Standard interval of the (2-tailed) difference error difference difference (lower) (upper)

6.623 0.010 -2.638 392.00 0.009 -0.49570 0.18791 -0.86513 -0.12627 0 -2.758 267.04 0.006 -0.49570 0.17972 -0.84955 -0.14185 9

Hypothesis 3 stated that video game genre preferences differ between males and females. In order to evaluate the effects of gender and age on gaming genre preferences we considered conducting a multivariate analysis of variance test (MANOVA). After checking the assumptions for multivariate

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analysis, Kolmogorov–Smirnov test is not significant (p>.05), confirming that the data shows a normal distribution. Due to equality of covariance and Levene‟s test of homogeneity being significant we have failed two of the four basic assumptions of multivariate statistics.

As a result we utilized the Wilke‟s Lambda to translate our data set. Table 9 illustrates that gender was insignificant (p>.1, F=1.377, df=9; H3 was rejected) while age was significant (p<.001, F=2.596, df=54; the authors fail to reject H5) in explaining differences among video gaming genre preferences. Hypothesis 6 stated that there is an interaction effect of gender and age on video game playing time and genre preference. Our data revealed that there was also no interaction between gender and age (p>.1, F=0.972, df=54) and therefore H6 was rejected. The gender variable accounted for approximately 4% of the variance in the dependent variables while age accounted for approximately 6% of the variance in the dependent variables. The interaction of gender and age explained approximately 3% of the variance in the dependent variables.

Table 9: statistical analysis of data

Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Significance Partial Eta squared

Intercept Pillai‟s 0.524 42.052a 9.000 344.000 0 0.524 Trace Wilks‟ 0.476 42.052a 9.000 344.000 0 0.524 Lambda Hoteling‟s 1.100 42.052a 9.000 344.000 0 0.524 Trace Roy‟s 1.100 42.052a 9.000 344.000 0 0.524 Largest Root Gender Pillai‟s 0.035 1.377a 9.000 344.000 0.197 0.035 Trace Wilks‟ 0.965 1.377a 9.000 344.000 0.197 0.035 Lambda Hoteling‟s 0.036 1.377a 9.000 344.000 0.197 0.035 Trace Roy‟s 0.036 1.377a 9.000 344.000 0.197 0.035 Largest Root Age Pillai‟s 0.352 2.419 54.000 2094.000 0 0.059 Trace Wilks‟ 0.676 2.596 54.000 1758.657 0 0.063 Lambda Hoteling‟s 0.437 2.773 54.000 2054.000 0 0.068 Trace Roy‟s 0.327 12.698b 54.000 349.000 0 0.247 Largest Root Gender * Pillai‟s 0.147 0.972 54.000 2094.000 0.533 0.024 Age Trace Wilks‟ 0.861 0.972 54.000 1758.657 0.533 0.025 Lambda Hoteling‟s 0.153 0.972 54.000 2054.000 0.533 0.025 Trace Roy‟s 0.065 2.508b 9.000 349.000 0.009 0.061 Largest Root a: Exact statistic b: The statistic is an upper bound on F that yields a lower bound on the significance level. Design: Intercept + V111 + V112 + V111xV112

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Hypothesis 4 stated that video game playing time differs among age groups, with younger individuals giving more time to video games than older individuals. Our results indicate that there is a significant difference in time spent playing video games between 18-24 years of age and 55-64 years of age (M=1.72, SD=.332), 25-34 years of age and 55-64 years of age (M=1.57, SD=.288), 35-44 years of age and 55-64 years of age (M=1.15, SD=.277). These results provided support for hypothesis H4.

Hypothesis 5 stated that video game genre preferences differ by age. As for video gaming genre preference, our survey indicates there are significant differences between:

- 18-24 and 45-54 years of age (M=1.32, SD=.360), 18-24 and 55-64 years of age (M=2.07, SD=.431), 25-34 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.76, .SD=373), 35-44 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.52, SD=.359) when exploring strategy video games;

- 18-24 and 45-54 years of age (M=1.14, SD=.280), 18-24 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.46, SD .335), 25-34 and 45-54 years of age (M=.82, SD=.225), 25-34 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.15, SD =.290) in terms of racing video games; between 18-24 and 45-54 years of age (M=1.20, SD=.335), 25-34 to 45-54 years of age (M=1.27, SD=.269), 25-34 to 55-64 years of age (M=1.44, SD=.348) in terms of role playing video games;

- 18-24 and 45-54 years of age (M=1.25, SD=.337), 18-24 and 55-64 (M=1.59, SD=.403), 25-34 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.26, SD=.350) in terms of action/adventure video games; 18-24 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.33, SD=.369) in terms of shooter video games;

- 18-24 and 45-54 years of age (M=1.36, SD=.282), 18-24 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.60, SD=.337), 25-34 and 45-54 years of age (M=.93, SD=.227), 25-34 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.17, SD=.293) in terms of fighting video games; and,

- 25-34 and 55-64 years of age (M=1.22, SD=3.23) in terms of sports video games.

Therefore, based on the above results (refer to the appendices at end of paper) Hypothesis H5 was also supported.

6: Conclusion and implications

Through this study the authors have shown that on average there is no statistically significant difference between the amount of time men and women spend playing video games. This implies that video game producers should shift their gaze away from just males and focus more on both male and female gaming software. There was a statistically significant difference between the number of gaming consoles owned between men and women; however, this was not in the direction that prior literature indicates.

This study showed that women owned more gaming consoles than men. This provides an opportunity for console producers to create designs more appealing to the female demographic. It was also indicated that there is no statistically significant difference between video gaming preferences of men and women. This would lend support to the Entertainment Software Associations 2010 report indicating that gender does not matter as everyone is simply looking to join the party and begin playing. The authors supported their claim that there was a statistically significant difference between age groups in terms of playing time with the younger generation playing more than the older generation. The divide appeared to occur between the ages of 34 and 35. This offers an opportunity for video game console and software makers to switch the paradigm by specifically targeting this

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particular segment. While the reasons for this drop off are unknown, one can possibly assume that it has to do with family obligations offering an opportunity to make family oriented games. Further, the authors found statistical support that there is a difference between age groups and their gaming preferences with the older generation focusing more on strategic gaming offerings while the younger generation tended to side more with action games.

Combining this notion with the previous statement, one can make the assumption that at the age of 35, if they are continuing to play games, the games played are more strategic in nature. Video game creators have an opportunity to create action games that contain a significant amount of strategy that would appeal to the 35 and older crowd.

7: Limitations and future research

Because the phenomenon studied is a developing medium, a portion of this work is time-bound, as is any survey, to the period when data were collected. Furthermore the sample was drawn from rent-a- list.com company. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized beyond that target population. In addition, it was assumed that respondents completed the questionnaire objectively. As the medium of video games undergoes continuing significant changes, there is need to replicate such work over time and to continue to address the many significant issues that remain unexamined, much as the course of television research has progressed over 50 years. New innovative technologies such as motion capture cameras (see Xbox Kinect) and faster processors will continue to change gaming; the research challenge is to explain better the underlying processes of game use. The findings of this study indicated that women own more gaming devices than men. There is a need for research to explore and explain this paradigm change. In addition, the impact of this change on social life of both men and women would make interesting research areas to study. Finally, there is a growing segment of mobile phone and tablet games. Future studies are advised to conduct studies in this growing market.

References

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2 Entertainment Software Association (2010). Sales, Demographic and Usage Data. Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry. Retrieved April 14, 2011, from http:// www.theesa.com/facts/pdfs/ESA_Essential_Facts_2010.PDF

3 Sony Computer Entertainment America. (2011). PlayStation History. Retrieved April 11, 2011, from http://us.playstation.com/corporate/about/theplaystationstory/

4 IGN Staff. (2005). 30,000 game milestone. Retrieved April 11, 2011, from http://games.ign.com/articles/592/592856p1.html

5 Anderson, C.A., Ihori, N., Bushman, B.J., Rothstein, H.R., Shibuya, A., Swing, E.L., & Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in eastern and western countries: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 151-173. doi:10.1037/a0018251

6 Ha, I., Yoon, Y., & Choi, M. (2007). Determinants of adoption of mobile games under mobile broadband wireless access environment. Information & Management, 44(3), 276-286. doi: 10.1016/j.im.2007.01.001

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7 Crandall, R., & Sidak, J. (2007). Video games: Serious business for America's economy. Entertainment Software Association Report, 2006. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=969728

8 Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. L. (2004). Sex differences in video game play. Communication Research, 31(5), 499 - 523.

9 De Schutter, B. (2011). Never Too Old to Play: The Appeal of Digital Games to an Older Audience. Games and Culture, 6(2), 155-170.

10 Gailey, C. (1993). Mediated Messages: Gender, Class, and Cosmos in Home Video Games. Journal of Popular Culture, 27(1), 81–97.

11 Goldstein, J. 1994. Sex Differences in Toy Use and Video Game Play. In J. H. Goldstein, ed., Toys, Play and Child Development. New York: Cambridge University Press, 110–129

12 Hartmann, T., & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and computer games: Exploring females‟ dislikes. Journal of Computer-mediated Communication, 11(4), 910-931.

13 Ivory, J. (2006). Still a Man's Game: Gender Representation in Online Reviews of Video Games, Mass Communication and Society, 9(1), 103-114.

14 Kafai, Y. (1996). Gender Differences in Children‟s Constructions of Video Games. In P. M. Greenfield and R. R. Cocking, eds., Interacting with Video. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing

15 Okagaki, L. & French, P. (1994). Effects of Video Game Playing on Measures of Spatial Performance: Gender Effects in Late Adolescence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 33–58

16 Subrahmanyam, K. & Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Effects of Video Game Practice on Spatial Skills in Girls and Boys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 13–32

17 Wilder, G., Mackie, D., & Cooper, J. (1985). Gender and computers: Two surveys of computer-related attitudes. Sex Roles, 13 (3), 215-228.

18 Livingstone, S. (2002) Young people and new media: Childhood and the changing media environment. London: Sage.

19 Funk, J. B., & Buchman, D. (1996). Children‟s perceptions of gender differences in social approval for playing electronic games. Sex Roles, 35(3), 219-231.

20 Geary, D. C. (1998). Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences, American Psychological Association.

21 Hayward, C., (2003). Gender differences at puberty. Cambridge : Cambridge university press

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23 SPSS (2011). Statistical Package for Social Sciences.

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APPENDICES

Tables: Scheffe Dependent Variable results

Column A: Age Column B: other Age group Column C: Mean Difference (the subtraction of age of individuals in Column A, from age of individuals in Column B) Column D: Std. Error Column E: Significance

Columns F, G: 95% Confidence Interval (F = lower-bound; G = upper-bound)

Based on observed means. The error term is Mean Square (Error) = 2.622. *. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

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APPENDIX i: "How often do you play video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or young 18 to 24 -1.47 .865 .824 -4.55 1.62 25 to 34 -1.32 .849 .876 -4.35 1.71 35 to 44 -.90 .845 .980 -3.92 2.12 45 to 54 -.70 .849 .995 -3.73 2.33 55 to 64 .25 .868 1.000 -2.85 3.35 65 years and over .62 .997 .999 -2.94 4.18 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.47 .865 .824 -1.62 4.55 25 to 34 .15 .278 1.000 -.85 1.14 35 to 44 .57 .266 .603 -.38 1.52 45 to 54 .76 .278 .274 -.23 1.76 55 to 64 1.72* .332 .000 .53 2.90 65 years and over 2.09 .592 .056 -.03 4.20 25 to 34 17 or younger 1.32 .849 .876 -1.71 4.35 18 to 24 -.15 .278 1.000 -1.14 .85 35 to 44 .42 .209 .662 -.32 1.17 45 to 54 .62 .223 .263 -.18 1.42 55 to 64 1.57* .288 .000 .54 2.60 65 years and over 1.94 .568 .073 -.09 3.97 35 to 44 17 or younger .90 .845 .980 -2.12 3.92 18 to 24 -.57 .266 .603 -1.52 .38 25 to 34 -.42 .209 .662 -1.17 .32 45 to 54 .20 .209 .989 -.55 .94 55 to 64 1.15* .277 .010 .16 2.14 65 years and over 1.52 .563 .300 -.49 3.53 45 to 54 17 or younger .70 .849 .995 -2.33 3.73 18 to 24 -.76 .278 .274 -1.76 .23 25 to 34 -.62 .223 .263 -1.42 .18 35 to 44 -.20 .209 .989 -.94 .55 55 to 64 .95 .288 .093 -.08 1.98 65 years and over 1.32 .568 .495 -.71 3.35 55 to 64 17 or younger -.25 .868 1.000 -3.35 2.85 18 to 24 -1.72*.332 .000 -2.90 -.53 25 to 34 -1.57*.288 .000 -2.60 -.54 35 to 44 -1.15*.277 .010 -2.14 -.16 45 to 54 -.95 .288 .093 -1.98 .08 65 years and over .37 .597 .999 -1.76 2.50 65 years+ 17 or younger -.62 .997 .999 -4.18 2.94 18 to 24 -2.09 .592 .056 -4.20 .03 25 to 34 -1.94 .568 .073 -3.97 .09 35 to 44 -1.52 .563 .300 -3.53 .49 45 to 54 -1.32 .568 .495 -3.35 .71 55 to 64 -.37 .597 .999 -2.50 1.76

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Appendix ii: "How often do you play strategy video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younge 18 to 24 -.91 1.122 .995 -4.91 3.10 25 to 34 -.60 1.101 1.000 -4.53 3.34 35 to 44 -.35 1.097 1.000 -4.27 3.56 45 to 54 .42 1.101 1.000 -3.52 4.35 55 to 64 1.17 1.126 .983 -2.85 5.19 65 years and over 1.38 1.293 .980 -3.24 6.00 18 to 24 17 or younger .91 1.122 .995 -3.10 4.91 25 to 34 .31 .360 .993 -.97 1.60 35 to 44 .56 .345 .856 -.68 1.79 45 to 54 1.32* .360 .038 .04 2.61 55 to 64 2.07* .431 .001 .54 3.61 65 years and over 2.29 .768 .184 -.45 5.03 25 to 34 17 or younger .60 1.101 1.000 -3.34 4.53 18 to 24 -.31 .360 .993 -1.60 .97 35 to 44 .24 .271 .992 -.72 1.21 45 to 54 1.01 .289 .060 -.02 2.04 55 to 64 1.76* .373 .001 .43 3.09 65 years and over 1.98 .737 .307 -.66 4.61 35 to 44 17 or younger .35 1.097 1.000 -3.56 4.27 18 to 24 -.56 .345 .856 -1.79 .68 25 to 34 -.24 .271 .992 -1.21 .72 45 to 54 .77 .271 .237 -.20 1.73 55 to 64 1.52* .359 .008 .24 2.80 65 years and over 1.73 .730 .468 -.87 4.34 45 to 54 17 or younger -.42 1.101 1.000 -4.35 3.52 18 to 24 -1.32*.360 .038 -2.61 -.04 25 to 34 -1.01 .289 .060 -2.04 .02 35 to 44 -.77 .271 .237 -1.73 .20 55 to 64 .75 .373 .672 -.58 2.08 65 years and over .96 .737 .944 -1.67 3.60 55 to 64 17 or younger -1.17 1.126 .983 -5.19 2.85 18 to 24 -2.07*.431 .001 -3.61 -.54 25 to 34 -1.76*.373 .001 -3.09 -.43 35 to 44 -1.52*.359 .008 -2.80 -.24 45 to 54 -.75 .373 .672 -2.08 .58 65 years and over .21 .774 1.000 -2.55 2.98 65 years+ 17 or younger -1.38 1.293 .980 -6.00 3.24 18 to 24 -2.29 .768 .184 -5.03 .45 25 to 34 -1.98 .737 .307 -4.61 .66 35 to 44 -1.73 .730 .468 -4.34 .87 45 to 54 -.96 .737 .944 -3.60 1.67 55 to 64 -.21 .774 1.000 -2.98 2.55

