ITEA Standards for Technological Literacy

Standards for Technological Literacy Standards for Technological Literacy

Content for the Study of Technology Study of Technology Content for the

International Technology Education Association Technology for All Americans Project 1914 Association Drive, Suite 201 Reston, VA 20191-1539 Phone (703) 860-2100 Fax (703) 860-0353 Email [email protected] URL www.iteaconnect.org ISBN: 1-887101-02-0 ird Edition

Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology

Third Edition

International Technology Education Association and its

Technology for All Americans Project This material is based upon work supported by the following: National Science Foundation under Grant No. ESI-9626809 and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NCC5-172. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recom- mendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Copyright © 2007, 2002, 2000 by the International Technology Education Association. All Rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 1-887101-02-0 Copies of this document are being disseminated by the International Technology Education Association 1914 Association Drive, Suite 201 Reston, Virginia 20191-1539 Phone: (703) 860-2100 Fax: (703) 860-0353 Email: [email protected] URL: www.iteaconnect.org Contents

DEDICATION iv

FOREWORD v

PREFACE vii

CHAPTER 1 Preparing Students for a Technological World 1

2 Overview of Standards for Technological Literacy 11

3 The Nature of Technology 21

4 Technology and Society 55

5 Design 89

6 Abilities for a Technological World 113

7 The Designed World 139

8 Call to Action 199

APPENDIX

A History of the Technology for All Americans Project 208

B Listing of Technological Literacy Standards 210

C Compendium 211

D Articulated Curriculum Example for Grades K-12 215

REFERENCES 221

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 227

GLOSSARY 236

INDEX 243 Dedication

his publication is dedicated to two individuals Twho played a significant role in creating this project and then assisting with its early stages—Dr. Walter B. Waetjen (1920–1997) and Mr. Thomas A. Hughes, Jr. The project was launched because of their dedication and proceeded because of their enthusiasm to advance the teaching of technology. Their spirit and pur- suit of excellence have served as guides in the creation of these standards for technology. Foreword

e are a nation increasingly dependent on technology. Yet, in spite of this dependence, U.S. society is largely ignorant of the history and fundamental nature of W the technology that sustains it. The result is a public that is disengaged from the decisions that are helping shape its technological future. In a country founded on democ- ratic principles, this is a dangerous situation.

Thankfully, in Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology (Standards for Technological Literacy/STL), we have a tool to help us address the mismatch between dependency and understanding. Through an arduous four-year process, involving many levels of review and count- less revisions, the International Technology Education Association has successfully distilled an essential core of tech- nological knowledge and skills we might wish all K-12 students to acquire.

It is worth noting that the view of technological literacy spelled out in these standards includes reference to computers and the Internet, but it correctly does not focus unduly on these technologies, which comprise only a small part of our vast human-built world.

The standards and associated benchmarks in this document have been carefully written to ensure they are age appropriate. They are crafted to build increasingly sophisticated under- standing and ability as students mature. In this way, Standards for Technological Literacy provides an ambitious framework for guiding student learning.

v The standards should not be viewed as static and immutable. Rather, Standards for Technological Literacy — as is true for all good standards — will undergo periodic reassessment and reevaluation. It is very much a living document.

It is not enough that the standards are published. To have an impact, they must influence what happens in every K-12 classroom in America. This will not happen without the development of new curricula, textbooks, and student assess- ments, to name just a few of the more important factors. And, certainly, it cannot happen without the participation of teachers — all teachers, not just technology educators.

Indeed, the standards cannot succeed without the concerted effort of many stakeholder groups. In this regard, I urge all readers to review Chapter 8, Call to Action. As anyone involved in U.S. education knows, meaningful and lasting change occurs over many years, if not decades. While we need to be aware of this long timeline, we should not be discouraged by it. There is much to be done and much to be hopeful about. The ITEA standards provide a clear vision for the many indi- viduals and organizations around the country committed to enhancing the technological literacy of the nation.

William A. Wulf President National Academy of Engineering

vi Preface

ith the growing importance of technology to our society, it is vital that students receive an educa- tion that emphasizes technological literacy. W Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of Technology (referred to henceforth as Standards for Technological Literacy or STL) presents a vision of what students should know and be able to do in order to be technologically literate. These standards do not attempt to define a curriculum for the study of technology; that is something best left to states and provinces, school districts, and teachers. Instead, as the name implies, the standards describe what the content of technology education should be in Grades K-12. By setting forth a consistent content for technology education in schools around the country, Standards for Technological Literacy will help ensure that all students receive effective instruction about technology.

Standards for Technological Literacy was created under the aegis of the International Technology Education Association and its Technology for All Americans Project (see Appendix A), and hundreds of educators and professionals have par- ticipated in its development and revision. We thank every- one who was involved in this important consensus-building process. As a result of their efforts, we believe that Standards for Technological Literacy can be a catalyst for reform, bring- ing about significant change in the study of technology and resulting in the recognition of technology education as an essential core field of study in the schools.

vii Anyone interested in seeing that students receive a high-quality and relevant education, particularly those involved in decisions about what our schools teach, should find this document useful. The document’s intended audience includes teachers, curriculum developers, school administrators, teacher educa- tors, school board members, parents, engineers, business leaders, and others in the educational community, as well as the community as a whole.

Standards for Technological Literacy does not represent an end, but a beginning. In other fields of study, developing standards has often proven to be the easiest step in a long, arduous process. Therefore, we can predict that getting these technol- ogy standards accepted and implemented in Grades K-12 in every school will be far more difficult than developing them has been. Only through the combined efforts of educational decision-makers everywhere will we be able to ensure that all students develop higher levels of technological literacy.

This work has been made possible by the generous support of the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and we would like to express our appreciation to both agencies. We are excited about the difference that Standards for Technological Literacy can make, and we urge each of you to work collaboratively to use it as a basis for improving the study of technology.

William E. Dugger, Jr. Anthony F. Gilberti Director President, 1999-2000 Technology for All Americans Project International Technology Education International Technology Education Association Association

viii Preparing Students for 1 a Technological World

H umans have been called the animals that make things, and at no time in history has that been so apparent as the present. Today, every human activity is dependent upon various tools, machines, and systems, from

growing food and providing shelter

to communication, healthcare, and entertainment. Some machines, like

the tractor, speed up and make more

efficient activities that humans have done for hundreds or thousands of

years. Others, such as the airplane or the Internet, make possible things that humans have never been able to do before. This collection of devices, capabilities, and the knowledge that accompanies them is called technology. The Need for Technological Literacy Preparing Students for Technology has been going on since humans first formed a blade a Technological World 1 from a piece of flint, harnessed fire, or dragged a sharp stick across the ground to create a furrow for planting seeds, but today it exists to a degree unprecedented in history. Planes, trains, and automobiles carry people and cargo from place to roadly speaking, B place at high speeds. Telephones, television, and computer technology is how people networks help people communicate with others across the street or around the world. Medical technologies, from vaccines to modify the natural world to suit magnetic resonance imaging, allow people to live longer, their own purposes. From the healthier lives. Furthermore, technology is evolving at an extraordinary rate, with new technologies being created Greek word techne, meaning art and existing technologies being improved and extended. or artifice or craft, technology All this makes it particularly important that people understand literally means the act of and are comfortable with the concepts and workings of modern technology. From a personal standpoint, people benefit both making or crafting, but more at work and at home by being able to choose the best products for their purposes, to operate the products properly, and to generally it refers to the diverse troubleshoot them when something goes wrong. And from a collection of processes and societal standpoint, an informed citizenry improves the chances that decisions about the use of technology will be made knowledge that people use to rationally and responsibly. extend human abilities and to For these reasons and others, in the past several years a growing satisfy human needs and wants. number of voices have called for the study of technology to be included as a core field of study in elementary, middle, and secondary schools. Among the experts who have addressed the issue, the value and importance of teaching about technology is widely accepted. Despite this consensus, however, technology laboratory- classrooms, the formal environment in the school where the study of technology takes place, are available in only a small number of elementary, middle, and secondary schools around the country. A few school districts have put comprehensive technology programs in place, and a handful of states and provinces have set forth technology standards, but nationwide most students receive little or no formal exposure to the study of technology. They are graduating with only a minimal understanding of one of the most powerful forces shaping society today.

2 CHAPTER 1 Preparing Students for a Technological World

The reasons for this situation are not hard to education) is a mystery to many teachers and find. One is simple inertia. To keep doing administrators. As a field of study that has what one has been doing is always easier than evolved over the past fifteen to twenty years learning to do something new. A bigger from industrial arts programs, technology reason, though, lies with the pressures on the education is just beginning to establish a new educational system today. The back-to-basics identity that people outside the field recog- push has emphasized competency in such nize and understand. There is still widespread traditional courses as English, mathematics, confusion about the differences between science, history, and social studies, but technology education and educational technology has never been a basic part of technology, which uses technology as a tool education for most students. Furthermore, to enhance the teaching and learning process. the growing emphasis on standardized The standards and enabling benchmarks in competency tests has encouraged schools to this document have been developed to help teach to those tests, which generally contain clear up this confusion and to build the case few questions gauging technological literacy. for technological literacy by setting forth So, squeezed for time and resources, relatively precisely what the outcomes of the study of few local school districts and states or technology should be. Technology teachers, provinces have opted for what they see as the as well as science and mathematics teachers, luxury of including the study of technology and other educators and experts from as part of the core curriculum. around the country, collaborated to spell out Compounding these problems is the fact what students in kindergarten through that the study of technology (technology twelfth grade should be learning about

3 1 technology. These people, along with industries, from steel and petrochemicals curriculum specialists and representatives to computer chips and household appliances. from the National Research Council and the They investigate transportation, information National Academy of Engineering, reviewed processing, and medical technology. They Standards for Technological Literacy and even look into new technologies, such as suggested changes and additions. The result genetic engineering or emerging technol- is a document that both defines the study of ogies, such as fusion power that is still years technology as a field of study and provides a or decades away. road map for individual teachers, schools, Because technology is so fluid, teachers of school districts, and states or provinces that technology tend to spend less time on specific want to develop technological literacy in all details and more on concepts and principles. students. The goal is to produce students with a more The standards presented here do more than conceptual understanding of technology and provide a checklist for the technological its place in society, who can thus grasp and facts, concepts, and capabilities that evaluate new bits of technology that they students should master at each level. might never have seen before. Along the way, they explain how and why technological literacy fits with the broad To this end, Standards for Technological mission of schools, and they describe the Literacy emphasizes comprehension of the benefits of the study of technology for basic elements that go into any technology. students. In short, they make the case for One of these elements, for example, is the why — despite inertia, despite the back-to- design process, the main approach that basics movement, despite the growing engineers, designers, and others in technology emphasis on standardized competency use to create solutions to problems. Another exams, and despite the various other is development and production, whereby the pressures on educators — the study of design is transformed into a finished technology should be an integral part product, and a system is created to produce of the curriculum of our schools. it. A third element is the use and main- tenance of the product, which can determine Learning About Technology the product’s success or failure. Each of these steps in the technological process demands Students who study technology learn about its own set of skills and mental tools. the technological world that inventors, engineers, and other innovators have created. Besides understanding how particular They study how energy is generated from technologies are developed and used, students coal, natural gas, nuclear power, solar power, should be able to evaluate their effects on and wind, and how it is transmitted and other technologies, on the environment, and distributed. They examine communications on society itself. The benefits of a technology systems: telephone, radio and television, are usually obvious — if they were not, it satellite communications, fiber optics, the would probably never be developed — but Internet. They delve into the various the disadvantages and dangers are often manufacturing and materials-processing hidden. When chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

4 CHAPTER 1 Preparing Students for a Technological World were invented, for example, no one realized problems. Engineers, architects, computer that these chemicals used as refrigerants and scientists, technicians, and others involved in blowing agents for foam would eventually technology use a variety of approaches to damage the ozone layer. Today, the Internet is problem solving, including troubleshooting, having profound effects on society — how research and development, invention, people interact and communicate with one innovation, and experimentation. Students another, how they do business, and how they will become familiar with these approaches get their entertainment and recreation — but and learn about the appropriate situations in no one knows exactly what to expect from it which to use them. They will also learn that in the long run. design (sometimes called “technological design”) is the primary problem-solving One of the basic lessons in studying approach in technology. In learning to design, technology is that not only can technology students will master a set of abilities that will be used to solve problems, but it may also serve them well throughout their lives. create new ones. Many of these new prob- lems can be solved or ameliorated by yet The design process generally begins with more technology, but this may in turn beget other problems, and so on. Technologies inevitably involve trade-offs between benefits and costs. Intelligent decisions made about a technology need to take both into account. Students should come to see each technology as neither good nor bad in itself, but one whose costs and benefits should be weighed to decide if it is worth developing.

Learning to Do Technology One of the great benefits of learning about technology is also learning to do technology, that is, to carry out in the laboratory-classroom many of the processes that underlie the development of technology in the real world. Recent research on learning finds that many students learn best in experiential ways — by doing, rather than only by seeing or hearing — and the study of technology emphasizes and capitalizes on such active learning. For instance, students in technology laboratory-classrooms are taught practical problem-solving skills and are asked to put them to work on different types of real-world

5 1 identifying and defining a problem — there exercises that follow a preset series of steps is some need to be met or some want to be cannot. In other words, design exercises fulfilled, and the designer must understand encourage active learning rather than exactly what it is. After investigating and passive learning. researching the problem, the designer In addition to problem-solving skills, generates a number of ideas for a solution. students are given opportunities to use and Because it is particularly helpful for several maintain technological products correctly, people to brainstorm ideas, students will again with an emphasis on learning how to generally work in groups at this stage. Then, learn. Because it would be impossible to considering the original criteria, along with instruct students on every product they various constraints, one design — or, in some might encounter, they are given experience cases, more than one — is chosen as the most with some common tools and systems to promising. The selected design is modeled gain familiarity with the basic principles of and tested, and then reevaluated. If necessary, using and maintaining technological the original design is dropped and another is products. They are also taught how to learn tried. Eventually, through a series of about products on their own — by reading iterations, repeating the various steps of the instructions, or searching for information process as necessary, a final design is chosen. on the Internet, for instance. The This design process can be applied to almost confidence and familiarity with technology any sort of design. In one elementary school that they acquire will prepare students to classroom, for instance, the students were deal intelligently with current and future asked to design and build a “pop rocket” to technological products. demonstrate Newton’s Third Law. In high school technology laboratory-classrooms, Technological Studies one assignment might be to design a water- as an Integrator purification system for a catfish farm. One of the first lessons that students learn from Perhaps the most surprising message to exercises like these is that there are many emerge from Standards for Technological possible solutions to a technological Literacy — surprising, at least, to those who problem, and that while some answers are have not themselves taught technology classes clearly wrong — they don’t work, or they — is the role technological studies can play work poorly — there is no such thing as in students’ learning of other subjects. When “the” correct answer. taught effectively, technology is not simply one more field of study seeking admission to Such design projects are inevitably more an already crowded curriculum, pushing than just mental exercises. Students others out of the way. Instead, it reinforces generally work in teams when building and complements the material that students models of their design proposals, and, learn in other classes. depending on the device, they may build working prototypes as well. Such hands-on As envisioned by the standards in the learning engages the students in a way that following chapters, the study of technology is lectures, problem solving on paper, or lab a way to apply and integrate knowledge from

6 CHAPTER 1 Preparing Students for a Technological World

Technology many other subject areas is the modi- — not just mathematics, fication of science, and computer the natural classes, but also the liberal environment and fine arts. Consider, for in order to satisfy instance, a field trip taken perceived by a class of fourth-graders human needs in Michigan to Greenfield and wants. Village, a historical museum with restored houses and shops. The class had just finished a history unit on America at the turn of the twentieth century, which prepared them for what they would find. While there, each class member chose an artifact of a particular technology used at the time — a threshing machine, for instance, or a light bulb, or a car, or a Technological clothes washing machine literacy is the — and acted as a reporter ability to use, manage, by quizzing the docents for details about that device. assess, and and it reinforced lessons from other parts of understand Later, each student sketched and determined the curriculum. The assignment brought technology. the proper scale needed to make a model of turn-of-the-century America to life in history the artifact he or she had chosen. The class; it exercised composition skills from students made models and prepared reports English class; and it allowed the students to on the devices, including such information as apply what they had learned in a motion and their purpose, how they were made, how they forces unit in science class. As teachers all were used, their roles in the economic and know, having students apply material in a way social life of the village, and a description of that captures their interest and imagination is how they worked. Afterward, the class worked the best way to make sure they retain it. And together to develop and create a video that when students can bring together lessons would describe the technology of Greenfield from several classes or content areas, they truly Village as a part of a communications make the material their own. technology unit for future fourth-grade classes. The assignment taught the students a Such integration among subjects is easiest in good deal about the technology of the era, elementary schools where the same teacher

7 1 with others in the delivery of tech- nological studies; in the middle grades, much of the teaching about technology can be done in units taught by inter- disciplinary teams; and in high school technology should be taught in stand-alone courses as well as being integrated into the rest of the curriculum. Because instruction becomes increasingly specialized at higher grade levels, inte- grating technology with other subjects can be more diffi- cult, but the payoffs are proportionately higher. As subjects become more compartmentalized, students find it more difficult to see how they intersect with one another or to understand the place handles most or all of a student’s classes of each in the world outside. Technology during the school day and does not have laboratory-classrooms provide a neutral to work with several other teachers to ground for different subjects to come coordinate lesson plans. At the elementary together, often in the guise of devising a level, the standards are designed to be solution to some practical problem. A implemented in the regular classroom by typical assignment might be to design a car teachers with appropriate in-service training. with certain characteristics — being crash- In middle and high schools, by contrast, worthy, energy efficient, or using alternative licensed technology teachers should work fuels. In developing their designs, students 8 CHAPTER 1 Preparing Students for a Technological World

could operate various computer programs People who are unfamiliar with technology and perhaps retrieve information from the tend to think of it purely in terms of its Internet, apply lessons from physics or artifacts: computers, cars, televisions, chemistry classes, and use skills from their toasters, pesticides, flu shots, solar cells, mathematics classes as well. In researching genetically engineered tomatoes, and all the background to their problem, they the rest. But to its practitioners and to the might delve into the history of the car and people who study it, technology is more how it has shaped American society in the accurately thought of in terms of the twentieth century. They might use statistics knowledge and the processes that create to analyze automobile fatality rates at these products, and these processes are different speeds and in cars of various sizes. intimately dependent upon many factors They could study the chemistry or the in the outside world. health effects of the ozone smog afflicting Technology is the modification of the natural cities, or they could analyze the economics environment in order to satisfy perceived of gasoline prices. In an attempt to human needs and wants. To determine what understand the world’s petroleum reserves, those needs and wants are and to figure out they might study geology and explore how how to satisfy them, one must consider a petroleum is formed. When writing a wide range of factors simultaneously. For this report on their final product, they would reason, although the study of technology may need to do so in clear prose, probably with sometimes be a separate subject, it can never a bibliography. They might even translate be an isolated subject, cut off from the rest of it into a second language or convert it into the curriculum. HTML format for access on the Internet. Many teachers have reported that this sort Technological Literacy of real-world problem solving helps students with their other courses by making the Standards for Technological Literacy is subject matter meaningful to them. The designed as a guide for educating students best way to learn something — to truly in developing technological literacy. master and retain it, not just to learn it well Technological literacy is the ability to use, enough to pass a test — is to apply it. This, manage, assess, and understand technology. of course, is the rationale for lab sessions in A technologically literate person chemistry class, word problems in understands, in increasingly sophisticated mathematics, and conversational periods in ways that evolve over time, what technology French. But technology classes take this is, how it is created, and how it shapes logic one step further because students are society, and in turn is shaped by society. expected to synthesize and apply informa- He or she will be able to hear a story about tion from other subjects as well as from technology on television or read it in the within the study of technology. In this way, newspaper and evaluate the information in they learn to make connections among the story intelligently, put that information different fields of study and begin to in context, and form an opinion based on understand how all knowledge is that information. A technologically literate interconnected. person will be comfortable with and 9 1 objective about technology, neither scared of On the societal level, technological literacy it nor infatuated with it. should also help citizens make better decisions. As the 21st century dawns, new Such technological literacy benefits students technologies will open up possibilities for in a number of ways. For the future engineers, humankind that have never existed before. the aspiring architects, the students who will This power will bring with it hard choices. have jobs in one area of technology or Do we place limits on the flow of another, it means they will leave high school information? How much heed do we pay to with a head start on their careers. They will the worries that genetic engineering could already understand the basics of such things as lead to the inadvertent creation of the design process, and they will have a big unwelcome new species? At the same time, picture of the field they are entering, allowing older, established technologies will also them to put the specialized knowledge they demand that choices be made: Should we, learn later into a broader context. for instance, cut back sharply on carbon But technological literacy is important dioxide emissions in an attempt to slow for all students, even those who will not down global warming? go into technological careers. Because In the United States, such decisions will be technology is such an important force in greatly influenced by individual citizens. In our economy, anyone can benefit by being some countries, average citizens have little familiar with it. Corporate executives and input into technological decision making, others in the business world, brokers and which is left to a technological elite or the investment analysts, journalists, teachers, country’s rulers. But the political structure of doctors, nurses, farmers and homemakers the United States is open, and regular citizens all will be able to perform their jobs better can — and generally do — shape techno- if they are technologically literate. logical issues through their legislators, through On the individual level, technological public hearings, and through court cases. literacy helps consumers better assess Having a technologically literate citizenry may products and make more intelligent buying not guarantee that the best decisions are made decisions: What are the important factors in on these knotty, contentious issues, but it evaluating the latest computer or electronic certainly improves the odds. device? Should I avoid genetically engineered Our world will be very different 10 or 20 years food? Should I put my infant in cloth or from now. We have no choice about that. We disposable diapers? A few years from now do do, however, have a choice whether we march I buy a solar-powered car or one that runs on into that world with our eyes open, deciding hydrogen? Among people who have no for ourselves how we want it to be, or whether familiarity with or basis for evaluating we let it push us along, ignorant and helpless technological products, some of these to understand where we’re going or why. decisions will be based simply on guesswork, Technological literacy will make a difference. gut feelings, or emotional responses.

10 Overview of Standards for 2 Technological Literacy

Because of the power of today’s technological processes, society and individuals need to decide what, how, and when to develop or use various technological systems. Since technological issues and problems have more than one available solution,

decision-making should reflect the

values of the people and help them reach their goals. Such decision-making

depends upon all citizens, both indi-

vidually and collectively, acquiring a basic level of technological literacy —

the ability to use, manage, and understand technology.

Technology for All Americans: A Rationale and Structure for the Study of Technology 1996 The foundation for Standards for Technological Literacy was laid Overview of Standards for with the publication of Technology for All Americans: A Rationale Technological Literacy and Structure for the Study of Technology (Rationale and 2 Structure). The Rationale and Structure presents the structure and content for the study of technology, and Standards for Technological Literacy is an extension and elaboration of that Standards for Technological earlier work. Literacy presents, in a Standards for Technological Literacy coherent manner, what students Technology programs across the United States generally have should know and be able to do varying structures and content. Thus, a student who takes a technology course in one area of the country may not receive in order to achieve a high level the same core information or study the same basic concepts and of technological literacy. In principles as a student in another area, even when the course titles are the same or nearly so. Standards for Technological other words, the standards Literacy offers a way to provide a consistent content for the study prescribe what the outcomes of technology that will enhance the learning of K-12 students no matter where they live and what their future goals may be. of the study of technology in In the following chapters, Standards for Technological Literacy grades K-12 should be, but they lays out what should be learned and accomplished by each student in the study of technology at four levels, beginning with do not put forth a curriculum Grades K-2 and continuing through 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12. The to achieve those outcomes. standards and benchmarks are tailored to be age and gender appropriate and are planned so that the material at each level Standards for Technological builds on, amplifies, and extends the standards and benchmarks Literacy also is designed to act of earlier grades. Furthermore, the standards and benchmarks have been designed to prescribe the content knowledge and as a catalyst for educational abilities of what students should know and be able to do in reform. order to be technologically literate.

12 CHAPTER 2 Overview of Standards for Technological Literacy

Standards for Features of Standards for Technological Technological Literacy Literacy lays out what Standards for Technological Literacy was should be created with the following basic features: learned and accomplished • It offers a common set of expectations for by each student what students in technology laboratory- in the study of classrooms should learn. technology at • It is developmentally appropriate for four levels. students. • It provides a basis for developing mean- ingful, relevant, and articulated curricula at the local, state, and provincial levels. • It promotes content connections with other fields of study in Grades K-12. Standards for Technological Literacy is not a curriculum. A curriculum provides the specific details on how the content is to be delivered, including organization, balance, and the various ways of presenting the content in the laboratory-classroom, while for such an assessment. Assessment practices standards describe what the content should deal with how well students learn the content be. Curriculum developers, teachers, and put forth in Standards for Technological others should use Standards for Technological Literacy . Closely tied with assessment is how Literacy as a guide for developing well a teacher has directly taught and guided appropriate curricula, but the standards do students in the learning process, as well as not specify what should go on in the how much support the school and school laboratory-classroom. district have provided in this effort. The ultimate goal in any educational assessment In laying out the essentials for the study of process is to be able to determine how well technology, Standards for Technological each student is attaining technological literacy Literacy represents a recommendation from in Grades K-12. Assessment takes place in educators, engineers, scientists, mathe- many forms, from daily records of students’ maticians, and parents about what skills work, interviews, quizzes and tests, and and knowledge are needed in order to portfolios of longitudinal activities in the become technologically literate. It is not, laboratory-classroom, to standardized tests however, a federal policy or mandate. administered by the school system or state. Standards for Technological Literacy does not Plans for comprehensive assessment prescribe an assessment process for throughout the student’s education must be determining how well students are meeting designed, implemented, and continually the standards, although it does provide criteria monitored. 13 Benchmarks in Format of Standards for to do in order to be technologically literate, Standards for Technological Literacy and it offers criteria to judge progress Technological The individual standards presented in toward a vision of technological literacy for Literacy all students. There are a total of 20 provide the Standards for Technological Literacy are standards in this document and the fundamental organized into five major categories, each of content ele- which is addressed in a separate chapter: individual standards fall into two types: what students should know and understand 2 ments for the 1. The Nature of Technology (Chapter 3) broadly stated about technology, and what they should be 2. Technology and Society (Chapter 4) standards. able to do. The first type, which could be 3. Design (Chapter 5) termed “cognitive” standards, sets out basic 4. Abilities for a Technological World knowledge about technology — how it (Chapter 6) works, and its place in the world — that 5. The Designed World (Chapter 7) students should have in order to be Each chapter begins with a narrative that technologically literate. The second type, defines a category, explains the importance of the “process” standards, describes the each topic within a category, and gives a brief abilities that students should have. The two overview of the chapter. The standards in types of standards are complementary. For Chapter 3 ask that students understand what example, a student can be taught in a lecture technology is, become familiar with its about a design process, but the ability to concepts, and recognize the relationships actually use a design process and to apply it between technology and other fields of study. for finding a solution to a technological Chapter 4 examines the use of technology in problem comes only with hands-on a broader context by examining its effects on experiences. Likewise, it is difficult to human society and the physical environment, perform a design process effectively without by exploring how societal factors shape having some theoretical knowledge of how technology, and by tracing the history of it is usually done. See Appendix B for a technology. The standards in Chapter 5 focus comprehensive listing of the standards. on a cognitive understanding of a design process with an emphasis on the attributes of Benchmarks design, the engineering design process, and other problem-solving approaches. Chapter 6 Benchmarks in Standards for Technological deals with developing abilities in designing, Literacy provide the fundamental content making, developing, operating, maintaining, elements for the broadly stated standards. managing, and assessing technological Benchmarks, which are statements that products and systems. Chapter 7 covers provide the knowledge and abilities that selecting, using, and understanding major enable students to meet a given standard, technologies that are common today. See are provided for each of the 20 standards Table 2.1 for a listing of the chapters and the at the K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12 grade levels. standard topics. The benchmarks are identified by an alphabetical listing (e.g., A, B, C) and are Standards highlighted in bold type. They are followed Standards for Technological Literacy specifies by supporting sentences (not in bold) that what every student should know and be able provide further detail, clarity, and examples. 14 CHAPTER 2 Overview of Standards for Technological Literacy

TABLE 2.1 Listing of Standards for Technological Literacy

CHAPTERS STANDARDS 3 1 The characteristics and scope of technology.

Students will develop an 2 The core concepts of technology. understanding of The Nature of Technology. This includes 3 The relationships among technologies and the acquiring knowledge of: connections between technology and other fields.

4 The cultural, social, economic, and political 4 effects of technology.

Students will develop an 5 The effects of technology on the environment. understanding of Technology and Society. This includes 6 The role of society in the development and use learning about: of technology. 7 The influence of technology on history.

5 8 The attributes of design.

Students will develop an 9 Engineering design. understanding of Design. This includes knowing about: 10 The role of troubleshooting, research and development, inven- tion and innovation, and experimentation in problem solving.

6 11 Apply the design process.

Students will develop 12 Use and maintain technological products and systems. Abilities for a Technological World. This includes 13 Assess the impact of products and systems. becoming able to:

7 14 Medical technologies.