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Appendix iii: "How often do you play racing video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -.18 .872 1.000 -3.30 2.93 25 to 34 .13 .856 1.000 -2.92 3.19 35 to 44 .44 .852 1.000 -2.60 3.49 45 to 54 .95 .856 .975 -2.10 4.01 55 to 64 1.28 .875 .907 -1.85 4.40 65 years and over 1.67 1.005 .839 -1.92 5.26 18 to 24 17 or younger .18 .872 1.000 -2.93 3.30 25 to 34 .31 .280 .973 -.68 1.31 35 to 44 .63 .268 .488 -.33 1.58 45 to 54 1.14* .280 .013 .14 2.13 55 to 64 1.46* .335 .005 .27 2.66 65 years and over 1.85 .597 .146 -.28 3.98 25 to 34 17 or younger -.13 .856 1.000 -3.19 2.92 18 to 24 -.31 .280 .973 -1.31 .68 35 to 44 .31 .210 .899 -.44 1.06 45 to 54 .82* .225 .040 .02 1.62 55 to 64 1.15* .290 .018 .11 2.18 65 years and over 1.54 .573 .307 -.51 3.58 35 to 44 17 or younger -.44 .852 1.000 -3.49 2.60 18 to 24 -.63 .268 .488 -1.58 .33 25 to 34 -.31 .210 .899 -1.06 .44 45 to 54 .51 .210 .441 -.24 1.26 55 to 64 .83 .279 .181 -.16 1.83 65 years and over 1.22 .568 .591 -.80 3.25 45 to 54 17 or younger -.95 .856 .975 -4.01 2.10 18 to 24 -1.14*.280 .013 -2.13 -.14 25 to 34 -.82* .225 .040 -1.62 -.02 35 to 44 -.51 .210 .441 -1.26 .24 55 to 64 .33 .290 .974 -.71 1.36 65 years and over .71 .573 .955 -1.33 2.76 55 to 64 17 or younger -1.28 .875 .907 -4.40 1.85 18 to 24 -1.46*.335 .005 -2.66 -.27 25 to 34 -1.15*.290 .018 -2.18 -.11 35 to 44 -.83 .279 .181 -1.83 .16 45 to 54 -.33 .290 .974 -1.36 .71 65 years and over .39 .602 .999 -1.76 2.54 65 years+ 17 or younger -1.67 1.005 .839 -5.26 1.92 18 to 24 -1.85 .597 .146 -3.98 .28 25 to 34 -1.54 .573 .307 -3.58 .51 35 to 44 -1.22 .568 .591 -3.25 .80 45 to 54 -.71 .573 .955 -2.76 1.33 55 to 64 -.39 .602 .999 -2.54 1.76

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Appendix iv: "How often do you play role playing video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -1.73 1.045 .842 -5.46 2.01 25 to 34 -1.80 1.026 .799 -5.46 1.86 35 to 44 -1.22 1.021 .963 -4.87 2.42 45 to 54 -.52 1.026 1.000 -4.19 3.14 55 to 64 -.36 1.049 1.000 -4.11 3.38 65 years and over .00 1.205 1.000 -4.30 4.30 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.73 1.045 .842 -2.01 5.46 25 to 34 -.07 .335 1.000 -1.27 1.12 35 to 44 .50 .322 .875 -.65 1.65 45 to 54 1.20* .335 .049 .00 2.40 55 to 64 1.36 .401 .076 -.07 2.80 65 years and over 1.73 .715 .446 -.83 4.28 25 to 34 17 or younger 1.80 1.026 .799 -1.86 5.46 18 to 24 .07 .335 1.000 -1.12 1.27 35 to 44 .57 .252 .520 -.33 1.47 45 to 54 1.27* .269 .001 .31 2.24 55 to 64 1.44* .348 .010 .19 2.68 65 years and over 1.80 .687 .337 -.65 4.25 35 to 44 17 or younger 1.22 1.021 .963 -2.42 4.87 18 to 24 -.50 .322 .875 -1.65 .65 25 to 34 -.57 .252 .520 -1.47 .33 45 to 54 .70 .252 .264 -.20 1.60 55 to 64 .86 .334 .358 -.33 2.06 65 years and over 1.22 .680 .778 -1.21 3.65 45 to 54 17 or younger .52 1.026 1.000 -3.14 4.19 18 to 24 -1.20*.335 .049 -2.40 .00 25 to 34 -1.27*.269 .001 -2.24 -.31 35 to 44 -.70 .252 .264 -1.60 .20 55 to 64 .16 .348 1.000 -1.08 1.40 65 years and over .52 .687 .997 -1.93 2.98 55 to 64 17 or younger .36 1.049 1.000 -3.38 4.11 18 to 24 -1.36 .401 .076 -2.80 .07 25 to 34 -1.44*.348 .010 -2.68 -.19 35 to 44 -.86 .334 .358 -2.06 .33 45 to 54 -.16 .348 1.000 -1.40 1.08 65 years and over .36 .721 1.000 -2.21 2.94 65 years+ 17 or younger .00 1.205 1.000 -4.30 4.30 18 to 24 -1.73 .715 .446 -4.28 .83 25 to 34 -1.80 .687 .337 -4.25 .65 35 to 44 -1.22 .680 .778 -3.65 1.21 45 to 54 -.52 .687 .997 -2.98 1.93 55 to 64 -.36 .721 1.000 -2.94 2.21

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Appendix v: "How often do you play action/adventure video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -1.84 1.051 .800 -5.60 1.91 25 to 34 -1.51 1.032 .905 -5.20 2.17 35 to 44 -1.16 1.028 .973 -4.83 2.51 45 to 54 -.60 1.032 .999 -4.28 3.09 55 to 64 -.25 1.055 1.000 -4.02 3.52 65 years and over -.10 1.212 1.000 -4.42 4.23 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.84 1.051 .800 -1.91 5.60 25 to 34 .33 .337 .987 -.87 1.53 35 to 44 .68 .324 .614 -.47 1.84 45 to 54 1.25* .337 .036 .04 2.45 55 to 64 1.59* .403 .018 .15 3.03 65 years and over 1.75 .720 .437 -.82 4.32 25 to 34 17 or younger 1.51 1.032 .905 -2.17 5.20 18 to 24 -.33 .337 .987 -1.53 .87 35 to 44 .35 .254 .924 -.55 1.26 45 to 54 .92 .271 .079 -.05 1.88 55 to 64 1.26* .350 .046 .01 2.51 65 years and over 1.42 .691 .649 -1.05 3.88 35 to 44 17 or younger 1.16 1.028 .973 -2.51 4.83 18 to 24 -.68 .324 .614 -1.84 .47 25 to 34 -.35 .254 .924 -1.26 .55 45 to 54 .56 .254 .555 -.34 1.47 55 to 64 .91 .336 .299 -.29 2.11 65 years and over 1.06 .684 .878 -1.38 3.51 45 to 54 17 or younger .60 1.032 .999 -3.09 4.28 18 to 24 -1.25*.337 .036 -2.45 -.04 25 to 34 -.92 .271 .079 -1.88 .05 35 to 44 -.56 .254 .555 -1.47 .34 55 to 64 .35 .350 .986 -.90 1.59 65 years and over .50 .691 .998 -1.97 2.97 55 to 64 17 or younger .25 1.055 1.000 -3.52 4.02 18 to 24 -1.59*.403 .018 -3.03 -.15 25 to 34 -1.26*.350 .046 -2.51 -.01 35 to 44 -.91 .336 .299 -2.11 .29 45 to 54 -.35 .350 .986 -1.59 .90 65 years and over .15 .726 1.000 -2.44 2.74 65 years+ 17 or younger .10 1.212 1.000 -4.23 4.42 18 to 24 -1.75 .720 .437 -4.32 .82 25 to 34 -1.42 .691 .649 -3.88 1.05 35 to 44 -1.06 .684 .878 -3.51 1.38 45 to 54 -.50 .691 .998 -2.97 1.97 55 to 64 -.15 .726 1.000 -2.74 2.44

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Appendix vi: "How often do you play shooter video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -1.44 .962 .895 -4.88 1.99 25 to 34 -1.08 .944 .970 -4.45 2.29 35 to 44 -.72 .940 .997 -4.08 2.64 45 to 54 -.55 .944 .999 -3.92 2.82 55 to 64 -.11 .966 1.000 -3.56 3.34 65 years and over .19 1.109 1.000 -3.77 4.15 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.44 .962 .895 -1.99 4.88 25 to 34 .36 .309 .969 -.74 1.46 35 to 44 .72 .296 .432 -.34 1.78 45 to 54 .89 .309 .214 -.21 2.00 55 to 64 1.33* .369 .046 .01 2.65 65 years and over 1.63 .658 .409 -.72 3.98 25 to 34 17 or younger 1.08 .944 .970 -2.29 4.45 18 to 24 -.36 .309 .969 -1.46 .74 35 to 44 .36 .232 .873 -.46 1.19 45 to 54 .54 .248 .588 -.35 1.42 55 to 64 .97 .320 .165 -.17 2.11 65 years and over 1.27 .632 .668 -.98 3.53 35 to 44 17 or younger .72 .940 .997 -2.64 4.08 18 to 24 -.72 .296 .432 -1.78 .34 25 to 34 -.36 .232 .873 -1.19 .46 45 to 54 .17 .232 .997 -.66 1.00 55 to 64 .61 .308 .688 -.49 1.71 65 years and over .91 .626 .908 -1.32 3.15 45 to 54 17 or younger .55 .944 .999 -2.82 3.92 18 to 24 -.89 .309 .214 -2.00 .21 25 to 34 -.54 .248 .588 -1.42 .35 35 to 44 -.17 .232 .997 -1.00 .66 55 to 64 .44 .320 .932 -.71 1.58 65 years and over .74 .632 .968 -1.52 2.99 55 to 64 17 or younger .11 .966 1.000 -3.34 3.56 18 to 24 -1.33*.369 .046 -2.65 -.01 25 to 34 -.97 .320 .165 -2.11 .17 35 to 44 -.61 .308 .688 -1.71 .49 45 to 54 -.44 .320 .932 -1.58 .71 65 years and over .30 .664 1.000 -2.07 2.67 65 years+ 17 or younger -.19 1.109 1.000 -4.15 3.77 18 to 24 -1.63 .658 .409 -3.98 .72 25 to 34 -1.27 .632 .668 -3.53 .98 35 to 44 -.91 .626 .908 -3.15 1.32 45 to 54 -.74 .632 .968 -2.99 1.52 55 to 64 -.30 .664 1.000 -2.67 2.07

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Appendix vii: "How often do you play fighting video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -1.83 .879 .635 -4.96 1.31 25 to 34 -1.39 .863 .856 -4.47 1.69 35 to 44 -.88 .859 .983 -3.95 2.18 45 to 54 -.46 .863 1.000 -3.55 2.62 55 to 64 -.22 .883 1.000 -3.37 2.93 65 years and over .00 1.014 1.000 -3.62 3.62 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.83 .879 .635 -1.31 4.96 25 to 34 .43 .282 .885 -.58 1.44 35 to 44 .94 .271 .063 -.02 1.91 45 to 54 1.36* .282 .001 .35 2.37 55 to 64 1.60* .337 .001 .40 2.81 65 years and over 1.83 .602 .166 -.32 3.97 25 to 34 17 or younger 1.39 .863 .856 -1.69 4.47 18 to 24 -.43 .282 .885 -1.44 .58 35 to 44 .51 .212 .452 -.25 1.27 45 to 54 .93* .227 .011 .12 1.74 55 to 64 1.17* .293 .015 .13 2.22 65 years and over 1.39 .578 .447 -.67 3.46 35 to 44 17 or younger .88 .859 .983 -2.18 3.95 18 to 24 -.94 .271 .063 -1.91 .02 25 to 34 -.51 .212 .452 -1.27 .25 45 to 54 .42 .212 .688 -.34 1.18 55 to 64 .66 .281 .480 -.34 1.67 65 years and over .88 .572 .880 -1.16 2.93 45 to 54 17 or younger .46 .863 1.000 -2.62 3.55 18 to 24 -1.36*.282 .001 -2.37 -.35 25 to 34 -.93* .227 .011 -1.74 -.12 35 to 44 -.42 .212 .688 -1.18 .34 55 to 64 .24 .293 .995 -.80 1.29 65 years and over .46 .578 .996 -1.60 2.53 55 to 64 17 or younger .22 .883 1.000 -2.93 3.37 18 to 24 -1.60*.337 .001 -2.81 -.40 25 to 34 -1.17*.293 .015 -2.22 -.13 35 to 44 -.66 .281 .480 -1.67 .34 45 to 54 -.24 .293 .995 -1.29 .80 65 years and over .22 .607 1.000 -1.94 2.39 65 years+ 17 or younger .00 1.014 1.000 -3.62 3.62 18 to 24 -1.83 .602 .166 -3.97 .32 25 to 34 -1.39 .578 .447 -3.46 .67 35 to 44 -.88 .572 .880 -2.93 1.16 45 to 54 -.46 .578 .996 -2.53 1.60 55 to 64 -.22 .607 1.000 -2.39 1.94

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Appendix viii: "How often do you play puzzles or cards video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -1.64 1.248 .942 -6.10 2.81 25 to 34 -2.61 1.225 .606 -6.98 1.77 35 to 44 -2.26 1.220 .750 -6.62 2.09 45 to 54 -1.89 1.225 .880 -6.27 2.48 55 to 64 -1.22 1.253 .987 -5.70 3.25 65 years and over -.24 1.439 1.000 -5.37 4.90 18 to 24 17 or younger 1.64 1.248 .942 -2.81 6.10 25 to 34 -.97 .401 .446 -2.40 .46 35 to 44 -.62 .384 .853 -1.99 .75 45 to 54 -.25 .401 .999 -1.68 1.18 55 to 64 .42 .479 .993 -1.29 2.13 65 years and over 1.40 .854 .845 -1.65 4.45 25 to 34 17 or younger 2.61 1.225 .606 -1.77 6.98 18 to 24 .97 .401 .446 -.46 2.40 35 to 44 .34 .301 .972 -.73 1.42 45 to 54 .71 .322 .554 -.43 1.86 55 to 64 1.38 .415 .088 -.10 2.87 65 years and over 2.37 .820 .217 -.56 5.30 35 to 44 17 or younger 2.26 1.220 .750 -2.09 6.62 18 to 24 .62 .384 .853 -.75 1.99 25 to 34 -.34 .301 .972 -1.42 .73 45 to 54 .37 .301 .957 -.70 1.45 55 to 64 1.04 .399 .341 -.38 2.47 65 years and over 2.03 .812 .400 -.87 4.93 45 to 54 17 or younger 1.89 1.225 .880 -2.48 6.27 18 to 24 .25 .401 .999 -1.18 1.68 25 to 34 -.71 .322 .554 -1.86 .43 35 to 44 -.37 .301 .957 -1.45 .70 55 to 64 .67 .415 .856 -.81 2.15 65 years and over 1.65 .820 .667 -1.27 4.58 55 to 64 17 or younger 1.22 1.253 .987 -3.25 5.70 18 to 24 -.42 .479 .993 -2.13 1.29 25 to 34 -1.38 .415 .088 -2.87 .10 35 to 44 -1.04 .399 .341 -2.47 .38 45 to 54 -.67 .415 .856 -2.15 .81 65 years and over .98 .861 .971 -2.09 4.06 65 years+ 17 or younger .24 1.439 1.000 -4.90 5.37 18 to 24 -1.40 .854 .845 -4.45 1.65 25 to 34 -2.37 .820 .217 -5.30 .56 35 to 44 -2.03 .812 .400 -4.93 .87 45 to 54 -1.65 .820 .667 -4.58 1.27 55 to 64 -.98 .861 .971 -4.06 2.09

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Appendix ix: "How often do you play sports video games?"

A B C D E F G

17 or younger 18 to 24 -.68 .969 .998 -4.14 2.78 25 to 34 -.86 .951 .992 -4.25 2.54 35 to 44 -.62 .947 .999 -4.00 2.76 45 to 54 -.15 .951 1.000 -3.55 3.24 55 to 64 .36 .973 1.000 -3.11 3.84 65 years and over .67 1.117 .999 -3.32 4.66 18 to 24 17 or younger .68 .969 .998 -2.78 4.14 25 to 34 -.17 .311 .999 -1.28 .94 35 to 44 .06 .298 1.000 -1.00 1.13 45 to 54 .53 .311 .822 -.58 1.64 55 to 64 1.04 .372 .250 -.28 2.37 65 years and over 1.35 .663 .658 -1.02 3.72 25 to 34 17 or younger .86 .951 .992 -2.54 4.25 18 to 24 .17 .311 .999 -.94 1.28 35 to 44 .24 .234 .984 -.60 1.07 45 to 54 .70 .250 .249 -.19 1.59 55 to 64 1.22* .323 .029 .07 2.37 65 years and over 1.52 .637 .457 -.75 3.80 35 to 44 17 or younger .62 .947 .999 -2.76 4.00 18 to 24 -.06 .298 1.000 -1.13 1.00 25 to 34 -.24 .234 .984 -1.07 .60 45 to 54 .46 .234 .684 -.37 1.30 55 to 64 .98 .310 .129 -.13 2.09 65 years and over 1.29 .631 .656 -.97 3.54 45 to 54 17 or younger .15 .951 1.000 -3.24 3.55 18 to 24 -.53 .311 .822 -1.64 .58 25 to 34 -.70 .250 .249 -1.59 .19 35 to 44 -.46 .234 .684 -1.30 .37 55 to 64 .52 .323 .861 -.64 1.67 65 years and over .82 .637 .948 -1.45 3.10 55 to 64 17 or younger -.36 .973 1.000 -3.84 3.11 18 to 24 -1.04 .372 .250 -2.37 .28 25 to 34 -1.22*.323 .029 -2.37 -.07 35 to 44 -.98 .310 .129 -2.09 .13 45 to 54 -.52 .323 .861 -1.67 .64 65 years and over .31 .669 1.000 -2.08 2.69 65 years+ 17 or younger -.67 1.117 .999 -4.66 3.32 18 to 24 -1.35 .663 .658 -3.72 1.02 25 to 34 -1.52 .637 .457 -3.80 .75 35 to 44 -1.29 .631 .656 -3.54 .97 45 to 54 -.82 .637 .948 -3.10 1.45 55 to 64 -.31 .669 1.000 -2.69 2.08

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Correctly and accurately combining normal maps in 3D engines

Christopher Dutton

MSc graduate from the Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Technology, Staffordshire University e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Realistic CGI humans have been the “holy grail” of character artists since the inception of three dimensional (3D) modelling. While 3D characters have become extremely convincing in still imagery, the same cannot be said of animation where realism remains far more elusive. The problem lies in the subtleties in the movement of skin over bone, muscles tensing and relaxing and skin in general stretching, wrinkling and deforming. While some high demand solutions have been found in the film industry, technology limitation does not yet allow these methods to be implemented into games. This research examined how through the use of animated normal maps a low demand solution can be implemented in both film and games animation.

While modelling, texturing and rendering have shown great leaps towards realism, poor facial animation often lets down 3D characters. Films such as Beowulf (2007) are generally criticised as lacking in soul. While individual still frames can be highly realistic, it is in animated sequences where the characters are exposed as unconvincing. A notable exception is the character in The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (2008).

The hypothesis of the paper asserts that the realism achieved in films like The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, through advanced and costly methods employed to capture the subtleties of facial movement, can be approximated by a system of animated texture channels with particular focus on normal maps. This realism can be achieved by procedurally merging animated details and shifting between predefined states that correspond to basic facial expressions, while retaining high detail dermal characteristics and anomalies such as wrinkles, pores, lines, spots and freckles.

This chapter shows how the methods currently employed to combine normal maps within 3D software and 3D games engines are inaccurate or produce undesirable results. This research examines a range of methods currently available and explains the reasons they fail. The chapter concludes with an original solution for combining a theoretically unlimited number of normal maps both accurately and without losing detail or aesthetic value.

Article Information

Received: September 2012 Accepted: November 2012 Available: online April 2013

This essay is an extract of the dissertation presented to Staffordshire University by the author in partial fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science in the Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Technology, Staffordshire University, UK.

1: Combining Normal Maps: definition and solution

It is necessary to outline precisely what is meant by “combining normal maps” before the various methods can be evaluated properly. There are several possible desired outcomes of a procedure to combine normal maps that are equally valid yet produce aesthetically different results.

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To demonstrate and clarify the aim and to better evaluate methods to combine normal maps, a simple test map can be created. In this example the objective is to combine a surface with a protruding embossed cross shape (Figure 1) with a base surface with a concave circular indentation (Figure 2).

Specifically, the objective is for the embossed cross, or addition, to follow the topology of the base‟s indentation as shown in Figure 3 and not for the cross to be unaffected as shown in Figure 4. The Figure 4 outcome may be useful in some circumstances and could be achieved using a masked compositing method; however, it is not useful in the context of this project. In order to compare test results to the desired outcome a normal map was baked out of an accurate 3D model as described above and shown in Figure 3. as well as the normal maps of the cross and base as individual components.

Figure 1: 3D model from which the additional map “embossed cross” is derived

Figure 2: 3D model from which the base map “concave indentation” is derived

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Figure 3: 3D model from which the comparable test map is derived

Figure 4: 3D model showing undesired outcome

2: Combining in Photoshop

In his book Maya Studio Projects: Game Environments and Props, Michael McKinley dedicated a chapter to combining normal details in Photoshop. 1 Similarly, Andrew Gahan in Game Art Complete describes the process of normal map combining only in terms of an operation in Photoshop. 2 McKinley and Gahan are actually using different methods and are performing different operations in terms of vector maths and these methods are both correct.

McKinley‟s method uses various Photoshop filters and functions to separate the colour values above and below 128 in the red and green channels and add and subtract them respectively from the base layer. The blue channel is simply subtracted. Gahan‟s method uses the Photoshop overlay filter to similar effect. 1,2

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Figure 5: rendering of McKinley‟s method compared to intended normal output

Figure 6: rendering of the Gahan‟s method compared to intended normal output

McKinley‟s method, which he calls “mixing”, is identical to the commonly referenced tutorial by Rod Green, in which he describes the operation as “adding” two normal maps but specifically not to “average, subtract or multiply” them. No naming convention is established for this operation mathematically; however, the term “add” is reserved for Gahan‟s method. For the purposes of this research the convention of adding normals will refer to Gahan‟s method and compounding normals will refer to McKinley and Green‟s method. Additionally it should be noted that both these methods are performed in tangent space and will not work correctly in any other orthonormal basis. 3

Both these authors describe combining normals solely in terms of combining them in Photoshop, without any consideration of doing so in Maya. 4 Such a technique would save time, open up other possibilities for innovative shading systems and is vital to the normal mapping aspect of this research.

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A Maya solution similar to Gahan‟s by Jamie Telford can be found in the Tech-Artists.org forums using the layeredTexture node in a similar fashion. However, as shown in Figure 7, on implementation the system fails. It seems that the two textures‟ RGB values fail to propagate through the layeredTexture‟s outAlpha output. The resulting render is identical to what would be produced if the node is set to interpret the data as a bump map rather than a normal map, suggesting that only the luminance value is being read. 5

Figure 7: rendering of the layered texture method compared to intended normal output

Figure 8: Hypergraph of the layered texture method

3: Normal Camera “Daisy Chaining” Method

The method described as “daisy chaining” involved linking the output of one bump 2D node into the hidden normalCamera input of a second bump2D node. In theory this should result in the camera space normals of the first being combined with that of the second. This method is advocated by numerous sources including Eat3D, Digital Tutors and the book Stop Staring (2003) by Jason Osipa for combining multiple bump maps for the control of expression details and, additionally, in order to

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combine a normal map with a bump map. However, all attempts to combine multiple normal maps in this fashion fail. It seems the lowest ranking bump2D child node set to use tangent space normals in the shading graph is the only normal map to be rendered and all other normal maps are ignored, though the bump maps continue to combine correctly. 6

Figure 9: rendering of “daisy chaining” method compared to intended normal output

Figure 10: Hypergraph of “daisy chaining” method

4: “Averaging” Method

A method proposed in a tutorial by Matthew Tan and another by Ashraf Aiad uses the plusMinusAverage node and averages the output of the bump2D nodes. The averaging function quickly and simply adds the vectors and renormalises as would typically be done when combining vectors. This method is given by the following equation (over-page): 7

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(whereby omega is the average vector, n is the number of vectors, and v is the ith.)

Figure 11: rendering of “averaging” method compared to intended normal output

Figure 12: hypergraph of “averaging” method

The output shown in Figure 11 is not ideal as the new vectors are averaged mostly with the default unperturbed normal vectors, thereby resulting in a muted, less intense result. This problem would be compounded further should additional normal maps be added, as every subsequent map would, for the most part, bias any detail in favour of being unperturbed.

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Furthermore this method assumes that all normals are of unit length and any inaccuracies will accumulate and produce an incorrect divisor. Though this would be unlikely to affect combinations of a small number of maps, it would potentially affect large scale implementations.

5: Adding Normals

Several tutorials on combining normals in UDK simply add the maps together. 1,8,9 This method works to some extent in UDK as textures imported with normal map setting is stored as the full -1 to +1 range and adding them is the first step in adding vectors. However, this alone produced un- normalised results. Rather than normalising, both sources simply cancel out or mask the blue channel of the addition map in order to avoid the result shown in Figure 13:

Figure 13: un-normalised Added Normal Vectors

This technique is introduced to solve the problem of the vectors being double unit length. While all three co-ordinates are actually incorrect, the Z (or blue value) is the only one that is overtly wrong. As the vectors in a normal map are predominantly unperturbed, the Z value is typically 1 and the others typically are not. A value of, or close to, double unit length does not render correctly at all so is avoided by simply using only the base Z value. This is mathematically completely wrong and aesthetically not ideal, requiring adjustment of colours to achieve a more desirable output rather than an unmodified map calculated in a 3D package.

The correct implementation of this method would simply add the two maps and re-normalise. This would produce accurate data but now would effectively amount to averaging as discussed in section 1.3, with no difference in output.

6: Proposed Solution

While combining normal maps in Photoshop is not useful in the context of an in-engine solution, the methods outlined to do so are valid in terms of approach. The overlay filter method advocated by Gahan will work in accurately calculating the X and Y vector co-ordinates but will fail to calculate Z in a useful way. This is because the overlay filter adds values higher than 128 and correctly rendered normals would rarely ever contain anything lower. In most cases the values for both maps would be

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255. The additional 128 values added to the base 255 would then be normalised resulting, in all but the most extreme cases, a vector Z value of 1. In other words Gahan‟s method would result in the loss of depth data and significantly reduce the accuracy and aesthetic quality of the output. McKinley‟s and Greens‟ approach, however, accounts for this and ensures the Z value is retained. Again it should be noted that both these methods are mathematically valid despite the latter method producing far more desirable results. 1,10

The problem in the averaging method derives from the inherent nature of surface normals typically as being unperturbed, perpendicular to the surface. McKinley and Greens‟ Photoshop method works over averaging, as rather than finding the middle ground between two or more vectors they determine the difference between the vector and an unperturbed normal for each map. These differences are then added or “compounded” together in succession as shown in Figure 14: 1,10

Figure 14: representation of normal vectors being “compounded”

Figure 14 shows the normal (n1) at a point on an additional (a) normal map combined with a normal (n2) at the same texture co-ordinate on a base (b) normal map to produce the normal (n3) and through the same method, the combined normal map (c).

This has the advantage of retaining surface details and re-orienting them to conform to alterations in the surface‟s normal map derived topology. For example, if the indentation represented in Figure 14 was a wrinkle and the skin itself was slanted in the base normal map, the correct combination would be for the wrinkle to be repositioned with its shape remaining intact. This is exactly what is achieved by this method.

The implementation of this solution in games and rendering engines can be straightforward in some cases, and will require modification in others. The solution can be implemented without additional modification in the Unreal engine and most other real-time engines as, unlike Maya shaders, real-time

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shaders typically accept tangent space normals directly and convert them to whatever orthonormal basis is needed internally.

Due to the configuration and design limitations of the bump2D node, this solution requires adaptation in order to work within Maya. In order to understand these changes the vector mathematics must be examined.

7: Combining Encoded Normals and Combining Normal Vectors

The tangent space normals contained within a normal map are not true normal vectors but are “encoded” vectors. True vector values range from –1 to 1 but in normal map images this range is expressed in the range 0 to 255. In order to perform vector functions on this data it is therefore necessary to decode the data. If the method is attempted using encoded normals it creates mathematical “dead” regions on the negative axis resulting in a potential loss of 7/8ths of the data.

Once decoded the compounding normals method can be broken down into several operations shown in Figure 15. Firstly the difference between an unperturbed and the additional map vector must be found. In vector maths this is achieved through a vector subtraction, in this case U (unperturbed normal) minus A (additional layer) to produce the intermediate result I. The difference between I and B (base layer) is then determined to produce the desired normal vector.

Figure 15: vector calculations

Therefore the operation can be performed simply in two vector subtractions as shown in equation 2 and 3 where I is an intermediate result, and omega is the desired result:

EQUATION 2

EQUATION 3

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These can be combined to give:

Further additional maps can be added indefinitely as shown below:

The compounding normals method performed in Photoshop is limited to operation in encoded, positive values due to the constraints of the software. This is not the case in Maya and the Unreal engine, which can both use negative values making it possible to implement the much simpler two subtractions technique in both engines. The compounding normals method performed in Photoshop is limited to operation in encoded, positive values due to the constraints of the software. This is not the case in Maya and the Unreal engine, which can both use negative values making it possible to implement the much simpler two subtractions technique in both engines. Figure 16 shows a render of this system, which appears to be calculating the normals correctly. However on further investigation the normals cease to render correctly when the surface is rotated as shown in Figure 17:

Figure 16: render showing correctly calculated normals

Figure 17: render of rotated surfaces showing incorrectly calculated normals

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This is due to a further difficulty posed in Maya. This is the result of the operation being performed in camera space where U becomes subjective. When the Y axis of camera space happens to approximately align with the tangent space Y axis at a given point of surface being rendered, the normals will appear roughly correct in that instance. Change the surface orientation radically and the system completely breaks down. Therefore it is necessary to determine the value of U in camera space at each point being rendered. This can be achieved by plugging a normal map entirely composed of unperturbed normals (i.e all pixels having a value of 128, 128, 255) into a bump2D node and using the outNormal output as U as shown in Figure 20:

Figure 18: render of proposed solution showing correctly calculated normals

Figure 19: render of proposed solution rotated 90 degrees again showing correctly calculated normals

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Figure 20: hypergraph configuration of proposed solution in Maya

This technique is not necessary in the Unreal Engine as the operation is performed in tangent space with unencoded normals and so a Constant3Vector with the values of 0, 0, 1 can be used as shown in Figure 21:

Figure 21: hypergraph configuration of proposed solution in UDK

8: Conclusion

The technique outlined in this paper can be used to improve the realism of a character in realtime and non-realtime engines through an accurate, low demand and extendable procedure. Using this technique to gradually blend a normal map with additional information, an artist can create the illusion of intricate changes in detail. In characters this could be implemented as shifting facial expressions such as a wrinkling forehead, flexing musculature and clothing that stretches and creases. Alternative techniques outlined by 3D artists and games developers to combine normal maps either lose detail or are outright incorrect. When implemented this solution incurs little reduction in performance even when heavily extended to include many additional maps. Therefore these findings could improve 3D shading pipelines for animation and games both technically and aesthetically.

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References

1 McKinsey, Darren (2008) 2.1 detail normal maps. [Online]. Available from: https://sites.google.com/site/lessonsdarrenmckinsey/2-1-detail-normal-maps [Accessed: 16/01/2012]

2 Gahan, Andrew. (2008) Game art complete. Focal Press, 30 Oct 2008.

3 Green, Kyle. (2009) General Utilities - Bump 2d Node. [Online video] December 24. Available from: http://www.digitaltutors.com/11/training.php?vid=13793 [Accessed: 04/01/2012]

4 Autodesk Maya 2010 (2010) Help - Bump 2d [Online]. Available from: http://download.autodesk.com/us/maya/2010help/index.html?url=WS73099cc142f48755f2fc9df12097027 6f7-524c.htm,topicNumber=d0e25592 [Accessed 21/12/2011]

5 Telford, Jamie (2012) Using a layered texture node for blending normal maps. [Online] Feb 17th 2012. Available from: http://tech-artists.org/forum/showthread.php?p=14372 [Accessed: 02/03/2012]

6 Osipa, Jason (2003). Stop Staring: Facial Modeling and Animation Done Right. John Wiley & Sons. 2003

7 Aiad, Ashraf (2011) Combining normal maps in one Shader in mental ray for Maya. [Online] Feb 17th 2012. Available from: http://www.pixelcg.com/ [Accessed: 02/03/2012]

8 3dbuzz.com (2008). UT3 - Add Detail to a Normal Map. [Online Video]. Available from: http://www.3dbuzz.com/vbforum/sv_showvideo.php?v=894. [Accessed: 19/01/2012]

9 TheVisceral89 (2010) UDK Tutorial, Normal Map Blending [Online]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98BpuvaYikE [Accessed: 21/01/2012]

10 Rod Green. (2007) Combining Normal Maps in Photoshop. http://www.rodgreen.com/?p=4. [Accessed 02/01/2012]

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“Likely to be eaten by a Grue” – the relevance of text games in the modern era

Michael Heron

Canterbury Christ Church University, Kent, UK e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Spurred on by the success of Tim Schafer and Brian Fargo in crowd-sourcing funds for their newest projects, I look to reinvigorate interest in the humble text game. In this essay I argue that the text adventure is still a relevant gaming genre, and one with particularly high potential in several areas.