Students will develop 15 Agricultural and related biotechnologies. an understanding of The Designed World. 16 Energy and power technologies. This includes selecting and using: 17 Information and communication technologies.

18 Transportation technologies.

19 Manufacturing technologies.

20 Construction technologies.

15 The benchmarks are required in order for 2. A narrative follows that explains students to meet the standards. the intent of the standard. Research in education has shown that when 3. Grade-level material is presented next previously learned knowledge is tapped and for Grades K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12. built upon, students are more likely to 4. Under each grade level, a narrative acquire a more coherent and thorough 2 follows that explains the standard understanding of these processes than if at the grade level under discussion they are taught as isolated abstractions and provides suggestions on how (National Research Council, 1999). the standard can be implemented With this in mind, the benchmarks are in the laboratory-classroom. articulated from Grades K-2 through 9-12 5. Each grade-level essay is followed by a to progress from very basic ideas at the early series of benchmarks in bold type that elementary school level to more complex detail the particular knowledge and and comprehensive ideas at the high school abilities that students must attain in order level. Certain content “concepts” are found to meet the standard. Each benchmark is in the benchmarks, which extend across further explained by supporting sentences various levels to ensure continual learning (not in bold type) that offer examples of an important topic related to a standard. and additional details. Vignettes 6. Vignettes, which are scattered throughout each of the chapters, A selection of vignettes is included in this provide examples of laboratory- document to provide snapshots of labora- classroom experiences and offer tory-classroom experiences. They offer illustrations of how the standards detailed examples of how the standards can can be put into practice. be implemented by a teacher. A large majority of the vignettes are authentic in that The standards and benchmarks were they have been successfully used before in an established for guiding a student’s progress actual laboratory-classroom with students. A toward technological literacy. References few of the vignettes were generated especially that were used in the development of for these standards and are fictional — they Standards for Technological Literacy include have not been tried and tested. Readers the following standards in other subject should be cautioned that any vignette should areas: National Science Education Standards not be read too literally or narrowly, nor (National Research Council, 1996); should they be interpreted as a curriculum. Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Format Science, 1993); Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (National The format of each standard follows this Council of Teachers of Mathematics, structure: (See Figure 2.1 for a sample layout) 1989); and National Council of Teachers 1. The standard is expressed in of Mathematics Standards 2000 Draft sentence form. (NCTM, 1998) and others. 16 CHAPTER 2 Overview of Standards for Technological Literacy

FIGURE 2.1 Organizational Format of a Sample Standard and Benchmark

CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

STANDARD Medical technologies are used to maintain, 14 restore, and improve human health. 1. STANDARD eople in today’s health-oriented providers do their work more efficiently Describes what students should know and society spend more time and money and effectively, thus improving the delivery than in any other time in history in of medicine. Today, technologies, such as search of how to improve their telemedicine (the use of telecommuni- be able to do as a result of the study of lifestyle in order to live longer and cations technologies to deliver health care) Pmore productive lives. Technology has are being designed and developed to technology. made numerous contributions to medicine provide easier access to medical expertise, to over the years. Scientific and technological integrate geographically dispersed services, breakthroughs are at the core of most to improve the quality of care, and to gain diagnostic and treatment practices. For maximum productivity from expensive 2. NARRATIVE OF STANDARDS example, major surgeries used to require medical and technical resources. long hours of surgery followed by an With the increase in technologies in the Gives the explanation of what is included extensive hospital stay. Today, through the medical industry, it is important to take use of the lasers, new drugs, and updated into consideration the consequences that in the standard and why it is important. medical procedures, long hours in the accompany them. Products and systems, hospital operating room have been reduced such as life-support systems and to outpatient procedures in a doctor’s office, pharmaceuticals, have helped protect and and recuperation time has been reduced improve human health. However, these from weeks to days. same products and systems have raised Medical miracles are sighted often in the many concerns, such as the length of time a news, such as the reattachment of a limb or person should remain on a life-support the saving of a life through a new medical system and equal access to life-saving procedure made possible by a new device or procedures for everyone. system. New ways of studying how the In 1900 an American’s life expectancy human body functions or reacts to change was 47.3 years; today, it exceeds 76 years. are being introduced at alarming rates. Worldwide, human life expectancy has Devices and systems are being designed to been prolonged through the development 3. GRADE LEVEL prod, check, evaluate, and operate with of sanitation practices, vaccines, waste computerized and electronic controls in disposal systems, and other products and order to extend human capabilities and help systems. This increase in life expectancy improve human health from the risks of the has led to a worldwide population changing world. explosion. The issues surrounding the use

The development of good nutrition and of many technologies often conflict with STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies preventive medicine has played a key role in each other or with the opinions and ethics helping individuals live longer, more of those affected by its use. Therefore, GRADES the research that is on- going. In addition, productive lives. Medical advances, such as knowledge based on scientific fact is t this level, the technologies used for students should be aware of such topics as vaccines, are developed to help healthcare important in making sound decisions. health and medicine should be 9-12 critically researched and discussed, population control, gene mapping, and the including the global concerns of the medical effects of pesticide usage. Similarly, use of these technologies on the students should examine how computers in Aenvironment and the ethical concerns about the healthcare system play an integral role altering life. Students should gain the keeping track of patient’s diagnostic ability to debate such questions as: How do information, medicines, and results of people know when a medical technology is procedures. Computers also aid in analyzing beneficial? At what point should people be data in order to help clinicians do their involved in the testing of a medical work more efficiently and effectively. For 4. NARRATIVE OF THE STANDARD EXPLAINING THE BENCHMARK BY invention and innovation? To what degree example, many hospitals use computer are designers responsible for the safety of terminals in a networked station to provide GRADE LEVEL their products or systems? How will certain up-to-the minute information on patients as products and systems affect the current and they are moved through the hospital system. Describes where and how this standard should be presented within future environment? In order to select, use, and understand Students should have opportunities to medical technologies, students in the students’ laboratory-classroom experiences at each grade level. identify emerging health and medical grades 9-12 should understand that technologies by using trends, research, and K. Medical technologies include Suggestions are given on how the benchmarks may be implemented. forecasting techniques. Students should prevention and rehabilitation; examine healthcare technology and new vaccines and pharmaceuticals; areas of development, such as the use of medical and surgical procedures; lasers, computers, and telemedicine. For genetic engineering; and the systems example, students could study and learn within which health is protected and 5. BENCHMARKS (in bold) how a laser works by making, testing, and maintained. For example, the evaluating a model and then relating its development of vaccines and drugs, Provides specific requirements or enablers of what the student should adaptation to use in many surgical such as the polio vaccine, penicillin, procedures. They should communicate their and chemotherapy, has helped to know or be able to do in order to meet this technology content standard. findings to a wide variety of audiences eradicate or cause remission of serious including peers, family, and the community, illnesses. The development of diagnostic in order to explain their viewpoints on how The sentences that follow (not in bold) provide further elaboration and tools, such as the x-ray machine, products and systems can be used to computerized tomography (CT) scan, promote safe and healthy living. examples of the benchmark. and lasers, allows for less invasive Advances in medical technology have helped interior views of the body than surgery. 7 to improve human health by reducing the The use of specially designed instances of such serious diseases as polio equipment can help provide and smallpox. Yet, there is still a great need rehabilitation to disabled persons. Using STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies for continued improvements and more a wheelchair and other specially innovations. Students should investigate the designed equipment, a paraplegic VIGNETTE A Pharmacy Connection advances in medicine for the treatment of person is able to play basketball. Many cancer, AIDS, and heart disease, as well as technologies designed for health, This example uses The students in Ms. B’s fifth grade class visited their local drug store to learn more about the various medicines and individualized kits designed a visit to a local to help people learn more about their bodies. pharmacy to encourage Ms. A, the local druggist, showed the students how people use various kits students to develop and to check their bodies’ pH and glucose levels, as well as their protein and put to use their under- enzyme levels. The students were particularly interested in the saliva testing kits used to determine sugar levels. In addition, the students standing of how the noticed all the different devices available for checking their temperature – design of a vaccine or from the traditional thermometer to the new strips used on the forehead. Ms. A demonstrated how the electronic ear thermometer worked. medicine relates to the When they were shown the various drugs kept in a pharmacy, the process of design and students seemed overwhelmed. They asked Ms. A how she was able to how vaccines and keep track of all the information about the drugs and the customers. She explained that thousands of records were kept in large filing cabinets medicine are before they had computers. Ms. A further explained that computers related to various enable pharmacists to link customer information with doctors’ orders. Computers also help in delivering advice to customers regarding the safe technological devices. usage of medicines. [This example highlights After the students returned to their classroom, Ms. B asked them to some elements of investigate more about the development of various medicines and 6. VIGNETTE vaccines, in addition to some of the tools used in their development. 3-5 Technology Content She asked the students to refer to lessons they had studied on design Gives ideas or examples of how standards Standards 1, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, and to consider what processes of design may have been used in the development of a medicine or vaccine. A few students used the Internet 10, 11, and 14.] to check information, and others referred to several books about medical can be implemented in the laboratory- technologies. After the students had written down their information, Ms. B provided them with an opportunity to share their findings. The students reported that in order for many vaccines to work, physicians classroom. send things into the body that tell them how the body works. They are then able to determine if a vaccine is functioning properly. Many students commented on how similar the design and use of a vaccine was to the design and use of a product or system.

7

17 Primary Users of Standards • Standards for Technological Literacy for Technological Literacy represents the careful thought of many people and is meant to be used in its A variety of groups and individuals can be entirety. All standards should be met for a expected to use Standards for Technological student to obtain the optimal level of Literacy. Curriculum developers at the state, technological literacy at graduation from 2 province, and local level, along with textbook high school. publishers and developers of laboratory equipment, may be among the first users of • The benchmarks, which are required for the document. They will use it to fashion meeting the standards, specify how the curriculum and resources for each grade level. student should progress toward tech- nological literacy and what students need Ultimately, of course, once the standards have to know and be able to do in order to been adopted at the local and state or pro- meet the standards. vincial level, teachers will implement them. Some teachers may not wait for their states or • The standards must be integrated with provinces, or school districts to act. Either one another rather than being presented way, the ultimate success of Standards for as separate parts (e.g., Standard 1 with Technological Literacy rests with teachers. Standard 8 or Standard 19 with Standard 17 and 20). Other users of Standards for Technological Literacy will include superintendents, • Standards for Technological Literacy should principals, and other administrators, be included in the curriculum at each curriculum coordinators, directors of grade, both in the technology laboratory- instruction, and supervisors, all of whom will classroom and in other subject areas. be a part of the planning, overseeing, and Teachers should be familiar with standards delivering of standards-based education. preceding and following Teacher educators should use the document the grades in which they teach. in designing pre-service programs for future • Teachers and curriculum developers technology teachers. Furthermore, parents should address minority, gender, and should familiarize themselves with the equity issues to ensure that students are document in order to become involved with encouraged and motivated to succeed in their children’s education and to reinforce the the study of technology. concepts and processes being taught. Finally, if students are home schooled, parents should • Standards for Technological Literacy should incorporate Standards for Technological be applied in conjunction with other Literacy into their instruction. national, state, provincial, and locally developed standards in technological Recommendations for Using studies and for other fields of study. Standards for Technological Literacy • School systems should begin to move Individuals involved in curriculum develop- toward a K-12 technology program for all ment, teaching, or assessment should students. (See Appendix D for an articu- consider the following recommendations: lated curriculum example for Grades K-12.) 18 CHAPTER 2 Overview of Standards for Technological Literacy

Administrator ’s Guidelines • include various teaching methodologies for Resources Based on and student learning styles that address Standards for Technological Literacy diversity. A variety of resources, including instruc- • incorporate motivational components tional materials, textbooks, supplies, that will encourage students to pursue modules, and kits to aid the laboratory- their ideas and complete projects and classroom teacher, are necessary to meet the that ensure lifelong learning for all Standards for Technological Literacy . students. Administrators should ensure that these • include experiences and activities that resources are age and gender appropriate enhance and promote hands-on learning, and progressively more rigorous and richer including problem-based and design-based in content. Each should have a clearly learning. These experiences and activities designated level of application specifying also should be open-ended, requiring one or more of the four grade levels (K-2, students to develop and use technological 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12). thinking and challenging them to use and Resources based on Standards for apply it in a variety of settings. Technological Literacy should: • incorporate knowledge and process • allow for innovations and alterations that activities that enable students to think take into account the changing nature and do for themselves, as well as to be of technology. effective team members. • integrate the standards, rather than • include activities that demonstrate to focusing on a single one. students the need to be adaptable. • provide opportunities for students to • provide opportunities for students to make connections among a variety of demonstrate their understanding of technologies, thereby helping them technology and its value to them and develop a common core of technological society. learning. The resources should also allow for the integration of other fields of study Other Standards into technological studies. and Publications • incorporate varied methods of assessment Advancing Excellence in Technological in order to provide a broad picture of a Literacy: Student Assessment, student’s progress; these assessment Professional Development, and measures should allow teachers to Program Standards compare the progress of different students and to prepare individualized In Phase III of TfAAP (2000-2005), activities that take into account a Advancing Excellence in Technological student’s strengths and weaknesses. Literacy: Student Assessment, Professional Development, and Program Standards • reflect the different standards of the (AETL) was developed. designed world (Chapter 7). 19 AETL consists of three separate but effort in educational reform, as it provides a interrelated sets of standards. supplement to educational standards that focuses on the entire picture of program • Student Assessment Standards reformation rather than concentrating • Professional Development Standards solely on curricula. The new addenda are: • Program Standards • Measuring Progress: Assessing Students 2 forTechnological Literacy (ITEA, 2004) The standards in AETL are based upon STL. AETL is designed to leave specific • Realizing Excellence: Structuring curricular decisions to educators. Teachers, Technology Programs (ITEA, 2005) professional development providers, and • Planning Learning: Developing Technology administrators should use STL and AETL Curricula (ITEA, 2005) as guides for advancing technological literacy for all students. • Developing Professionals: Preparing Technology Teachers (ITEA, 2005) New Technology Standards-Based Addenda ITEA-TIDE

Educational standards provide criteria for In 2005, ITEA started using the descriptive learning and ensure quality in educational term TIDE: Technology, Innovation, programs. Standards-based technology Design, Engineering, which reflects what programs can deliver technological literacy. the association is all about. It clearly The purpose of STL and AETL is to advance describes what the content, nature, breadth, the technological literacy of all students. and scope of the study of technology is and Together, they identify a vision for developing can be. This acronym, TIDE, indicates that a technologically literate citizenry. the study of technology is much more encompassing than computers and The ITEA Addenda series (to STL and information technology (although they are AETL) is part of the standards package for still a part of technology). TIDE provides a technological literacy. They were produced good, succinct description of what ITEA is by the TfAAP staff with special assistance trying to accomplish as the association from ITEA’s Center to Advance the representing the study of technology as a Teaching of Technology and Science core school subject. (CATTS). These addenda are based on the standards but include concrete processes or Compendium suggestions for incorporating national, state, and/or local technological literacy A compendium of the Standards for standards into the programs of all students Technological Literacy is presented in throughout Grades K–12. Additionally, all Appendix C. of the documents contain worksheets for The compendium provides a brief summary educators to use to make changes specific to of the content of technology as presented in their locality and situation. The new the standards and benchmarks by grade levels. addenda series marks another pioneering

20 3 The Nature of Technology

STANDARDS Students will develop an 1 understanding of the characteristics and scope of technology. p. 23

Students will develop an 2 understanding of the core concepts of technology. p. 32

Students will develop an 3 understanding of the relationships among technologies and the connections between technology and other fields of study. p. 44 Yet because it shapes nearly every part of our lives, a basic The Nature of Technology understanding of technology is essential to make sense of 3 today’s changing world. Put simply, technology is how humans modify the world around them to meet their needs and wants or to solve practical Everyone recognizes that such problems. It can range from building protective shelter and things as computers, aircraft, growing food to formulating cancer-fighting drugs and constructing a multi-level network. Technology extends human and genetically engineered plants potential by allowing people to do things they could not are examples of technology, otherwise do. but for most people the Technological activity is purposeful and directed towards understanding of technology specific goals, and sometimes the results are unintended. goes no deeper. The development of a particular technology is influenced by a variety of factors, including the needs of individuals, groups, and society as a whole, as well as by the level of development of related technological components, devices, and systems.

This chapter describes what students should understand about the nature of technology in order to become technologically literate and adaptable. The three standards contained in Chapter 3 address what technology is, its general core concepts, and the relationships among various technologies and between technology and other areas of human endeavor.

22 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of 1 the characteristics and scope of technology.

he word “technology” encompasses Engineers are the professionals who are many meanings and connotations. most closely associated with technology. It can refer to the products and artifacts Although they are the innovators and Tof human invention — a videocassette designers, many other people are involved recorder is a technology, as are as well — from distributors, manufacturing pesticides. It can denote the body of and construction workers to operators, knowledge necessary to create such managers, regulators, maintenance people products. It can mean the process by which and ultimately, consumers. such knowledge is produced and such products are developed. Technology is sometimes used very broadly to connote an entire system of products, knowledge, people, organizations, regulations, and social structures, as in the technology of electric power or the technology of the Internet. Through their innovations, people have modified the world around them to provide necessities and conveniences. A tech- nologically literate person understands the significance of technology in everyday life and the way in which it shapes the world. Throughout history, the modification of the natural world has taken on different forms. Understanding these different forms and how the human-made world differs from the natural world can lead to an understanding of human innovation. In the Stone Age, for instance, a major technology involved chipping flakes from pieces of flint to shape useful tools — a task that could be done from start to finish by one person. Today, the products of technology generally involve a much more complicated process, often requiring the efforts of many people to transform an idea or concept to its final, practical form.

23 STANDARD 1 Scope of Technology

GRADES n Grades K-2, students will begin to In order to comprehend the scope of understand that people use creative or technology, students in Grades K-2 K-2 inventive thinking to adapt the natural should learn that world to help them meet human needs I A. The natural world and human-made and wants. Students should be actively world are different. The natural world engaged in identifying the differences includes trees, plants, animals, rivers, between the natural world and the human- oceans, and mountains. The human- made world, in addition to learning about made world includes buildings, some of the tools and techniques people use airplanes, microwave ovens, to help them do things. At this grade, refrigerators, and televisions. students should begin to explore how people have developed ways to shape their B. All people use tools and techniques 3 world in order to improve comfort, ease to help them do things. By using workloads, and increase leisure time. technology, people adapt the natural world to meet their needs and wants Young children are aware of the world in and to solve problems. All people use which they live, but they do not generally technology in their jobs and in their know how the technologies they encounter daily tasks — from librarians and came about. For instance, students may not teachers to truck drivers, homemakers, understand how the food they eat is grown, and police officers. transported, and processed. By learning how technological developments, such as build- ings, highways, telephones, and artificial foods have enhanced the natural world, students can begin to comprehend the vast influence of technology on their lives.

24 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

GRADES n these grades, the study of technology products and systems. They might trace, for should enhance previous learning by example, the progression of recorded music 3-5 increasing the students’ understanding from cylinders through records, eight-track Iof how technology helps people. As tapes, cassettes, compact disks, and laser students continue to develop a clearer disks. In this way, they could develop an understanding of the natural world as understanding of how creative thinking and opposed to the human-made world, they problem solving were used to create new will develop an understanding of the and different ways of recording music to differences between technology and science. fit the changing technological capabilities. When students observe how various things In order to comprehend the scope of are made, grown, or used, they should technology, students in Grades 3-5 begin to see that different processes and should learn that techniques are used. Teachers should C. Things that are found in nature encourage their students to explore these differ from things that are human- differences in order to determine those made in how they are produced unique qualities. Finding answers to their and used. For example, the essentials questions will lead to more questions, for natural plant growth are sunshine which in turn will lead to a deeper (photosynthesis), air, water, and understanding of processes and techniques. nutrients, while human-made items In addition, students should investigate require an idea, resources (e.g., time, how technology has altered people’s money, materials, and machines), and perceptions of the world. For example, they techniques. Things found in nature, can explore how television has enabled such as trees, birds, and wildflowers people to view programs and news releases require no human intervention. On from any part of the globe, how transporta- the other hand, creating a human-made tion systems have made it possible to travel object, such as a garment, requires across a country in a few hours, and how human participation and innovation. information technology systems let people For instance, the fibers from the bolls of search libraries without leaving their desks. a cotton plant are transformed into cloth through spinning and weaving so that Technological development is shaped by they can be made into a cotton garment. economic and cultural influences. As new technologies appear and some demands are D. Tools, materials, and skills are used satisfied, the wants of humans change, new to make things and carry out tasks. ideas and innovations emerge, and the cycle People make tools to help themselves or repeats itself. This continuing effort to others do their work: a cook uses knives improve products and systems dictates that to cut vegetables; a gardener uses a hoe technologies change constantly, thus to remove weeds; an accountant uses a leading to both positive and negative computer to store information. People implications for people and society. To see also use materials, such as paper, wood, this principle in action, students could cloth, and stone to make things they explore the changing forms of specific use every day. Most people develop the

25 STANDARD 1 Scope of Technology

GRADES ability to do common tasks, such as cutting paper with scissors, and some 3-5 people develop special abilities, like flying an airplane. E. Creative thinking and economic and cultural influences shape tech- nological development. For example, the interests, desires, and economy of a group of people will cause a transporta- tion system to develop in one way and not another. A transportation system 3 for a large city may rely on mass transit, while one in a town might require reliance on personal vehicles, such as bicycles or cars.

26 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

GRADES tudents in the middle-level grades will about microprocessors by engineers and explore in greater detail the scope of scientists led to the development of modern 6-8 technology. From personal and computer systems. Companies spend Sclassroom experience, students will be considerable resources on developing new familiar with specific ways in which understandings of how things work in hopes technology is dynamic, and teachers should of creating new products and systems or build on this experience by reinforcing the improving existing ones. Students will idea that technology is constantly changing. evaluate the commercial application of technology and how economic, political, Classroom activities in Grades 6-8 should and environmental concerns have help students understand that technology influenced its development. enables people to improve current tech- nologies, to further their understanding of In order to comprehend the scope of other technological ideas, and to develop technology, students in Grades 6-8 new technologies. For example, computers should learn that are used to develop models before a product F. New products and systems can is actually made. be developed to solve problems In addition, students will learn how or to help do things that could creativity is central to the development not be done without the help of of products and systems. The development technology. For example, engines of an invention or innovation is closely increase the speed at which people related to addressing a need or want. In can travel, and pumps move water to recent years, however, the development locations where it is needed. The use of something new has sometimes preceded of technology sometimes helps to the need or identification of a problem. improve personal lives by lessening This practice leads to a different growth in threats, such as disease, toil, or igno- knowledge that focuses on the development rance. However, the desire or need of the product or system instead of meeting for a new product or system can cause the need or desire of a person. negative consequences, such as when people travel long hours to work in In order for new technologies to be order to pay for improvements for developed, new knowledge and processes their homes or child and healthcare. must be developed first. This is often done through research and development (R&D), G. The development of technology is a the practical application of scientific and human activity and is the result of engineering knowledge for discovering new individual or collective needs and knowledge about products, processes, and the ability to be creative. Making services, and then applying that knowledge life easier involves generating new to create new and improved products, products and systems through creativity processes, and services that fill market needs. and innovation. For example, from the For example, new knowledge developed time of the first gas cook stove in 1936

27 STANDARD 1 Scope of Technology

GRADES to the time of the microwave oven in 1967, the focus was on simplifying the 6-8 process of cooking and reducing the time of food preparation. H. Technology is closely linked to creativity, which has resulted in innovation. Most inventions are inspired by perceived needs and wants — the hairbrush, for example. Other inventions are linked to developing creative ideas and the way 3 a person uses them, not necessarily their intended use. For example, the invention of the tea bag grew out of a packaging strategy to replace expensive tin containers. Although tea was packaged in small silk bags to give away as samples, some users thought it was a new way to brew the tea, and thus the tea bag was born. An invention can always be improved, and trying new ideas is often key to that improvement. I. Corporations can often create demand for a product by bringing it onto the market and advertising it. Although market demand generally determines the success or failure of a technology, companies often develop products or systems before a need is identified. In order for a technology to be profitable, there must be a market for it — either preexisting or created through an advertising cam- paign. The promotion of a product or system often determines its popularity and demand.

28 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

VIGNETTE Creating a Safer Working Environment

The following example Ms. K first asked the students to define what their problems were and then to brainstorm some possible solutions. The students began listing their uses an unforeseen concerns: problem as an oppor- 1. Awful smell tunity to encourage 2. Hard to breathe students to develop and 3. No air circulating use their understanding 4. Cold outside of how technology can be After allowing students time to consider their problems, Ms. K divided the used to solve problems. class into teams and asked them to identify the most important and pressing Students in Ms. K’s concern that could be addressed by designing and building a safer gluing station. After several minutes of working in teams, each group presented its technology class noticed concern to the rest of the class. Each concern was recorded, and the class a problem while gluing narrowed them to “awful smell” and “no air circulating.” some wings on their Next, the students spent two class periods determining the physical limitations of the room and measuring the space necessary for a gluing rocket launch system — station. Everyone agreed that the gluing station should be well ventilated and the smell of the glue. have a safe gluing surface. Students then measured the height of the windows through which the fumes were to be vented, and made rough sketches of the Concerned about the stations using a Computer Aided Design system to refine them. effects of breathing the Once the plans were finalized, the students made a list of the resources they fumes, the students would need to turn their designs into reality: a 3' cardboard box, two 4' x 3' decided to solve their sections of heavy paper, a window fan, a 2' square piece of high-density press board, a roll of duct tape, an electrical cord, a 3' square section of wire mesh, problem by creating a and a 110-volt outlet. The teacher was able to provide recycled and surplus safer gluing station. supplies including a discarded double-motored window fan with a bad cord. [This example highlights After collecting the necessary drawings, materials, and tools, the students created the gluing station by applying skills that they had learned earlier some elements of Grades in the year: using form cutting to turn a box into an encasement for the 6-8 STL standards 1, 3, 9, station, attaching the fans to the box using pop rivets, and soldering a cord between the fan and switch. They used a reducer to connect the square hole 11, and 20.] coming from the fan in the box to a round pipe made from the heavy paper, a device that served as the ductwork leading to the window. Duct tape was used to connect the paper pipe to the cardboard box, and wire was cut to fit the inside of the gluing station to protect fingers from the fan blades. The students also put their mathematical skills to work to determine if the cubic feet per minute (CFM) rating of the fan was sufficient for the job. After completing the calculations, they decided that the fan did evacuate the fumes quickly enough to avoid inhalation.