Text games take on a wide variety of forms, and many currently popular social games are characterised by being primarily text-based in their interactions. However, despite the continuing interest in variations on the format, the classical expressions represented by interactive fiction and multiuser dungeons (MUDs) struggle to recruit and sustain player-bases.

I argue that while text gaming is not yet a dead genre, it threatens to become so unless significant changes are made to how text games are perceived and developed. I argue that we should not be apologetic when we choose text as our primary medium of interaction. The best future potential comes from the classical expressions of text games evolving in line with modern design sensibilities to fill particular niches not well served by current gaming technologies.

Keywords: games, accessibility, text games, history, multiuser dungeon

Article Information

Received: September 2012 Accepted: November 2012 Available: online April 2013

1: Introduction

Many genres of game that were popular in the eighties and nineties have outlived their economic sustainability and as a result have been largely forgotten. Games that were viable (even with a much smaller market) when they cost $200k to produce rapidly stop becoming viable once one takes into account the increased costs and production values associated with modern game titles. However, Double Fine‟s recent phenomenal success through Kickstarter has shown there is still interest in point and click adventures (previously commonly cited as a dead genre), and Brian Fargo can report similar success with his Kickstarter campaign to create an „old school‟ top down RPG in the style of his previous title Wasteland. Similarly, Obsidian‟s Project Eternity is now the most funded video game ever on Kickstarter. The nature of crowd-sourced funding models such as Kickstarter mean that it is possible for game developers to satisfy the long tail of gaming preferences whilst avoiding much of the risk associated with development as a consequence of pre-funding. This funding model ensures financial viability before development begins and allows developers to explore titles that are considered too risky for mainstream development. 5, 14, 15, 20, 25, 33

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Crowd-sourced funding has the potential to resurrect dead genres, and this has several important benefits:

Developers can revisit old territory and update old designs in line with modern sensibilities (Serrels, 2012); gamers can satisfy those gaming itches that were not being scratched; and, the gaming ecosystem becomes richer and more vibrant, and the range of titles that are „economically viable‟ increases. 32

It could be argued that such projects are viable only as a consequence of nostalgia. The three titles cited may not be the start of a new and exciting trend in game development because the nostalgia market may in itself be unsustainable. I, however, take the more optimistic view that these kinds of games are fun in and of themselves. They are not fun because they hark back to simpler days of game development and remind many of us of the games we played when we were younger. If that were their only appeal, we would never have played them in the first place.

These successful fundraising efforts are exciting, but they are not the core focus of this paper. They are raised to show that there is an appetite out there for gaming formats that had previously been discarded as financially unsustainable. In this paper I intend to argue that there is another „dead‟ gaming genre that needs to be brought once again to the forefront – a genre that lost all economic viability in the mid-eighties, but still continues to survive to this day. The genre is that of the text adventure and its multiplayer cousin, the Multi-user Dungeon (MUD). 9

The era of commercial text adventures lasted from around 1979 to 1986, and was dominated by companies such as Infocom, Level 9, Magnetic Sctolls and Adventure International. Figure 1 shows a „hot list‟ of popular gaming titles from 1984, with the titles from Infocom highlighted:

Figure 1: Infocom chart positions

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A mere two years later, Infocom was acquired by Activision as a result of financial difficulties as an attempt to diversify their portfolio into business software. However, the changing climate of the computer game scene also had much to do with their fall from prominence – the period of 1985-1992 saw most of the big players in the text adventure market close or become acquired by larger gaming companies. Adventure International closed in 1985. Synapse Software was acquired in 1984 and closed the next year. Magnetic Scrolls closed in 1992, a year after Level 9 (which closed its doors in 1991). Infocom, under the Activision brand, struggled for a few years before it was closed in 1989.

Despite the incredible popularity of text games in the early 80s, the market declined steadily as graphical games became more sophisticated and the computing power available to games developers increased. Text was no longer the only way to tell an engaging story or to create a comprehensive interactive world. By the time British developer Level 9 closed its doors for good, games such as Dungeon Master (1987), Ultima 65 (1990), the Secret of Monkey Island (1990) and Civilization (1991) had reached the market. By then, text was no longer the only format in which complex stories could be told, and no longer even the default medium for adventure games. MUDs continued to thrive for a good deal longer, but the rise of massively multiplayer online games such as Ultima Online (1997) and Everquest (1999) marked the beginning of their slow spiral into obscurity. MUDs never commanded large player numbers at the best of times, and found it difficult to recruit and retain new players in the face of the competition posed by complex graphical alternatives.

Despite this, text games in a number of variations still flourish in the modern era. These particular modern expressions of the form have lost most of their favour and prestige. They are in danger of losing sustainability even amongst those hobbyists creating projects for no financial remuneration because people simply aren‟t playing the games any more. The long-term survival of these classical expressions of the text gaming format must innovate and modernise if they are to survive.

Tim Schafer, Obsidian Entertainment and Brian Fargo demonstrate one thing in particular: there is a desire out there for games that can successfully marry new stories to „classic‟ engines. There is no reason why their stories could not have been told using existing gaming frameworks. However, there are design and artistic aesthetics that can only be properly appreciated when games are deployed in the most appropriate context; we should not shy away from telling new stories in old ways. This essay will argue that we should not be apologetic for using classic game engines, and that we should always strive to couple the design to its most eloquent expression. In some cases, this is going to be textual - it is not out of nostalgia that I say that text games are still relevant, but instead because they offer their own unique advantages over graphical games.

2: Anatomy of a text game

First of all, we must start by discussing what I mean by a text game. Within the context of this essay, I will define text games as incorporating both the principles of ergodic literature and cybertext. E.J. Aarseth defines the term Ergodic as follows: 1

In ergodic literature, nontrivial effort is required to allow the reader to traverse the text. If ergodic literature is to make sense as a concept, there must also be non-ergodic literature, where the effort to traverse the text is trivial, with no extranoematic responsibilities placed on the reader except (for example) eye movement and the periodic or arbitrary turning of pages.

On the topic of cybertext, E.J. Aarseth wrote, “I suggest the term cybertexts for texts that involve calculation in the production of scriptons.” 1

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Text games then are literary forms in which a non-trivial amount of effort must be spent navigating the narrative (they are ergodic), and the narrative they expose is a consequence of user interactions and internal processing of states (they are cybertexts). These definitions are not unique to text games, although it is in that context primary that E.J. Aarseth defines the term. The novel House of Leaves by M.Z. Danielewski can be considered to be ergodic. The I Ching can be considered to be cybertext. Choose your own adventure games are ergodic. Chat bots such as Eliza are cybertexts. 7

For the purposes of defining a text game, it should be possible to play the entirety of the game through textual interaction with no loss of interactivity. Where graphics are used, then the game remains a text game in so far that all necessary game information is presented textually and no input regime more sophisticated than text entry is required to manipulate the game state. The key element is that the primary interactions with the system are in text - it is thus possible to have a graphical text game (such as Echo Bazaar, which I will discuss in the next section). Classic text adventures, such as the Quest Probe series (by Adventure International) or The Hobbit (by Beam Software) incorporated colour graphics along with their text passages to create the user experience. However, these were ornamentation rather than a fundamental aspect of interaction - they served to illustrate, rather than describe, the nature of the game that was being played. 2, 3

As with a novel, a text game provides its user feedback via the medium of text. However, unlike a novel, the user can direct the story and participate within internal game systems. In both interactive fiction (classic single player text adventures) and multi-user dungeons (multiplayer role-playing games), the textual interface is the primary means of both user input and user output.

Additionally, in order to classify as a game there is an expectation that some measure of interactivity is provided. While this is difficult to precisely quantify in terms of the level of interaction that must be balanced against narrative and gameplay, it is the position of this paper that users must be challenged within the confines of the game to progress the narrative by substantial interaction with the underlying game engine.

While interactive fiction and multi-user dungeons remain the traditional forms for text games, there remains likewise an interest in alternate formats such as Steve Jackson‟s fighting fantasy books and choose your own adventure stories. Apps built around these formats enjoy modest success on various mobile platforms, although the level of interaction provided in comparison with other formats means that while they are both ergodic and cybertextual, they lack many of the interactive elements by which we would traditionally define a game. Similarly, the visual novel style of game that is so popular in Japan lacks the expectation of interaction that we would normally associated with a game.

Other experimental formats exist, such as the twitter game Tinder City, which allows players to issue commands via existing social network tools in a manner somewhat similar to how IRC servers provided bots to implement multiplayer gameplay. The move to conduct such games via twitter based instructions is a new and exciting development, and one that shows that even now there is considerable unexplored design space in a genre that has in many minds been written off as commercial untenable. 23

3: Popular modern text games

Despite the dearth of commercial interest in the classical expressions of the genre, text as a primary interaction regime has never really gone away. However, for the majority of such games their text roots are obscured and hidden. Developers on the whole have become apologetic for using text as an interaction mechanism and this has had the knock-on effect of stigmatizing the development of text

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games as being something about which one should feel embarrassed. Those games that are primarily text based rarely tout this as a core, necessary feature.

Mafia Wars (by Zynga) is an example of a hugely popular game that conforms to the principles of text interaction outlined above. While the game has a highly graphical interface, the graphical elements do not fundamentally alter the nature of game interaction. The player issues text commands such as do this job or find more operations or go to war with and the results of those interactions are displayed as text feedback. The interactions are simplistic and the feedback lacks any narrative flourish or decoration. However, the issuing of textual instructions (even if by a button press) and the reporting of the results have no mandatory graphical component. Interaction could be switched to the typing of commands rather than the pressing of buttons, and nothing would be fundamentally altered. Despite this, Mafia Wars is rarely (although occasionally) acknowledged as being primarily a text-based game. While it could be argued that it is not literature (as a result of the highly spartan and utilitarian text), it still conforms to the principles of being interactive ergodic cybertext. 38

Urban Dead pitches itself as a Massively Multi-Player Web-Based grid game, but it again is a game in which all of the fundamental user interactions are handled textually. Upon moving from grid location to grid location you are given a simple room description like you'd see in a MUD or text adventure: 8

You are standing outside a factory, a fire-damaged grey-stone building plastered with posters. The building has been extremely heavily barricaded.

There is another zombie here.

There is a dead body here.

Commands are issued via button presses, and these are presented in simplistic forms such as attack with . Moving is handled by clicking buttons on the page, but as the locations are handled on a 3x3 grid they fall into the standard N/S/E/W/NE/SE/NW/SW set of directions used in most text games. The game itself is very simplistic, but boasted at one point around 1.5 million accounts and around 30,000 players online at any one time. In terms of the nuance of the text output, it is more sophisticated than Mafia Wars and is certainly ergodic. The nature of the room descriptions, too, is largely dependent on the previous interactions that users have had with the environment - this ensures its viability as cybertext. The range of options provided to individuals in the course of playing demonstrates its interactivity.

Finally in this section I want to discuss Echo Bazaar (by Failbetter Games) - a browser based game that doesn't so much honour its text-based roots as rejoice in them. While it does offer graphics to ornament the interface, all interactions are handled via the input of text commands and the reading of text output. It is the latter that forms the core of the game's reward system; your reward for reading a few paragraphs of flavour text is that you get to read a few more paragraphs of flavour text. Despite the relish the developers have for text based interactions (or, more likely, because of the relish) the game has been critically lauded from many quarters and has developed a fan-base that is remarkable not only for its persistence but also for its eloquence. Of the games discussed in this section, Echo Bazaar is, in my view, the best example of literature that is ergodic - the themes are deep and the world is complex. The writing is disciplined and involving. 13

In many ways, Echo Bazaar is more like an unusually nuanced choose-your-own adventure book than it is a traditional computer game. However, as the player progresses through the game they develop

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'qualities' that reflect the paths they have taken, the decisions they have made and the allegiances they have formed. These qualities then impact on the possible future directions that the player can explore. The game mechanics, such as they are, are simple - but the work still neatly conforms to what we mean by cybertext. The level of decision-making and the persistent consequences of that decision making ensures the interactivity of the game.

These are not, by any means, the only currently popular text games that exist. They are chosen primarily to show the range of games that can be properly considered to be examples of the format. Of the three, only Echo Bazaar incorporates its text roots as a key feature. As with the best text games, it does not shy away from the fact it has a markedly different demographic from other games. It's a game for literate gamers - for gamers who enjoy reading. It melds together modern design sensibilities (in its graphical aesthetics) with the nuance and power of the written word and as such represents a significant evolution in story-based interactive fiction.

4: Benefits of text

What is it about text gaming that makes it worth pursuing? It's not that only text games can tell engaging stories. Recent titles such as Deus Ex: Human Revolution and Heavy Rain show that text is not the only medium in which complex, nuanced interactive stories can be told. The Mass Effect series (2007 to 2012) demonstrates that persistence of action and complex branching story arcs across an epic saga is perfectly possible with graphical engines. 12, 27, 34

However, we should certainly put at the core of the benefits of text gaming that it is so much easier to weave an engaging, complex story than it is in other forms. The written word doesn't have the monopoly on this, but the novel is almost always far more nuanced and subtle than its movie. For me, text-gaming is a novel and graphical gaming is a movie; I enjoy both, but certain kinds of stories and certain kinds of game situations are just much more compelling when the graphics aren't getting in the way. I have rarely encountered a horror movie that has chilled me with the same effectiveness as the stories of Lovecraft:

“The most merciful thing in the world, I think, is the inability of the human mind to correlate all its contents. We live on a placid island of ignorance in the midst of black seas of infinity, and it was not meant that we should voyage far. The sciences, each straining in its own direction, have hitherto harmed us little; but some day the piecing together of dissociated knowledge will open up such terrifying vistas of reality, and of our frightful position therein, that we shall either go mad from the revelation or flee from the deadly light into the peace and safety of a new dark age.” (Lovecraft, produced in 1928)

The subtlety of such sentiments is difficult to capture graphically, and while it's always possible to weave a voiceover or such into a narrative; it is difficult to capture the very delicate tone of menace without coming across as a caricature.

According to A. Kennedy, the chairman of Failbetter Games: 22

“Text-based stuff gives you an incredible amount of latitude in what notionally occurs in the fictive world, and frees us from the need to reflect that with expensive tech. What interests me is interactive story - text is probably the purest, most concentrated way of conveying story. Not necessarily the best, that's a value judgement, but most other media have distractions, compensations, dilutions.”

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Text games are, in the view of this author, worthwhile in and of themselves. The nature of text means that games can be profoundly accessible in a way that other games simply cannot. In a recent paper, I argued that many games are inaccessible primarily as a result of oversight, and noted that disabled gamers don't want to be stuck in accessible gaming ghettos. As a relatively able bodied gamer, I still play text games. I develop text games. I proselytize for text games. The accessibility potentials are secondary to that; I play text games because text games are highly enjoyable. Thus, while text games have the potential to be extremely accessible, they are not stigmatized as being 'accessible games'. 18

“A good text game should be equally enjoyable to everyone” (c.f. W. Carter and G. Corona). 4 It is not possible to give accurate or representative figures with regards to the proportions of MUD players with accessibility issues: some MUDs (due to their inaccessible designs) have few to no such players, while others report as many as half of their player-base are blind or partially sighted. *

Text games, by virtue of the low barrier to entry, are also tremendously effective ways to examine issues of game design and narrative. Most individuals will not have the skill or resources to be able to source attractive graphics for even a simple game. However, with a copy of a text-game tool such as Inform7, any individual can create complex and compelling games utilizing the greatest graphics card of them all - the human imagination. These kind of text adventures rarely stress complex game mechanics, but for that an individual can turn to one of the freely available 'mudlibs' that allow for the construction of multiplayer online games. The cost for an individual to make a game in this style is only in the time needed to learn the environment and make the game. On a personal website (named “Epitaph Online”) I have provided such a development manual for one such mudlib. 17, 29

As a consequence of this, text games can be as demanding as the individual likes. There is no need to worry about whether your recommended system will be able to render the flight of dragons pouring down like rain upon the defenceless town - you weave that scene with your words, and it'll be rendered in the player's mind. Oftentimes, it will be rendered in far more detail than the best graphics card could possibly manage.