29 STANDARD 1 Scope of Technology

GRADES n Grades 9-12, students will gain a lead to additional opportunities, challenges, broader perspective of the importance of and advances in an accelerating spiral of 9-12 human innovation and ingenuity in complexity. These advances make modern Irefining existing technologies and society vastly different from what was developing new ones. They will also known 10 or 20 generations ago. continue to develop higher-order thinking Students should realize that inventions skills, such as questioning, investigating, occur both by design (e.g., putting a human and researching. By the time they graduate, on the moon) and by serendipity (e.g., 3M students should have developed an under- Post-it® notes and spin offs). In addition, standing of the scope of technology. This they should realize innovations are planned realization includes knowing what tech- and aimed at, such as Edison’s light bulb, nology is and recognizing that it has an while others grow unexpectedly out of lines 3 intellectual domain and a content base of work that take off in new directions of its own. almost as if they have a life of their own. Technology is intricately woven into the The purposeful application of scientific fabric of human activity and is influenced and technological knowledge speeds up by human capabilities, cultural values, development, while various changes in the public policies, and environmental physical, political, or cultural environment constraints. Students need to recognize can act to either speed up or slow down these influences and understand how technological development. For example, their integration affects technological the appearance of AIDS has spurred development. For example, the develop- research for new vaccines, and the Cold ment of earmuffs was a direct result of War accelerated the development of both harsh, cold winters. Chester Greenwood, military and space technologies. Ethical a young boy whose ears seemed to be concerns have at times restrained the especially sensitive to the cold, decided development of certain reproductive and to develop something new. He designed a genetic engineering technologies. special device made of loops of wire and Finally, students should understand that the covered with black velvet and beaver fur. scope of technology involves its essence, its Neighbors and friends were so pleased with relation to the natural world, and its rapid Chester’s invention that they, too, wanted and often unexpected development. At the earmuffs, and thus a demand was created, same time, students should also understand which led to an 1872 patent for the that the scope of technology includes the apparatus. The particular environment, in commercialization of products and systems. addition to human activity and capability This commercialization frequently results in and the resulting demand, determined the the development of many inventions and success of earmuffs. innovations based on market research — New technologies change people’s lives and who the customers are, what they will the way they do things in both expected purchase, how they will purchase it, and and unexpected ways. Technological where they will purchase it. The product or advances build on prior developments and system is then prominently presented

30 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology through advertising to encourage people to the buildup of plaque in the arteries purchase it. The intention of advertising is through laser angioplasty. to influence a purchase so that a demand M. Most development of technologies will develop from a desire or an unknown these days is driven by the profit need. The development and marketing of motive and the market. The success many entertainment devices illustrate such of a technology is often determined an approach. by whether or not it is affordable and In order to comprehend the scope of whether or not it works. People often technology, students in Grades 9-12 develop and apply technology in a should learn that centralized and large-scale fashion to optimize efficiency and reliability, thus J. The nature and development of resulting in lower production costs. technological knowledge and processes are functions of the setting. For example, the tractor, plow, and hay baler are designed specifically for use around farms, while the pick-up truck, tanker, and tractor-trailer are vehicles commonly used to move goods from farms to other areas. K. The rate of technological develop- ment and diffusion is increasing rapidly. The rate of development of inventions and innovations is affected by many factors, such as time and money. New technologies are built on previous technologies, often resulting in quick development and dispersion. For example, the first hand-held electronic calculator was designed to perform simple arithmetic. It has quickly evolved from a bulky product owned by a few people to a miniature, multi-function version owned by many. L. Inventions and innovations are the results of specific, goal-directed research. For example, years of research led to the design and development of a laser system used in atmospheric studies. This same laser system was then modified and reapplied to treat

31 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of 2 the core concepts of technology.

ike any other branch of knowledge, Troubleshooting a malfunctioning system technology has a number of core demands considering the various parts and concepts that characterize it and set it how those parts affect the entire system. Lapart from other fields of study. These Systems should be studied in different concepts serve as cornerstones for the contexts, including the design, trouble- study of technology. They help unify this shooting, and operation of systems both study, which could otherwise appear as a simple and complex. collection of ideas that seem only minimally 3 • Resources. All technological activities connected, and they provide students with require resources, which are the things guidance to help them understand the needed to get a job done. The basic designed world. technological resources are: tools and The core concepts of technology machines, materials, information, energy, highlighted by Standards for Technological capital, time, and people. Tools and Literacy are systems, resources, require- machines are those devices designed to ments, optimization and trade-offs, extend and enhance human capability. processes, and controls. Because these Materials have many different qualities and concepts are integral areas of technology, can be classified as natural (e.g., wood, they should not be taught as separate stone, metal, and clay), synthetic (e.g., glass, topics, but rather, they should be integrated concrete, and plastics), and mixed — into classes at every opportunity and natural materials modified to improve presented in whatever context is being properties (e.g., leather, plywood, and studied at the time. To that end, the paper). Information, or the organization of concepts described will also be found data (facts and figures), is critical to the interspersed throughout the other operation of products and systems. Energy standards. In particular, Chapter 7, “The involves the ability to do work, and all Designed World,” will show these core technological systems require energy to be concepts in action in various types of converted and applied. Capital is the technologies. money and other finances available for the creation and use of technological products The core concepts of technology include: and systems. Time, which is allotted to all • Systems. A system is a group of technological activities, is limited, and interrelated components designed therefore, its effective use is critical in collectively to achieve a desired goal. technological endeavors. Finally, people are Systems thinking involves understanding the most important resource for all how a whole is expressed in terms of its technological activity. parts, and conversely, how the parts relate • Requirements. Requirements are the to each other and to the whole. parameters placed on the development of a 32 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

product or system. Requirements include virtual environments, is used to the safety needs, the physical laws that will demonstrate concepts and to try out visions limit the development of an idea, the and ideas. Maintenance is the process of available resources, the cultural norms, and working with the parts of a system or the the use of criteria and constraints. Criteria system as a whole to ensure proper identify the desired elements and features functioning and to prevent unnecessary of a product or system, while constraints errors. Management, which is the process involve the limitations on a design. In of planning, organizing, and controlling addition, knowing how robustness, or technology, is used to control resources over-design, affects the requirements and to ensure that technological processes will also aid in developing an under- operate effectively and efficiently. Assess- standing of technology. ment of products and systems requires asking questions and looking beyond • Optimization and Trade-off. Optimiza- isolated events to deeper patterns. The tion is a process or methodology of designing end goal of assessment is to improve or making a product, process, or system to the product or system. the point at which it is the most fully functional, effective, or as near perfection as • Controls. Controls are the mechanisms possible. The development of the wheel or activities that use information to cause represents a good example of the application systems to change. The household thermo- of optimization. The entire process of stat is an example of a control used to creating should include optimization — from regulate room temperatures. Controls do the initial idea to the final product or system. not always succeed or work perfectly. Trade-off involves a choice or exchange for Understanding the role of feedback, or the one quality over another. For example, the use of information about the output of a decision to favor the best material regardless system to regulate the inputs to a system, is of weight in order to achieve maximum important in being able to determine how strength may require a designer to make a controls work in various kinds of systems, trade-off of costs. In order to maintain such as social, civil, or technical. established requirements, trade-offs are made in order to meet the characteristics of an optimum design. • Processes. A process is a systematic sequence of actions used to combine resources to produce an output. An understanding of processes requires time and may not transfer well to other situations without a variety of opportunities in which connections can be made. Designing is the process of applying creative skills in the development of an invention or innovation. The process of making models, as well as modeling in

33 STANDARD 2 Core Concepts of Technology

GRADES tudents in the early elementary grades B. Systems have parts or components will acquire a basic understanding of that work together to accomplish K-2 many core concepts of technology a goal. For example, a bicycle can be Sthat will help them as they learn more thought of as a system. It has many about the subject. Repeated exposure parts — wheels, handlebars, pedals, to those concepts will enable them to make brakes, gears, and chains — and each connections and begin to recognize patterns is important for the bike to function in technological development. They will properly. begin to notice, for example, how the use of C. Tools are simple objects that help a system, such as a heating system, depends humans complete tasks. Many tools on resources and requirements. have specific functions, and selecting 3 Through hands-on activities students will the right tool makes the task easier. learn that technological activity requires People can use tools to make things. tools, materials, movement, safety, and There are many different kinds of tools planning. In addition, they will discover used in preparing food, such as pots how many of these same concepts relate to and pans, utensils, and appliances. other parts of their lives. Students should Children use scissors to cut paper, glue have as many opportunities as possible to sticks to fasten components together, talk about how the technological items they markers to sketch ideas, and computers encounter on a daily basis fit into the world to search for information. around them and how they relate to the D. Different materials are used in core concepts of technology. making things. Paper, wood, cloth, The laboratory-classroom should have and cardboard are the most common available a variety of opportunities for materials children use in making the students to discuss, explore, and encounter tools and things they design. these concepts. Such activities can help E. People plan in order to get things students begin to recognize the core done. For example, children learn that concepts of technology. if they want to accomplish something, In order to comprehend the core such as make a birthday card for a concepts of technology, students in parent, they must have the materials Grades K-2 should learn that available, and they must have the card ready by a given date. A. Some systems are found in nature, and some are made by humans. The solar system in space and the circula- tory system in the body are examples of natural systems. One example of a technological system is the information and communication system, which consists of such things as telephones, televisions, printed materials, e-mail on the computer, and letters. 34 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

GRADES n Grades 3-5, a strong emphasis will be In order to recognize the core concepts placed on the concepts of systems, of technology, students in Grades 3-5 3-5 resources, requirements and processes. At should learn that this level, becoming more familiar with I F. A subsystem is a system that the core concepts of technology will help operates as a part of another system. students in their development of a total An example of a subsystem is the picture of the study of technology. For collection of water pipes in a house, example, students should be able to identify which is part of a larger fresh-water available resources in their own communities. distribution system in a town. These resources could include tools and machines in their homes, materials used in G. When parts of a system are missing, building the roads and sidewalks they use it may not work as planned. A radio when going to and from school, or the does not work when electricity fails or information needed to use a new product. when a battery has been removed. In their mathematics and science lessons, H. Resources are the things needed to students sort and classify figures, shapes, get a job done, such as tools and plants, and animals. Students also should machines, materials, information, have an opportunity to classify technological energy, people, capital, and time. systems in order to explore them more easily. Energy transformed into power is Problem solving is another major aspect of used for all technological activities. mathematics, science, and technology. For example, a battery provides Through the study of diverse resources energy to power a flashlight bulb. and processes, students can develop skills I. Tools are used to design, make, appropriate for solving technological use, and assess technology. There problems. As students get older, they can are many kinds of tools that are used use more advanced tools to extend their when designing, such as paper, pencils, potential. Whether they are using glue guns and rulers or programs specially or computers with design-oriented software, developed for computers. they need to recognize the importance of tools in getting things done. J. Materials have many different properties. For example wood, stone, Introducing the concept of requirements metal, glass, and concrete are hard; will provide a foundation that will enable leather, paper, and some metals can be students to understand the more complex bent; and glass and some plastics are ideas of later grades. Students will begin to transparent. The properties of a specific understand the parameters that determine a material determine whether it is design or how a product will be developed suitable for a given application. and used — the safety needs, the physical laws that will limit the development of an K. Tools and machines extend human idea, the resources available, and the cultural capabilities, such as holding, lifting, norms. Future discussions of requirements carrying, fastening, separating, will be related to the use of resources and and computing. The use of tools other core concepts of technology. and machines, such as shears, clamps, 35 STANDARD 2 Core Concepts of Technology

GRADES vises, carts, drills, saws, and computers makes it possible for people to 3-5 accomplish more tasks. L. Requirements are the limits to designing or making a product or system. For example, it is often impossible to make a product in a certain way because of the costs of materials or because of time con- straints, such as needing the product to be made more quickly than is 3 possible with the method in question. These limits are considered in making decisions about designing and making a product.

36 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

VIGNETTE The Bicycle as a Vehicle for Learning

This example uses the Mrs. N’s fourth-grade class is exploring how various parts of a system work together. She chose the bicycle as an appropriate system because children bicycle to help students are familiar with it, and her students had recently learned in a social studies develop an understanding and technology unit that people all over the world rely on bicycles for their transportation needs. The students also had learned in their technology lab of the various aspects of that other modes of transportation consume scarce resources and pollute the systems thinking. environment. Mrs. N brought her bicycle in and asked the class to explain how it worked. Bob volunteered that you just get on the bicycle and ride. Students explore the various components of a Caitlin says, “Well, you are pedaling, and that makes the wheels go.” “But if you don’t steer, you’ll crash or tip over,” Alice adds. bicycle and begin to Pointing to the bicycle, Mrs. N restates the children’s comments by observing discover how they work that there are really several things happening: the rider is pedaling and steering, together. The teacher the wheels are turning, and the bicycle is moving. leads the students in Mrs. N then uses this explanation to introduce how many systems operate. There is input — in this case, energy coming from the rider pedaling the bicycle; a making connections process, or something happening — pedals making the wheels turn; output — between their discussion the bicycle moving; and a feedback loop — the rider observing that the bicycle is moving in the direction and speed that is desired. and prior classes. The After discussing the systems and experimenting with the bicycle, Jerome students explore and suggests, “Let’s call this pedaling system the power system of the bicycle.” work with gears, “Great idea. Is anything else happening?” Mrs. N asks. sprockets, and chains and “Well, you have to steer,” Jamie says. are given opportunities “Would you consider steering to be a system also?” Mrs. N asks. Alice thinks for a moment and then answers in the affirmative. “What else?” she asks. to tie together “You have to brake,” Jamie notes. conceptual ideas learned “Would you consider the brakes to be a system also?” Mrs. N asks. After in technology and science contemplating the question, Jamie decides that the input is the brake lever, classes. [This example the process is the brake pads acting on the wheels, and the output is slowing down or stopping. highlights elements of “It would appear, then, that a technological system might be made up of Grades 3-5 STL standards several subsystems,” Mrs. N concludes. “In the case of the bicycle, there 2, 3, 5, and 18.] is a power system, steering system, and braking system.” “Thinking about the unit we studied last week on machines, do you observe any simple machines in the bicycle?” Mrs. N asks. “It has wheels and axles,” Megan says. “The chain sprocket is like a wheel too, and there is a pulley and a lever,” Kendall says. Tomorrow, Mrs. N will help the children discover the relationship between speed and the forces that produce rotation as they experiment with pedaling and shifting the upside-down bicycle. Although the students aren’t ready yet for math calculations, Mrs. N plans to have them develop simple charts to depict the relationships. Gears, sprockets, and chains will also tie the technology and science units together. Some of the students had already experimented with gears and chains by using the constructive building sets during their open discovery time.

37 STANDARD 2 Core Concepts of Technology

GRADES fter developing a general under- concentrate on the parts that make up the standing of the core concepts of whole. This shift in focus can be difficult, 6-8 technology in the prior grades, requiring many opportunities for students to Astudents now can investigate these develop understanding. Teachers should topics and their interrelationships approach this technique as an introduction in greater depth. Many aspects of the to future work in higher grade levels. development and use of technology deal Experiences working with different types of with these systems, resources, requirements, technologies and processes help students learn optimization and trade-offs, processes, and how devices work, as well as how to fix them controls. Understanding these main ideas when they break. This information is used in will provide a strong foundation for concept determining the cause of a malfunction, development, application, and transfer of maintaining products and systems, and 3 technological knowledge in later years. managing various aspects of technological Students should continue to explore and development. Understanding various learn more details about systems, such as processes requires knowing the context in the fact that they can take many forms and which a particular process should be used and that systems may have numerous sub- when it is needed. Therefore, students should systems. Students might investigate, for have varied opportunities to use many example, how automated production lines resources, requirements, and processes in function as a subsystem of the manufac- order to experience how trade-offs and turing system. Simple and complex systems feedback systems affect results. Students need are a vital part of students’ lives. Just as the to learn how to determine if a product, students have organs that will not function service, or system conforms to specifications apart from their bodies, the parts and and tolerances required by a design. subsystems of a technological system will In order to recognize the core concepts not work properly unless the system is of technology, students in Grades 6-8 complete. If, for example, a system should learn that controlling traffic lights were to suddenly malfunction and cause traffic lights to get M. Technological systems include out of sequence, the result could be a major input, processes, output, and, traffic jam and many irate citizens. at times, feedback. The input consists of the resources that flow into a techno- Most people find it easier to understand how logical system. The process is the technology works if they see it as a system systematic sequence of actions that comprised of connected parts. A new core combines resources to produce an idea for students at this grade level is systems output — encoding, reproducing, thinking. Systems thinking is a practice that designing, or propagating, for example. focuses on the analysis and design of the The output is the end result, which whole system as distinct from its many parts. can have either a positive or negative Students should learn to look at a problem impact. Feedback is information in its entirety by taking into account all used to monitor or control a system. possible requirements and trade-offs. Prior to A system often includes a component this level, students have tended to 38 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

that permits revising or refining the P. Technological systems can be system when the feedback information connected to one another. Systems suggests such action. For example, the can be connected with the output of fuel level indicator of a car is a feedback one system being the input to the system that lets the user know when the next system. Sometimes the connec- system needs additional fuel. tion provides control of one system over another system. N. Systems thinking involves considering how every part relates Q. Malfunctions of any part of a to others. Systems are used in a system may affect the function number of ways in technology. and quality of the system. When Systems also appear in many aspects part of a system breaks or functions of daily life, such as solar systems, improperly, the results can range from political systems, civil systems, and a nuisance to a disaster. technological systems. Analyzing a R. Requirements are the parameters system is done in terms of its placed on the development of individual parts or in terms of the a product or system. These whole system and how it interacts parameters are often referred with or relates to other systems. to as criteria or constraints. For example, discussing a computer system may involve the particular S. Trade-off is a decision process parts of a single computer, or it may recognizing the need for careful include the entire computer network. compromises among competing In contrast, discussing the solar factors. For example, a comparison system may involve listing the planets, may be made between increasing the stars, and other celestial bodies, or it takeoff power of a spacecraft and using may be discussed by comparing our lightweight materials. The increased solar system to other solar systems in power may result in larger engines, the universe. which may be heavier, while the use of the newly developed materials may O. An open-loop system has no offset weight concerns. When trade-offs feedback path and requires human are made, there is a choice or exchange intervention, while a closed-loop for one quality or thing in favor of system uses feedback. An example another. of an open-loop system is a micro- wave oven that requires a person to T. Different technologies involve determine if the food has been heated different sets of processes. For to the required temperature. An example, data processing includes example of a closed-loop system is the designing, summarizing, storing, heating system in a home, which has a retrieving, reproducing, evaluating, thermostat to provide feedback when and communicating, while the it needs to be turned on and off. processes of construction include designing, developing, evaluating,

39 STANDARD 2 Core Concepts of Technology

GRADES making and producing, marketing, and 6-8 managing. U. Maintenance is the process of inspecting and servicing a product or system on a regular basis in order for it to continue functioning properly, to extend its life, or to upgrade its capability. All techno- logical systems will eventually fail. Maintenance reduces the possibility of failing earlier. If maintenance is not 3 done, failure is certain. The rate of failure depends on such factors as how complicated the system is, what kinds of conditions it must operate in, and how well it was originally built. V. Controls are mechanisms or particular steps that people perform using information about the system that causes systems to change. The essence of a control mechanism is comparing information about what is happening to what is desired and then adjusting devices or systems to make the desired outcomes more likely. For example, a microprocessor may be used to control the performance of a microwave or traditional oven in cook- ing food to a desired temperature.

40 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

GRADES y the time students enter high material and space, affects the use of many school, they should be familiar with technologies. 9-12 the core concepts of technology. At Students should learn that the processes of this level they can begin to analyze B technology do not always happen in a linear how those concepts interact in issues order. For example, prototypes, which are that affect them, their community, and the often made as part of the design process, are world. Such cross-theme topics as how used to help assess the quality of a design resources can be sustained and how before the product or system is actually resources are related to requirements or made and used. Likewise, students need to optimization considerations should be understand that new innovations are discussed and explored in great detail. seldom ready for market. Once innovations Students should focus on the concepts of have been designed, they must be tested systems analysis, stability of systems, and and prepared for future use. Because of control systems. They should recognize that requirements — capital, timing, demand, the order in which processes are used is and production problems, for example — variable and that new technologies are often not all technologies make it to market. The created out of existing ones. The marketing life cycle of a product (or system) includes of these new technologies has a direct effect the processes from concept to eventual on future developments and innovations. withdrawal from the marketplace. Some product life cycles are quite long while Students need to shift from focusing on others may be very short. how the development of technology affects them locally to a broader, global outlook. Optimization and trade-offs are topics that The use of systems thinking requires require more time and effort for students to students to examine all aspects of a develop an understanding of their problem, such as its criteria, constraints, importance in technological development. benefits, and consequences. Using systems Students should have opportunities to use thinking helps students to determine if the simulation or mathematical modeling, both development of a particular system is worth of which are critical to the success of the effort and cost, and to determine the developing an optimum design. If a best approach. Resources can also be mathematical model is not possible, then examined from a global perspective by students will have to rely on their personal exploring the sustainability of the Earth’s experience and use of physical models. resources. The management of work and Students will need to recognize the resources is a major factor in the success of limitations of physical models and the limits the commercial applications of products their use imposes on being able to make and systems. Poor management can lead to various adjustments. Likewise, students excessive costs, poor quality, and need repeated exposure in determining inefficiency. Good management helps trade-offs because this important principle ensure that processes and resources operate will be encountered in many areas of effectively and efficiently. The use of science, in addition to technology. schedules, in addition to the allocation of

41 STANDARD 2 Core Concepts of Technology

GRADES Finally, the study of controls involves speed of the car. Some delay in simple as well as complex systems. feedback or in functioning can 9-12 The human body includes controls that cause a cycle to develop in a system. determine breathing, circulation, and Z. Selecting resources involves trade- digestion. These systems in nature are offs between competing values, such much more complicated and sophisticated as availability, cost, desirability, and than the most advanced human-made waste. Technological development control systems. Reliability, feedback, involves decisions about which and the basic function of a control device resources can and should be used. determine how efficient and beneficial it For example, some homes are very proves to be. Therefore, students need energy efficient, while others con- exposure to an array of experiences sume large amounts of energy. 3 and activities which focus on designing and working with control systems. AA. Requirements involve the identification of the criteria and In order to recognize the core concepts constraints of a product or system of technology, students in Grades 9-12 and the determination of how they should learn that affect the final design and develop- W. Systems thinking applies logic ment. Sometimes requirements can and creativity with appropriate be constraints, criteria, or both. compromises in complex real-life Balancing the two is the optimum. problems. It uses simulation and BB. Optimization is an ongoing process mathematical modeling to identify or methodology of designing or conflicting considerations before making a product and is dependent the entire system is developed. on criteria and constraints. Optimiza- X. Systems, which are the building tion is used for a specific design purpose blocks of technology, are embedded to enhance or to make small gains in within larger technological, social, desirable characteristics. An optimum and environmental systems. For design is most possible when a mathe- example, a food processor is a system matical model can be developed so that made up of components and sub- variations may be tested. systems. At the same time, a food CC. New technologies create new processor is only one component in processes. The development of a larger food preparation system that, the computer has led to many new in turn, is a component in a larger processes, such as the development of home system. silicon chips, which led to smaller- Y. The stability of a technological sized components. system is influenced by all of the DD. Quality control is a planned process components in the system, especially to ensure that a product, service, or those in the feedback loop. Cruise system meets established criteria. control in an automobile, for example, It is concerned with how well a automatically detects and controls the

42 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

product, service, or system conforms FF. Complex systems have many layers to specifications and tolerances of controls and feedback loops to required by the design. For example, provide information. Controls do a set of rigorous international not always succeed or work perfectly. standards (ISO 9000) has been The more parts and connections in established to help companies a system, the more likely it is that systematically increase the quality something may not work properly; of their products and operations. therefore, human intervention may EE. Management is the process of be necessary at some point. planning, organizing, and con- trolling work. Management is sometimes called getting work done through other people. Teamwork, responsibility, and interpersonal dynamics play a significant role in the development and production of technological products.

43 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of the 3 relationships among technologies and the connections between technology and other fields of study. he products of technology are used in nology industry has learned that there is every field of study. Technological a vast difference in engineering a product progress often sparks advances and in a laboratory and mass-producing it for Tsometimes can even create a whole customers. Research about the various new field of study. For example, the efforts addressing production problems telescope made possible the era of modern associated with bioprocesses is proving astronomy, and the movie camera led to a to be vital. whole new art form. Conversely, tech- 3 Science and technology are like conjoined nology borrows from and is influenced by twins. While they have separate identities, many other areas. There may be no field of they must remain inextricably connected in study as intimately connected with so many order to survive. Science provides the other fields as technology. knowledge about the natural world that Technology has its own unique content underlies most technological products base with specific concepts and principles today. In return, technology provides that set it apart from these other fields. science with the tools needed to explore the Technologies are intimately related, such as world. The two fields have many the manufacturing used to produce gener- similarities, such as the development of ators and motors that are then used in codified sets of rules and reliance upon energy and power technology. Because testing of theories in science and of designs technology cannot really be appreciated in technology. The fundamental difference in isolation, students need to understand between them is that science seeks to that these interrelationships exist and to understand a universe that already exists, gain an appreciation for how the relation- while technology is creating a universe that ships shape technology. has existed only in the minds of inventors. Standard 3 discusses various opportunities Mathematics and technology have a similar to connect ideas and procedures that but more distant relationship. Mathematics demonstrate how technologies are inter- offers a language with which to express related and combined. This standard also relationships in science and technology and addresses how new products and systems provides useful analytical tools for scientists build on previous inventions and inno- and engineers. Technological innovations, vations, while demonstrating how such as the computer, can stimulate progress knowledge acquired in one setting can in mathematics, while mathematical be applied in another. For example, inventions, such as numerical analysis understanding how to mass-produce a theories, can lead to improved technologies. biological product developed in a research Other fields of study also have relationships laboratory is essential to the building of a with technology. The designers of bridges, biotechnology company. The biotech- 44 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology dams, and buildings are often influenced by art forms. In turn, technology affects the humanities, often quite profoundly, with inventions that offer new capabilities and approaches. For example, the synthesizer and the computer have aided in the composition and performance of music, while computer databases have revolution- ized research in the social sciences.

45 STANDARD 3 Relationships Among Technologies and Other Fields

GRADES earning becomes more meaningful humans apply similar designs (nets, for when students can connect knowledge example)? The children’s classic, The Three K-2 gained in the classroom to their Little Pigs, could provide the inspiration for Leveryday experiences. The study of students to build models of each house and technology provides many oppor- then test them for strength and durability. tunities to make such connections. As By understanding which structure is the students establish these connections early in best for the pigs, even very young students their education, they will begin to understand should grasp concepts such as the properties how technology influences their daily life. of materials, construction techniques, measurement, and scale. Because the study of technology has numerous relationships with other areas of Through activities in Grades K-2, students 3 the K-12 curriculum, it is particularly will have the opportunity to explore, important to introduce technology at this discover, and make connections between level. Teachers can focus on the common technological studies and other fields of ground between technology and other study — an important component in the subjects (e.g., science, mathematics, social process of learning and understanding studies, language arts, health, physical about the value of technology to society education, music, and art). and culture. Through the combined investigation of these fields of study, One effective method is to use themes from students will develop a well-rounded familiar literature, such as Richard Scarry’s knowledge base. How Things Work, Charlotte’s Web, The Three Little Pigs, or Jack and the Beanstalk, to make In order to appreciate the relationships connections with the study of technology. among technologies, as well as with For example, E.B. White’s novel, Charlotte’s other fields of study, students in Web, could offer an opportunity to learn Grades K-2 should learn that about such connections. A. The study of technology uses many Once the book is read in class, students of the same ideas and skills as other could use photographs, drawings, or actual subjects. For example, many ideas spider webs to examine and describe the learned in mathematics are also used in design of various webs. They could copy a the study of technology, such as basic particular design using materials, such as rules of numbers and using numbers yarn, string, or strips of construction paper to represent measurements. The use and then decide which materials were of ideas or skills learned in the study easiest to use, best suited for the design, or of technology, such as measuring and provided the best results. Classroom building an object, may be used to discussions about the novel could provide build a representation of data collected opportunities for students to build during mathematics instruction. connections between science and the study of technology: How do spiders make webs? How do they use their webs? Why are the small strands in webs so strong? How do

46 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

VIGNETTE Helping Out Stuart Little

This example uses the To provide continuity throughout the school year, Ms. L, a second-grade teacher, chose to use Stuart Little by E. B. White as the basis for many of her story line of Stuart Little, classroom activities. By using this popular children’s story, she was able to by E. B. White, to help introduce her students to many concepts in the study of technology, as well as other subject areas. students develop an understanding of how While she was reading the book to the students, they decided the Little family needed a new home, one that would fit Stuart and his family. the study of technology Ms. L used this opportunity to discuss with the class the differences relates to other fields between fundamental needs (shelter, food, and clothing) and wants. of study and vice versa. Working in teams, the students selected different rooms that they would build for the Little home. Each team selected a cardboard box that was the The students develop a appropriate size and shape for the room that they were developing. Using basic understanding of the materials provided, the students constructed doors, windows, stairs, and furniture for the Littles. Next they chose colors and materials to decorate how things work and their particular room, and with the aid of their teacher, they used simple how the topics they learn electrical devices to wire their model house for lights. in school are related. When they read about the Big Cat coming around, the students, with the guidance of Ms. L, applied what they had learned about safety and [This example highlights protection to develop a security system. Using aluminum foil, cards, wire, some elements of Grades lights, and buzzers, they designed and assembled an early warning cat-alarm system that would alert the Little family when the Big Cat stepped onto K-2 STL standards 1,2, 3, the porch. 10, 11, and 20.] Later in the year, the students planned a local trip to the zoo for the Little family. They built different vehicles for the family’s travel and used maps to determine where the zoo was located, how far they would have to travel, and how long it would take to get there. In the spring, the students planned a trip to China for the Little family. They located China on a map and determined how far away it was. They also learned about Chinese customs, and the value of U.S. money in China, and even constructed passports so the Littles could get through customs.