* Website sources: http://www.mudbytes.net/topic-400l (and) http://www.alteraoen.com/alter-2.1/blind.html

5: Future possibilities

However, despite all of the inherent value of text based gaming, it must be acknowledged that those who are most enthusiastic about the form are often the ones least willing to consider updating it in line with modern sensibilities. This is perhaps the largest barrier to MUDs and interactive fiction retaining their relevance, and greatly complicates the task of converting new players to text-based games. In order for future possibilities to be seized, it is necessary for developers to be willing to take their cues from modern games. One such analysis of the different philosophies between the old and new was published in a journal paper by F. Karlson. 21

In MUDs, there are a number of new protocols and features that make them far easier to play: the MXP format (also see: http://www.zuggsoft.com/zmud/mxp.htm) incorporates hyperlinks into MUD output, allowing an individual to simply click on a piece of text to issue a command to the game. The result is an experience that is more user friendly and obviates the need for a player to memorise complex and often arcane command line syntax. MXP links can also offer contextual menus, whereby the player can right click on a piece of MUD text and then choose from a list of actions to perform. A MUD developer may use this to create a more fluid gaming experience that mirrors the interaction metaphors familiar from internet browsing.

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A typical example of a MUD incorporating MXP can be seen in figure 2:

Figure 2: MUD output with MXP

However, uptake of MXP and related protocols has been slow, with many MUD clients offering only partial or token implementations of the standard. Attempts to increase the penetration of MXP are often done undertaken in the face of significant pushback from older players and developers. Many protest that it „dilutes the brand‟. It would be foolish to think that text games can continue to be relevant in the same forms they took in the 1980s and very early 1990s. All future possibilities are predicated on accepting the need for change and adaptation. By incorporating modern design sensibilities there are routes for ensuring text games are welcomed by the wider pool of game players.

Much of that involves increasing exposure to games that are designed primarily around text; MUDs in particular offer teaching opportunities that are simply not present in any other possible scenario, and this would be an effective way to familiarize young gamers with the format.

MUDs offer the possibility for exciting and engaging assessment work, and cater to those who are natural programmers and also those who are not. A MUD is a large, complex environment that touches on the outside world in numerous places. My own game is called Epitaph (epitaphonline.co.uk) and exposes much of the internal game information through the web. It incorporates bridges with IRC networks and integrates into twitter, ppBB, Mediawiki, Wordpress, Facebook and Google+. It is around three quarters of a million lines of code and is composed of simple area objects (those that describe environments and creatures), complex puzzles, and low level networking implementations. It integrates with the underlying Linux platform to invoke external tools and handle revision control. It incorporates its own internal mail system, bug tracking system, and dozens of complex game mechanics. There is something in there for everyone to do, regardless of how confident they feel with coding.

Similarly, working on a large scale, long-term collaborative project exposes students to numerous lessons they won't learn elsewhere. Epitaph is based on the Epiphany mudlib, which is a derivation of another publicly available mudlib (one which has been actively developed for around 20 years); it is full of legacy code that needs to be updated, and magical, mysterious bugs that are extremely difficult to duplicate. Learning to work in an environment in which new code must peacefully co-exist with legacy code is valuable real world knowledge. Similarly, having code that they write available for others to bug-report means real involvement with a maintenance regime. Working with potentially dozens of other developers will soon teach the value of revision control in a way that a lecture will

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never do. Opening up the environment for anyone who wants to log in can create social cohesion amongst groups of people who would otherwise never interact. Formal management roles can give students the experience they need in managing projects. The text based nature of the environment also lends itself to cross-department collaborations - the English students can be making sure the world is well written while the computing students can be ensuring the world is well run. Those students who don't want to write can instead read - MUDs tend to breed especially literate players by nature of the interaction.

Beyond their applicability in education, text based games (and MUDs in particular) also offer significant opportunities for exploring the nature of game accessibility. Text can be parsed easily by a screen reader, and protocols such as MXP can greatly reduce the amount of typing that an individual must perform. However, despite the possibility for highly effective accessibility, it is not the case that all text games are currently living up to the potential. Great strides can be made in ensuring the continuing relevance of text gaming by making sure that all such games are built with accessibility in mind; this opens the format up to a demographic that can especially appreciate the nature of interaction.

Coupled to this is the possibility for layering graphical interfaces atop the text-core. Many MUDs are now exploring bespoke graphical interfaces (as opposed to the dedicated MUD clients or telnet clients by which such games have been accessed before). There exists the exciting potential of offering 'multi modal' game interfaces whereby those who prefer a primarily ornamented interface can play without paying a lot of mind to the text - moving with arrows, clicking on icons, and disregarding the complex language as much as is feasible. At the same time, individuals can be enjoying the same game and interacting with the same players through a completely textual environment. Future work for Epitaph, for example, will involve the creation of a dedicated client that offers a classic 'Bard's Tale' style user interface atop the underlying accessible text. This is possible primarily through the highly adaptive nature of a text based game; with only a few meta tags, information can be parsed in many different ways while retaining full compatibility. This has the advantage of allowing a game to cater to specific preferences as well as capture some of the burgeoning market for 'retro' games through the implementation of specific interfaces.

6: Relevance

Text gaming - save for the few mainstream examples listed above - is currently an incredibly niche genre. In 2010, Jason Scott released a documentary that is something akin to a love letter to the format. As a die-hard text gamer, I was somewhat moved that almost all of the interviewees had come to terms with the fact their beloved gaming format was no longer relevant to the modern world. I take a different view on the topic. The fact that text adventures and MUDs have become irrelevant is because those of us who are stewards have failed to innovate at the rate needed. The first text adventures were popular because they were, in many respects, the only real game in town. They offered so much more than graphical games of the time could hope for. As home computers matured and graphical games matured with them, they lost that edge and collapsed into obscurity. MUDs collapsed into obscurity when MMOs became pre-eminent - the first of these even called themselves graphical MUDs. Text games have always had niche appeal - it's just that in the early days their niche was the only niche that existed. Now, relevance must be fought for within a significantly altered environment. 35

The low cost to develop and run a text game means that there doesn't need to be a huge market for it to be financially viable. Indeed, there remain even now commercial companies who support their endeavours with their text game offerings (such as Failbetter Games, Iron Realms Entertainment and

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Textfyre). Mudstats.com offers an incomplete view of MUD popularity, but estimates there are between 7000 and 12000 people playing MUDs at any one time. Echo Bazaar has estimated there are between 12,000 and 15,000 players monthly. It‟s even possible in the current era for an interactive fiction game to raise almost $32,000 in Kickstarter funding if the author is well regarded enough within the community and pitches the project appropriately. This is in the face of a gaming environment in which text games are virtually unknown. 22, 31

Every year I have been teaching, I have asked a group of students how many of them are aware that text gaming exists. Every year, fewer hands go up. The last time I asked, no hands went up. The proportion of text gamers has gone down, but the overall size of the gaming market has gone up. Along with that has come the increasingly enticing possibility of capturing the interest of the more literate amongst the wider gaming community - of engaging in a large scale courtship with a market share that could sustain commercial endeavours. To do that, text games must evolve. Echo Bazaar is an excellent example of how text games should be pitched. We must do away with the 'old school' sensibilities that stand in the way of evolving so that we can appeal to a newer generation more familiar with a gamepad than a text parser. We should be looking to make the interfaces more attractive to look at. We should be looking to limit the amount of typing that is necessary. However we shouldn't be shying away from the core things that make text games special.

Text games are never likely to appeal to all users: the expectation of graphics is strongly ingrained into the mind-set of younger gamers. The thoughtful, contemplative gameplay style of interaction fiction is at odds with the high adrenaline, fast reaction time gameplay that many game players enjoy. However, I believe that markets still exist for which text games are not only a respectable choice but also the optimal choice. Blind gamers have already been mentioned, but to those we can add those who do not have the reflexes or gaming experience to be able to orient themselves rapidly within graphical game spaces. There is also a strong nostalgia market out there, as is evidenced by this year‟s viral marketing campaign for Mark of the Ninja which incorporated a browser based choose your own adventure story into the teaser advertising material. And of course we have a dedicated band of hard-core fans who never abandoned the format in even its roughest and darkest days. Such markets may not be large, but the cost of development is correspondingly lower and the competition in the commercial space is much less fierce. 28

Are text games still relevant? I think they are. You can draw a direct line of inspiration from games such as World of Warcraft to MUDs, and from there back to the very first adventure game, Adventure, by W. Crowther in 1976. They certainly remain historically relevant. However, they are not as relevant to the modern gaming landscape as they should be, and that is something that we die-hard fans can do a lot to change. 6

7: Conclusion

Many text games are still rooted in their original design sensibilities and have not adapted to the modern world in a way that makes them accessible to a new generation of gamers. Text games must evolve beyond their original roots; they need to incorporate attractive interfaces and smooth out the learning curve. They need to offer comprehensive instruction to those new to the format. They need to be pleasant gaming experiences and they need to cut down on those elements that are likely to intimidate or put off a newcomer. There are text games out there that have done these things, and they have important lessons to teach us.

However, in doing this we must be careful not to lose those elements of text gaming that make it such a unique gaming format. We must knock off the hard edges in our games, but retain the soul. We

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can do both of these things at the same time, provided we are willing to concede that „purity‟ of lineage is not a useful end goal. The future successful text games will look more like Echo Bazaar than Adventure.

Regardless of the changes designed to make text games more accessible to a new generation, it is unlikely in the extreme that they will ever become mainstream as they once were. The world has moved on since then. However, that doesn‟t mean that text games cannot be popular, or even commercially profitable. There are niches out there that text games can fill better than anything else. There are itches out there that can only be scratched with a well-formed text adventure. Continued relevance is dependent on us recruiting beyond the existing pool of text gaming fans – that pool diminishes every year. Text gaming is not a dead genre, but it is very much in danger of becoming so.

The Interactive Fiction Competition (see http://www.ifcomp.org/) still attracts dozens of entries a year. The nascent community, which crystalized around the increasing availability of distribution channels and maturing development environments persists today. Every year, dozens of MUDs are started up (and many just as soon shut down). People don‟t create these artefacts because they have no alternatives; they do it because there is something in the format that appeals more than any of the other options. Perhaps it‟s the low barrier to entry; perhaps it‟s the flexibility of textual input and output. I make this case for text gaming not because we lack the technology for graphical games, but because text games have a charm and appeal that is unique. I make this case because text games are fun, and more people owe it to themselves to find out why.

Acknowledgements

My thanks go to Pauline Belford for her assistance in reviewing and assessing the contents of this essay.

References

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15 Fogel, S. (2012). Double Fine‟s Tim Schafer on Kickstarter success: it can happen again (interview). Venturebeat. Available online at http://venturebeat.com/2012/02/21/double-fines-tim-schafer-on- kickstarter-success-i-did-not-expect-this-interview/. [accessed 04/04/2012]

16 FTL Games (1987). Dungeon Master [Disk]. San Diego, California.

17 Heron, M.J, (2010). The Epitaph Survival Guide. Epitaph Online. Available Online at http://monkeys.imaginary-realities.com/epitaph.pdf. [accessed 24/10/2012]

18 Heron, M.J, (2012). Inaccessible Through Oversight: The Need for Inclusive Game Design. The Computer Games Journal (1: Whitsun) (2012) pp29-38

19 Interplay Entertainment (1988). Wasteland [Disk]. Commodore 64. California.

20 Kain, E. (2012). Wasteland 2 Brought To You By Kickstarter. Forbes. Available online at http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2012/03/15/wasteland-2-brought-to-you-by-kickstarter/. [accessed 04/04/2012]

21 Karlsen, F. Quests in context: A comparative analysis of discworld and world of warcraft. International Journal of Computer Games Research 8(1) (2008)

22 Kennedy, A. (2012). (Personal Correspondence.)

23 Ludometrics (2012). Tinder City [Online]. Scotland, United Kingdom. Available online at https://twitter.com/TinderCity

24 Lucasarts (2012). The Secret of Monkey Island [Disk]. San Francisco, California.

25 Marcis, A. (2010). E for Everyone, Except Me. The Escapist. Available online at http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/columns/publishers-note/7688-E-for-Everyone-Except- Me. [accessed 04/04/2012]

26 MicroProse (1991). Sid Meier‟s Civilization [Disc]. Alameda, California.

27 Microsoft Game Studios (2007). Mass Effect. Seattle, United States.

28 Microsoft Studios (2012). Mark of the Ninja [Online]. Seattle, United States.

29 Nelson, G. (2006). Inform7 [Disk]. Windows.

30 Origin Systems (1990). Ultima VI: The False Prophect [Disk]. Austin, Texas.

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31 Plotkin, A. (2010). How I Raised $24,000 on Kickstarter. CNN Money. Available online at http://money.cnn.com/2010/11/15/technology/kickstart_plotkin/index.htm. [accessed 08/04/2012]

32 Plunkett, L. (2012). Why Kickstarter is best for old games & dead genres. Kotaku. Available online at http://www.kotaku.com.au/2012/03/why-kickstarter-is-best-for-old-games-dead-genres/. [accessed 04/04/2012]

33 Purchese, R. (2012) Obsidian‟s Project Eternity most funded video game ever on Kickstarter. Eurogamer. Available online at http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012-10-16-obsidians-project-eternity- most-funded-video-game-ever-on-kickstarter [accessed 24/10/2012]

34 Quantic Dream (2010). Heavy Rain [Disc]. PS3. Paris, France.

35 Scott, J. (2010). Get Lamp: The Text Adventure Documentary [DVD]. New York, United States.

36 Serrels, M. (2012). Tim Schafer‟s New Adventure Game „Won‟t Apologize For Being An Adventure Game‟. Kotaku. Available online at http://www.kotaku.com.au/2012/03/tim-schafers-new-adventure- game-wont-apologise-for-being-an-adventure-game/. [Last Accessed 4th of April, 2012]

37 Toy, M., Wichman, G. (Circa 1980). Rogue [Online]. Unix.

38 Zynga (2010). Mafia Wars [Online]. San Fransisco, United States.

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Learning to “do history” through gameplay

Maria Mavrommati1, Despina Makridou Bousiou2, Pierre Corbeil3

1 Technological Education Institute and Dept of Childhood Care and Education, Thessaloniki, Greece, email: [email protected] 2 Dept of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece, email: [email protected] 3 Formerly professor of the Universite de Montreal, Canada

Abstract

One of the most prevailing approaches in history education today is the use of historical sources as a tool to enhance historical thinking skills. At the same time, relevant research shows that history education is one of the areas of the curriculum that could benefit most from the use of computer games. In the present article, we examine the potential of a Greek educational computer game to enhance students‟ historical skills such as reasoning and historical context evaluation in order to produce historical explanations, through a process of participatory negotiation of meanings. We specifically draw from the relevant research on historical sources as tools for the development of historical thinking skills, aiming at the creation of communities of practice among students who are encouraged to adopt practices such as those of professional historians, namely primary sources analysis and interpretation. Results of observation and questionnaire analysis indicate that primary school students (aged 11 years old) can use an educational computer game as a tool for conducting historical source analysis under specific conditions.

Keywords: history didactics, game-based learning, primary sources, lesson design

Article Information

Received: November 2012 Accepted: January 2013 Available: online April 2013

1: Introduction

New media breathe new life into history education today as they offer possibilities for different approaches to the historical past and its interpretation. With primary sources analysis being widely used today as a method to teach historical skills on the one hand, and the creation of collaborative learning environments being one of the goals of lesson design on the other, our research looks into the possibilities of the use of a computer game as a tool to achieve both. We are specifically interested in understanding how students use an adventure computer game when it enters the classroom in an instructional capacity and if and how they transform it into a tool to develop historical inquiry skills. In addition, we are interested in recording how they interact with each other in order to construct meanings and interpretations of the past when they use a computer game as a tool; what is the role of the game and what is the role of the social environment and the design of the lesson? 1,2

Our research question is twofold: (a) can a game become a vehicle for growing specific historical skills, such as work with primary sources; and, (b) do collaborative activities emerge in a group of students when a game enters the classroom?

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The research consists of two naturalistic case studies of a design experiment, following the principles of case study research according to Stake (1995) and qualitative research in general by Lincoln and Guba (1985). Instructional activities are based on lesson plans, which have been created specifically in order to accompany the game Searching for Great AlexanderTM. Data has been collected through open-ended questionnaires, field notes and interviews in order to create case study narratives. Findings are followed by some final thoughts on the potential of using computer games for history education. 3-5

2: „Doing‟ history with primary sources

Although many Greek history teachers still believe that effective historical thinking is mastered with the memorization of dates, names and text book content in general, the aims and methods suggested by the Greek National Curriculum for History focus on the so-called second order historical concepts. These are continuity and change, causes and results, empathy, the use of evidence to support arguments and periodization skills. In fact, the aim of historical education has been generally described by relevant research as the development of skills and practices similar to those applied by professional historians, through the exchange of knowledge and the communal practice of skills that are related to historical thinking. The professional historian basically works with historical sources, such as text, image or audio sources, material evidence, monuments of any kind etc., while teaching history with the use of such evidence is widely considered as one of the most efficient ways to introduce students to historical thinking. The use of historical sources has been adopted worldwide by history teachers as a student-centered, participative, active and creative method of teaching, with students solving problems through analysis, synthesis, interpretation and deduction, just like a professional historian does. 6-9

The development of historical understanding is indissolubly connected to the capacity to process historical evidence. First of all, historians collect information regarding the era a source was produced in. Then they negotiate the meaning of the source with other viewpoints, apart from their own, thus reconstructing the past. One basic condition for the interpretation of an historical source is to understand the differences between modern life and the historical reality that the source depicts, a process based on the evidence the source provides. According to Ashby (2004), students take historical sources at face value, as an authority, without posing questions or deducing information from them, therefore making it hard “to develop a conceptual understanding of the evidential relationship between sources and claims”. Consequently, teaching with primary sources should focus on creating those kinds of questions that will reveal the difference between what is explicitly expressed and what information it could give if examined methodically. Barton (2001) suggested that the process of constructing historical knowledge through evidence is equally feasible for primary school students as it is for older ones. 10,11

3: A game as an approach to teach history

Games have been used as a method to teach not only historical facts but also to engage students in the analytical process through (i) active participation and interaction with peers and historical material, or (ii) as a tool for knowledge acquisition and comprehension. Despite the fact that some researchers underline the differences between traditional and digital games, current literature on the field of educational computer games borrows heavily from research findings and theories on the use of traditional games as instructional tools (e.g. see Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2003) for a review of the use of games in education). Games have been historically used for business training, military training, or even to promote the army as a professional choice. 12-17

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Computer games in particular have been used as an alternative tool in the social sciences classroom, with various recorded effects such as:

the development of problem solving and research skills, as well as critical thinking and the creation of collaborative learning environments among students; 1,18 the understanding of theoretical models and the effects of interaction of various factors; 18 the development of memory, logic and visualization; 19 the development of the capacity to deduce, through the possibility to interpret direct and indirect information, reasoning, metacognitive analysis and transfer of knowledge; 20 the possibility for personal experience in virtual worlds, which helps create cognitive models; 21 the interaction with learning material and the development of empathy; 22,23 the motivation for learning; 24 the representation of motifs and experimentation with them; and, 2,16,25 the creation of communities of experts and circumstances for situated learning. 26,27

The implementation of computer games in the history classroom has grown during the last few years, and a trend to match intended learning goals with game genres has already surfaced. While historians today understand that new technological applications, including computer games and simulations, change the nature not only of the historical research process but also of understanding the past in general, certain genres of games such as strategy games allow the exploration of the relations between interactive components in the course of history. These games in particular seem to facilitate the understanding of the multiplicity of factors that led to an historical outcome. 2,28-32

Experiments using these games have produced interesting results. For example, Seed (2007) used simulation games to teach navigation history, introducing undergraduate students to the methodology of professional historians through the question “what would happen if…”. Students experimented with different data in order to produce different historical outcomes, depending on the nature of various historical contexts. Squire (2004), and Squire and Barab (2004), also conducted experiments using the Civilization PC game to teach world history, aiming at the understanding of the correlations between a variety of factors that resulted to certain outcomes. Weir and Baranowski (2011) used the same game to enhance logic, critical thinking and analytical skills. Learning in such contexts is perceived as the skill to ask the right questions, highlighting the formation of second order historical thinking through testing hypotheses, identifying key factors and reflecting on alternatives. 32-35

More interestingly, computer games seem to enhance the development of communities of learning in which players learn and implement professional practice, a potential of specific interest to an intervention that seeks to introduce professional practices in the history classroom like ours. Shaffer (2005, 2006) suggested that when computer games (which have been designed according to the epistemological principles of each area of the curriculum) enter the classroom, the development of communities of experts among students is enhanced. His research showed that learners- gamers enter the professional practices of various professions in the best possible way. Games realize players‟ participation in virtual communities of experts, offering the opportunity for real action in the simulated environment of professional areas, an experience rarely acquired through traditional learning methods. Therefore games create, in the best possible way, ideal environments for situated learning (Shaffer et al, 2005). It seems that “epistemic games” realize older calls for conjunction of learning with experience, so that the former becomes meaningful. 17,26

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4: The game Searching for Great Alexander TM

The game we used is a Greek game called Searching for Great Alexander (Foundation of the Hellenic World) developed by IME, an educational center for Greek history and culture which develops print and multimedia educational material for commercial purposes. Searching for Great Alexander is an educational adventure game which gives players the opportunity to understand the diffusion of Alexander the Great‟s adventures and mythology throughout the world. The game is made for children 10-12 years old and it was chosen for the experiment mainly because it was the only educational computer game in Greek with an historical interest in the Greek market at the time. The language of the game was a very crucial factor in choosing the right game, especially because there is historical terminology used in it, and children at this stage were mainly familiar with the Greek terminology (if at all). The second reason it was chosen was the proximity of its content with students‟ experiences and knowledge. Alexander‟s life is taught at Greek primary schools from the 4th grade (9 years old), and references to his name are very common in modern Greece, especially in Northern Greece and more specifically in the area where the experiment was conducted, which is less than an hour away from Pella, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia. It was expected that children would develop a genuine interest in the process, not only because it introduced a game, but also because a mythical figure would be easier to study at this age. 36

The game‟s goal is the collection of information regarding various artistic representations of Alexander through historical times and in a variety of different places. The players accomplish this by virtual travels to museums where these representations are exhibited, and by taking pictures of the exhibits. When they spot an artifact they want to collect, the game asks them to solve a riddle. The riddle can be solved either by searching and finding relevant information in the game‟s encyclopedia, using the players‟ previous knowledge and experience, or even through trial and error. After the players solve the riddle, they can take a picture of the artifact and that is when the game presents information regarding the specific source, namely when it was created, by whom, what does it symbolize, how the representation is connected to the specific historical era it was produced in and so on (Figure 1).

The players have to use the encyclopedia of the game (screenshot shown in Figure 2) in order to solve most of the riddles, which can be multiple choice questions, “fill in the blank with the correct word”, “connect the pieces of the puzzle” questions and so on. When they finish the game, players are asked to prepare a presentation of the multiple representations of Alexander throughout the various time periods and places. The learning objective is to interpret these representations taking into consideration the contexts of each source, through constructing an understanding of the multiplicity of these contexts and the exceptionality of each historical event.

The game uses historical sources, mainly images of artifacts but also texts and parts of movies and theatrical shows, and the activity is based on collecting these sources. The game‟s indirect aim is to familiarize students with the practices of professional historians, namely analyzing and interpreting sources, and this is why we consider it an epistemic game. Therefore, one of the reasons this game was chosen was the coincidence of gameplay process and its activities with the historical epistemology and the principles of history education. At the same time, with its final purpose being the construction of a narrative regarding the multiple faces of Alexander in various times and places, the game asks students to introduce themselves to the essence of the process of understanding a historical source, attempting answers to questions like “why does this source represent Alexander this way?”, “who has made this artifact and why?”, “how does this representation reflect its contemporary culture and society?” and so on. 26

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Figure 1: screenshot taken from The Great AlexanderTM

Figure 2: screenshot taken from The Great AlexanderTM following completion of a puzzle

The game's riddles can be solved without consulting either the encyclopedia or any other source of information (e.g. the internet). As we will see later on, this resulted in a portion of students solving the

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riddles by their own efforts, thus compromising the part of the experiment which relied on the collection of information and the development of research, analysis and synthesis skills. This characteristic of the game posed a problem, but the other reasons argued for its selection nevertheless.

5: The experiment

5.1: Setting and participants

The primary school our experiment took place is located in a small town in Northern Greece. The participants were 11-12 years old, attending the last (6th) grade of primary school. Our two teams consisted of 9 students each, and each team had the same number of students with similar school performance and demographic characteristics, as chosen by their teacher who was familiar with their personal and educational background, thus achieving the best possible distribution of the sample. Each of the teams had the same distribution of students with high, medium and low school performance. In both teams girls outnumbered boys, counting 5 girls and 4 boys in each team. The school teacher and the researcher were both present during the whole duration of the experiments, both taking notes and designing the classroom activities, teaching and guiding. Each experiment lasted for 3 weeks, 3 hours per week. Apart from the rich data collection methods used (questionnaires, student logs, interviews, teacher and researcher observation notes), the validity of our final data analysis and interpretation was ensured by the teacher‟s detailed review and following discussions.

5.2: Research methodology

In order to answer the research questions, we chose the design-based research method. Brown (1992) mentioned that the classroom is not the natural work environment of experimental psychologists, while the traditional methods for educational psychological research fail to record learning “in action”, a weakness design-based research is intended to overcome. Our aim is to design experiments that correspond to real needs and conditions of the learning process. History didactics researchers also suggest design-based research as the best method to answer the question “how do kids learn history?”. This kind of research has two aims: first, it attempts to create effective learning environments, and secondly it uses these environments like “natural labs” to study learning and teaching. This means that the researcher does not only study one component of the process and the results of its alteration, but designs learning environments combining them with “empirical exploration of our understanding of those environments and how they interact with individuals”. This kind of research includes designing and experimenting with a number of components of learning, which include the aims of the curriculum, the learning material and the activity that evolves in the contexts of learning, making the experiment itself an outcome of the whole process. The most important dimension of this kind of research is the fact that theories of learning and lesson planning evolve during experiment in natural settings, making it a purely qualitative method. Therefore, the research is realized through developing technological tools, curricula and theories that interpret knowledge. 3,37-42

5.3: Research questions and the learning scenario

Through the design of learning scenarios which accompanied the game and structured the activity we tried to answer the following questions (over-page):

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Can a game become a vehicle for growing specific historical skills, such as work with primary sources? Can a designed learning scenario using a game as a learning tool create a collaborative learning environment?

To answer these questions, we designed a scenario with specific educational activities and structure according to the above mentioned approaches of teaching history with primary sources. After we got feedback from the initial intervention, we designed a second intervention based on the problems and needs that emerged during the first one. Following the methodological tools for working with primary sources as set by Cleary and Neumann (2009), we created a framework which enables students to understand the sources‟ context when they analyze them. The questions students have to answer in order to explain the content of the sources according to their historical context, speculate interpretations and attempt explanations using genuine evidence are the following: 43

Table 1: Framework for primary historical sources analysis.

Who created the source? When was it created? Where was it created? Where was it found? What does it show (content description)? Why was it created? What can we learn studying secondary elements of the source? What can we understand about the period the source was created (how did those who used it/saw it feel/ think about it)? Do the source‟s representations reflect reality? How is the representation connected to reality? How is a specific representation justified in regards to its current reality (what kinds of needs does it meet)?

The above framework was used as a starting point for the sources‟ interpretation by students in both cases and was central to the overall design of the lessons. Our design of the whole process aimed at facilitating the development of collaborative activities and students‟ interaction, in order to collectively construct interpretations of the primary sources through the formation of communities of practice. According to Wenger (1998), learning happens in every social activity. Such an understanding of learning as a social phenomenon demands attracting students through meaningful practices, maximizing their participation by providing them with access to sources of learning, creating possibilities for them to become parts of learning activities with which they can identify, and including them in activities, conversations and processes that evoke their interest. Communities of practice are communities created when a group of people aim at common objectives through the formation of social relations. They include knowledge which allows the achievement of the group‟s targets as well as the social relationships of the group‟s members. Consequently, the notion of practice refers to the activity that has developed in order to achieve a goal, which is always enriched by the historical and social framework that gives it a meaning; therefore practice is always social. The goal of our designed learning scenario was for students to collaborate in their effort to achieve meaningful understandings of representations of Alexander the Great through a process of exchange of ideas and collective interpretations of the sources. 44

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6: Research findings

The questions we focused on were (i) the development of students‟ skills to use historical sources in order to construct interpretations about the past, using a computer game as a tool, and (ii) the game‟s role in the development of collaborative forms of learning. After the analysis of the data from the first phase of the experiment (see Table 2 for the learning scenario implemented), it was clear that the learning objectives regarding the understanding of historical notions, terminology and periodization were hardly achieved, while the initial objective of using the game as a learning tool was also not accomplished by the majority of students.

We decided to redesign the learning scenario, now putting more emphasis on the use of the game as a learning tool. Our clear purpose with the second scenario was to integrate the learning objectives with the game‟s objectives, that is when the players mastered the game as a tool for learning (e.g. by using the encyclopedia as a source of information), then they would start developing a method of source interpretation by using our framework and exchanging ideas with peers.

Therefore, in contrast to the first experiment, when students were encouraged to use the game more independently, namely without strict structure in their activity, and with our objective being to understand how the game would function as a learning tool with no severe teacher intervention, in the second case a more restrictive learning scenario was employed, in order to develop structured day-today activities. The second phase of the experiment was part of our effort to achieve the goals we set in accordance with the design based research methodology in which the success of the experiment is assessed by the successful completion of its initial objectives. 3

6.1: First phase of the experiment

During the first part of the experiment the students spent most of their time solving the riddles through trial and error, without consulting the encyclopedia or using the suggested framework to interpret the sources. For the students during the first phase our lesson‟s goal was to collect the sources as soon as possible. Even though they started explaining the content of the sources according to their context using previous knowledge, their interpretations were limited to a chorus they were apparently taught about Alexander the Great: “he was a brave warrior”, “he freed enslaved peoples”, “he spread the Greek civilization”, all of which were constantly repeated as an interpretation of the various depictions of Alexander throughout history.

The closest the first group of students got to an explanation of a source was accomplished on the last day of the first experiment, when they interpreted a source which depicted Alexander as a warrior of the 19th century, fighting the Ottomans out of Greece. Students managed to explain this anachronism as the artist‟s effort to connect Alexander‟s wars in the East with the 19th century Greeks‟ revolutionary war against the Ottomans stating that the source “shows Alexander as if he actually fought the Turks”, but without being able to explain in more detail the artist‟s intention.

Regarding the question of development of communities of practice, during the first phase of the experiment the students mostly behaved competitively and only a basic form of collaborative behavior emerged. Even though the lesson plan supposedly encouraged a collective process of source interpretation, the players played on their own and competed with each other. Students who had more experience in playing computer games emerged as experts in the game operation only at the

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beginning of the experiment, as did the only student that actually systematically used the game encyclopedia as a source of information and based her interpretation of the sources on it.

Table 2: First teaching scenario

Teaching Activities Objectives sessions During the session students should:

1st hour Conversation - Familiarize with the meaning of basic notions of the experiment (primary source, interpretation, culture)

- Express personal opinions regarding school history, computer games, history in popular media

- Acquaint with basic facts of Alexander‟s life

2nd hour Playing the game, - Understand the basic functions of the game after playing its periodization introductory part activities, conversation about - Identify the historical periods they have encountered in the first part the value of of the game and put them in the right chronological order historical sources - Describe the meaning of historical notions like “emperor”, “antiquity” etc.

- Identify the various categories of primary sources.

3rd hour Playing the game, - Explain the meaning of terms like “representation” and “symbol” conversation about through describing the content of the sources different kinds of representations - Place in the right chronological order the artifacts they have collected, identifying the historical period

- Describe basic characteristics of each time period

- Attempt interpretation on the multiplicity of Alexander‟s representations on the sources

4th - 7th Playing the game, - Place in the right chronological order the artifacts they have hours collection of primary collected, identifying the historical period sources, analysis of primary - Describe basic characteristics of each time period sources following the suggested - Connect the specific characteristics of the time periods with the framework representations of Alexander on the sources, and understand the reasons why these characteristics affected his image

- Recognize the different kinds of primary sources and make deductions regarding the era they were produced in.

- Use historical terminology when necessary and explain relevant notions when asked.

- Relate their explanations regarding the meaning of the sources to historical facts

- Evaluate Alexander‟s importance for modern Greek and world culture

8th- 9th Discussion - Reach conclusions regarding the role of primary sources in

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hours understanding history

Later on, especially experienced game players developed a competitive style, often leading to individualistic play style, frustration, playing the game just for fun and not for learning. These students‟ aim was to finish the game sooner than anyone else. This led to solving the game‟s puzzles quickly, without consulting the encyclopedia or discussing with peers to find more information on their sources, and without applying the framework for interpretation of primary sources, as shown above.