47 STANDARD 3 Relationships Among Technologies and Other Fields

GRADES s a result of their experiences in movement in their science lessons. Next, Grades 3-5, students will have an they could take a historical look at the 3-5 understanding of and an development of various rockets. The Aappreciation for many possible students could then design a rocket and relationships that exist among build a model to test their design. They technologies and between the study of could apply their estimation skills learned technology and other fields of study. in a prior mathematics lesson to determine Students then need to develop the how far their rockets could fly. Finally, they confidence to apply these relationships could write a creative paper describing what to help them construct a greater under- it would be like to be an astronaut traveling standing of how things work, how the in space. By seeing these connections made designs of many technologies use natural in the classroom, students would gain a 3 phenomena, and how technologies affect clearer understanding of why they need to the development of other technologies. learn certain concepts and principles. Various technologies are often combined in In order to appreciate the relationships the development of new products and among technologies, as well as with machines. Mechanical parts, such as other fields of study, students in springs, wheels, belts, gears, levers, and cam Grades 3-5 should learn that and cranks, for instance, are used to make B. Technologies are often combined. simple machines that in turn are combined For example, an escalator uses the to produce more complex machines and wheel and axle, inclined plane, pulley, systems. The combination of technologies gears, belts, and an electric motor to is not always obvious. It is hard to see the move people from one level to components that make up a microwave another. oven or a high-powered microscope. However, the combinations of technologies C. Various relationships exist between are more obvious in other devices — a technology and other fields of roller coaster, for example. study. For example, the study of technology includes the study Although technology is a human enterprise of natural scientific laws, systems, with a content and history of its own, it is design, modeling, trade-offs, and side interdependent with other fields of study. effects. These topics are also explored By creating laboratory-classroom and studied in science and mathe- environments where this interdependency is matics. Likewise, numerous fields highlighted, teachers can increase the of study share the common concepts opportunities for ideas to flow naturally of communication, scale, constancy, from lessons in one subject to lessons in and change. another. For example, rockets and space fascinate many children and offer a natural opportunity for teachers to bring together several fields of study. Students could begin by studying about the moon’s surface and

48 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

GRADES hrough the study of technology, The free sharing of processes and tech- students in Grades 6-8 begin to niques has generally been limited to the 6-8 discover the answer to the perennial federal government. Because of economic Tquestion, “When am I ever going to use interests, businesses and industry do not this knowledge?” The study of typically give ideas away. Rather, they rely technology on patents to protect ideas so that others in the middle-level grades helps students cannot copy them without permission. recognize relationships among different The sharing of technological knowledge topics in technology, make connections is viewed as a means to improve the quality across fields of study, and integrate ideas of life and bolster the country’s competi- and activities in a structured setting. tiveness in the global marketplace. For example, the ideas developed in genetic For example, learning about aviation engineering, first used in plants in space technology could involve the study of key program research, are now being transferred technological design and performance to research and new developments involv- characteristics of planes and helicopters, ing human tissue. mathematical calculations used for altitudes and airwave movement, and technical Students should be encouraged to look documentation of the history of aviation for relationships between the study of and scientific principles of flight. This technology and other fields of study. They information could help students make should understand that knowledge gained connections across various subjects or in one field of study could be applied to disciplines, while providing opportunities another. Such experiences will enable for them to expand their knowledge students in Grades 6-8 to develop systems through making, testing, and exploring thinking by understanding how parts work their designs in the technological studies together to form the whole. laboratory-classroom. In order to appreciate the relationships Students need various opportunities to among technologies, as well as with explore how technological ideas, processes, other fields of study, students in products, and systems are interconnected. Grades 6-8 should learn that For example, in the healthcare system D. Technological systems often interact technological devices that monitor the with one another. In automated heart, blood pressure, and breathing are manufacturing, for example, computer dependent on other technological devices, systems interact with manufacturing software, and hardware in order to perform systems. properly. In the home, heating systems are dependent upon a thermostat system. If E. A product, system, or environment one aspect of a system is not functioning developed for one setting may be properly, the entire system may mal- applied to another setting. For function or break down. Students also can example, a computerized pump based on study relationships within technology by biological laboratory design for the Mars exploring the role of various occupations, Viking space probe was modified for use such as engineering. 49 STANDARD 3 Relationships Among Technologies and Other Fields

GRADES as an insulin delivery mechanism that examples of technological products and provides diabetics with an automatic and systems. Scientific and mathematical 6-8 precise way to control blood sugar. knowledge and principles influence the F. Knowledge gained from other fields design, production, and operation of of study has a direct effect on the technological systems. Science concepts, development of technological such as Ohm’s Law, aerodynamic products and systems. Studying the principles, and the periodic table of history of technology provides people elements, are used in the development with a way to learn from the successes of new materials and designs. and failures of their predecessors. In Mathematical concepts, such as the use addition, skills learned from other fields of measurement, symbols, estimation, accuracy, and the idea of scaling and 3 of study enhance technological developments. For example, skills proportion are key to developing a learned in language arts are used in product or system and being able to making design presentations. The communicate design dimensions and concepts and principles of drawing are proper function. used in designing and rendering

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GRADES t the 9-12 grade level, students will period of time has passed. In contrast, increase their understanding of scientific knowledge is often communicated 9-12 technology to include an in-depth openly to the public through presentations Aunderstanding of its relationships at professional meetings and publications in and connections. Developing an scientific journals. appreciation for the vast relationships in Science, mathematics, engineering, technology will help students begin to language arts, health-related fields, fine and understand how future developments and performing arts, and social studies offer society’s well-being is dependent on how direct connections to technology content. well technology is understood, developed, Teachers in these fields of study can include used, and restricted. the use of tools, artifacts, resources, simula- The sharing of the development and tions, and computer models to better illus- production of an invention (a new product trate the knowledge or concepts they are or system) or innovation (an improvement teaching. Likewise, students in a technology of an existing product or system) expands laboratory-classroom can use content from the knowledge base of technology. This other fields of study when studying about new knowledge base will have a direct effect technology. on the ability of people to develop and For instance, when students in a physical produce more technologies, which is education class are discussing ergonomics referred to as technology transfer. (the study of the body as it relates to Technology transfer, or spin-offs, is an design), they could build on experiences exciting concept for students. Students by applying ergonomic principles in their need to have various opportunities to technology laboratory-classroom. They investigate how technology transfer could then relate information learned in happens within a technology, among their physical education class about stresses technologies, and across other fields of applied to the body, combined with study. They also need to study the knowledge from science and mathematics economic benefits of technology transfer. dealing with the forces of motion, to design By using various resources to gather a model of an amusement park ride or information on technology transfer, for functional furniture. Connecting and example, students can prepare a synthesizing technological knowledge with presentation that demonstrates how other fields of study can provide valuable technology is transferable, its potential for information for students as they learn more new applications, and its benefits. about the world around them. In the highly competitive world of business, In order to appreciate the relationships obtaining patents is critical. Patents are among technologies, as well as with designed to protect the financial potential other fields of study, students in of an idea, invention, or innovation by Grades 9-12 should learn that prohibiting others from copying the processes and final products unless they G. Technology transfer occurs when provide financial compensation to the a new user applies an existing developer, or unless they wait until a given innovation developed for one 51 STANDARD 3 Relationships Among Technologies and Other Fields

GRADES purpose in a different function. players to digital television. The Aerospace composite materials, for mathematical and scientific ideas 9-12 instance, were used to design an applied in the development of these advanced wheelchair that proved to be digital devices promoted further lightweight and easy to maneuver. developments that resulted in new tools, such as computer modeling. H. Technological innovation often These tools, in turn, are used to results when ideas, knowledge, explore new scientific and mathe- or skills are shared within a tech- matical ideas, thereby spawning nology, among technologies, additional discoveries. or across other fields. The sharing of knowledge about irrigation tech- 3 niques, for instance, can enable developing countries to try out new ideas and make innovative adjust- ments to their current systems to improve the delivery of water. I. Technological ideas are sometimes protected through the process of patenting. The protection of a creative idea is central to the sharing of technological knowledge. Most often an idea is protected through the long and tedious process of obtaining a patent. The purpose of a patent is to safeguard the investment of the inventor or creator and to give credit where and when it is due. J. Technological progress promotes the advancement of science and mathematics. Likewise, progress in science and mathematics leads to advances in technology. The develop- ment of binary language, a digital language made up solely of ones and zeros; the invention of the transistor, a device designed to replace the vacuum tube; and the use of integrated cir- cuits, a collection of millions of miniature transistors, helped spawn a new generation of machines, from laptop computers and compact disc

52 CHAPTER 3 The Nature of Technology

VIGNETTE A Hands-On Experience

This example demon- The science teacher, Mr. C, and the technology teacher, Ms. M, worked together to develop a unit concerning joints, tendons, muscles, and strates how collaboration prosthetic devices. and coordination of cur- In their science class, students learned how these different body parts riculum allows students function by using a human skeleton and related pictures to identify each to make connections and part of the body. understand the relation- In their technology class, the students learned about the development of prosthetic devices from a historical standpoint. The students then divided ships of the study of into groups to fabricate a prosthesis for one of their own hands. Each group technology with other received a poster board, string, elastic strips, straws, glue, and a utility knife. The criteria and constraints stated that the hand must be able to pick fields. [This example up a table tennis ball, pick up a piece of paper lying flat on a table top, highlights some elements dial a rotary phone, and be displayed in a stand-alone presentation. After a couple of class periods, the students tested their “hands” and determined of Grades 9-12 STL if they met the criteria and constraints. standards 1, 3, 11, 12, As a result of the learning experiences in both classes, students developed a and 14.] clear understanding of the unique functions of joints, tendons, and muscles, in addition to how various technologies were used in the development and operation of prosthetic devices that mimic body functions.

53

4 Technology and Society

STANDARDS Students will develop an 4 understanding of the cultural, social, economic, and political effects of technology. p. 57

Students will develop an 5 understanding of the effects of technology on the environment. p. 65

Students will develop an 6 understanding of the role of society in the development and use of technology. p. 73

Students will develop an 7 understanding of the influence of technology on history. p. 79 To a large degree, a society will determine the wants and needs Technology and Society that the use of technology seeks to address. This in turn shapes 4 the paths that technological development will take. The physical environment, too, can play a role by creating constraints or causing certain needs. The initial development of the steam o be understood properly, engine, for instance, was driven by a need to pump water out T of coal mines, and the coal mines were needed because most of technology must be put the wood in British forests had already been burned for fuel. into a social, cultural, Conversely, technology affects both society and the environ- and environmental context. ment. Technology has been called “the engine of history” for the way in which its use drives changes in society; it influences cultural patterns, political movements, local and global economies, and everyday life. And, as technology has grown to meet the demands of the world’s billions of people, its power over the environment has grown as well, to the point where its use has the potential both to improve or to cause great damage to the environment.

In general, the effects of society on technology and technology on society go hand in hand, so that the two march together toward the future. The invention of the personal computer, for example, was driven by the interest of a small number of hobbyists. Once the computer was invented, people in the business world and general population began to find uses for it. This sparked more development, which made it useful for greater numbers of people, whose interest drove further development, and so on, in an ever-accelerating spiral of adoption and development.

This chapter deals with how the use of technology affects society and the environment, as well as how society influences the development of technology, and how technology has changed and evolved over the course of human history.

56 CHAPTER 4 Technology and Society

STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of the cultural, social, 4 economic, and political effects of technology.

n many ways, technology defines a Other effects of technology are sometimes society or an era. This delineation is regarded as less desirable. Traditional ways reflected in the naming of time periods of life have been displaced by technological Ito reflect the respective technological development. This trend tends to magnify milieus: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron the inequalities among peoples and among Age, Industrial Age, Information Age, and societies by creating a situation in which a so forth. Technology shapes the environ- minority of people and groups control and ment in which people live, and over the use a majority of the world’s resources. As course of time, it has become an the pace of technological change continues increasingly larger part of people’s lives. to increase, questions arise as to whether Meanwhile, the natural components of the society’s political and social norms can environment have become correspondingly effectively keep up with the changes. smaller. Most people in our country live in Such factors dealing with the use of houses or apartments, work and shop in technology make it important that large buildings, move about in vehicles, eat decisions be made with care about any prepared foods, drink water from a public particular product or system. For instance, system, and rely on newspapers, radio, the emerging technology of genetic engi- television, and the Internet for much of neering has great potential for improving their communication. People occupy a agriculture and the treatment of disease, technological world. it carries a number of concerns and ethical Many of technology’s effects on society are quandaries as well. In a democratic society widely regarded as desirable. Advances in such as ours, individual citizens need to be medicine and public health have enabled able to make responsible, informed deci- people to live longer, healthier lives while sions about the development and use of eradicating diseases that once prevented such technologies. many children from living to adulthood. Public water and sewer systems have provided water to remote areas and removed contaminants. Improved transportation and communication systems have brought the world closer together, and automated manufacturing systems have allowed the average citizen to own cars, televisions, computers, and a host of other consumer goods.

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GRADES y the time they enter kindergarten, environments and provide protection and students have already been exposed security. They also could examine how K-2 to various home appliances, building different kinds of light fixtures are used Btools, communication products, and in a variety of situations. transportation vehicles. A natural In order to recognize the changes place for students to start learning about in society caused by the use of technology is by having them reflect on technology, students in Grades K-2 how they use such things. For example, a should learn that teacher might ask students to identify products and systems they use and how A. The use of tools and machines can they use them (e.g., the refrigerator keeps be helpful or harmful. Scissors can food cold, the microwave oven cooks food, be used to cut paper, but they can also and the television provides entertainment). cause injury. A wagon can be used to haul toys, but if the wagon tips, the Through guided inquiries, observations, toys will spill and may break. and discussions, students can also become aware of other forms of technology in their lives, how they are used, and what makes 4 them effective. For example, students could explore what bell is used for recess and how that bell is different from the bell used in a fire drill. Building an awareness of how technology is connected to each person’s life provides a foundation for a later exploration of its effects. Students should be encouraged to look at both the positive and negative results of the use of technology. Although products and systems are generally designed to enhance life and improve living conditions, the outcome is not always positive. Laboratory- classroom activities can help students recognize that when products do not work as planned, problems can be created. Likewise, students should look at technologies that enhance life and improve living conditions. For example, teachers could encourage students to ask questions to determine the positive and negative effects of artificial light. The students could examine how home, office, and street lighting is used to illuminate dark

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GRADES tudents are eager to know about the for instance, discuss landfills and how poor world around them — how things design or construction has sometimes led to 3-5 work, or why they work the way they the contamination of surrounding soil and Sdo. They ask questions, such as: Why water. Through these exercises, students does a plane fly, and how is it built? will learn that making sound decisions How did early people measure the length of demands examining both the costs and something? How do escalators and elevators benefits of technological development. work? What makes a computer work the In order to recognize the changes way it does? Learning how technology in society caused by the use of influences or changes their lifestyles takes technology, students in Grades time and experience. Providing opport- 3-5 should learn that unities for students to explore, ask questions, and use information resources B. When using technology, results can allows them to begin to find answers to their be good or bad. These results may technology questions, which in turn will affect the individual, family, com- lead to more questions and more answers. munity, or economy. An example of a As they explore and make connections, good result is using air conditioning to students begin to build a knowledge help keep cool. However, during a foundation they will use later in solving heat wave, the overuse of air condi- problems and understanding the influence tioning can result in a power outage, of the use of technology on society. which can leave a community without electricity. Ships transport oil, which For instance, students who have been helps people by supplying fuel for studying pulleys and counterweights might homes, cars, and other things. But then investigate how an elevator operates. when a ship wrecks and oil spills into After building a model of an elevator, they the ocean, the environment can suffer could see how pulleys and counterweights immeasurably. work to create a machine that can move people and goods up and down. From there, C. The use of technology can have they could discuss how such machines unintended consequences. When improve the mobility of people and goods a dam is built for the purpose of and the effect that elevators have on the supplying water for a city, it can also design and construction of buildings. provide a habitat for plants and ani- mals uncommon to the area. At the Students can consider the issues same time, covering a large area with surrounding transportation, land use, water can destroy native plants and pollution control, and communication to animals. Developers must decide become knowledgeable about the decisions whether the product or system will be made during their development. In helpful, and if so, what the best plan examining how such decisions are made, will be to put it into use. students should recognize that the use of technology results in both expected and unexpected consequences. They might,

59 STANDARD 4 Effects of Technology

GRADES n the middle-level grades, students will economical, political, and ethical issues is discuss how technology causes cultural, another important concept. Exploring such 6-8 social, economical, and political changes issues will provide students with opport- Iin society, with an emphasis wherever unities to consider principle concerns, possible on how the use of technology employ critical questioning, and determine influences their own lives. For example, the benefits and changes in society caused students could examine how technology by the use of different technologies. Such used in education has changed their exploration will enhance their reasoning, learning environments. They also could logic, and critical thinking skills. reflect on how their safety and comfort are In order to recognize the changes enhanced by new products and systems in in society caused by the use of tech- buildings and classrooms. Likewise, stu- nology, students in Grades 6-8 should dents could determine how the use of learn that certain technologies affects choices and attitudes of school personnel and the D. The use of technology affects humans students themselves. in various ways, including their safety, comfort, choices, and attitudes Students should understand that technology about technology’s development and 4 itself is neither positive nor negative, but that use. People’s attitudes toward and the use of products and systems can have knowledge about a product or system, both desirable and undesirable consequences. along with their subsequent actions, When technologies work as intended, the vary greatly and are influenced by their consequences can be desirable, such as moral, social, or political beliefs. For providing comfort from the elements, example, some might support the mitigating diseases, and using natural construction of a high-voltage electric resources more efficiently. Sometimes, transmission line because it would however, the consequences are undesirable, provide electricity to people in remote such as loss of jobs, the loss of resources, or areas, while others who live near the the misuse of time. Some children, for path of the power line might not instance, spend many hours watching support it because of potential effects television or playing video games instead of on their health and safety. Sometimes doing their homework or exercising. By people are well informed about a investigating such issues, students will come product or system, while at other times to understand the various roles of technology they have limited information to make and the value of its use in society. For their choices about whether a tech- example, students could be taught how the nology should be developed or used. development of motion pictures led to the creation of the movie industry, which in turn E. Technology, by itself, is neither good has affected the economy, particularly in nor bad, but decisions about the use southern California. of products and systems can result in desirable or undesirable conse- Understanding the effect that the use of quences. For example, fossil fuels technology has on cultural, social, have both desired and undesired

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consequences. While these fuels pro- G. Economic, political, and cultural vide a good source of energy, their use issues are influenced by the may damage the environment. development and use of technology. For example, information technology F. The development and use of systems have been used to both technology poses ethical issues. inform and influence society. People often wonder whether the use Technology also affects the way of some technologies is ethically people of different cultures live, acceptable. For example, should we the kind of work they do, and allow everyone to purchase a gun? the decisions they have to make.

61 STANDARD 4 Effects of Technology

GRADES tudents at this level will continue to experimentation and new developments study how the development of various grew out of urgent wartime needs. 9-12 technologies affects cultures and Finally, students need to recognize the value societies in both subtle and obvious S of transferring technological knowledge ways. Working from this foundation, within and among cultures and societies. students will learn that the changes caused They should be able to point out how the by technology have been driven by the transfer of technology from one society to desire to improve life, increase knowledge, another affects other cultures, societies, and conquer time. economies, and politics. New technologies are often developed In order to recognize the changes in in response to an identified need or want society caused by the use of technology, or a technological demand. But some students in Grades 9-12 should learn that novel products and systems, such as some entertainment devices, medicines, and H. Changes caused by the use of foods, have emerged as a result of the technology can range from gradual application of new technological knowledge to rapid and from subtle to obvious. or techniques. Students should explore Those changes have resulted in people 4 these emerging technologies and develop having information overload, rapid the skills to evaluate their impacts. They adaptation or acceptance of short- should learn to reason and make decisions lived relationships, and the need for based on asking critical questions, not on instant gratification. For example, the basis of fear or misunderstandings. The when people listen to a classic album goal is to equip them with the necessary or watch television on their high-tech knowledge and the proper mental tools to entertainment system, they are able to be able to examine technological issues and program segments of the album to come to their own conclusions in a play in a certain sequence or watch responsible, ethical manner. two television programs at once while they preview the highlights of a third A classroom activity might, for instance, and record a fourth. have students explore the use and development of synthetic rubber and its I. Making decisions about the use of related products, such as nylon. Teachers technology involves weighing the could guide students to recognize the various trade-offs between the positive and decisions and issues that were a part of the negative effects. These decisions can development process and the effects initiated have lasting impacts, sometimes affect- by world events. For example, the study of ing living habits and cultural patterns World War II could provide an opportunity on a global scale. The construction and to discover why there was a need for use of the interstate system require synthetic rubber to replace natural rubber. considering the benefits of providing a Due to the war, resources were limited safe and quick mode of transportation, because of military needs, and natural as well as the effects on the economy products were not readily available. Thus, and society.

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J. Ethical considerations are important in the development, selection, and use of technologies. For example, medical advances for prolonging life and treating illness have triggered concerns about health care providers giving more attention to the best technological solution than to human values or needs. Questions about how medical technologies should be used to sustain life and the related costs must be considered. High-tech medicine has transformed the philosophy of doing everything possible to prolong life into a consideration that living longer may not necessarily mean living better. K. The transfer of a technology from one society to another can cause cultural, social, economic, and political changes affecting both societies to varying degrees. Sharing methods to increase food production and preservation can alter a country’s living habits in significant ways. For example, the idea for developing flash freezing, a method to freeze foods that preserves the flavor, appearance, and nutritional value, was based on how the people of Labrador preserved their food. The resulting invention, frozen food that is ready to heat and eat, has considerably changed the living habits and culture of many societies.

63 STANDARD 4 Effects of Technology

VIGNETTE Students Plan New Airport Site

This example involves Students in Ms. T’s technology class were discussing the issues surrounding the development of the new regional airport near their students learning about school. The students thought it would be a good idea to design a layout the various issues raised of the airport and see how their plan compared with that of the developers. Ms. T asked students to review aerial photos of a practical during the development site, outline the area on a land plot book, and sketch a geographical map of a local airport site. of their proposed site. Students are encouraged The students soon discovered just how much the airport would affect the to consider all issues region. Because of the amount of acreage needed, a state highway would need to be rerouted, part of a creek bottom would need to be rechan- and to look at how the neled, and many farms would need to be bought. The students voiced use of technology causes concern about the impact on the local economy, the environment, and political issues, as well as the relocation of residents. After much cultural, social, economic, discussion, the class decided that a good science activity would involve and political changes in studying about wetlands preservation and the pollution that the airport could bring to the area. their own area. They are Mr. D’s biology class joined in on the project and began looking at the asked to work in collabo- effect of the proposed action on the various species of wetland animals. ration with students in a Additionally, the biology students designed a survey to send to the 4 residents near the site to obtain information concerning how the citizens biology class and to make felt about the proposed airport project. In another activity, students a joint presentation of participated in a field trip to a regional airport 50 miles from their site and recorded sounds at varying distances from the airport. Mr. D then their findings. [This asked the class to divide into groups and develop reports on the example highlights some wetlands, resident life, noise pollution, and political issues. elements of Grades 9-12 After the two classes had worked independently for several weeks, the technology and biology students met jointly to share their work. The STL standards 4, 5, 6, 10, technology group had completed a CAD layout based on proposed plans 11, and 18.] for the airport, which included details of the terminal, runways, control tower, and support facilities. One group of students had completed a new land plot map to show the geographical changes the airport would create in the rural area. Another group had created a scale model of the airport, while yet another had designed a rerouting plan for the state highway. The biology students presented a report on the wetlands supported by photos, graphs, and charts of the animals, which would be endangered by the airport development project. Students who had conducted the survey about the impact of the airport on residents’ lifestyles presented another report. Yet another group attended local hearings and prepared a report that outlined the political issues of the proposed airport. The final report contained a probability study of noise pollution on the surrounding area. Because the information developed by the two classes was so significant, the teachers encouraged the students to combine their findings into a comprehensive impact study that could be presented to the Regional Economic Development Council. This project provided a firsthand experience for the students to observe how technological activities can affect society and how society can affect the development of technological activities. Also, the activity represented a practical problem of meeting human needs in relation to cultural and economic consequences.

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STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of 5 the effects of technology on the environment.

s with its influences on society, the Yet, the careless use of technology has impact of the use of technology on created negative effects through waste and the environment can be positive or by-products — the toxic sludge from a Anegative. Technology can clean a chemical plant, for example, or the river or pollute it; it can clear skies emissions from automobiles. The use of or darken them. As the use of technology technology also may cause damage simply has grown, so too, has its potential to affect by its presence, as when the habitat of an the environment — a hundred million cars endangered species is displaced by a dam- have an effect that a hundred do not. It is created lake. There is usually little therefore essential that all decisions about economic incentive for a company or other the use of technology be made with the entity to prevent such damage from its environment in mind. products because the cost of the destruction is spread among the millions of people Managing resources through conservation affected by it, while the cost of avoiding and recycling is one of the best ways to use that damage would be borne by the technology to protect the environment. company alone. Thus, a society usually The entire lifecycle of a product must be creates alternate incentives via the political taken into account before the product is system and through the use of laws, created, from the materials and processes regulations, and court decisions. If citizens used in its production to its eventual are to participate effectively in this political disposal. Optimizing a technological process, they need to be educated about the process can make sense both environmental effects of technology. environmentally and economically because optimization minimizes waste, maximizes recycling, and conserves resources. Increasingly, engineers have incorporated such environmental responsiveness into their designs. Many new chemical- processing technologies, for instance, have been engineered to produce less waste, as well as waste that is less toxic. Other technologies have been created to clean effluents before they are dumped into the surrounding water or air. Still others have been designed to incorporate waste materials, which would normally end up in landfills, into new products.

65 STANDARD 5 Effects on the Environment

GRADES t this age, children have only a basic In addition to learning about the benefits knowledge of the world around of reuse and recycling, students should K-2 them. Their main focus is on their learn that acquiring information about Aimmediate surroundings and their materials and products is necessary in individual lives. Thus, K-2 students order to make decisions. This will be should be introduced slowly to broader helpful in preparing students for lessons scale thinking that leads them to realize that about the use of technology and the their actions affect things in their individual environment in later grades. homes, schools, and neighborhoods. In order to discern the effects of tech- Children at this age are often encouraged nology on the environment, students to use scrap paper, used cardboard, in Grades K-2 should learn that and recycled cans when they design and A. Some materials can be reused make products. Because they typically and/or recycled. Materials, such demonstrate concern about the as plastic or glass containers and environment, younger students often cardboard tubes and boxes, may be cooperate enthusiastically with a school- reused to make useful items. Other recycling program. They should have a materials, such as used newspapers, 4 basic understanding that pollution can glass, and aluminum, may be recycled. affect people and animals. They should realize that a great deal of pollution results directly from using things and then throwing them away. Teachers can boost this understanding of reuse, recycling, and pollution by teaching students the best ways to use technology. It is important that students in Grades K-2 consider whether a material, product, or system will affect the environment. To accomplish this, students could examine various materials and products to determine if they can be reused or recycled for disposal. If they conclude that an item can be reused, the students could develop ideas and plan ways to reuse the item. If they conclude that an item cannot be recycled, they could discuss an alternative plan. They could also experience hands-on recycling by designing, making, and testing a variety of containers — for cans, paper, plastic, glass, cardboard, and other materials. Afterwards, they could take their containers home and actually use them for their own recycling. 66 CHAPTER 4 Technology and Society

GRADES he environment directly affects the In order to discern the effects of tech- quality of human life. Clean air and nology on the environment, students 3-5 water are central to a healthy and in Grades 3-5 should learn that productive life. Although the T B. Waste must be appropriately recycled development and use of technology or disposed of to prevent unnecessary can solve many environmental problems, harm to the environment. Biode- improper application may pose serious gradable materials can be composted, threats to the environment. It is important and many solid materials can be for students in Grades 3-5 to begin to recycled. It is important to reduce the understand how technology affects the amount of material going to landfills. environment in both positive and negative ways. They also need to realize that it is C. The use of technology affects the important to look for alternative ways to environment in good and bad ways. protect their environment. For example, the development of a mass transit system through a wooded area Students should have opportunities to can improve the environment by explore and discuss environmental issues reducing the number of automobiles that are apparent locally, such as resource traveling through it. However, such a management and pollution. They could system might cause destruction of investigate ways that various technologies vegetation, present danger to native are being developed and used to reduce animals, and compromise natural improper use of resources. On a broader aesthetics. scale, they could look at issues affecting the environment globally, such as dwindling tropical rain forests and depletion of the ozone layer. Students should use this information while learning to make decisions about the effects of technology on the environment. The proper disposal of waste and the consistent use of recycling represent two ways to help keep the environment healthy and enjoyable for the future. It is not too soon for students to understand what happens to waste and whether it is being disposed of appropriately. Students may also explore how alternate forms of transportation can reduce pollutants that affect the environment.

67 STANDARD 5 Effects on the Environment

GRADES he various opportunities for wastewater treatment plants that make it understanding the life cycle of a possible to keep rivers, lakes, and oceans 6-8 material or product should begin with clean, and pollution-control devices that have Tlearning about the origins of various reduced much of the destructive acid rain. materials and products. Students On the other hand, the negative effects of should explore how a waste product is technology can be observed in the depletion recycled, re-used, or re-manufactured into a of the ozone layer, acid rain, deforestation, new product — old rubber tires being and air and water pollution. Students should ground and re-used in road pavement or re- learn how to objectively look at the pros and manufactured as soles for shoes, for cons of a given technology in order to be example. Once they understand how informed decision makers. products are developed, students can then Finally, students should research the examine their use and ultimate disposal. By potential clash between environmental and tracing the life cycle of a product from its economic concerns created by technological inception to its disposal, students will be products and systems. They could look at able to identify various points in the how the development and use of tech- sequence where technology plays a role. nologies sometimes cause environmental 4 For example, students could study the and economic concerns to be at odds. For growing of corn, tomatoes, or other garden example, students could follow the debates projects. After learning details about how concerning the development of Antarctica. the soil is prepared, how the plants are In the past, technological capabilities fertilized, how the products are harvested, limited the use of Antarctica to a scientific packaged, transported, and marketed, the reserve. Owing to recent technological students could examine the effects of these advances, the future of the continent and its various processes on the environment and marine life are in question. A heightened come up with more environmentally economic interest in the potential to friendly modifications. develop and use minerals from Antarctica is causing debate about the future use of the Unfortunately, the environment is not continent and the unknown impacts. always friendly to humans. However, technology can be used to modify the In order to discern the effects of tech- environment. Technological products and nology on the environment, students systems have been used to improve dreadful in Grades 6-8 should learn that conditions caused by natural disasters, such D. The management of waste produced as earthquakes, tornadoes, and hurricanes. by technological systems is an New construction and agricultural important societal issue. Recycling techniques have been developed to reduce materials, such as glass, paper, and or prevent harm to people and property. aluminum has decreased the waste that Students should investigate how technology is sent to landfills, thereby reducing the has affected the natural world in both need for new disposal sites. positive and negative ways. Examples of positive effects of technology include

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E. Technologies can be used to repair F. Decisions to develop and use tech- damage caused by natural disasters nologies often put environmental and to break down waste from the use and economic concerns in direct of various products and systems. New competition with one another. building technologies and landscaping For example, decisions on the use techniques can be used to reduce the of nuclear power, wetlands preservation, effects of earthquakes and major storms. and placement of roads and highways In addition, innovative ways of reducing are sometimes in direct conflict with waste production can aid in repairing many different viewpoints and interests. the environment. For example, the use of bacteria in sewage treatment helps to clean human waste prior to being released into rivers or lakes.

69 STANDARD 5 Effects on the Environment

VIGNETTE The Best Bag in Agawam

This example uses a “Would you like paper or plastic?” This familiar question became the basis for determining the effect on the environment and a technological assessment of a common object, a grocery common item, the grocery shopping bag. The students compared the bags by bag, for students to designing and using a spreadsheet to record their characteristics and their effects on the environment. investigate how well it The class began the unit by brainstorming about the various characteristics of works and what the grocery bags and then selecting the most important characteristics to use in their consequences of its use experiment. Next, they researched different tests for evaluating each bag. are for the environment. Once the tests were selected, the students divided into teams and decided which team leader positions (“Managers”) would be necessary to complete the activity. Students work in teams The five groups included the Data Team, the Inflation Team, the Puncture Team, the Environmental Impacts Team, and the Weight Team. A sixth group, the to gather data and to Management Team was made up of the leaders of each of the other five teams, in determine which grocery addition to an overall project manager. The team leaders were assigned titles to reflect their respective teams, and the students then developed resumes and bag is best suited for applied for the team manager positions. After reviewing the resumes and hauling groceries safely. interviewing their classmates, the class selected the management team. The management team then selected the remaining students to serve as members of They also gather data their respective teams and developed a timeline. The teacher served as consultant. regarding environmental The Management Team selected ten stores in their town from which to gather 4 effects and discover that bags. They collected the bags, along with specifications that included both the minimum and maximum dimensions. the use of a technology The Data Group designed a spreadsheet to chart the test results using an has a direct effect on ascending scale of 1 to 10. The score was assigned according to how well the bag performed on each test. The spreadsheet was designed to measure the results of local waste management. the individual tests, as well as overall performance. [This example highlights The Inflation Team constructed a test apparatus that allowed them to blow a blister some elements of Grades on samples from each bag and then to compare thickness differences at set pounds per square inch (PSI). The team tested the thickness of the bags before and after 6-8 STL standards 5, 6, 8, inflation at different PSI and noted at what PSI the bag ruptured. 9, 10, and 13.] The Puncture Team designed bottles and boxes that were attached to the rims of pneumatic cylinders. After each sample bag was struck by the bottles and boxes, the Puncture Team noted at which PSI the bag ruptured. The Weight Group suspended the bags by their handles and then filled the bags with sand in order to find out at what weight the handles would tear. After testing a couple of bags, the group decided to change their test to include the weight at which the seams separated. The Environmental Team surveyed local consumers to determine how the bags were used after they were taken home. The students noted if the bags were recycled or trashed. The team also checked with the local waste management office for data on discarded grocery bags. All information was added to the spreadsheet for each bag. After the tests were completed, and the scores were tallied, the bag with the highest score was declared the winner. The students then contacted the distributor of the winning bag to determine why the distributor chose to sell that particular bag. The students were surprised to learn that the bag was chosen for its looks and not its strength or recyclability. The students agreed that appearance was important because a bag with visual appeal plus durability would be reused. However, the students concluded that more study would be needed to determine if other measures could be used to limit the number of bags being wasted.

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GRADES tudents in Grades 9-12 need to complete with caverns, sand, soil, water understand the delicate balance flow patterns, ponds, and lakes. Such a 9-12 among people, technology, and model could be used to show how spilled Sthe environment. For example, fuels or other liquids affect watersheds and conservation of natural resources, bodies of water. Students could then design improvement of older technologies, and and develop solutions for fixing a potential large-scale use of technologies are resulting spill in their own area. in global changes. Learning to appreciate Students can determine how to evaluate the decisions that are made to maintain a their needs or wants for a product or system balance among society, technological use, versus the effect that it will have on the and the environment is central to environment. Such an evaluation involves a developing technological literacy. very complex process. For example, dams Although many technological products or and high-powered electric lines are needed systems are developed with the good of the for generating power and providing service environment in mind, sometimes unin- to many communities. Yet, the damming of tended side effects occur. To develop an streams and rivers and the diversion of understanding of the effect of technology natural water flows is damaging to many on the environment, students need to study habitats and environments. Understanding and have experiences with technological the trade-offs that must be made and then devices and systems designed to help making decisions accordingly helps students prevent or repair damages to the environ- to recognize the positive and negative effects ment. For example, students could design, that can result from technological solutions. develop, build, and control a waste- In order to discern the effects of tech- management or water-treatment system nology on the environment, students that would treat soil pollution or purify in Grades 9-12 should learn that water. To reinforce this lesson, students could visit a local water treatment facility to G. Humans can devise technologies to determine how water treatment and waste- conserve water, soil, and energy disposal practices affect the surrounding through such techniques as reusing, environment. reducing, and recycling. For example, water treatment and filtering tech- Environmental disasters are reported nologies can facilitate the reuse of regularly on the evening news. Students water; wind and water erosion can should develop an understanding of how be reduced by no-till farming; and technological advances in landscaping and aluminum containers can be recycled. architecture are being used to mitigate such disasters. At the same time, mishandled H. When new technologies are materials and products may affect the developed to reduce the use of environment and, in turn, the health and resources, considerations of trade- safety of people. Students could research, offs are important. Examples include design, and build a model showing a the cost and limited output of photo- cutaway view of their local terrain, voltaic cells to produce electricity

71 STANDARD 5 Effects on the Environment

GRADES mainly in remote areas and the poten- L. Decisions regarding the tial long-term side effects of new drugs. implementation of technologies 9-12 involve the weighing of trade-offs I. With the aid of technology, various between predicted positive and aspects of the environment can be negative effects on the environment. monitored to provide information For example, the implementation of for decisionmaking. The develop- advanced transportation technologies, ment of a wide range of instru- such as shuttles and metrorails, has had mentation to monitor the effects of an enormous impact on the ability to human-made gases, such as CFCs or travel. At the same time, roadways, monitor the effects of weather urban sprawl, and automobile patterns (meteorology) and other emissions have directly affected the atmospheric conditions are examples environment. Indirect effects include of these technologies. factors such as pollution caused by J. The alignment of technological manufacturing and junked cars. processes with natural processes maximizes performance and reduces negative impacts on the environ- 4 ment. For example, buildings can be strategically oriented to the sun to maximize solar gain, and biode- gradable materials can be used as compost to make the soil more productive. K. Humans devise technologies to reduce the negative consequences of other technologies. Examples include scrubbers for coal burning generation facilities, fuels that burn more cleanly and, materials separation processes that aid in the recycling process.

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STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of the role 6 of society in the development and use of technology.

ust as technology molds society, so The values and beliefs of individuals shape too does society mold technology, their attitudes toward technology. For shaping it in big ways and small. The instance, genetic engineering is viewed by Jmost obvious influence that society some as a way to produce more and better wields is the vote on whether a agricultural products at lower prices, while particular product satisfies a need or want. others see it as a possible environmental If enough people find a product useful or hazard and an economic threat to small desirable, it will generally be continued and farms. More generally, some people tend to developed further; if it is not accepted, it be sanguine about technology, believing it to will vanish from the technological universe. represent progress, while others view it with In most cases this vote is tallied by the suspicion, arguing that its disadvantages too market — products that are profitable often outweigh its benefits. survive; others do not — but sometimes, most often for risky technologies, the decision is made politically. Nuclear power, for example, has been banned by a number of governments around the world. Because most innovations today are developed inside organizations, organiza- tional culture plays an important role in shaping technology — the personal computer as developed by Apple is a much different machine than the personal computer developed by IBM, for example. Government regulations, subsidies, and financial incentives can favor some technologies and be a disadvantage to others. Market forces and competition among businesses will often shape technological choice, as has happened in the battle between Microsoft and Netscape over Internet browser technology. And individuals from Henry Ford to Ralph Nader have stamped their personal marks on technology as well. Corporations will create technological demand, over- shadowing needs and wants in favor of developing or increasing market value. 73 STANDARD 6 Impact of Society on Technology

GRADES oung children are interested in natural light; it was cleaner; and it was less learning about various technological likely to cause a fire. This example K-2 products and systems and about how demonstrates that personal likes and dislikes Y such things can satisfy their own and preferred characteristics help shape needs and wants. This interest can product development. be used to teach the lesson that, in general, In order to realize the impact of such products and systems are designed with society on technology, students in the goal of meeting individual needs, wants, Grades K-2 should learn that or demands. For example, students might explore how the desire to see after dark and A. Products are made to meet indi- the demand for safer, more reliable sources of vidual needs and wants. For example, light led to the use of candles, oil lamps, gas people need water, so a system for lamps, and, eventually, the electric light providing water to the home and bulb. Teachers should help students school was created. Because people understand that the electric light bulb like to play video games, computer displaced the candle and gas lamp because it software designers have responded had a number of desirable characteristics: it with an on-going supply of new games. provided a brighter, steadier, and more 4

74 CHAPTER 4 Technology and Society

VIGNETTE The Development of the Button

This is an example of how Two people from the community, dressed in simply draped robes, visited Mr. B’s elementary classroom to help introduce a unit on the development of students may approach technology. By asking carefully directed questions, Mr. B helped the children the ideas behind how realize that the robes did not have zippers, pins, or buttons — only belts and fabric knots held the robes together. Using selected students to act as people shape the mannequins, students demonstrated how the robe was draped and secured development and use using only the belts and fabric knots. of technology and relate After the demonstration, the class reviewed and discussed information on them to the evolutionary how clothing fasteners have changed over time, including the development of buttons and buttonholes in the thirteenth century, and how the needs change and history of a and wants of individuals drove those changes. To reinforce the discussion, single product or group the students experimented by making buttons out of materials representing various periods of history. of similar products. Following the making and testing of their buttons and buttonholes, the [This example highlights teacher and children explored why the button was so successful. Mr. B some elements of Grades helped the children see that buttons made clothes fit better and therefore kept people warmer. The example enabled Mr. B to explain that the K-2 STL standards 4, 6, 7, invention of the button helped to keep babies warm in the cold, drafty and 11.] houses of the time. Thus, the button improved the survival rate of the babies — quite an accomplishment for such a simple little device.

75 STANDARD 6 Impact of Society on Technology

GRADES tudents in Grades 3-5 should learn In order to realize the impact of that people’s needs and wants have a society on technology, students in 3-5 direct influence on the development Grades 3-5 should learn that of technology. If people have no S B. Because people’s needs and wants desire for a certain product or system, change, new technologies are companies will not generally develop it. developed, and old ones are Furthermore, once people lose interest in a improved to meet those changes. product or system, even one that was pre- Before the days of air conditioning, viously seen as a necessity, it will probably covered porches on homes were very be removed from the marketplace and popular because people could go quickly forgotten. outside to enjoy a cool breeze in a In contrast, companies often encourage the comfortable, shaded area. Now that air demand for a product through such tactics as conditioning is widely available, new marketing or deliberately creating a shortage. houses seldom feature open-air front Furthermore, because people’s wants and porches; rather, uncovered backyard needs are constantly changing, technology decks are favored to accommodate too is constantly changing. Toy sales can modern day preferences. 4 exemplify this principle. Many toys are made C. Individual, family, community, and brought to market because parents and and economic concerns may expand children demand them. If the demand for or limit the development of tech- certain toys drops, prices will also drop, and nologies. The development of a companies will reduce production of those product or system is related to the items. Students should learn that when wants, interests, and acceptance of people are deciding which product to individuals. Just because a product or purchase, they are also influencing the rise system could be developed does not and fall of technological development. mean it should be. Sometimes an industry is able to deliver a product or system, but because of misunder- standing or fear, a product or system is not developed. For example, the electric car, nuclear power, and genetic terminator seeds have stimulated both public mistrust and misunderstanding.

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GRADES echnology is widely recognized as including an electronic facsimile (fax) causing many changes in society, but machine, and electronic mail (e-mail), 6-8 the converse is also true — society plays which continue to change the way Ta critical, if not always obvious role in people correspond and keep records. the development and use of technology. E. The use of inventions and innovations Students in Grades 6-8 should recognize has led to changes in society and the that inventions and innovations are created creation of new needs and wants. to help meet the demands and interests of For example, the initial creation of radios, individuals and communities. Likewise, televisions, and sound systems has led to they should have opportunities to discuss an ever-growing demand for entertain- and explore various long-term research and ment and information. Thus, the development projects that have resulted in development of technology sometimes major impacts, such as fusion, space creates the demand. exploration, and genetic engineering. F. Social and cultural priorities and Students could study how modern values are reflected in technological transportation stems from people’s needs to devices. For example, an unenthusiastic move quickly from place to place. The attitude toward the use of genetically invention of powerful engines and motors engineered foods has affected the has helped to meet the desire for faster and development of this technology, yet more comfortable modes of travel, which many seed-producing companies are in turn has affected the transportation pressed to develop insect- and disease- technologies by causing an increase in the resistant plants. Likewise, consumer number of vehicles and roadways. The tastes influence technological designs, result is a spiral of ever-improving such as the color and contours of transportation technologies and an ever- household appliances. For example, new increasing demand for even better ones. appliances are not marketed in the In order to realize the impact of rounded shapes of the 1950s or the society on technology, students in avocado green color of the 1970s. Grades 6-8 should learn that G. Meeting societal expectations is the D. Throughout history, new technologies driving force behind the acceptance have resulted from the demands, and use of products and systems. values, and interests of individuals, Whether or not a technology is businesses, industries, and societies. accepted by society depends, first, The development of the typewriter on whether it does its job and, second, helped speed the preparation of docu- on how well it accords with various ments for many businesses, while the economic, political, cultural, and development of the photocopying environmental concerns. With little machine revolutionized the process of regard to underlying technology, people duplicating documents. The typewriter expect buildings to provide shelter, and photocopying machine were bridges to span water, and dams to followed by many other innovations provide power and recreation.

77 STANDARD 6 Impact of Society on Technology

GRADES echnology is connected with and there has been a tremendous investment. influenced by all of society’s institutions, Students should understand the importance 9-12 including economic, family, political, of public opinion — those who reap the Tand educational. These societal benefits have an advantage on influencing institutions have a powerful influence decisions regarding the development and on how people live, work, play, and learn. implementation of technology. Students in Grades 9-12 need to realize the In order to realize the impact of influence of society on technology and how society on technology, students in its decisions will directly affect the Grades 9-12 should learn that development of a product or system. H. Different cultures develop their own Students at this level begin to search for technologies to satisfy their indi- their place in a technologically complex vidual and shared needs, wants, world. They need to learn that decisions and values. American transportation they will be asked to make can be affected systems are closely linked to freedom by their own understanding of technology. and independence, whereas other The more opportunities they have to cultures might place more value on practice their technological thinking and the speed and convenience associated 4 decision making, the better prepared they with mass transportation systems. will be to make decisions regarding outcomes of a product or system. I. The decision whether to develop a technology is influenced by societal Students should study how public opinion opinions and demands, in addition to and demands directly affect the market- corporate cultures. The technological place. When a product or system is not expertise to develop a particular product regarded favorably, the developers must or system may be available, but if the decide whether to continue or halt its public reaction to such development is development. Just because a product or in opposition, or if a corporation refuses system can be developed does not mean that to adjust to new and complex ideas, the it should be — acceptance or rejection by development is most often limited or society often determines its success or stopped. failure. If companies do not consider public opinion, their products or systems can be J. A number of different factors, such as doomed to failure, which can lead to advertising, the strength of the econ- significant financial losses. To demonstrate omy, the goals of a company, and the this concept, students could study latest fads contribute to shaping the inventions or innovations with limited design of and demand for various success: the Edsel, named for Henry Ford’s technologies. Sometimes these forces son, was considered a poorly designed are consistent with one another. At other automobile; after the Hindenburg disaster, times, they may compete. The general production of the dirigible, a large public may or may not be aware of the hydrogen-filled balloon, was halted. It is influences that shape technology or of extremely difficult to convince people to how technological development will abandon an established product in which impact the environment. 78 CHAPTER 4 Technology and Society

STANDARD Students will develop an understanding 7 of the influence of technology on history.

echnology began with very simple tools: development of the steam engine and a rocks or other natural items that were number of other important machines and modified to better serve whatever the establishment of the first factories. Tpurpose their maker had in mind. As These changes ushered in the Industrial time passed, humans became more Age, a time of mass production. The sophisticated at making tools and also learned creation of an interconnected system of to process raw materials into forms that did suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, not exist in nature — bronze and iron, financiers, and inventors revolutionized the ceramics, glass, paper, and ink. These new production of material goods, making them materials opened the way to improve existing widely available at low cost and high tools and to create whole new technologies. quality. The most recent transformation — People learned to put individual parts the development of powerful computers together to create systems — the wheel and and high-speed telecommunication axle, the lever, and the bow and arrow — that networks — has taken place over the past could perform jobs no single item could. The few decades. These technologies have division of labor allowed people to become achieved for the field of information what specialists and to cooperate in making the previous two revolutions did for food products more complicated and sophisticated and material goods. The ability to store, than any individuals were likely to achieve on manipulate, and transfer information their own. quickly and inexpensively has profoundly affected almost every part of society, from A major boost to technology came with the education and entertainment to business rise of science in the sixteenth and seven- and science. teenth centuries. Scientific knowledge opened the way to a new type of design, Knowing the history of technology — the one not based completely on trial and error, major eras, along with specific events and but based partly on being able to predict milestones — helps people understand the how something should work even before world around them by seeing how it was built. inventions and innovations have evolved and how they in turn produced the world History has seen at least three great as it exists today. In studying past events, transformations that were driven by one begins to see patterns that can help in technology. The development of agriculture anticipating the future. In this way, the some 14,000 years ago was the first. By study of technology equips students to providing a stable food supply, agriculture make more responsible decisions about allowed societies to grow and flourish, technology and its place in society. which in turn led to the first great flowering of civilization. The second transformation came in the eighteenth century with the 79 STANDARD 7 The History of Technology

GRADES tudying about the history of tech- In order to be aware of the history of nology in the early school grades is technology, students in Grades K-2 K-2 important because it provides students should learn that with a basic understanding of how the S A. The way people live and work has world around them came about. This changed throughout history because foundation will be important as they of technology. Once people learned to progress through school. provide shelter for themselves — first Students will learn how technology has with simple huts and later with houses, evolved from early civilizations when the first castles, and skyscrapers — they were no humans created primitive tools by chipping longer forced to seek natural shelter, such away the edges of flint stones. Making and as caves. The invention of the plow and using tools were among the first tech- other agricultural technologies, along nologies; they were — and still are — a with such simple devices as fish hooks means to extend human capabilities and to and the bow and arrow made it easier for help people work more comfortably. people to feed themselves, which freed Students will realize that humans have up time for other pursuits. People’s become more than just toolmakers. Over ability to communicate with one another 4 time, people have improved their capability over space and time has been improved to create products or systems for providing by the use of such tools and processes as shelter, food, clothing, communication, smoke signals, bells, papermaking, transportation, weapons, health, and culture. telephones, and the Internet.

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GRADES hroughout history, people have In order to be aware of the history of developed various products and systems technology, students in Grades 3-5 3-5 to help in their pursuits. To understand should learn that this concept, students in Grades 3-5 T B. People have made tools to provide might study, for instance, the evolution food, to make clothing, and to of construction. They could trace the protect themselves. The products and development of structures from the earliest systems developed did not always work. people to Egyptian pyramids, Roman Often many attempts and variations aqueducts, sailing ships, to modern day were tried before an idea became a skyscrapers. In this way, students will come reality. For example, the development to see how the history of civilization has of pottery stretched over 10,000 years. been closely linked to technological People learned to mix various clays to developments. make stronger items and to fire pottery A variety of activities based on historical in ovens to harden the clay faster. periods can help students learn how people Various containers, such as jugs, vases, improved their shelter, food, clothing, and cups were designed and developed communication, transportation, health, and for holding things, such as water, milk, safety, and, therefore, promoted their seed, and grains. Not all of the designs culture. For example, to develop an worked, and variations in some may be understanding of the evolution of seen in every ancient civilization. communication, students could replicate different forms of communication, starting with cave drawings and carvings and moving on to maps and charts, then to photography, and finally to graphic design. They could trace the progression of artificial light from primitive cave fires to candles, and on to gaslights and electric light bulbs, and finally neon lights, fluorescent lights, and lasers. By the time they complete the elementary grades, students will have gained a perspec- tive on the importance of technology through its historical development. In addition, they will have gained an understanding of the importance of tools and machines throughout history.

81 STANDARD 7 The History of Technology

VIGNETTE A Time Line Comparison of Communicating a Message

This example explores the Understanding historical perspectives becomes critical when educators consider that their students have never known much technology that is history of communication more than a few years old. This point became clear to Mr. S when he and provides an oppor- realized his fourth-grade students had never heard of the railroad telegraphers’ Morse Code mentioned during their lesson on westward tunity for students to expansion. Mr. S chose communication systems as a way to help his begin to develop and students explore the history of technology. put to use their under- To begin the study, Mr. S provided background information, and the standing of how the students conducted basic research. The students then created a time line, which depicted communication methods from prehistoric times to the evolution of technologies present. Their time lines included such milestones as drums, messengers, relates to the history whistles, mirrors, telephones, fax machines, and e-mail. The class separated into teams, and each group researched particular types of of humankind. [This communication and then shared their findings with the other teams. The example highlights some class experimented with earlier forms of communication (e.g., sending messages by foot, whistling, and using mirrors) between their school and elements of Grades 3-5 the school down the street. After discussing the results of these basic STL standards 3, 4, 6, 7, forms of communication, the students concluded that more modern forms would be necessary for their project. 13, and 17.] 4 The students were given an opportunity to work with modern types of communication when their school was celebrating the networking of all 18 classrooms to the Internet. Mr. S approached his fourth graders with the challenge of testing the new system to see if it worked as well as, or better than, previous communication systems. To do this, the class composed a message that read, “Our school has just completed networking our classrooms to the Internet, so please help us celebrate by sending back this message A.S.A.P. using the way it was sent (e.g., inter-school mail, telephone, letter, e-mail, and fax). This is a test of our new communication system. Thanks for participating in our celebration.” In teams, the students sent the message to 10 other schools in the district. Each team used a different mode of communication and recorded the amount of time it took for the recipient to respond. One team used the inter-school hand-delivered mail system, another used the telephone, a third mailed letters via the postal service, a fourth e-mailed the message, and a fifth used the office fax machine. All 10 schools replied to the message using the same form of com- munication in which they received it. The students then were able to compare the response rate and accuracy for each type of communication and then assess the pros and cons of each. Finally, Mr. S’s students prepared reports for other classes with information about appropriate forms of communication for a given purpose (e.g., postal mail for formal invitations and e-mail for informal notes, reports). As a result of this exercise, Mr. S’s class learned a great deal about the historical changes and improvements in communication, which were brought about by technology.

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GRADES n the middle-level grades, students will In order to be aware of the history of learn about many of the technological technology, students in Grades 6-8 6-8 milestones in human history. They will should learn that recognize the ways in which technology I C. Many inventions and innovations has affected people from different have evolved by using slow and historical periods — how they lived, methodical processes of tests and the kind of work they did, and the refinements. For example, during the decisions they made. Seeing the history development of the incandescent light of technological developments in the bulb, Thomas Edison and a team of broader context of human history will 20 highly skilled technical personnel enable students to understand how the performed more than 1,000 tests impact of technology on humankind has before they narrowed their ideas to changed over time. the one that worked. Since that first Teachers can inspire students’ curiosity light bulb burned for 13 hours in about the history of technology in a 1879, there have been many variety of ways. They might, for example, innovations and design changes. have students explore various structures D. The specialization of function that provide shelter and investigate how has been at the heart of many their climate-control systems, such as technological improvements. For heating and cooling, have made life example, the early steam engine was indoors more comfortable and enjoyable. originally designed with a single In conducting their research, students chamber in which steam expanded could use such sources as books, the and then was condensed — thus Internet, and even older members of the performing both of the two very community to learn about life before different functions of the steam homes were air-conditioned and centrally engine in the same place. Fifty years heated. Once they have gathered their later, by isolating the functions of the information, the students could present it cylinder and steam condenser into to the class in various formats, such as separate components, James Watt building a model, making a slide created a more efficient steam engine. presentation, or producing a video. Any number of other topics, including food, E. The design and construction of clothing, communication, transportation, structures for service or conven- weapons, and health, could also serve as ience have evolved from the the basis for such an exercise. By development of techniques for investigating the major inventions and measurement, controlling systems, innovations from various times in history, and the understanding of spatial students will be able to draw conclusions relationships. For example, the about how society and culture influence purpose of Roman aqueducts was to technological development and vice versa. provide a service by moving water

83 STANDARD 7 The History of Technology

GRADES from the surrounding hills to the city. The introduction of science The water flowed through channels, knowledge combined with tech- 6-8 some above ground on high arches or nological knowledge led to a great tiers, while most were underground increase in engineering and and were designed with a slight technological development. The downward grade. Building the development of a new product or aqueducts required much organiza- system often happens in areas that tion, as well as an understanding of have not been analyzed by science or the materials and terrain. in areas where science knowledge is being gathered alongside the tech- F. In the past, an invention or innova- nological development, such as in tion was not usually developed space programs. with the knowledge of science.