The majority of the participants in the first experiment did not manage to use the game as a tool for collecting information and producing source interpretations. This resulted in students developing a different playing pace, independent play and using trial and error methods to solve the riddles, which was allowed by the game‟s mechanics anyway (as most activities in it were riddles, puzzles etc.). The students in the first group were more competitive, as for them the only desirable outcome of the game was to successfully finish it before their classmates, without paying attention to the actual content of its activities. Therefore, most of the participants in the first group finished the game without reaching any of the learning goals of the intervention, namely engagement in the source interpretation process.

6.2: Second phase of the experiment

After analysis of the data of the first part of the experiment, we redesigned the learning scenario in order to create a more appropriate environment for the attainment of our initial goals. The idea behind the design of the second phase was that the more the teacher intervened and guided the students according to a rich designed methodology, the more students would focus on using the game as a collaborative learning tool and gaining skills and knowledge relating to historical thinking. In the second learning scenario (Table 3) we inserted more encyclopedia-based activities, more classroom discussion and more examples of source analysis based on the game, all at a synchronized pace so that all students would work simultaneously.

We also screened a film at the beginning of the second experiment (Alexander, by Oliver Stone), not only to remind students basic facts about Alexander‟s life (e.g. that he fought against the Persians and not against the Skopjans, as a participant of the first phase claimed), but also to start the discussion regarding the representations of Alexander in various forms of secondary sources, one of which could be a contemporary Hollywood film. The idea behind this insertion was that students would start interpreting the film as one of the various representations of Alexander that they would encounter later, while playing the game. The film was actually a very helpful addition, as students who participated in the second experiment could compare a contemporary representation of Alexander the Great‟s life with historical ones and even discuss about the role of the medium and its cultural function in each depiction (e.g. Hollywood film versus Byzantine coin).

Students in the second group engaged in a process of interpretation of the sources very early, obviously influenced by the relevant discussions that had followed the screening of the film, in which we tried to interpret the film as a secondary historical source. One of the first sources they encountered was dated in the 16th century, originated from Persia and depicted Alexander as a shah holding a sword. At the bottom of the picture, there were pictures of people of different colors and dresses, a reference to the peoples Alexander conquered. The above information was all given to the players by the game immediately after they solved the riddle and unveiled the picture.

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Table 3: Second teaching scenario

Teaching Activities Objectives sessions During the session students should:

1st day (2 Directed conversation, - familiarize with the meanings of basic notions related to the hours) study of maps and subject (culture, interpretation, historical source etc.) appendixes, playing the - express personal opinions regarding school history, computer game, completion of games, history in popular media timeline - acquaint with basic facts of Alexander‟s life - start playing the first level of the game and get to know its basic functions and rules. - answer the first periodization riddle through negotiation and exchange of knowledge. - identify the kinds of historical sources. 2nd day (1 Learn the rules of the - understand the methods of solving puzzles and complete the hour) game and solve the first one first puzzles through - collect one primary source per team. cooperation and use of - have used the game‟s encyclopedia. the game‟s encyclopedia 3rd day (2 Explanation of the - identify the primary sources analysis framework after we hours) sources analysis explain it method through the - witness the analysis process of at least one source by their suggested framework, peers through dialogue and exchange of knowledge, collaborative - gather information on the source they will analyze and present interpretation of one on the fifth day of the experiment, through answering the source following the questions of the framework, using the game encyclopedia and framework, collection of following the indicated method primary sources and information on them through the encyclopedia 4th day (1 Answering student - use the game encyclopedia as a tool for learning hour) questions regarding the - cooperate in order to solve questions sources analysis - collect information on their selected source and use this process, information to start forming explanatory narratives on the Interact with peers content and meaning of the source.

5th day (2 Source analysis and - analyze and present one source per team, following the hours) interpretation by the correct methodology groups of students - use the game as a source to extract information on their source - understand the connection between the interpretation of a source and the understanding of basic information regarding the time when the source was created, proving it through their interpretation - offer insights on the content of each source based on their knowledge on the context of the source 6th day (1 Discussion - connect successfully the process of source analysis with the hour) understanding of its context.

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The most interesting part of this source presentation followed: students started offering explanations of the specific parts of the picture, for example they interpreted the sword as a reminder of Alexander‟s wars in the Persian area. According to the students‟ interpretations, the peoples depicted at the bottom of the picture were used by the artist to show that Alexander had been liked by the people he had conquered and this depiction was an homage to his intercultural politics – a clear echo of the movie‟s references to Alexander‟s politics of cultural assimilation: the artist wants to show he likes Alexander because “these peoples liked him, since he adopted their traditions and moral codes”, “he treated them well”, “they accepted him well as a conqueror” and so on. In order to justify the liking of the source‟s creator towards Alexander they used the discussions that followed the movie, initiating a process of comparison of different sources. However, they still did not use the game‟s sources of information like the encyclopedia, but drew from their previous knowledge and from discussion with their peers.

The process of collective interpretation of the sources became more elaborate with the second group of students close to the end of the experiment, when they were asked to interpret an 18th century mural painting showing Alexander as one of the four great kings, as the title suggested. The two students presenting the source could identify the historical period and discuss its basic characteristics after they searched about it in the game encyclopedia. They then suggested that the other three kings depicted were “Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian because these three emperors did good things for Christianity”. Since they could not explain how Christianity was connected to an ancient Greek king like Alexander, they continued searching the game‟s encyclopedia, as did their peers, in order to justify this connection. The conclusion was that:

[Fillip:] “it is logical to show Alexander next to the three kings the girls mentioned, because these kings ruled huge Greek empires. Why did the creator not put Leonidas next to Alexander? Because Leonidas was a king of a small Greek town and not of the whole Greece”.

To Fillip the artist‟s aim was to unite all Greeks against the common enemy, the Turks, by reminding them the glory of past times and their historical emperors who achieved this glory.

Another explanation was also given:

[Semeli:] “I am learning [from the source] that Alexander was honored during the Turkish rule. This is influenced by the fact that he had conquered the Ottomans in the old times”.

Despite the anachronism, she had managed to interpret the source based on the source‟s context.

The second group developed a different approach than that of the first group towards the use of the game as a learning tool, mainly due to the changes in the learning scenario and the activities. Participants in the second phase of the experiment focused on using the game as a learning tool and utilized the game‟s encyclopedia and the framework of questions extensively, in order to learn more about the actual historical sources and the process of their interpretation. This led to the integration of the game‟s objectives and the learning objectives, so that playing the game without practicing the process of source analysis became meaningless to them. At the same time, the cognitive objectives increased the players‟ interest in the whole process, as they added difficulty. This enhanced interest resulted in an increased motivation to participate and more co-operation and exchange of ideas and knowledge.

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Some of the more experienced players transformed into “experts”, becoming the center of a group of less experienced players, while all inexperienced game players, after an initial phase of frustration, formed a group of peripheral participants in the activity, with a number of them gradually evolving not only into flawless players but also into specialists on primary historical source interpretation. These students most often co-operated with their peers, first trying to understand and play the game, and later developing communities of practitioners in the process of analyzing the primary sources. Students who co-operated more with each other, mostly those who felt insecure either about their abilities as players or as learners, quickly became the centers of all classroom activity, as they moved on in the game play process methodically, using and reclaiming the framework for primary source interpretation, the encyclopedia of the game, the internet, as well as classroom discussions and feedback.

7: Discussion

Despite the fact that the second scenario functioned more exactly within our original pedagogical framework, the major difficulties we faced with both groups of students were connected to the nature of the discipline of history and its intake by the students. Seeing school history as a series of events to be memorized resulted in most students not being able to understand the reason why we should ask questions about the primary sources, as they tended to take their content at face value. For most students in both classrooms, learning history in school was connected to memorization of events that were meaningless to them, having nothing to do with their everyday life.

Another important barrier was that students could not express themselves easily when they had to use historical terms, or used them without understanding their meaning. To most of them, most historical names, places and events were baffling words with often confused anachronistic meanings; therefore they were unable to follow the line of reasons and consequences, or develop interpretations of the meanings of the sources. As this behavior emerged, especially in the second group of students, we focused on the extensive use of the framework of questioning the primary sources and on the repetitive collective analyses of the sources, in order to make the process clear for all students. As students gradually became acquainted with the process, through using the framework and trying to find justifiable answers to the questions in full negotiation with their peers, they started developing their own interpretations of the sources. As success in this procedure started to equal success in the whole enterprise and became more significant than just finishing the game quickly, students also showed sportsmanship and imitation of the students who behaved like role models (those who had become experts in negotiating the meanings of the sources). This co-operation was enriched by methodical and systematical use of the game‟s encyclopedia. If the game was to be used without careful planning of the activities accompanying it and without the discussions, co-operation and exchange of ideas that emerged during the classes, it would not be possible to create circumstances that would enable the analysis and interpretation of the primary sources.

The above findings lead to further thoughts and suggestions regarding the use of computer games as tools for learning, and regarding what one should be careful about when integrating games in the classroom. In addition, our findings are related to the development of epistemic games, pointing to specific issues that should be taken into account when such games are developed.

7.1: Planning a history lesson with a computer game

The students who responded better to the game and used it more effectively as a learning tool were those students that had relatively low performance (according to their teacher) when traditional learning methods were employed, a common finding in other similar experiments. On the contrary,

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students with higher performance did not respond as enthusiastically to the tool, and there were also students who lost their interest entirely before the end of the experiment. It seems that the game functioned more positively with students with low school achievement, through the creation of conditions for collaborative working and communal knowledge construction. Apart from the use of the game and the classroom conversations, the use of images and watching the movie were elements that enabled most of these students to participate more actively in the classroom. Some students were emancipated by the game along with the images and the conversations, while their peers who functioned effectively in traditional methods of learning could not handle alternative tools for learning as easily. 13,29

One part of the process of introducing computer games in the classroom which should be specifically taken into consideration is the design of educational activities to accompany it. The course structure, the activities that will enrich it, the learning material, and the learning methods used all require careful planning. As we saw earlier, changes in the design of the lesson and paying more attention to specific activities in the second experiment gave the lesson a completely different dimension, bringing the students closer to the aims of the experiment.

Last, educators who may want to use computer games in their classroom could combine them with other visual tools, such as film, images, presentations, maps, diagrams etc., thus allowing the students to understand meanings and relations more easily. The differences we saw between the students of the two teams were a consequence of having previously watched the movie along with the changes we made in the teaching plans. Since students with lower previous performance in traditional learning methods and reading worked better with a computer game, we could expect that upgrading the game experience with more visual aids would enhance their performance even more.

7.2: Designing games to teach history

Regarding the design of games for history education, there are two basic conclusions that came out of our research: first, a game which aims at learning the professional methodology must follow precisely the epistemology of the academic area; the learning outcomes must be closely aligned with the game‟s goals. The game we used focuses on the analysis of primary sources, also providing an encyclopedia and thus giving the chance for the players to experience the working methods of professional historians. Nevertheless, none of this would have happened if there were no teacher to plan learning activities that would frame gameplay. Therefore the game alone would only become an “excuse” for working with the primary sources. That was the main disadvantage of this game, the fact that it did not manage to connect the game‟s objectives to the learning ones. It could well be played and completed without players learning how to work with the sources, without even reading the text next to each one of them. In this sense, this game is not a complete tool for learning, a finding common in other cases of games use for education. In our case, convergence of the game‟s objectives with learning objectives was successful only after careful design of the experiment, so that the students‟ actions were directed to this purpose. But in regards to a game designed to be played by the player alone at home, without the involvement of a specialized adult, an epistemic game would be much more efficient if it could match the game‟s goals with the learning goals. 45

Second, in order to accommodate the game‟s use by all students, especially those with reading difficulties, a game for history education should have more pictures and less text. Students with learning difficulties and problems in understanding text, although they did not reach the level of their peers with better prior performance, made a huge cognitive and behavioral leap because of the introduction of the game. This leap was largely due to the pictorial nature of the sources. But when they were supposed to read the text that accompanied the sources, the same students faced major problems, which were a setback to their progress so far. Presenting information in the form of

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pictures, such as maps, diagrams, video etc., even taking advantage of multimedia presentation methods of distance education for history, adjusted to the age level of the students, may enhance learning, especially for students with problems in text comprehension. 46

8: Conclusion

Our research showed that a computer game can be used as an instructional tool in the history classroom when it is accompanied by a lesson plan designed according to the epistemology of the field. Peripheral activities such as communal negotiation of students‟ understandings and the supply of a framework to work with helped achieve the initial aims of the intervention. Of course the specific game we used had its limitations, but the data analysis showed that such limitations can be utilized creatively by the teacher in order to design learning scenarios that contain a computer game as a learning tool combined with the primary sources analysis methodology. In addition, as the specific game along with the final scenario can actually be used by the average teacher without much gaming experience and be integrated in the Greek curriculum for history education, the experiment‟s planning could be useful to history teachers who wish to use computer games but may be hesitant due to time or other practical restrictions.

References

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2 Taylor, T. (2003). Historical simulations and the future of the historical narrative. Journal of the Association of History and Computing, 6 (2)

3 Barab, S. & Squire, K. (2004). Design- Based Research: putting a stake in the ground, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13 (1), 1-14.

4 Stake, R. (1995). The art of case study research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

5 Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. New York: Sage.

6 Greek Pedagogical Institute (2004). Teachers‟ perceptions of history teaching in High School: curriculum, teaching methodology, assessment, training. Retrieved January 18, 2012, from http://www.pi- schools.gr/download/programs/erevnes/erevn_istor_lykeio/erevna.pdf.

7 Lee, P. (2005). Putting Principles into practice: Understanding history. How Students Learn: History in the Classroom. The National Academies Press, Washington D.C. retrieved January 2, 2011, from http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309089484&page=31

8 Cooper, H. (2000). The teaching of history in primary schools, Implementing the revised National Curriculum, London: David Fulton Publishers.

9 Husbands, C. (1996). What is history teaching? Language, ideas, and meaning in learning about the past. Buckingham: Open University Press.

10 Ashby, R. (2004). Developing a Concept of Historical Evidence: Students‟ Ideas about Testing Singular Factual Claims, International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research, 4 (4).

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11 Barton, K. (2001). Primary children‟s understanding of the role of historical evidence: comparisons between the United States and Northern Ireland, International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research, 1 (2).

12 Browning, J. (2009). Of Water Balloons and History: Using Wargames as Active Learning Tools to Teach the Historical Process, The History Teacher, 42 (3). Retrieved January 18, 2012, from http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/42.3/browning.html

13 Corbeil P. & Laveault D. (2011). „Validity of a simulation game as a method for history teaching‟, Simulation & Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 42 (4), 462- 475.

14 Becker, K. (2008). The invention of good games: understanding learning design in commercial video games, Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Calgary.

15 Egenfeldt- Nielsen, S. (2007). Third Generation Educational Use of computer games, Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16 (3), 263- 281.

16 Squire, K. (2005). Game-based learning, An X-learn perspective Paper, Masie Center e-Learning Consortium. Retrieved June 13, 2009, from http://newmediaforlearning.com/research/Game- Based_Learning.pdf.

17 Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K.D., Halverson, R., & Gee, J.P. (2005). Video games and the future of learning, Phi Delta Kappan, 87 (2), 104-111.

18 Berson, M. J. (1996). Effectiveness of Computer Technology in the Social Studies: A Review of the Literature, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 28, 486-99.

19 Amory, A. Naicker, K., Vincent, J. and Adams, C. (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: identification of appropriate game types and game elements, British Journal of Educational Technology, 30 (4), 311 – 321.

20 Pillay, H., Brownlee, J., Wilss, L. (1999). Cognition and Recreational Computer Games: Implications for Educational Technology, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32 (1), 203-16.

21 Reese, D. (2007). First steps and beyond: Serious games as preparation for future learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16 (3), 283-300.

22 Kardan, K. (2006). Computer role-playing games as a vehicle for teaching history, culture and language, Proceedings of the 2006 ACM SIGGRAPH symposium on Videogames, Boston, Massachusetts.

23 Lee, J.L. and Hoadley, C.M. (2006). “Ugly in a world where you can choose to be beautiful”: teaching and learning about diversity via virtual worlds, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Learning sciences (pp. 383 – 389), Bloomington, Indiana.

24 Ke, F. (2008). Computer games application within alternative classroom goal structures: cognitive, metacognitive and affective evaluation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56 (5-6), 539- 556.