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GRADES tudents in Grades 9-12 should learn In order to be aware of the history of that sometimes technological changes technology, students in Grades 9-12 9-12 are abrupt and obvious, and at other should learn that times, they are evolutionary and S G. Most technological development subtle. The effects of technological has been evolutionary, the result advancements can also be very powerful, of a series of refinements to a basic irreversible, and global. invention. For example, the develop- To develop an understanding of the history ment of the pencil was a long and of technology, students at this grade level tedious process. Engineers, designers, should learn about the origins and history and technicians developed many of various inventions and innovations as different techniques and processes to they relate to particular periods of time. use a variety of materials in order to Historical periods have been defined and develop the best pencil possible. Often named in terms of the dominant products a product or system will have a direct or systems of the time. For instance, impact or dependence on another, students would learn that the Stone Age which will affect the pace and nature began with the development of chipped- of the change in one or both of them. stone tools, which later evolved into hand For example, information and com- axes, blade tools, spears, and the bow and munication technologies have had an arrow, and that fire was also harnessed at enormous impact on the development this time. Other historical periods have of the transportation system. been characterized by significant tech- H. The evolution of civilization has nological developments — the wheel, the been directly affected by, and has printing press, mass production, and the in turn affected, the development computer, for example. and use of tools and materials. Without question, key developments in Communication, agriculture, and technology have pushed civilization forward transportation, for example, have and laid the foundation for the present evolved out of the political, economic, high-technology era. Over the past 200 and social interests and values of the years, technological and scientific growth times. The use of electricity, farm has become closely linked with the idea of tractors, and airplanes have enhanced progress. Thus, students should compare safety and comfort, aided in different the various eras and come to understand means of communication, and helped that studying the history of technology is provide food and transportation. also studying the process of change. I. Throughout history, technology Students should also understand that while has been a powerful force in history tends to be told in terms of heroes reshaping the social, cultural, and individual inventors, in reality many political, and economic landscape. people with different backgrounds have The study of the history of technology worked together and separately over time to helps determine possible scenarios for develop technology. the future. For example, the develop-

85 STANDARD 7 The History of Technology

GRADES ment of the mechanical clock in the L. The Middle Ages saw the develop- fourteenth century changed how ment of many technological devices 9-12 people regarded their use of time. that produced long-lasting effects on technology and society. This J. Early in the history of technology, period saw the development of the the development of many tools and waterwheel, the block printing machines was based not on scientific process, paper money, the magnetic knowledge but on technological compass, and the printing press. In know-how. The Stone Age started many ways, all of these devices are still with the development of stone tools being used today, although they have used for hunting, cutting and pound- been greatly modified from their ing vegetables and meat and progressed earlier designs. to the harnessing of fire for heating, cooking, and protection. The Bronze M. The Renaissance, a time of rebirth Age began with the discovery of copper of the arts and humanities, was also and copper-based metals. Agricultural an important development in the techniques were developed to improve history of technology. Leonardo Da the cultivation of food and its supply. Vinci, an Italian painter, architect, and 4 This period also involved the develop- engineer, created drawings and written ment of better ways to communicate descriptions of the human flying through the development of paper, ink, machine, a helicopter, parachutes, and the alphabet, to navigate with diving bell suit, articulated chains, a boats made of timbers, and to under- giant crossbow, and circular armored stand human anatomy with the aid of vehicles. Gunsmiths, while seeking a an embalming process. means to adjust their gun mechanisms, invented the first screwdriver. The K. The Iron Age was defined by the camera obscura, silk knitting machines, use of iron and steel as the primary the telescope, the submarine, the materials for tools. During this hydraulic press, and the calculating period, sustained technological machine also were developed during advancement caused many people to this time period. migrate from farms to developing towns and cities. Other influential N. The Industrial Revolution saw the developments in this age included development of continuous manu- weaving machines and the spinning facturing, sophisticated transporta- wheel, which advanced the making tion and communication systems, of cloth, and gunpowder and guns, advanced construction practices, which were an improvement over and improved education and leisure previous weapons for both hunting time. Major developments of this and protection. The wide application period included the continuous-process of new agricultural technologies, such flourmill, power loom and pattern- as the sickle, the plow, the windmill, weaving loom, steam engine, electric and irrigation, enabled fewer farmers motor, gasoline and diesel engines, to grow more food. vulcanized rubber, airplane, telegraph,

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telephone, radio, and television. The transistors, microchips, and an concepts of Eli Whitney’s inter- electronic numerical integrator and changeable parts and Henry Ford’s calculator (ENIAC) led to an movable conveyor added to the explosion of computers, calculators, advances made in the production of and communication processes to goods. Extended free time was possible quickly move information from place as a result of increased efficiency, and to place. Holography, cybernetics, consequently, widespread education xerographic copying, the breeder became possible because children were reactor, the hydrogen bomb, the lunar not needed on the farm and could stay landing ship, communication in school longer. satellites, prefabrication, biotech- nology, and freeze-drying have all O. The Information Age places been major developments during this emphasis on the processing and time period. exchange of information. The development of binary language,

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5 Design

STANDARDS Students will develop an 8 understanding of the attributes of design. p. 91

Students will develop 9 an understanding of engineering design. p. 99

Students will develop an 10 understanding of the role of troubleshooting, research and development, invention and innovation, and experimentation in problem solving. p. 106 The development of a technology begins as a desire to meet a need or want. These needs or wants could belong to a single inventor or Design be shared by millions of people. Once needs or wants have been 5 identified, the designers must determine how to satisfy or solve them. The modern engineering profession has a number of well- developed methods for discovering such solutions, all of which esign is regarded by many share certain common traits. First, the designers set out to meet D certain design criteria, in essence, what the design is supposed to as the core problem-solving do. Second, the designers must work under certain constraints, process of technological develop- such as time, money, and resources. Finally, the procedures or steps of the design process are iterative and can be performed in different ment. It is as fundamental to sequences, depending upon the details of the particular design problem. Once designers develop a solution, they test it to discover technology as inquiry is to science its shortcomings, and then redesign it — over and over again. and reading is to language arts. Designing in technology differs significantly from designing in To become literate in the design art. Technological designers work within requirements to satisfy human needs and wants, while artists display their mental images process requires acquiring the and ideas with few constraints. Additionally, technological cognitive and procedural knowledge designers, such as engineers, are concerned with the usability and desirability of a product or system. As a result, efficiency is a needed to create a design, in addi- major consideration in technological design, while the beauty or tion to familiarity with the processes appearance of the product is often less important. In artistic design, by contrast, aesthetics and beauty are central issues, while by which a design will be carried out efficiency is not. For those who appreciate them, technological to make a product or system. designs can be viewed as works of art that showcase creativity equal to a well-crafted poem or an inspired painting. Industrial design may strike a balance between art and technology. More broadly, problem solving is Over the last three decades, many countries have moved the basic to technology. Design is one teaching of design in technology from the periphery of the school type of problem solving, but not all curriculum towards its center. Because technological design involves practical, real-world problem-solving methods, it teaches technological problems are design valuable abilities that can be applied to everyday life and provides problems. Technology includes many tools essential for living in a technological environment. Tech- nological design also promotes teamwork as a method by which other types of problems and different people work together to accomplish a common goal. If students know how problem-solving methods work, they can gain a better approaches to solving them, includ- appreciation and understanding of technology. In addition, by ing troubleshooting, research and practicing these problem-solving methods, students acquire a number of other valuable skills — performing measurements, development, invention and making estimates and doing calculations — using a variety of tools, innovation, and experimentation. working with two- and three-dimensional models, presenting complex ideas clearly, and devising workable solutions to problems.

90 CHAPTER 5 Design

STANDARD Students will develop an understanding 8 of the attributes of design.

esign is the first step in the making against each other and against how well the of a product or system. Without design satisfies the requirements. In order to design, the product or system make solutions as good as possible, the Dcannot be made effectively. design must go through a process of Technological design is a distinctive optimization, with a series of adjustments process with a number of defining being made to the design to improve its characteristics: it is purposeful; it is based effectiveness within the given requirements. on certain requirements; it is systematic, it Sometimes trade-offs are made in selecting is iterative; it is creative; and there are many one design over another. possible solutions. These fundamental Technological design must be systematic. attributes are central to the design and Because so many different designs and development of any product or system, approaches exist to solving a problem, a from primitive flint knives to sophisticated designer is required to be systematic or else computer chips. face the prospect of wandering endlessly in Technological design is purposeful because search of a solution. Over time, the a designer must have a goal when devising a engineering profession has developed well- new product or system — some function or tested sets of rules and design principles list of functions that the product or system that provide a systematic approach to should perform. Without a purpose, design design. Design measurability, which is a key is no more than doodling. The design concept in the engineering profession today, process is a system that converts inputs into is concerned with a designer’s ability to outputs, or ideas into completed products quantify the design process in order to and systems. improve the efficiency. Design is not a linear, step-by-step process. Rather, it A designer or engineer is always working should be an iterative, or repeating process within requirements, such as criteria and that allows designers to explore different constraints. The criteria set the parameters options in a pragmatic way, become for a design by identifying the key elements independent decision makers, and envision and features of what the product or system is multiple solutions to a problem. and what it is supposed to do. Efficiency, for example, is an important criterion in most Technological design inevitably involves a designs. Constraints are limits on a design. certain amount — sometimes a great deal — Some constraints are absolute — no one can of human creativity. No matter how exact the build a perpetual-motion machine, for requirements or how definitive the design instance. But most of the constraints that a principles are, there are always choices to be designer works with are relative — funding, made and there is always room for a fresh space, materials, human capabilities, time, or idea or a new approach. As they search for the environment — that must be balanced the most elegant designs that yield the best 91 STANDARD 8 Attributes of Design

solutions, designers and engineers will depend on intuition, feelings, and impressions gained from prior experience to determine which directions to explore. Finally, there are many possible solutions to a design problem. What may be the best solution for one situation may not be the optimum answer for another. The problem solver should look at many different solutions and determine which one (or ones) is best under the circumstances.

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GRADES or many students, the K-2 classroom In order to comprehend the attributes will provide their first structured of design, students in Grades K-2 K-2 experience with design and should learn that technology. Starting at an early age, F A. Everyone can design solutions to students should be introduced a problem. When searching for a gradually to the importance of design, of purposeful solution to a design visualizing objects, of translating ideas into problem, many ideas should be sketches, and of using the design process to considered, rather than looking for one solve problems. right solution. For example, if asked to Research on how children learn suggests design a playhouse, students could that young children’s imaginations are brainstorm various ideas, such as using better stimulated when they have the a cardboard box for the walls, building opportunity to work with actual materials. it out of plywood, or draping a sheet By working individually or brainstorming between chairs. in teams, discussing their ideas, manipu- B. Design is a creative process. When lating materials, and investigating how people think about problems in order materials can be changed, students will to solve them, it helps to stimulate begin to understand what design is while innovation and turn ideas into action. enhancing their imaginations. Students at this age are creative, often demonstrating an uncanny ability to generate original solutions. In Grades K-2, students need to understand that there can be several solutions to a given problem, and that some of the solutions are better for a particular situation than others. They need to be encouraged and rewarded for individual and team creativity as they formulate their own solutions.

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GRADES n Grades 3-5, students will learn that In order to comprehend the attributes design is a useful process of planning that of design, students in Grades 3-5 3-5 allows them to come up with workable should learn that solutions to everyday practical problems. I C. The design process is a purposeful Building on the foundation laid in method of planning practical Grades K-2, students at this level should solutions to problems. The design develop a more in-depth understanding of process helps convert ideas into how a product or system is designed, products and systems. The process is developed, made, used, and assessed. intuitive and includes such things as Students should be encouraged to consider creating ideas, putting the ideas on all stages when creating their designs. They paper, using words and sketches, should be encouraged to ask questions and building models of the design, testing provided opportunities to seek more than out the design, and evaluating the one solution to a given problem. solution. Students should recognize that positive D. Requirements for a design include and negative side effects are common in such factors as the desired elements designing. As in life, sometimes generating and features of a product or system a solution to one problem may create or the limits that are placed on the additional problems. They should have the design. Technological designs typically freedom to model, test, and evaluate their have to meet requirements to be designs before redesigning them. This successful. These requirements usually process of continuous improvement relate to the purpose or function of the is one of the key concepts in modern product or system. Other requirements, 5 technological progress. The design process such as size and cost, describe the limits consists of a goal or purpose and is of a design. bounded by a set of requirements. Typical requirements include such things as cost, appearance, use, safety, and market appeal. In the laboratory or classroom, a specific problem, the cost of materials, and the tools that can be used are typically specified in advance. These specifications then become the exact requirements that students have to work within.

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GRADES ll humans have the ability to students will face throughout life and is an design and solve problems — it important concept to understand at an early 6-8 is a fundamental human activity. age. Some criteria questions that should be ABuilding upon the foundation laid asked include: “Will it work correctly?” “Will in Grades K-5, middle-level it be effective for its design?” “Does the size students will strengthen their appear to be appropriate?” Some constraints, understanding of what design is and how it which specify the limitations on the design, relates to basic human activities in everyday include: “Are the proper materials available?” life. “How much will this item cost?” “How much space is needed to build (or use) this product Design is a creative process that allows or system?” “What are the important human people to realize their dreams and ideas for capabilities needed to use it?” a better environment. To design is to plan, create, modify, refine, build, and enjoy. In order to comprehend the attributes Good design turns ideas into products and of design, students in Grades 6-8 systems, which, in turn, pleases and excites should learn that the users. E. Design is a creative planning The design process is never considered to process that leads to useful be final, and multiple solutions are always products and systems. The design possible. As a result, technological problem process typically occurs in teams solving differs from problem solving in whose members contribute different other fields of study in which absolute, or kinds of ideas and expertise. “right,” answers are sought. Sometimes a design is for a physical object such as a house, bridge, or In Grades 6-8, students will learn more appliance and sometimes it is for a about the influence of requirements in the non-physical thing, such as software. design process. At this age, students can be easily engaged in the identification of F. There is no perfect design. All problems and opportunities they might designs can be improved. The best pursue. The goal is to get them to work designs optimize the desired qualities within reasonable requirements for a design — safety, reliability, economy, and by providing focus for their ideas. The efficiency — within the given Apollo space program, for instance, faced constraints. All designs build on the obvious requirements, such as cost, size, the creative ideas of others. need to withstand extreme temperatures, G. Requirements for a design are made and a requirement for life-sustaining up of criteria and constraints. mechanisms for humans. These Criteria identify the desired elements requirements forced engineers to be creative and features of a product or system in order to put an astronaut on the moon. and usually relate to their purpose or Requirements encompass the factors of function. Constraints, such as size and criteria and constraints. Learning to work cost, establish the limits on a design. with criteria and constraints is a challenge that

95 STANDARD 8 Attributes of Design

VIGNETTE Designing a Gift of Appreciation

This example uses the After learning about the basics of materials and the design process, students were given the task of designing an appreciation gift for all the teachers in design process to create a their middle school. The students outlined the design criteria and gift to recognize and pay constraints, which included: the cost for each item must be less than $1.50; gifts must be designed and made in the technology laboratory; and the gift tribute to the teachers in should be useful. the student’s school The class began by brainstorming possible design ideas as a group. They during Teacher Apprecia- came up with note centers, penholders, marker racks, computer disk bins, tion Week. [This example and other gift ideas. After selecting the computer disk bins, they dis- cussed different materials to use. Next, each student worked individually highlights some elements researching different materials, sketching ideas, and developing a model. of Grades 6-8 STL To estimate the cost of the various ideas, students used recent catalogs with material prices, called local dealers, and accessed information on standards 8, 9, 10, 11, the World Wide Web. They developed spreadsheets to calculate various and 19.] combinations of costs depending on the idea. Each student presented a model to the class. Class members evaluated the models according to the design constraints. After discussing each of the constraints, such as costs, usefulness, and aesthetic appearance, the class selected the model that would be based on their design constraints. The model was then manufactured in quantity in the technology laboratory for all teachers in the school.

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GRADES s high school students develop a familial, economic, environmental, political, greater comprehension of the design ethical, and societal issues that could create 9-12 process, they will have problems and conflicting solutions. Because Aopportunities to explore the requirements can compete with one another, attributes of design in greater depth. accommodating one often results in conflicts The attributes of design include the with others. These conflicts result in trade- following characteristics: the design is offs that must be considered. For example, purposeful; it is based on specific the demand for high quality frequently requirements; it is systematic; it is iterative; competes with a desire for low cost. Because it is creative; and there are many solutions of such conflicting demands, perfect designs to a design problem. They will learn that simply do not exist. To find the best design, seeking multiple solutions for a problem is students should learn to focus on as many a hallmark of the practice of technology. In solutions as possible. order to come up with a variety of designs In general, efficiency is central to the require- that offer multiple solutions to a problem, ments for nearly every technological design. students should develop an ability to use a Efficiency specifies how well a given product nonlinear approach to solving problems. or system performs and how close that The steps of the design process serve as performance is to the ideal. Optimization can important guideposts to help adept help ensure that a product or system is as problem-solving students use their intuition efficient as possible. Optimization processes and ingenuity to arrive at a variety of include features such as experimentation, trial solutions. Revisiting steps in the design and error, and development. process allows students to view various solutions in a pragmatic way. This process In order to comprehend the attributes provides opportunities to make adjustments of design, students in Grades 9-12 to the designs. Students begin to see the should learn that systematic, yet iterative nature of the H. The design process includes design process. defining a problem, brainstorming, Designs typically are ill defined with no researching and generating ideas, natural end to the process. In searching for identifying criteria and specifying the best solution, the designer redesigns, constraints, exploring possibilities, tests, refines, and remodels again and again. selecting an approach, developing a Sometimes an ingenious idea will allow design proposal, making a model or designers to come up with a design that prototype, testing and evaluating does exactly what they want it to do, so that the design using specifications, they can finish the design process. refining the design, creating or making it, and communicating Requirements, which include criteria and processes and results. The design constraints, are among the attributes of process is a systematic, iterative design to be considered. Criteria are approach to problem solving that decisions that help identify the specifications promotes innovation and yields of the design. They include such factors as

97 STANDARD 8 Attributes of Design

GRADES design solutions. To systematically seek an optimum design solution, engineers 9-12 and other design professionals use experience, education, established design principles, creative intuition, imagination, and culturally specific requirements. I. Design problems are seldom presented in a clearly defined form. Design goals and requirements must be established, and constraints must be identified and prioritized, during the time when designs are being developed. Design decisions typically involve individual, familial, economic, social, ethical, and political issues. Often, these issues lead to conflicting solutions. For example, what may be politically popular may not make good economic or social sense. Based on these issues and depending on the impact of the design, certain design solutions should not be developed. 5 J. The design needs to be continually checked and critiqued, and the ideas of the design must be redefined and improved. The design process also involves considering how designs will be developed, produced, maintained, managed, used, and assessed. As a result, multiple solutions are possible. More knowledge or competing technologies cause a design to change with time. K. Requirements of a design, such as criteria, constraints, and efficiency, sometimes compete with each other. When such competition happens, trade-offs occur, and the design is modified to accommodate these requirements. Different people may choose different solutions, depending

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STANDARD Students will develop an 9 understanding of engineering design.

ngineers who are developing a One step in the engineering design process technology use a particular approach is identifying the problem. Another step is called the engineering design process. generating ideas by using such techniques EThe design process is fundamental as brainstorming and conducting research. to technology and to engineering. The requirements of the problem should be Also referred to as technological design, identified, and the designer should explore the engineering design process demands possibilities for solving the problem and critical thinking, the application of then select approaches that may lead to technical knowledge, creativity, and solutions. To help evaluate the solutions, an appreciation of the effects of a design models and prototypes can be built and on society and the environment. tested, and the results can then be used to determine how well the solutions meet the There are many models found in literature previously identified requirements. The today that attempt to describe the engineer- solution must constantly be refined as ing design process. Some are linear and information is gathered through feedback describe the progress as a series of steps that and new ideas are generated. It may be take place in a well-defined sequence. Many necessary to retrace a number of steps in engineers, however, do not believe this order to iteratively refine the design solution model truly reflects what takes place in the before the optimum one is selected. One engineering design process. Other models of the final steps in the engineering design picture the engineering design process in process is to build or construct the actual terms of a circle with the design steps product or system in order to determine if around the circumference or as a spiral. it works. Once the designer is pleased with These models try to represent the iterative the solution, the final product or idea can nature of the engineering design process as be produced and marketed. well as to indicate that the steps of the process do not have to begin in any prescribed sequence. Although the engineering profession has not come to a consensus on which model best describes the process, they do agree on several steps that should be included when describing it. These steps do not have to be performed in a set order, but rather they should be used by designers in ways that their intuition tells them is best suited for solving the problem at hand. The environment in which the engineers design should be open and encourage creativity. 99 STANDARD 9 Engineering Design

GRADES hildren at this age enjoy doodling, In order to comprehend engineering sketching, and building simple design, students in Grades K-2 should K-2 things. In Grades K-2, they will learn that learn about and be able to apply C A. The engineering design process these abilities, and others, as they are includes identifying a problem, introduced to the engineering design looking for ideas, developing process. Students will understand that the solutions, and sharing solutions engineering design process is a method used with others. In the design process, to solve problems. All the products and there are many solutions to a problem, systems they see around them must have with some being better than others. been designed and made — from the fork Each design can be made better by they eat lunch with, to the toys they play refining it. with, to the clothes they wear. B. Expressing ideas to others verbally The engineering design process helps give and through sketches and models structure to creative and innovative thinking. is an important part of the design The process includes a number of steps, process. A sketch, which typically which are appropriate for young children to describes the appearance of a product, learn. In a very simple form, the steps of the can help put ideas into a form that can engineering design process include identify- be used to communicate with others. ing the problem, looking for ideas, develop- Sketches are more efficient than words ing solutions, and sharing solutions with for conveying the size, shape, and others. Because students at this age are function of an object, while models focused on their immediate environments, are effective in imparting a three- 5 they should be given problems that relate to dimensional realism to a design idea. their individual lives, including their inter- actions with family and school environ- ments. Looking for ideas, or researching, can take many forms, including reading books and talking to others. Another method for generating new ideas is for students to investigate things they currently use and search for ways to improve them. As a result of their research, students often will develop several solutions. As they use the engineering design process, students should communicate their ideas and solutions to classmates, teachers, and family and community members using sketches, models, and verbal descriptions. Through this communication process, they will be able to reflect on their progress, as well as to receive ideas from others. 100 CHAPTER 5 Design

VIGNETTE Can You Help Mike Mulligan?

This vignette is an Virginia Lee Burton’s book, Mike Mulligan and His Steam Shovel, provided a problem-solving challenge for Mr. C’s second grade class. After reading this example of using story to the point that Mike Mulligan realizes he didn’t leave a way out childhood literature in of the cellar hole, Mr. C asked his students to identify the problem. The students recognized that Mike Mulligan and the steam shovel were stuck the study of technology. in the hole. Mr. C then engaged the class in a brainstorming session to It uses a problem generate various methods that Mike Mulligan could use to get the steam shovel out of the hole. presented in a book to create a classroom After compiling a list of their ideas on the board, Mr. C divided the class into teams of three to four students. Each group was given a tub of wet learning activity. This sand with a hole dug in it and a miniature steam shovel in the bottom of example can be used in the hole. They were also given a box of materials that included such items as spools, straws, string, wire, Popsicle sticks, yarn, paper clips, clay, glue, the K-2 classroom to tape, and rubber bands. He challenged them to use the problem-solving stimulate interest and skills that they had been learning in class to find a method to get the steam shovel out of the hole without touching it. motivate students toward The students then went to work as a group designing various methods that technology and literature. would allow them to solve the problem. The first solutions didn’t work for [This example highlights most of the groups. After evaluating why their ideas didn’t work, some groups decided to redesign their solutions while others came up with new some elements of Grades solutions. Mr. C offered the students resource books that contained K-2 STL standards 3, 9, suggestions for various solutions. and 10.] Once the students had generated a solution and built a model of it, they sketched a picture and labeled the simple machines that were involved in the method. Each group then wrote a new ending to the story based on the machine that their group developed. The entire class gathered for the presentations. The groups demonstrated the method and the machine they had created and read their stories to the class. After the presentations were finished, Mr. C read the end of the story to the class.

101 STANDARD 9 Engineering Design

GRADES tudents in Grades 3-5 should build school and community. In this communi- upon what they have learned in K-2 cation process, students should describe not 3-5 about the engineering design process only what went well, but also some of the Sby adding several additional steps. obstacles that they encountered in the They should realize, for example, that engineering design process. the purpose of the engineering design In order to comprehend engineering process is to convert ideas into finished design, students in Grades 3-5 should products and systems. Sometimes a design learn that results in physical products (e.g., a sewing machine, a bridge, or a car), and at other C. The engineering design process times, a design may result in processes (e.g., involves defining a problem, how to use a computer program, how to generating ideas, selecting a make a drawing, or how to bake brownies). solution, testing the solution(s), making the item, evaluating it, and The engineering design process as presenting the results. At the understood by students in Grades 3-5 beginning of this process, it is includes defining the problem, generating important that students gather as ideas, selecting a solution, making the item, much information about the problem evaluating the outcome, and presenting the as they can find. This “wide open” results. As the students work with the consideration of all ideas will help as engineering design process, it is important they seek the best solution for their that they realize that these steps do not have problem. to be completed in a set sequence. Rather, they should be completed in any sequence D. When designing an object, it is 5 that will produce the best results. important to be creative and consider all ideas. The design process Each step of the engineering design process can unlock creative thinking and turn involves students obtaining certain informa- ideas into reality. Having a lot of ideas tion and developing specific skills. When gives the designer many possibilities to generating ideas, for instance, students should draw from and use. be encouraged to be creative and to consider thoughtfully all ideas. Once they select the E. Models are used to communicate solutions, students should make sketches and and test design ideas and processes. drawings of what they will look like. Then, Models are replicas of an object in using available resources, they should create or three-dimensional form. Models can make their solutions and evaluate them. be used to test ideas, make changes to Evaluation is a back-and-forth process of designs, and to learn more about what assessing the performance of solutions and would happen to a similar, real object. then using that information to fine-tune and improve them. Once the students have finalized their solutions, they should present what they have learned to others in their class, to the teacher, and to other members of the

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GRADES hen learning the engineering design In order to comprehend engineering process the teacher and students first design, students in Grades 6-8 should 6-8 need to define the problem. Once the learn that problem is determined, brainstorming W F. Design involves a set of steps, becomes an important group which can be performed in different problem-solving technique for generating as sequences and repeated as needed. many ideas as possible. It allows for creative Each design problem is unique and input from a number of people and may require different procedures or encourages everyone to speak without fear of demand that the steps be performed in their ideas being judged or belittled. The more a different sequence. In addition, ideas an individual can draw from, the better engineers and designers also have their the chances that an optimum solution can be preferences and problem-solving styles found. After the initial brainstorming session is and may choose to approach the design completed, the group should determine which process in different ways. of the ideas suggested are the most appropriate. These ideas should then be researched in more G. Brainstorming is a group problem- depth. The designer also needs to specify solving design process in which each constraints and identify criteria in order to person in the group presents his or her establish the requirements of the design. ideas in an open forum. In this process, Throughout the iterative process, alternative no person is allowed to criticize anyone solutions should be considered. else’s ideas regardless of how inane they may seem. After all of the ideas are At this point, an approach for solving a recorded, the group selects the best ones, problem should be selected, and a design and then further develops them. proposal should be developed. A design proposal is a written plan that specifies what H. Modeling, testing, evaluating, and the design will look like and what resources modifying are used to transform are needed to develop it. It can be com- ideas into practical solutions. municated through various forms, such as Historically, this process has centered sketches, drawings, models, and written on creating and testing physical models. instructions. Models allow a designer to make Models are especially important for the a smaller version without having to invest the design of large items, such as cars, time and expense of making the larger item. spacecraft, and airplanes because it is Physical, mathematical, and graphic models cheaper to analyze a model before the can also be used to communicate an idea. final products and systems are actually made. Evaluation is used to determine After an idea has been developed, it is how well the designs meet the important to test and evaluate the design based established criteria and to provide on the requirements. This testing and direction for refinement. Evaluation evaluating process leads to the refinement and procedures range from visually inspect- improvement of the design. Next, the refined ing to actually operating and testing design is developed and produced. This may products and systems. involve making one or more items.

103 STANDARD 9 Engineering Design

GRADES n engineer is, in essence, a problem There are many factors that influence a solver who uses the engineering design, including how safe the design 9-12 design process to solve problems. solution will be. Reliability is another AThe task of an engineer is more concern in the design process, as is quality than simply designing a product control. Environmental concerns, as well as that works. He or she must consider many how well the solution can be produced other factors, such as safety, environmental (manufactured), must be taken into concerns, ethical considerations, and risks account when designing solutions to and benefits. In the design process, it is vital technological problems. After designed that people with different interests and products or systems have been created, it is expertise work together when devising important to maintain and repair them. solutions to a problem. These diverse This becomes a consideration which must individuals bring various perspectives be incorporated into the design. Finally, to the solution of a problem. human factors engineering, sometimes referred to as ergonomics, is another In educating students about engineering significant concept that is applied to many design, a teacher must stimulate the designs. Human factors engineering is curiosity of the students so that they concerned with how a design can be used become interested in the design process to modify tools, machines, and the environ- and motivated to learn more about it. The ment to better fit human needs. For students should have many opportunities to example, ergonomically designed chairs are design so that they will develop an in-depth easier to sit in and provide positive support understanding of this important process. to the human body. Students in Grades 9-12 are introduced to 5 In order to comprehend engineering two more concepts in the engineering design, students in Grades 9-12 should design process: making prototypes and learn that using design principles. A prototype is a working model that is conceived early in I. Established design principles are the design process. Prototypes provide a used to evaluate existing designs, to means for testing and evaluating the design collect data, and to guide the design by making observations and necessary process. The design principles adjustments. Computer prototypes allow include flexibility, balance, function, design solutions to be tested in virtual and proportion. These principles can settings. Students are also introduced to be applied in many types of design design principles, such as balance, and are common to all technologies. proportion, function, and flexibility. These J. Engineering design is influenced principles are universal across all types of by personal characteristics, such design and establish the rules that designers as creativity, resourcefulness, and use to create designs that are pleasing to the the ability to visualize and think eye and functional to use. Design principles abstractly. Individuals and groups of also are used to evaluate existing designs people who possess combinations of and to collect data. these characteristics tend to be good

104 CHAPTER 5 Design

at generating numerous alternative the testing and refinement of a product solutions to problems. The design or system with complicated operations process often involves a group effort (e.g., automobiles, household among individuals with varied appliances, and computer programs). experiences, backgrounds, and L. The process of engineering design interests. Such collaboration tends to takes into account a number of enhance creativity, expand the range factors. These factors include safety, of possibilities, and increase the level reliability, economic considerations, of expertise directed toward design quality control, environmental con- problems. cerns, manufacturability, maintenance K. A prototype is a working model and repair, and human factors used to test a design concept by engineering (ergonomics). making actual observations and necessary adjustments. Prototyping helps to determine the effectiveness of a design by allowing a design to be tested before it is built. Prototypes are vital to

105 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of the role of 10 troubleshooting, research and development, invention and innovation, and experimentation in problem solving.

ngineering design is a major type of applying these ideas. On the other hand, problem-solving process, but it is not an innovation is an improvement of an the only one. There are many other existing product, system, or method of Eapproaches that are used in solving doing something. Creativity, in addition either formal (well-defined) or to an ability to think outside the box and informal (ill-defined) problems. Trouble- imagine new possibilities, is central to the shooting is a specific form of problem processes of invention and innovation. solving aimed at identifying the cause of a All technological products and systems malfunctioning system. Often the problem first existed in the human imagination. can be traced to a single fault, like a broken Experimentation is the form of technological wire, a burned-out fuse, or a bad switch. problem solving that resembles most closely Good troubleshooters are systematic in the methods that scientists use. Using eliminating various possible explanations as methods that are similar to the scientific they focus on the source of the problem. approach, technological problem solvers As a problem-solving method, research and apply iterative processes to experiment on development (R&D) is much broader in scope technological products and systems. For than troubleshooting. After something has example, performing hardness tests on been conceived, it can take considerable time various metals may be needed before using 5 for teams of people to refine and work the those metals to make tools. Another example bugs out before it becomes a product ready for is testing airplanes in various situations to see market. If there are flaws in the design, these why similar models crashed. Because the need to be researched, analyzed, redesigned, goals of technologists and scientists differ, and corrected. Unlike troubleshooting, R&D their approaches to work also differ. tends to address a wide range of issues concur- Scientists use experiments to gain a better rently. The product must work. It must be understanding of the natural world. reliable, safe, and have market appeal. Some- Technologists, on the other hand, use times, questions about its value to society or experiments to understand and change the potential harm to the environment must be human-made world. Quality control should researched and addressed. be used in the process of experimentation to assure that a desired standard is met. Invention and innovation are among the most open-ended and creative problem- These different types of problem solving are solving approaches. Unlike other forms of not always easy to distinguish from one problem solving that deal with things another. Sometimes they go on at the same already in existence, invention launches time as teams focus on very large problems. into the unknown and the untried. In addition, some problems require the Invention is the process of coming up with expertise of both science and technology in new ideas, while design is concerned with order to find solutions. 106 CHAPTER 5 Design

GRADES n the early grades, students will learn In order to be able to comprehend other some of the basic approaches to problem problem-solving approaches, students K-2 solving. The design process, one in Grades K-2 should learn that approach to problem solving, was I A Asking questions and making discussed in the previous two standards. observations helps a person to Other approaches to problem solving can figure out how things work. One also be introduced at this level. For of the best ways to learn is through example, when a product or system quits asking simple questions: “How do working, troubleshooting can be used to these two parts fit together?” or “What isolate and correct the problem. Students tool do we need to fix the bicycle?” should be introduced to troubleshooting by Another important way of learning is learning how to correct problems with to look at something and try to figure simple systems. For example, they could out how it works. determine and correct a problem with a flashlight that does not produce light. B. All products and systems are subject Using a systematic process, students can to failure. Many products and determine whether the bulb, batteries, or systems, however, can be fixed. the switch was the source of the problem. Some stop working because they are old, and others because a part wears Young students also can be inventive. out. Troubleshooting helps people find Students at this level enjoy the challenge of what is wrong with the product or inventing something new for a given system so that it can then be fixed. purpose. Students should be taught the best Products and systems need to be ways to ask questions in order to get maintained in order to keep them in accurate and timely information. good operating order. Additionally, they should gain the ability to observe technological processes, products, and systems to gain a firsthand knowledge on how things function. Teachers should create a non-threatening working environment that encourages students to come up with ideas. Another important concept for children to learn is that malfunction and failure are common in technological products and systems. With proper maintenance, many of these products and systems can be made to last longer. When they do fail, they often can be repaired. At other times, however, the products and systems cannot be fixed and must be discarded.

107 STANDARD 10 Other Problem-Solving Approaches

GRADES n Grades 3-5, students should build In order to be able to comprehend other upon their problem-solving abilities that problem-solving approaches, students 3-5 were developed in earlier grades. They in Grades 3-5 should learn that should be challenged to troubleshoot I C. Troubleshooting is a way of finding more complex systems that do not work. out why something does not work so Invention and innovation can be especially that it can be fixed. Troubleshooting exciting for students in Grades 3-5. For involves a logical and orderly process of example, students could be challenged discovering what the problem is in a to invent a toy for preschool children. To part or system. learn about innovation, students could be D. Invention and innovation are creative challenged to modify an existing toy in order ways to turn ideas into real things. to improve upon its design or purpose. Technology starts with invention and Experimentation is also an important part is improved through innovation. Inven- of technology. During the fourth and fifth tions are new things, while innovations grades, students will be introduced to it in change things that already exist. their science lessons. Experimentation in E. The process of experimentation, technology can be demonstrated through which is common in science, can the search for solutions to technological also be used to solve technological problems. For example, the problem is problems. Typically, experimentation identified, a hunch (hypothesis) about the includes testing something under source of the problem is generated, tests are controlled conditions in order to conducted, and data is gathered. These data improve or change it. 5 often reveal the nature of a problem, which helps in knowing the proper course of action to take in order to solve it.

108 CHAPTER 5 Design

VIGNETTE Navigational Technology

This vignette presents Historical examples of how individuals used problem-solving skills to solve technological problems can provide opportunities for students to learn a some problems to solve variety of principles from several fields of study. During a unit on explora- related to transportation tion, Ms. H assigned her class to read Pedro’s Journal, a novel by Pam Conrad. This book provided the backdrop to investigate different examples technology. Specifically, of navigational technology. students are encouraged Students discovered that with relative ease, sailors could determine their to invent new ways and latitude by measuring the angle of elevation of the North Star (Polaris). innovate older methods Ms. H then introduced the concepts of angles and a global-grid coordinate system. In the classroom, students used protractors and measuring angles to navigate while on a to construct working astrolabes. Using multimedia software, the apparent ship. [This example high- motion of the stars was simulated. It became clear to the students that Polaris was the only star in the Northern Hemisphere that could be relied lights some elements of upon to remain in a constant position relative to the observer. Grades 3-5 STL standards An accurate star chart of the circumpolar constellations was posted on the 3, 10, and 18.] ceiling of the classroom. Students then used problem solving to navigate their way around the room, determining the “latitude” of their desk, or whether the pencil sharpener was at more northern or more southern latitude than the teacher’s desk. In a discussion, the class came to the conclusion that the astrolabes were only able to specify the latitude, and that several points around the room seemed to share the same latitude. It was clear that the early mariners needed to develop additional technology to position themselves precisely while at sea. The students then were assigned teams to develop navigational equipment that could have solved this problem and allowed the mariners to precisely position themselves on the open seas. The groups brainstormed different ideas and conducted research in the library and on the Internet before they selected the best idea to pursue. With the help of their teacher, each group made a model of its equipment and tested it to determine how well it worked. The groups later presented their findings to their classmates and demonstrated their equipment. In the novel, the students read about sailors measuring speed by putting a rope over the stern and counting the knots as the rope ran over the gunwale. The class talked about how inaccuracies in this method gave Columbus the opportunity to easily deceive his crew into believing that they were closer to home and further east than they really were. Through studying the development of navigational technology, the class learned about various methods of problem solving, measurement, angles, grid coordinate systems, and precision versus accuracy; astronomy; speed, time, and distance calculations; researching, designing, developing, and testing; Western history; and reading comprehension.

109 STANDARD 10 Other Problem-Solving Approaches

GRADES t the middle level, students will In order to be able to comprehend other work with solutions to more problem-solving approaches, students 6-8 complicated and demanding in Grades 6-8 should learn that technological problems. By the time A F. Troubleshooting is a problem- students enter the middle grades, solving method used to identify they should be able to distinguish different the cause of a malfunction in a kinds of problems. For example, they technological system. These kinds should realize that designing something of problems typically require some using a set of requirements requires a type of specialized knowledge. For different problem-solving process than example, knowledge about how a determining why a device does not work. In derailleur works is needed in order addition to design, students at this level to find out why a bicycle does not should expand their knowledge about shift properly. Once the cause of the problem solving to include troubleshooting, problem has been identified, the next invention and innovation, and step is to repair and test it. experimentation. Different kinds of problem solving require different abilities, G. Invention is a process of turning knowledge, attitudes, and personalities. ideas and imagination into devices Sometimes success with problem solving and systems. Innovation is the comes down to self confidence and trusting process of modifying an existing one’s ability and instincts. Because people product or system to improve it. are unique, with different strengths to offer, All technological refinement occurs they differ in their ability to solve various through the process of innovation. 5 types of problems. As a result, teamwork H. Some technological problems are becomes important. Teamwork allows best solved through experimenta- individuals to pool their strengths in order tion. These include experimentation to arrive at better solutions to problems. with technological products and Inventors tend to be creative and have systems. This process closely excellent imaginations. They often resembles the scientific method. The demonstrate the ability to see possibilities difference between these methods is in that others miss. By contrast, trouble- the goals that each pursue. The goal shooting almost always requires specific of science is to understand how nature knowledge. To figure out why an works, while the goal of technology is automobile does not start requires specific to create the human-made world. In knowledge about automobile systems. both cases, the process is systematic Without the right kind of knowledge, many and involves tinkering, hypothesizing, people resort to inefficient and ineffective observing, tweaking, testing, and practices and oftentimes still fail to find the documenting. cause of the problem. Experimentation is one of the most formal types of problem solving, requiring a person to follow an established set of procedures.

110 CHAPTER 5 Design

GRADES n addition to learning about someone with a very different kind of troubleshooting, invention and knowledge or perspective injects that 9-12 innovation, and experimentation, thinking into a given situation. students at this level will learn to engage I In order to be able to comprehend other in research and development (R&D). problem-solving approaches, students R&D is a goal-oriented process in which in Grades 9-12 should learn that designs, inventions, and innovations are researched and refined to address a range of I. Research and development is a objectives and concerns. These concerns specific problem-solving approach can be functional (e.g., making it work that is used intensively in business better), economic (e.g., giving it market and industry to prepare devices and appeal), and ethical (e.g., making it safer). systems for the marketplace. Research R&D pursues answers to unknown on specific topics of interest to the questions that need to be solved before a government or business and industry design can work. Products and systems that can provide more information on a are being prepared for the marketplace subject, and, in many cases, it can should almost always go through an provide the knowledge to create an extensive period of R&D involving teams invention or innovation. Development of people with wide-ranging expertise. helps to prepare a product or system for final production. Product development During R&D, several different problem- of this type frequently requires solving strategies are often applied to the sustained effort from teams of people same problem, either concurrently or in having diverse backgrounds. sequence. In the prototyping stage of the design process, for instance, it is often J. Technological problems must be necessary to use troubleshooting to get the researched before they can be solved. prototype to work. When a problem appears, it is first neces- sary to learn enough about it to decide Students should also realize that knowledge the best type of problem-solving from many fields of study is required to method. solve technological problems. Just knowing about technology in order to solve a K. Not all problems are technological, technological problem is not sufficient. For and not every problem can be solved example, it is impossible to know exactly using technology. Technology cannot what knowledge will be needed to build be used to provide successful solutions to and put people on the international space all problems or to fulfill every human station. Psychologists and physiologists, for need or want. Instead, some problems do instance, will help design the proper best with non-technological solutions. ergonomics of the space station. Dieticians For example, recycling to reduce pollu- will specify diets; medical doctors will focus tion and conserve resources is a on health issues; and economists will behavioral solution to a technological concentrate on costs. Frequently, solutions problem. In the area of healthcare, to difficult problems are found when healthy living practices, such as good

111 STANDARD 10 Other Problem-Solving Approaches

GRADES nutrition and regular exercise, can often prevent and solve problems that surgery 9-12 and medications cannot. L. Many technological problems require a multidisciplinary approach. Depending on the nature of a problem, a wide range of knowledge may be required. For example, the research and development of a new video game could benefit from knowledge of physiology (e.g., reaction times and hand-eye coordination) as well as psychology (e.g., attention span and memory).

5

112 Abilities for a 6 Technological World

STANDARDS Students will develop 11 the abilities to apply the design process. p. 115

Students will develop 12 the abilities to use and maintain technological products and systems. p. 126

Students will develop 13 the abilities to assess the impact of products and systems. p. 133 The quill pen becomes the typewriter that becomes the word Abilities for a processor. The horse and buggy becomes the Model T that Technological World becomes the family minivan. As a technology grows, so too does 6 the commitment required to understand and be comfortable with the technology. Every farmer’s child could fix the horse and buggy when required, and most Model T owners soon learned s technologies become how to keep it running. But when the family minivan breaks A down, all but a few will haul it into the shop and let a specialist more powerful and more take care of it. useful, they generally become With each passing decade, technological knowledge becomes more complex. more specialized and widespread. To a certain extent, this pattern is inevitable. However, the average citizen should not automatically delegate the ability to use and work with technology to members of the high-tech community who develop and operate it. On the contrary, because the use of technology represents such an important part of life, everyone needs a broad understanding of what it is, how it is developed, how it works, and how to make intelligent decisions about it. Technological literacy can be defined as having the ability to use, manage, assess, and understand technological products and systems. This ability, in turn, demands certain mental tools, such as problem solving, visual imaging, critical thinking, and reasoning. The development of these capabilities is central to technological literacy. These various skills can be developed in students through such activities as modeling, testing, troubleshooting, observing, analyzing, and investigating. The content standards in this chapter involve the development of important abilities for a technological world, which include applying the design process, using and maintaining technological products and systems, assessing products and systems, and others.

114 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

STANDARD Students will develop abilities 11 to apply the design process.

ery few products and systems today students must also be able to apply the are developed by trial and error or process. Thus, where the previous standards come about by accident. Instead, dealt with what students should know or V almost any technology that a student understand about the design process, encounters is the result of a systematic Standard 11 deals with the application of problem-solving design process that the design process. These knowledge and transformed an idea into a final product or process standards are connected — the system. This design process involves an in- design process cannot truly be understood depth understanding of the problem and without the opportunity to apply it. resources available, an exhaustive search for Conversely, students cannot successfully solutions, and an extensive evaluation and apply the design process without a cognitive refinement procedure. The design process is understanding of what they are doing. the foundation for all technological activity. The skills required by the design process are Most people think that the design process valuable in and of themselves. In the should be left to engineers or designers, process of developing those abilities, but, in fact, everyone has the ability to students will also attain firsthand experience design. By following the iterative steps of about the transformation of ideas into the design process, anyone, from first solutions, which in turn will make them graders to the elderly, can learn to design. more comfortable with technology. The design process requires the use of a variety of strategies, such as problem solving, creative thinking, visual imagery, critical thinking, and reasoning. It also requires hands-on abilities, such as measuring, drawing, sketching, working with computers, and using tools. Quality control is also an essential factor in the design process to maintain a desired standard of quality in what is being designed, as well as arriving at the optimum solution. Standard 8 asks that students know the attributes of design, and Standard 9 calls for them to know the steps in a design process. Besides knowing the attributes of design and being able to articulate the steps of the

design process, technologically literate 115 STANDARD 11 Apply Design Processes

GRADES n Grades K-2, students are active, experiment might test which materials could energetic learners who enjoy easily be shaped (cut with scissors) or fastened K-2 investigating and exploring the world (glued). Based on the information gathered, Iaround them. In addition to encouraging the students then could choose which their students to be creative and materials they would like to use. In addition, imaginative, teachers should establish an to help them in their search for solutions, environment in which students can design, students could brainstorm with their develop, test, and communicate their ideas. classmates and receive input from their The use of the design process provides an teacher. Throughout the entire design opportunity for students to generate and process, students should communicate their express ideas in a supportive and structured ideas, solutions, and results to others both in setting. and out of the classroom. The problems that students identify for the As part of learning how to apply design design process should come from everyday processes, students in Grades K-2 experiences. They should be encouraged to should be able to explore the world around them as it relates A. Brainstorm people’s needs and wants to their personal needs and wants, and and pick some problems that can be teachers are urged to select appropriate solved through the design process. problems for children at this level. Once These problems can come from the teacher and students have identified a everyday problems — family or school problem, the students should begin dilemmas, for example. developing potential solutions. B. Build or construct an object using After they have selected a solution, students the design process. Using the design should build or construct it to demonstrate process, students can build or construct the design idea. It is important for the it in three-dimensional form. This teacher to instill in the students the value of could include building a scaled-down safety when using tools and materials. The model of the object. building process will give students valuable 6 experience with various skills for handling C. Investigate how things are made materials, such as measuring, marking, and how they can be improved. cutting, shaping, assembling, and A sense of innovation can be combining. developed through this investigation. While generating solutions, students should be given many opportunities to see how things that are already made can be improved. The students should work with various types of materials and come up with ways to test different materials in order to determine their properties. For example, they could test newspaper and plastic to determine which is more waterproof or heavier. Another

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VIGNETTE Building Something to Float

This vignette presents Ms. B gave her second-grade students equal sized pieces of wrapping paper, aluminum foil, and wax paper. They also received clay beads, golf balls, a process used in an small pebbles, marbles, and a tub of water. Ms. B then asked her students elementary school class to design and make one boat that would hold nine objects and float on the water for 10 minutes. to design a boat using certain requirements. Before making the product, the students, with guidance from their teacher, thought about the different design options, such as which material should It provided a simulated be used and what would be the most appropriate shape. The students then experience to a real-world selected a shape, chose their materials, and made their boats. They tested their boats to determine which shape would hold the nine objects. After building process. [This that experiment, some students tried other materials to see if they worked vignette highlights some better, while others added more objects to determine at what point their boats would sink. elements of the Grades After the test, the students identified which products held the loads. K-2 STL standards that Discussion questions included: Why did one shape float and another sink? provide connections with Which was the optimum design and why? What other materials would have worked? What kinds of similar products have people made at different times Standards 8, 9, 10, and places? Based on the discussions and responses to these questions, 11, 19, and 20.] students were asked to reflect on them and draw some conclusions.

117 STANDARD 11 Apply Design Processes

GRADES n Grades 3-5, students will expand their Next, students would test and evaluate the understanding of and ability to use the effectiveness of their solution. During this 3-5 design process. As stated before, the design phase, they should be encouraged to reflect Iprocess begins with identifying a problem on the requirements that have been that can be solved through the use of identified. It is also important that they technology. The problem should be one that address central issues: Does it work well? interests the students personally, although it Does it meet the criteria that were might not involve their direct needs or wants. established earlier in the design process? How effective is the design in solving the Students will next generate ideas for solving problem? After answering these questions, the problem. They should be encouraged to the students should improve their solution recognize that some ideas for solving by redesigning it. problems will differ from their own. At this stage, students should collect information to It is important that students learn help in identifying requirements for the that applying the design process involves design problem and for developing the iteration. They should learn how to solution. The more information they can use repetition and recurrence (“do it over collect, the more likely they are to find a again”) techniques to obtain the desired working solution. This collection process solution to a problem. Throughout the starts with formulating questions to guide entire design process, students should work the search. Techniques for finding answers to improve the designed solutions. to these questions include searching the Additionally, they should communicate Internet, interviewing experts, reading with other members of the class by sharing books, and looking at similar products or their ideas and accepting input. When the systems. Students also will experiment with students believe they have a good solution, various materials, tools, and resources in they should give a presentation to the class, order to select the best one for their needs. the teacher, parents, and possibly the community. Communicating what they After this information has been gathered, have done will reinforce and strengthen students will select the best possible what they have learned. 6 solutions and then create a design using sketches and drawings. Students also must As part of learning how to apply design learn to use tools and machines safely and processes, students in Grades 3-5 effectively. If they are making a physical should be able to product, for example, they may need to D. Identify and collect information perform the basic processes of separating, about everyday problems that can be forming, and combining materials in order solved by technology, and generate to complete their task. An example would ideas and requirements for solving a be designing and constructing a paper problem. In collecting information, it house. In this case, they could use may be necessary to use printed material computers, markers, colored paper, scissors, (books or magazines), electronic and paste to design and build their house so resources (Internet or compact discs), that it would be attractive and functional.

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and other resources. The requirements a solution, build it to show the design are the limits to designing or making a idea. Also observe safety when using product or system. tools and materials. Through this process, one will gain experience with E. The process of designing involves various types of materials — from presenting some possible solutions in measuring, marking, cutting, and visual form and then selecting the shaping to assembling and combining. best solution(s) from many. Sketches or drawings should be used because they G. Improve the design solutions. provide visual records of the possible Repeating steps in the design process solutions. Complete and accurate records may be necessary to optimize the of the work should be kept. design before communicating the results to others. If the solutions are not F. Test and evaluate the solutions for optimal at this point, the students will the design problem. Use criteria return to the design process. identified in the requirements for evaluating the solutions. After selecting

119 STANDARD 11 Apply Design Processes

GRADES n Grades 6-8, students are restless, design proposal before it becomes a reality. energetic learners who enjoy active, Once they begin the process of making 6-8 hands-on experiences. The benchmarks their designs, students should continue to Iat this level call for students to apply a evaluate their ideas in hopes that the final design process that will enable them to solution will be the best one possible. develop their ideas in greater detail and to Students should actually build the create their design solutions on a larger, solution(s) as a final activity. If any more complex scale. They need to recognize problems with the proposed solution that multiple ideas may solve a problem. surface, some of the steps in the design Before designing a solution, students must process can be repeated (not necessarily in specify goals that will establish the desired the same order) to obtain the optimum results for the problem. These goals will solution. It is important for students to then be used to guide the design process, document procedures and results as they go and ultimately, they will be used to evaluate through each step of the design process. the final product or system. They should communicate their successes, After establishing the design requirements, as well as their disappointments. Through students should develop a proposal, which this process, students will gain valuable should detail the size, shape, resources, and insights from one another. Various specifications for making the design. It can techniques for documentation include include sketches and drawings that design portfolios, sketches, journals, incorporate symbols and clarifying notes. schematics, and World Wide Web pages. Over time, symbols used in the design As part of learning how to apply design proposal have become standardized and processes, students in Grades 6-8 have come to represent specific should be able to components. H. Apply a design process to solve At the middle-school level, models are problems in and beyond the formally introduced. Using a model is an laboratory-classroom. Perform effective way to simulate what the design research, then analyze and synthesize 6 will look like. Models can take many forms, the resulting information gathered such as physical replicas of artifacts, through the design process. Identify computer programs, conceptual and and select a need, want, or problem to mathematical modeling, and simulated solve, which could result in a solution products. For example, a model of a that could lead to an invention (an building is often created by an architect to original solution) or an innovation (a show clients how it will ultimately look. modification of an existing solution). After the design proposal has been finalized Identify goals of the problem to be and the model has been created, it is solved. These goals specify what the important to perform tests and evaluate the desired result should be. results as they relate to the pre-established I. Specify criteria and constraints for criteria and constraints. This testing and the design. Examples of criteria evaluating allows students to refine the

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include function, size, and materials, process to others, such as a World while examples of constraints are costs, Wide Web page or a model of a time, and user requirements. Explore product or system. various processes and resources and select and use the most appropriate ones. These processes and resources should be based on the criteria and constraints that were previously identified and specified. J. Make two-dimensional and three- dimensional representations of the designed solution. Two-dimensional examples include sketches, drawings, and computer-assisted designs (CAD). A model can take many forms, including graphic, mathematical, and physical. K. Test and evaluate the design in relation to pre-established requirements, such as criteria and constraints, and refine as needed. Testing and evaluation determine if the proposed solution is appropriate for the problem. Based on the results of the tests and evaluation, students should improve the design solution. Problem- solving strategies involve applying prior knowledge, asking questions, and trying ideas. L. Make a product or system and document the solution. Group process skills should be used, such as working with others in a cooperative team approach and engaging in appropriate quality and safety practices. Students should be encouraged to use design portfolios, journals, drawings, sketches, or schematics to document their ideas, processes, and results. There are many additional ways to communicate the results of the design

121 STANDARD 11 Apply Design Processes

VIGNETTE The Great Paper Car Race

This vignette exemplifies “Ladies and gentlemen, start your engines!” Ms. C told her class. a group problem-solving “Your challenge is to design, develop, and produce a racecar that activity, in which a paper will compete in the second annual Great Paper Car Race at Rolling Hills Middle School. Your car must be designed to roll racecar is created. Criteria down an 8-foot ramp into the center of the winner’s circle. To are used to evaluate the make your car, you will be given one piece of 8 1/2" x 11" paper, final solutions. [This four wheels, dowel rod axels, thumbtacks, glue, and a limited example highlights amount of tape. You will have two days to complete this activity.” some elements of the Ms. C then divided the class into groups of four to five students, Grades 6-8 STL standards and they began brainstorming various design ideas. Ms. C that provide connections encouraged them to apply the aerodynamic principles that they with Standards 8, 9, 10, had learned in prior lessons and the concepts of force, motion, 11, and 18.] and the transfer of energy that they had learned in their science class. The groups also had to use problem-solving strategies, critical thinking skills, and teamwork skills as they evaluated each of their ideas and selected the best one. Each group then used the materials that they were given to build their car. Once the cars were built, each car was timed as it rolled down the ramp. The students were evaluated in three categories: Teamwork — Did the team work together? Were they able to produce a completed product? What proportion of planning, designing, and construction did each team member contribute? Problem solving — When the team encountered a problem, how did they react? Did the team solve the problem? Design Solutions — How well built was the final artifact?

6 As a result of this activity, the students had an opportunity to experience firsthand how the seemingly abstract concepts and theories they were learning could be applied to concrete, real-life situations. In addition, they gained valuable insights into the value of working together as a team in order to solve a problem.

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GRADES y the time students graduate from ideas. Students should be competent at this high school, they will be able to process and be able to sort through a 9-12 apply the design process with a high multitude of possible solutions, test and Bdegree of confidence. They also will evaluate them, and determine the best ones be able to work with a whole host of for the problem at hand. hand tools, various materials, sophisticated Based on the results of the testing and equipment, and other resources. They will evaluation, the process of building the be capable of synthesizing knowledge and designed product or system can proceed processes and applying them to new and and may result in one or many items. different situations. Students need to see how the building In working with the design process at the phase goes and then to use that information high school level, students will be applying in evaluating the design. Students also many of the abilities they learned in earlier should be challenged to consider economic grades. They should realize that not all factors when designing their product or problems can or should be solved. They system. In addition, they should consider will also become more adept at identifying the sustainability and disposability of the requirements in the design process. resources in the final product. The major new skill students develop will As part of learning how to apply design be working with prototypes, which can be processes, students in Grades 9-12 full-size or scale models, depending on the should be able to size of the final product or system. For M. Identify the design problem to solve example, it would be impractical to make a and decide whether or not to prototype of a skyscraper to full scale. address it. It is important to determine Prototypes and other models should be whether the design problem is worthy used to test and evaluate the solutions. of being addressed or solved. If the Based on these tests, the design solution problem is worthy of being solved, should be refined if necessary. It is students should research, investigate, important during this evaluation stage to and generate ideas for the design. remember previously discarded solutions in Brainstorming is an excellent technique case they are useful later. for generating ideas and encouraging Students should be exposed to more creative thinking. Designers often use sophisticated conceptual, physical, and this technique. Next, synthesize the mathematical models in their late secondary research and specify the goals of the school experiences. Teachers should be design. Deductive thinking processes careful that the problems their students should be used to limit the possible select are worthy of in-depth research and solutions to a few good ones. are challenging enough so that students N. Identify criteria and constraints and gain the optimal level of knowledge and determine how these will affect the skills from the process. design process. Identifying criteria Evaluation becomes even more important at and specifying constraints will provide the high school level for testing and judging the basis for what the design should be 123 STANDARD 11 Apply Design Processes

GRADES and what its limits are. Carefully P. Evaluate the design solution using consider concept generation, conceptual, physical, and 9-12 development, production, marketing, mathematical models at various fiscal matters, use, and disposability of intervals of the design process in a product or system. Test, experiment order to check for proper design and with, select, and use a variety of to note areas where improvements resources to optimize the development are needed. Checking the design of the design. If sufficient resources are solutions against criteria and constraints not available, existing resources could is central to the evaluation process. be modified or new ones could be Assess previously ignored solutions, identified. Identify and consider trade- perhaps with modifications, as possible offs among the proposed solutions. choices. When previously favored Next, plan and select the best possible solutions are discarded, they may be still solution that takes into account the appropriate for consideration later in the constraints and criteria obtained from design process. research and personal preference. This Q. Develop and produce a product or involves synthesizing various factors, system using a design process. including the constraints, criteria, and Sometimes items can be produced in information gathered by research. single quantity, while others can be O. Refine a design by using prototypes made in batches or volume production. and modeling to ensure quality, Quality control ensures that the product efficiency, and productivity of the is of high enough quality to be sold. final product. Evaluate proposed or R. Evaluate final solutions and existing designs in the real world. Modify communicate observation, the design solution so that it more processes, and results of the entire effectively solves the problem by taking design process, using verbal, into account the design constraints in graphic, quantitative, virtual, and order to consider the next step. written means, in addition to three- 6 dimensional models. The final results should be compared to the original goals, criteria, and constraints.

124 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

VIGNETTE The America’s Cup Challenge

In this vignette, The Challenge students participate Design a wind-powered monohull vessel to travel a predetermined distance in an America’s Cup in the least amount of time. competition of their Size Constraints own by designing and Maximum overall length — 16 inches. Maximum hull width (beam) — constructing a wind- 8 inches. Maximum overall height — 24 inches. Maximum boom length — powered monohull 16 inches. vessel. The winner Time Constraints receives the “Cup.” Items due Week One: 1) Nautical terminology/definitions; 2) Full-size deck [This example highlights plan; 3) Full-size profiles; 4) Determination of hull material. some elements of the Items due Week Two: 1) Rigging design; 2) Determination of sail material. Grades 9-12 STL Items due Week Three: 1) Additional nautical terminology. standards that provide Items due Week Four: 1) Vessel ready for trials; 2) Written and oral report. connections with Standards 8, 9, 10, Construction Constraints 11, and 18.] Dugouts and solid hull vessels are not acceptable. The sail width must not exceed the length of the hull.

Organizational Criteria 1. The racing team will consist of a captain and two crew members. 2. The vessel will represent a country other than the United States. 3. The vessel must be named (lettered on the vessel) in the language of the country represented. 4. The vessel must fly the flag of the country represented. 5. The written and oral reports must be organized in accordance with the assigned instructions. 6. All construction must take place within the confines of the school.

Evaluation Individual and group input will be used to assess the success of the group’s design solution. In addition, assessment will be based on the results of a race held at a basin or pond located near the school.