25 Di Paola, S. & Akai, C. (2007). Blending Science knowledge and AI gaming techniques for experiential learning, Loading... , 1 (1). Retrieved January 3, 2011, from http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/8/10

26 Shaffer W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgarve Macmillan.

27 Gee, J.P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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28 Mavrommati M., Bousiou- Makridou D., (2010). Using Computer games to teach history, Academic Exchange Quarterly, 14 (4), 179-185.

29 Kee, K. (2011). Computerized history games: options for narratives, Simulation & Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 42 (4), 423-440.

30 Fogu, C. (2009). Digitalizing Historical Consciousness, History and Theory, 47, 103-121.

31 Friedman, A. (2005). Using digital primary sources to teach world history and world geography: practices, promises and provisos, Journal of the Association of History and Computing, 8 (1).

32 Squire K. & Barab S. (2004), Replaying History: Engaging Urban Underserved Students in Learning World History Through Computer Simulation Games. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Santa Monica.

33 Seed, P. (2007). Looking back: a decade of using games to teach history, 1996-2006. Proceedings of the First International HASTAC Conference, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.

34 Squire, K. (2008). Video games and education: designing learning systems for an interactive age. Educational Technology. 48 (2), 17-25.

35 Weir, K. & Baranowski, M. (2011). Simulating history to understand international politics. Simulation & Gaming: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 42 (4), 441-461.

36 Foundation of the Hellenic World (n.d.), Searching for Great Alexander (PC).

37 Brown, A. L. (1992). Design Experiments: Theoretical and Methodological challenges in Creating Complex Experiments in Classroom Settings, The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2 (2), 141-178.

38 Collins, A. (1992). Toward a design science of education. In Scanlon E. & O‟Shea T. (eds.) New directions in educational technology, Berlin: Springer.

39 The Design-Based Research Collective (2003). Design- Based Research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32 (1), 5-8.

40 Barton, K. (2008). Research on student‟s ideas about history. In Levstik L. & Tyson C.A. (Eds.) Handbook of research in social studies education, New York and London: Routlege.

41 Hoadley, C. (2004). Methodological alignment in Design- Based research, Educational Psychologist, 39 (4), 203-212.

42 Flick, O. (2007). Designing qualitative research, Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications.

43 Cleary, P. & Neumann, D. (2009). The Challenges of Primary Sources, Collaboration, and the K-16 Elizabeth Murray Project, The History Teacher, 43 (1). Retrieved January 18, 2012, from http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/43.1/cleary.html

44 Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

45 Egenfeldt- Nielsen, S. (2005). Beyond Edutainment: Exploring the Educational Potential of Computer Games, Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, IT University of Copenhagen.

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46 Mavrommati, M., Makridou- Bousiou, D. & Lionarakis, A. (2010). Historical education renewed : the case of Hellenic Open University, Proceedings of the IODL & ICEM 2010 Joint Conference and Media days (pp. 585-596), Eskisehir, Turkey.

Real time muscle texture morphing

Greg Penninck

Address: Faculty of Arts and Creative Technologies, Staffordshire University, Beaconside, Stafford, United Kingdom ST18 0AD E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper presents a method for Real Time Muscle Texture Morphing utilizing the Unreal Developer Kit (UDK). The method applies wrinkle map technology to a torso; whereby multiple textures for tense and relaxed body poses are imported into the Unreal engine. The textures are blended using a skeletal control system, which animates UDK‟s Scalar Material Options. The results show the system functions in real time (55.57 FPS) but has a 1.46 seconds / 2.62% decrease in FPS and a memory increase of 3.6MB / 5.91%.

Keywords: rigging, texturing, shaders, UDK, wrinkle maps, real time muscles

Article Information

Received: October 2012 Accepted: January 2013 Available: online April 2013

1: Introduction

Real time muscle creation takes two paths: 1-3

1 the creation of muscle meshes to support a skinned mesh; and, 2 the blending of textures for animation.

These solutions now feature in products such as 3D Studio Max (Autodesk, 2012) and Puppetshop (Lumonix, 2009). 4,5

This paper proposes that a real time texture blending system for a full body, such as in Fight Night Champion (Electronic Arts, 2011), can be integrated into the Unreal Developer Kit (Epic Games, 2009). Oat (2007) suggested that a texture blending system “involves compositing multiple wrinkle maps using a system of masks”. Texture blending systems using such techniques have been integrated by developers such as Diamant (2008) in the AAA title Uncharted. 6-8

Real time texture blending technology remains homogeneous and relies on Material Adjustment, as seen in the works of Diamant, CryTek and OC3 Entertainment. 8-10

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Epic Games state a material is “an asset which controls the visual appearance of a scene”. Materials are broken into multiple “Material Expressions” which connect together with a Lighting Model to produce an assets appearance. Material Expressions are a useful tool for displaying muscle changes as they can be animated as shown by Bryan Erck, this satisfies the requirement for muscles to change their form during body motion. 11,12

One approach to working with material expressions is shown by OC3 Entertainment and Epic Games in OC3‟s FaceFX System (OC3 Entertainment, 2012). Epic Games‟ integration of the FaceFX product works with the material expression “Scalar Parameter”; shown in Figure 1: 13

Scalar parameters adjust float / integer variables and are used in other systems such as the Wrinkle Maps in CryEngine (CryTek, 2012). 9

In both Epic‟s and CryTek‟s facial animation systems the adjustment of Scalar parameters / material sliders are connected with blended normal maps. Ben Cloward states the idea of a normal map is to “take all of the detail from the high poly model”. Artists such as Nick Zuccarello use normal maps to define muscle volume and fine detail such as veins. 7,9,14-15

Normal map data such as that produced by Nick Zuccarello requires a high polygon model. To create morphing normal maps, multiple high polygon assets are developed; an example of which can be seen in CryTek‟s Head Models show on the CryTek Wiki website. 9,15

Faces produced by CryTek and FaceFX blend between a variety of exaggerated and relaxed expressions. This is also an important factor for full body systems, as limbs also need to go through a range of relaxed and tensed states.

FaceFX and CryTek already use morphing normal maps for facial expressions. An example of this technology applied to the muscles of the body can be found in titles such as Fight Night Champion (Electronic Arts, 2011). Fight Night‟s muscle systems are not disclosed but the popping of the normal map is observable at run time. This paper takes the described normal mapping systems for facial blending used by Epic Games and CryTek and implements a full body approach in the Unreal Developer Kit. 6,9-10

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2: Method

A driver was required to blend the varying normal maps. Two industry approaches are FaceFX technology, which uses audio clips; and Kivisto lwarisl‟s muscle morph targets, which are driven by polygon size. 10,16

Neither of these approaches was appropriate because:

1 torso muscle poses do not synch with audio clips; and, 2 at the time of writing, polygon size cannot be exposed in the Unreal Developer Kit. This may be an option for full Unreal Engine licensees.

The chosen driver was bone rotations variables, such as pitch, roll and yaw. Rotation variables can be converted into a scalar parameter to blend textures, mirroring FaceFX and CryTek‟s use of sliders. An example of the application is listed in the table below: 9,10

Figure 2: possible Forearm rotations

The two states shown are blended via a linear interpolate in UDK. At run time the game will work out the Blend by calculating rotation change such as:

BlendAmount = (( MuscleUpperRotationThres - MuscleLowerRotationThres) - (ActualMuscleRotation - MuscleLowerRotationThres))/( MuscleUpperRotationThres - MuscleLowerRotationThres);

This equation has 2 aspects to note:

1 to calculate BlendAmount, data from Unreal‟s AnimTree and UScript need to be passed into the formula; and, 2 in UDK, rotation is not automatically handled in degrees: the conversion is often handled by a constant:17 UnrRotToDeg = 0.00549316540360483

To expose rotations, a custom Unreal Skeletal Controller was created as demonstrated by Cozmicaztaway and Epic Games. A Skeletal Controller grants access to the rotation parameters and links in with Epic Games‟ Animation Tree System. Animation Trees are useful as they provide a GUI for artists to customise settings. It is within this system that the parameters are setup to alter the blending materials. An example of the tree setup can be seen in Figure 3: 18-20

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Figure 3: Animation Tree

With the rotations entered into an Animation Tree they then need to be connected to character motions In Game. There are two options to test the animation tree:

1 place a Skeletal Mesh in a level and trigger the animations via Matinee as suggested by Busby et al; or, 2 script a custom game and implement the Skeletal Mesh as the player model. The second option was selected as it is then possible to test the Frames per Second Impact of full body player morphing. 21,22

The custom game code tied the Skeletal Control object and material functions with a Custom UDK Pawn. Examples of the Pawn‟s functions are shown on the next page, illustrating the conversion and utilisation of Unreal Units into a parameter to drive the blending of a material.

The code framework aimed to expose as many variables as possible so that artists can customise the blends rather than leaving the system fully automated (samples are shown in the appendix at the back of this paper).

Texture Break Down

The textures created for the project included diffuse, specular, masks and normal maps. An additional normal map was created which had pronounced veins to create the difference between relaxed and tensed muscle states. To control the blending of these states, a mask texture was developed that mirrored the functionality described by CryTek. 9

In this study, only two blending / morphing areas of the body were developed, the left and right arms. A large amount of wasted space is thus evident in the mask texture, which would be unlikely in a full character solution.

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Figure 4: Specular, Mask, Normal Map, Wrinkle Normal Map

Figure 5: Diffuse Map

Material Break Down

To blend between the normal maps a Material Network of nodes was created. The network tied together the developed textures with the Scalar parameters calculated in the code. Figure 6 shows the Mask texture is connected to the Right ForeArm Blend Scalar Parameter via a multiply. The mask is only ever activated once the correct value has been passed on via the code.

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Figure 6: Right Forearm Blend

Each individual wrinkle map is added together in a chain before the wrinkle map is added to the whole model, as shown in Figure 7 over-page. The add expression allows for an unlimited amount of wrinkle map zones; the solution shown adds the left and right arm masked wrinkle map areas:

Figure 7: Combining Wrinkle map zones

The mask is useful for masking out the normal map underneath before combination; Figure 8 shows this.

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Figure 8: Masking out the standard normal map

This method replaces the default torso normal and adds in a new tense: muscle map + veins.

The final combination of the maps is shown in Figure 9 (over-page), both the masked original and combined morphing areas are added together to produce the final Normal Map result.

Figure 9: adding the wrinkle map and standard normal map together

3: Results and Findings

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To test the system, three tests were devised:

1: Does the system work? For example, is the muscle change noticeable in the game engine?

2: To what degree does the system impact on Frames per Second?

3: Does the system alter the texture memory?

Test 1

The first test demonstrates the system working via an in game video capture; this can be seen at the following URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8F9APJmkE8&feature=g-upl

Successful visual changes can be seen as a torso goes through various tense and relaxed poses that loop over time. The following major changes can be observed on the video clip as follows:

- At 1 second of play the left arm bicep goes into a tense state, here you can see the normal map blend showing veins. A relaxed pose can be seen at 7 seconds of play into the video showing an alternate map. Between these states the effect is blended using the rotation change algorithm.

- Both arms at 3 seconds of play show double front bicep tense where the normal map is altered and veins become more prominent.

Test 2

To measure the impact of the system on real time performance, a Matinee sequence was developed. In this sequence the following features were included:

- Torso renders with and without the Wrinkle Normal Maps applied; - a console log to capture the screen after 4 seconds of play; - a frames per second rating; and, - a Camera fly through to ensure the torso renders were the same.

Figure 10 shows the standard Normal Map animating and rendering at 57.03 FPS (Frames per second):

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Figure 10: UDK No Wrinkle Map 57.03 FPS

Figure 11 (over-page) shows the Wrinkle Map rendering veins on the arms with the same animation at 55.57 FPS. The combination of the 2 Normal Map morphing areas has resulted in a drop in performance of 1.46 FPS.

During Test 2 additional copies of the Wrinkle Map torso were also rendered to test the scalability of the technique. It was found that the drop in FPS was about 1.5 FPS per additional torso.

Figure 11: UDK Wrinkle Map 55.57 FPS

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Test 3

Test 3 evaluated how much additional memory the system used. The Wrinkle Map torso had an additional Normal Map and Mask when compared to the No Wrinkle Map Torso. The setup was the same as Test 2 but also evaluated the total scene memory, which was done by using the UDK command stat memory. Within the listed stats was texture memory, whilst this is a total value for the whole scene it is possible to compare this value as only the models were changed.

The no wrinkle map torso scene used 60.93MB as shown in Figure 12 (over-page) whilst the wrinkle map torso used 64.53MB as seen in Figure 13. The difference then between the 2 systems is 3.6mb in this case.

All renders were captured on the following machine specification:

Macbook Pro Intel Core i5 M540 @ 2.53 GHz 4GB Ram NVidia 230M

Figure 12: UDK No Wrinkle Map Memory Reading 60.93MB

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Figure 13: UDK Wrinkle Map Memory Reading 64.53MB

4: Conclusion

The system succeeds in its goal of real time muscle texture morphing in UDK. The solution provides controls for texture masking and animation tree customisation. It is not without its limitations, which are discussed below.

The code calls morphing blending every 10th of a second. Lowering the speed of the call makes the blending very visible. This requirement spread across further muscle groups could be a performance issue.

The driver of the muscle group morph in this paper was the bone rotation. Comparing performance against polygon tension / crunching algorithms may provide a faster solution than bone rotation. The benefit bone rotation gives in comparison to crunching algorithms is that it provides 3 axis of rotation to track. The solution in this paper tracks one of these axis i.e. pitch / yaw, if all 3 axes were included it would allow for more potential blends but potentially lower FPS. 16,23

The blends themselves require texture memory; CryTek and Epic Games showed ways of calculating 2 normal maps from one texture to reduce this requirement. 7,9,11,13,18,19,24

This paper has focused primarily on multiple normal maps, but other methods also exist for displacing and creating the illusion of detail. It would be interesting to test the DX 11 tessellation technology as shown by Mittring and Dudash. Tessellation utilises only greyscale values, as described in Epic Games, and thus may not suffer from the masking complication of combining maps that occurs with normal maps. 25

The memory comparison tests reported an increase of 3.6MB when the wrinkle map system was used. Applying the blending to more areas and on multiple characters will have a greater impact on memory. The significance of this impact on the memory, and the additional impact on the frames per second, both need to be tested in additional ways:

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- Deployed on mainstream consoles such as an X-Box / Playstation. The testing machine (MacBook Pro) has dissimilar hardware to most gaming machines/consoles; - the system needs to be implemented on a complete character. Additional muscles zones will increase system requirements; - Does the system scale? We discovered that rendering additional models reduced the FPS by 1.5 FPS. This does not prove scalability; just that the reduction is almost constant on the Macbook. It still remains unanswered what the FPS significance would be on several entire characters.

Another technical consideration is skin rendering. CryEngine, UDK and Unity use Sub Surface Scattering shaders to fake the filtering of light through the skin. The DX 11 version of UDK has an implementation of such as a shader, but it has not been integrated into this paper. Adding such shaders would help to give a more accurate reading of the performance cost of the morphing normal maps. Regardless of the technical constraints, is the change visible / beneficial to the game? Future work could test the effects of our technique on players' perceptions. 7,9,21

References

1 Yang, X.; Zhang, J.J. (2006) Automatic muscle generation for character skin deformation. Computer Animation and Virtual Worlds 17, pp293–303

2 Galda, T.J. (2008) Advanced Character Rigging: Creating Advanced Tendon and Muscle Systems. 1st ed. Lulu, USA

3 Oat, C. (2007) „Real Time Wrinkle Maps.‟ Siggraph 2007. San Diego Convention Center, USA 5-9 August 2007, USA

4 Autodesk, 2012. 3D Max Features. http://www.usa.autodesk.com/3ds-max/features/ [accessed 08 June 12]

5 Lumonix, 2012. PuppetShop. http://lumonix.net/puppetshop.html [accessed 08 June 12] 6 Electronic Arts (2011). Fight Night Champion [DISC].

7 Epic Games (2009). Unreal Developer Kit [DISC].

8 Diamant, R. (2008) „Maya Integration and Use with Autodesk 3ds Max and Autodesk.‟ GDC. San Francisco, 2008.

9 CryTek. 2012. Wrinkle Map Creation. http://www.crydev.net/wiki/index.php?title=AssetCreation_WrinkleMapCreation&oldid=19264 [accessed 08 June 12].

10 OC3 Entertainment (2012). FaceFx Documentation. http://www.facefx.com/documentation/2012/W76 [accessed 07/06/2012]

11 Epic Games (2012). Feature List. http://udk.com/features [accessed 08 June 12]

12 Erck, B. (2009) Unreal VFX - Material Transitions. [DVD] Published by Eat3D, USA

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