Resources Masts and spars; ballast; sails; molds; adhesives; tools; machines; equipment; methods; research and development information; and testing procedures.

125 STANDARD Students will develop the abilities to use and 12 maintain technological products and systems.

veryone uses technological products Appropriate maintenance of a product or and systems — cars, televisions, system is crucial to keeping it in correct computers, and household appliances working order, and when malfunctions do E— but not everyone uses them well, happen, appropriate repair is necessary. safely, or in the most efficient and Troubleshooting, testing, and diagnosing effective manner. Much of the problem lies are important processes in maintaining and with the rapid pace of technological change. repairing a product or system. New technologies appear so frequently that it can be difficult to become comfortable with one before the next has taken its place. As a result, people are driving cars whose minor failings they are incapable of diagnosing; they are working with computers most, of whose capabilities are a complete mystery; and they are staring at a flashing “12:00” on their VCRs. A technologically literate person does not necessarily know how to use every tech- nology safely and effectively, but, when necessary, he or she is able to learn to use a particular technological product or system and is comfortable doing so. At this level, students should be exposed to a variety of technologies, including the newest, and 6 they should be taught the proper learning tools for mastering them, beginning with reading the instructions and owner’s manual. Students should learn to select appropriate technologies for a given situation. They should be able to analyze malfunctions and come up with appropriate responses. They should recognize that in some cases the proper use of a technological product is simply not to use it at all.

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GRADES rom the earliest grades, students will allow children to “get the message” without be exposed to various products and using a lot of words. K-2 systems, and they will be given As part of learning how to use and opportunities to use them correctly F maintain technological products and and to learn what happens when they systems, students in Grades K-2 should are used improperly. For example, students be able to could learn how to use a clock to tell time, how to use a telephone correctly, and how A. Discover how things work. This can to use basic hand tools properly. The be done by carefully taking something students should be encouraged to investigate apart (while making a sketch of how each item, perhaps by taking it apart or by the parts fit together) and then putting comparing it to similar items to discover it back together. The ability to observe, how it works, its use, and its purpose. analyze, and document is vital to successfully accomplish this task. Young students are interested in everything they see around them and are asking ques- B. Use hand tools correctly and safely tions about how things work, why things are and name them correctly. Tools have a certain way, and how things came about. always provided a means for humans to Students should be encouraged to find extend their capabilities. Simple tools answers to their questions using various such as scissors, needles and thread, tools available to them. Children should be staplers, hammers, and rulers are encouraged to follow directions — a type of examples of devices that everyone needs communication that offers guidance on how to know how to use. to use a tool or product correctly. Directions C. Recognize and use everyday symbols. can be written, verbal, or step-by-step Symbols are used as a means of illustrations. communication in the technological Employing products and systems often world. Examples include road signs, requires students to use common tools, such symbols for disabled people, and icons as staplers, screwdrivers, rulers, scissors, and on a computer screen. clamps. Although many students will have used tools before, they may not know how to use them correctly. Through formal and informal learning activities and guided discussions, students will learn the best and safest way to use tools. Symbols are also important in the communication process. Students should recognize that symbols are all around them, from logos representing their favorite sports teams to warning signs on roads. These symbols communicate information and directions in an efficient manner, and they

127 STANDARD 12 Use and Maintain Products and Systems

GRADES uilding upon knowledge from in the community and icons on computers. Grades K-2, students will learn In classroom activities, students may be 3-5 more about how to use products challenged to create new symbols that could Band systems and what should be be used in the home, school, or community done if they are not working to begin to understand the need for symbols properly. Reading and following and how they aid in communicating key instructions from a users’ manual is an ideas quickly. important first step in assembling and using As part of learning how to use and products and systems correctly. Students maintain technological products and must learn to follow step-by-step directions. systems, students in Grades 3-5 should Teaching this ability will require a be able to significant period of time with many exposures to directions that are both well D. Follow step-by-step directions to and poorly done. Students will need to assemble a product. These directions learn the appropriate questions to ask when could come from a paper or booklet directions are not available or are not clear. that describes how to put something At this level, students will practice taking a together or how to solve a problem. product or system apart and reassembling it E. Select and safely use tools, products, in order to learn how things fit together and and systems for specific tasks. Tools work. The knowledge gained in such should be selected based on their exercises will help them when they use and function (what they are designed to troubleshoot other products and systems. do), ease of use, and availability. For example, students could take a toy car apart to see how the gears and the steering F. Use computers to access and system work. They can then apply their organize information. This could be new knowledge to investigate why a toy car done with software on the computer does not roll or change directions properly. (for example, an encyclopedia on a CD), as well as on the Internet. Given many opportunities to use tools, 6 students should become proficient in G. Use common symbols, such as selecting the best one for a given task. numbers and words, to Students must also be taught to keep safety communicate key ideas. Most of foremost in their minds when they are these symbols are found in everyday using tools. Tools that help students access, life, such as the alphabet, numbers, organize, and evaluate information should punctuation marks, or commercial receive special attention. Such tools should logos. include newer resources like computers, CD-ROMS, or the Internet, in addition to the more traditional print sources. In addition, students should understand and be able to use various symbols in different settings. These symbols could include signs

128 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

VIGNETTE Take It Apart

This vignette deals Using a lesson from Mission 21: Launching Technology Across the Curriculum Series, Ms. W decided to introduce technology to her third graders. Primary with an assembly line objectives of this lesson were to “increase students’ sequencing skills and operation to find out how broaden her students’ concepts of what technology is by exploring its influence in commonly used [items]” (Dunlop, Croft, & Brusic, 1992, p. 9). pens can be disassembled Ms. W used a design brief from the series titled “Take It Apart.” She divided then reassembled in an her students into teams and asked them to disassemble retractable ballpoint ink pens. efficient manner. Also, more intricate items The students took the pens apart, sketched the components, and labeled each one. This method of documentation helped the students later when they can be brought into the developed their presentations. Members of the teams formed an assembly classroom for students to line to take the pens apart, reassemble them, and discuss how they worked. They used their sketches as a guide in putting the pens back together. take apart and put back After the pen exercise, the students brought in additional items to explore, together. This process most of which were more complex than the ink pen. However, having had teaches how parts fit the opportunity to explore with the ink pen, the students made the transition with ease. All of them took apart their items, drew the parts, together and how they labeled them, and documented how to put the objects back together. They work. This vignette then shared their learning through demonstrations by explaining about the various parts. The students were challenged with their activities, and most highlights some elements wanted to know if they could take something else apart and reassemble it. of the Grades 3-5 STL This type of student-centered activity creates understanding within students and encourages group effort. (Dunlop, Croft, & Brusic, 1992, p. 10). standards that provide connections to Standards 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 19.]

129 STANDARD 12 Use and Maintain Products and Systems

GRADES tudents at the middle level will follow maintenance procedures, such as explore, use, and maintain a variety of cleaning, oiling, adjusting, and tightening 6-8 hand tools and machines, consumer screws, in order to keep products and systems Sproducts, and technological systems. operating properly. They will continue to practice proper As part of learning how to use and safety procedures — wearing protective maintain technological products and clothing and eye protection, for example — systems, students in Grades 6-8 should and to follow directions from manuals and be able to other protocols in order to ensure a safe working environment. H. Use information provided in manuals, protocols, or by In these grades, students also will learn to experienced people to see and use the computer, calculator, and other understand how things work. This tools to collect data and analyze information is helpful in learning how information to help them determine to use a product and determining if it whether a system is operating effectively. In works properly. In addition, many addition to correcting problems, students manuals provide tips on how to will be taught to be proactive and to troubleshoot a product or system. establish routine maintenance schedules that will keep their technological products I. Use tools, materials, and machines operating efficiently. safely to diagnose, adjust, and repair systems. For many consumer In order to manage systems effectively, products, federal and state laws require students need to develop a systems-oriented safety information. Safety procedures way of thinking — considering technology should be learned through formal in terms of inputs, processes, outputs, and education. feedback. Students at this grade level will learn to identify types of systems and J. Use computers and calculators in become familiar with how these systems various applications. Computers can and subsystems operate. One useful exercise be used to control production systems 6 involves assembling several subsystems to and to research answers to problems. create a larger system and then tracking K. Operate and maintain systems in how the various parts interact with and order to achieve a given purpose. affect the performance of the others. The understanding of how a system To deal with technologies that have become works is vital if one is to operate and inefficient or have failed, students will learn maintain it successfully. Examples of the skills of diagnosing, troubleshooting, everyday systems could include the maintaining, and repairing. They should be Internet, control systems such as able to recognize when a system malfunctions, robots, and gating circuits for digital isolate the problem, test the faulty component processing of information. or module, determine whether they can correct the problem, and decide if they require outside help. Students should understand and

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GRADES y the time they leave high school, Systems thinking, which combines students will be able to use and methodical and analytical thinking, 9-12 maintain various types of products provides the mental skills for students Band systems — a key element to to determine if a system is being used technological literacy. Some students appropriately and correctly. By using such also will have developed strong personal high-level thinking, students will be able interests and abilities in technology and will to work with inputs, processes, outputs, be ready to pursue further education in the and feedback to adjust a system. field. Students will be able to articulate and At the high school level, students should communicate their thoughts to others using become proficient in using computers oral, written, and electronic communica- and software. They should know about tion techniques. and be able to use advanced computers Students should be capable of diagnosing, and peripherals, and they should be able to troubleshooting, analyzing, and main- troubleshoot hardware and software prob- taining systems. These abilities become lems. They should also understand the central to keeping systems in good capabilities and limitations of computers. condition and in working order. Students Finally, students should be able to adapt to should be taught the importance of emerging computing technologies. establishing maintenance schedules to As part of learning how to use and prevent breakdowns. For example, they maintain technological products and could establish regular schedules to change systems, students in Grades 9-12 the air filters in their homes or to change should be able to the oil in their cars. If certain products or systems fail, it is important that students be L. Document processes and procedures able to diagnose, troubleshoot, and repair and communicate them to different them. Much information about how to audiences using appropriate oral diagnose and repair a product or system is and written techniques. Examples of contained in the product’s service manual. such techniques include flow charts, Having a clear understanding of the severity drawings, graphics, symbols, spread- of the problem is key to deciding if more sheets, graphs, time charts, and World experienced help is needed. Wide Web pages. The audiences can be peers, teachers, local community As has been stressed at other grade levels, members, and the global community. the safe and effective use of tools and machines is important to technological M. Diagnose a system that is literacy. Students should be given many malfunctioning and use tools, opportunities to use various tools, such materials, machines, and knowledge as meters and oscilloscopes, to retrieve, to repair it. Various items, such as monitor, organize, diagnose, maintain, digital meters or computer utility interpret, and evaluate data and informa- diagnostic tools, can be used in the tion that can then be used in solving maintenance of a system. practical problems.

131 STANDARD 12 Use and Maintain Products and Systems

GRADES N. Troubleshoot, analyze, and P. Use computers and calculators to maintain systems to ensure safe and access, retrieve, organize, process, 9-12 proper function and precision. maintain, interpret, and evaluate Monitoring the operation, adjusting data and information in order to the parts, cleaning, and oiling of a communicate. Many resources, such system represent examples of how a as library books, the Internet, word product or system can be properly processing and spreadsheet software, maintained. in addition to computer aided design (CAD) software can be used to access O. Operate systems so that they information. function in the way they were designed. These systems may include two-way communication radios, transportation systems that move goods from one place to another, and power systems that convert solar energy to electrical energy. Using safe procedures and following directions is absolutely essential to ensuring an accident-free working environment.

6

132 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

STANDARD Students will develop the abilities to assess 13 the impact of products and systems.

hen presented with a particular This sort of assessment is particularly product or system, the important today because the human use of technologically literate person technology has become so widespread that W should be able to gather it can result in positive or negative information about it, synthesize consequences, and it is so complex that it this information, analyze trends, and draw can be difficult to predict. Students should conclusions regarding its positive or realize that technological activities negative effects. To assess a technology in inevitably involve trade-offs, as well as a this way, students should be encouraged to certain amount of risk. In assessing a acquire new abilities. They should be able technology, they must distinguish between to make forecasts by using a variety of real and imagined risks and recognize that techniques, such as repeated testing, even doing nothing can result in an reasoning from past experiences, foreseeing uncertain outcome. possible consequences, modeling and developing scenarios, and determining benefits and risks. Then, working from these forecasts, they should be able to assess how a product or system will affect individuals, society, and the environment.

133 STANDARD 13 Assess the Impact of Products and Systems

GRADES echnology plays an important part in and negative attributes (e.g., produces a lot children’s lives. It provides shelter, of trash) of these containers. Such K-2 information, toys, clothing, and food. experiences can help students to begin to TAs current and future consumers, develop a critical eye for technology. children should be able to determine if As part of learning how to assess the use of a product or system will have the impact of products and systems, positive or negative results. They also students in Grades K-2 should be able to should begin comparing products to determine the best value. A. Collect information about everyday products and systems by asking Students at this level should collect questions. Examples of some questions information about everyday products and are: What are they? Why are they systems, asking such questions as: Where important? Can they be recycled? did the product come from? How was it What is the cost? Where do they fit made? Does the product work well? Can I into everyone’s lives? How do they afford to buy it? Does the product do what affect daily life? it was advertised to do? What are the safety factors to be considered when using the B. Determine if the human use of a product? How long will the product last? product or system creates positive Does the product require additional costs or negative results. Examples could be (e.g., paper, film, or batteries)? the positive or negative effects of using televisions, toys, bicycles, games, dolls, Learning to collect information about and the Internet. technology is important in developing an ability to correctly make decisions about its use and in evaluating its effectiveness. The concept of data collection as a means of decision making should be introduced in Grades K-2 when students are also studying data collection in science and mathematics. 6 Using easily observable requirements (e.g., numbers, size, texture, weight, and motion), students will identify, categorize, and compare different kinds of technologies. In Grades K-2, students should use this collected information to determine whether a product generally produces positive or negative results. For example, students could examine the use of disposable food containers in local fast food restaurants. In this activity, students could list the positive attributes (e.g., makes the lines go faster and gets rid of the need for washing dishes)

134 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

GRADES tudents in Grades 3-5 will have an As part of learning how to assess opportunity to assess technology from the impact of products and systems, 3-5 personal, family, community, and students in Grades 3-5 should be able to economic points of view. In assessing S C. Compare, contrast, and classify technology, students take a step collected information in order to toward becoming self-reliant, independent identify patterns. Information, such thinkers. Furthermore, in learning to assess as cost, function, and warranties, technology, students will develop skills in could be collected on certain products, comparing, contrasting, and classifying such as toys, food, games, health collected data, and they will then use that products, school supplies, and clothes, data to make decisions. or on larger systems, such as Gathering information involves making transportation or communication. investigations and observations about the D. Investigate and assess the influence use of technology and then recording the of a specific technology on the observations in an appropriate manner. individual, family, community, and Knowing how to gather data requires environment. Examples of this could students to use skills from other areas — be the family car, microwave oven, notably science skills, like observation, and clothing, processed food, electric language-arts skills, such as note taking, power plants, or passenger airplanes. outlining, and informative writing. E. Examine the trade-offs of using a Students should explore how technology product or system and decide when influences individuals, families, com- it could be used. It is important to munities, and the environment. As students decide which problems the products study the significant events that helped to or systems are solving and which ones shape their communities, they lay the they may create. For example, a groundwork for discussing and learning question that may be examined is: about the development and future use of “Should cars be used?” technological products and systems. They should learn to recognize the trade-offs implicit in any technology and to weigh those trade-offs to determine whether the positive outcomes of a product or system will outweigh its negative consequences.

135 STANDARD 13 Assess the Impact of Products and Systems

VIGNETTE Clean Up an Oil Spill

This vignette presents Ms. G, a fifth-grade teacher, presented her class with a challenge. “On April 5, an oil tanker, Radical, sideswiped an iceberg, causing 15 tons of a real-life problem of oil to spill into the ocean. You are chosen to join an elite team of an oil spill. Students are scientists to devise a way to clean up the oil spill.” challenged to solve the Ms. G then divided the students into groups of four to five members. Each problem by trying out group received a pie pan with one inch of water in it and a small piece of fake fur. Ms. G instructed the students to begin the experiment by placing different activities in the fur in the water, and then she used an eyedropper to add a the laboratory-classroom. tablespoon of oil to the water in each pan. The students observed what happened and recorded these observations in their journals. The teacher Students should be able to stimulated their thinking by asking questions, such as “Do the oil and assess the impact of the water mix? How many layers do you see? What happened to the oil?” The students then estimated the size of the oil spill. oil spill. [This vignette Next, the students received paper towels, cotton balls, toilet tissue, highlights some elements string, coffee filters, and rubber bands. Ms. G then challenged them to of Grades 3-5 STL use these materials to try to contain the oil in a small area and to clean up the oil spill as much as possible. The students worked together as standards that provide teams to design a method, and they recorded their observations, their connections to Standards successes, and their not-so-successful attempts in their journals. 3, 5, 6, 10, 13, 16, and Ms. G then led the class in a discussion of the various methods that the students had developed. They discussed the problems that they had 18.] encountered in developing a solution and how they had overcome the obstacles. The teacher then asked the students to observe the piece of fur and to describe in their journals how the fake fur had changed and to imagine how oil on an animal’s fur might affect its survival. Ms. G then added several drops of detergent to the experimental oil spill, and again she asked the students to write their observations in their journals. Ms. G concluded the exercise by discussing the importance of petroleum and oil in everyone’s life. She also explained the short- and long-term impacts that an oil spill can have on the environment. She shared with them several real-life stories of tanker accidents, the clean-up procedures, the damage to the environment, the community’s response to 6 the accident, and the steps taken to design tankers that won’t spill oil. As a result of this exercise, the students learned how a technology can have both positive and negative effects on the environment.

136 CHAPTER 6 Abilities for a Technological World

GRADES t this age, students are able to collect and critically and objectively is a skill that requires a analyze data and to interpret trends in great deal of time and practice to develop. 6-8 order to assess what the personal As part of learning how to assess the and societal impacts of a particular A impact of products and systems, students technology might be. In so doing, in Grades 6-8 should be able to students will develop certain important skills. To collect information, for example, students will F. Design and use instruments to gather need to design instruments for gathering data. data. Examples of these instruments could The collection of data might include conducting be a data-collection instrument for inter- surveys, interviewing people, writing letters, or views, questionnaires to be mailed, or consulting reference sources. computer-based forms on the World Wide Web. Assessment tools also could By investigating the effects of technology, include devices designed to conduct tests students will learn that people react to technology on such things as water quality, air purity, in a variety of ways. For example, students may and ground pollution. find that some people favor a proposal for a new shopping mall or golf course in town, while G. Use data collected to analyze and others oppose it. The supporters might be more interpret trends in order to identify the influenced by the effects on employment, as well positive or negative effects of a tech- as shopping or recreation opportunities, while nology. Technologically literate citizens opponents might be concerned about are able to fulfill their personal and social environmental damage or traffic congestion. responsibility to assess technology. Using and analyzing data will help students begin H. Identify trends and monitor potential to appreciate various trends that have occurred in consequences of technological develop- the development and use of technology. Students ment. Trends are patterns of technological should learn how to use data to create knowledge. activities that show a tendency or take a Making sound decisions about technology general direction. Trends are used to demands knowledge about current trends. provide direction in deciding if a product Students will learn what trends are, how they are or system should be used. important in forecasting the future, and how to I. Interpret and evaluate the accuracy of interpret and make future predictions based on the information obtained and deter- them. After identifying trends, students will learn mine if it is useful. Developing specific how to evaluate and monitor the consequences of criteria for what is useful is important in technological activity. For example, students may making these judgments. Sometimes use computer simulation software to assess the determining accuracy is easy — taking impacts of technology on a city. information from physical measuring By combining various skills, students can evaluate devices like a water-purity tester, for or assess products and systems to determine if example. At other times, accuracy is more they are useful or not — whether they will difficult to determine, as when assessments achieve the desired outcomes, and whether the are based on public opinion, which can positive consequences might outweigh the differ greatly from group to group and negative. The ability to analyze a technology from time to time.

137 STANDARD 13 Assess the Impact of Products and Systems

GRADES y learning how to assess technology, As part of learning how to assess the students will become better citizens in impact of products and systems, students 9-12 the future and, as a result, they will be in Grades 9-12 should be able to able to make wiser decisions in an B J. Collect information and evaluate its increasingly complex technological quality. This may include using such world. Students should know that the methods as comparing and contrast- advantages of technology far outweigh the ing sources, examining relevancy, and disadvantages. If it were not for the investigating the background of development of technology, humans would be experts. living in a much more primitive world today. K. Synthesize data, analyze trends, and Collecting and synthesizing data is invaluable draw conclusions regarding the effect for making informed technological decisions. of technology on the individual, For example, people who are interested in society, and the environment. Deduct- buying a product or system may design a ive thinking and synthesis techniques forecasting instrument and collect data in can assist in this process. Students order to assess a technology’s overall efficiency should take into account historical and intended function. In Grades 9-12, events, global trends, and economic students will learn to synthesize data and to factors, and they should evaluate and use their syntheses to draw conclusions about consider how to manage the risks the use of technology and the effects of its use incurred by technological development. on individuals, society, and the environment. L. Use assessment techniques, such as It is important for students to be able to use trend analysis and experimentation, trend analysis to judge trends and to to make decisions about the future determine what is important in light of other development of technology. Assess- current events. For example, students could ment is an evaluation technique involv- research various climate forecast models and ing iterative steps and procedures that project what could occur if the earth’s polar requires analyzing trade-offs, estimating regions warmed by 2˚C or 4˚C. They then risks, and choosing a best course of 6 could analyze a plan to address global action. The assessment of a product or warming and assess its potential solution. system can prove that it is dangerous, Once information has been accumulated, but it cannot prove that it is safe. synthesized, and used for forecasting, the final M. Design forecasting techniques to step in assessing a product or system is deciding evaluate the results of altering whether using it is appropriate. In making such natural systems. These techniques a decision, students should come to understand should include testing and assessment. the benefits and risks, costs, the limits and These natural systems could be lakes potential, and the positive and negative impacts (building homes around the shore), of technological developments. rain forests (cutting them down for the wood), or land (strip mining for coal).

138 7 The Designed World

STANDARDS Students will develop an under- 14 standing of and be able to select and use medical technologies. p. 141

Students will develop an 15 understanding of and be able to select and use agricultural and related biotechnologies. p. 149

Students will develop an under- 16 standing of and be able to select and use energy and power technologies. p. 158

Students will develop an under- 17 standing of and be able to select and use information and commu- nication technologies. p. 166

Students will develop an under- 18 standing of and be able to select and use transportation tech- nologies. p. 175

Students will develop an under- 19 standing of and be able to select and use manufacturing tech- nologies. p. 182

Students will develop an under- 20 standing of and be able to select and use construction technologies. p. 191 The natural world consists of plants and animals, earth, air, water, and fire — things that would exist without human The Designed World intervention or invention. The social world includes customs, 7 cultures, political systems, legal systems, economies, religions, and the various other mores that humans have devised to govern their interactions and relationships with one another. The umans live in three designed world consists of all the modifications that humans H have made to the natural world to satisfy their own needs and worlds: the natural wants. As its name implies, the designed world is the product world, the social world, of a design process that provides ways to turn resources — materials, tools and machines, people, information, energy, and the designed world. capital, and time — into products and systems. In studying the designed world, it is useful to create a taxonomy, or classification system, that divides technology into smaller pieces that can be explored individually. The following taxonomy represents important areas that can be studied in K-12 programs. Each area of technology covered in this chapter contains a set of characteristics that defines it and distinguishes it from the others. As the areas of technology change over time, so too will the taxonomy. These areas are not mutually exclusive — there is some natural overlap between them — but dividing them up in this way makes it easier to study the many and varied technologies that humankind has invented. It is possible to create many different taxonomies of the designed world, but for the purposes of Standards for Technological Literacy, the designed world is divided into seven standards.

140 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and 14 be able to select and use medical technologies.

eople in today’s health-oriented the delivery of medical care. Today, society spend more time and money technologies such as telemedicine than at any other time in history (the use of telecommunications tech- Psearching to live longer and more nologies to deliver healthcare), are being productive lives. The use of designed and developed to provide easier technology has made numerous access to medical expertise, to integrate contributions to medicine over the years. geographically dispersed services, to Scientific and technological breakthroughs improve the quality of care, and to gain are at the core of most diagnostic and maximum productivity from expensive treatment practices. For example, major medical and technical resources. operations used to require long hours of With the increased use of technologies in surgery followed by an extensive hospital the medical industry, it is important to stay. Today, with lasers, new drugs, and consider the consequences that accompany updated medical procedures, long hours in them. Technologies, such as pharma- the hospital operating room have been ceuticals and life support systems, have decreased to outpatient procedures in a helped protect and improve human health. doctor’s office, and recuperation time has However, the use of these products and been reduced from weeks to days. systems has raised questions, such as the Medical miracles are cited often in length of time a person chooses to remain the news — the reattachment of a limb or on a life-support system and chooses to the saving of a life through a new medical have access to life-saving procedures. procedure made possible by a new device In 1900 an American’s life expectancy or system. New ways of studying how the was 47 years; today it exceeds 76 years. human body functions or reacts to change Worldwide, human life expectancy has been are being introduced at rapid rates. Devices prolonged through the development of and systems are being designed to check, sanitation practices, vaccines, waste-disposal evaluate, and operate with computerized systems, and other technologies. This and electronic controls in order to extend increase in life expectancy is a central reason human capabilities and help improve for the worldwide population explosion. human health. The issues surrounding the use of many The development of good nutrition and technologies often conflict with each other preventive medicine has played a key role in or with the opinions and ethics of those helping individuals live better lives. Medical affected by its use. Knowledge based on advances, such as vaccines and genetically accurate information is therefore essential engineered drugs, are developed to help for making sound decisions. healthcare providers do their work more efficiently and effectively, thus improving 141 STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies

GRADES hen children enter kindergarten, In order to select, use, and understand many will already know that medical technologies, students in K-2 cleanliness and healthy habits are Grades K-2 should learn that important in preventing sickness. W A. Vaccinations protect people from They also will know that using getting certain diseases. Vaccinations certain products and systems help them stay help build protection to disease and are safe and healthy. The K-2 classroom should often administered early in life. Some provide students with the opportunity to immunizations are given over a period of learn about habits that promote healthy several months. Vaccinations and shots living, along with the technologies that have led to improved health and life make it possible. expectancy. Oral vaccines, shots, and medicines are B. Medicine helps people who are sick to used to help prevent diseases or slow their get better. Some medicines require a progression. Students should have long period of time before they become opportunities to explore how science and effective and require repeated doses. technology are used to help promote good Others work in a short period of time health. They may discuss how a germ may and should to be used only when cause an illness and then discuss how a needed. product is designed to help prevent the illness or provide a means for a person to C. There are many products designed get better. specifically to help people take care of themselves. Everyday products, such as Students are aware of various tools used to toothbrushes, hairbrushes, examine their bodies when they visit a and soap are used to promote healthy doctor, dentist, or optometrist. They know living. Doctors, dentists, optometrists, that tools, such as a thermometers, scales, and other health professionals use many dental tools, and optometrist lenses are used technological tools to gather medical to gather information. They should information about people’s health. understand how various technologies are specially developed to provide unobtrusive ways to learn more about their health. For example, they could explore how chewable tablets are designed to reveal plaque build-up by coloring their teeth. They might study a stethoscope by taking it apart and examining 7 how sound is used to provide clues about the health of their hearts and lungs.

142 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES pecialized products and systems can In order to select, use, and understand be used to collect information about medical technologies, students in 3-5 many different things that can affect Grades 3-5 should learn that people’s health and safety. Doctors S D. Vaccines are designed to prevent use such devices as stethoscopes, x-ray diseases from developing and machines, and thermometers to gain clues spreading; medicines are designed to about why a person may be sick and to help relieve symptoms and stop diseases determine what medical attention may be from developing. Vaccines for such needed. illnesses as polio, tetanus, and mumps Students in Grades 3-5 should be aware of are used in the maintenance of good these and other products and systems that health, while medicines, such as those play an important role in keeping them for the common cold, the flu, or healthy and safe. News reports in the fall pneumonia are used to help ease an inform people about health issues regarding illness and restore good health. upcoming flu seasons. With increased E. Technological advances have made it scientific and technological knowledge possible to create new devices, to about how germs or bacteria work to cause repair or replace certain parts of the illnesses, more advanced inoculations are body, and to provide a means for designed and produced. Students should mobility. Products such as artificial continue to make connections on how limbs, wheelchairs, or crutches change to science and technology work together to take advantage of new technologies and promote and improve health. to improve upon previous designs. People who have, through injury or illness, F. Many tools and devices have been lost body parts or functions can often be designed to help provide clues helped through the use of medical about health and to provide a safe technologies. Hearing aids can compensate environment. Tools, such as ther- for a loss of hearing, for instance, and mometers, blood pressure machines, artificial limbs help people who have lost and heart monitors help determine if arms or legs to lead more normal lives. people are well and provide other health Students should discuss these and other ways clues. For example, a heart monitor that technologies have been used to help measures a person’s heart rate. Many those with disabilities or medical conditions. tools have been designed to diagnose Since more and more people spend time in what is happening in the human body. closed environments, students need to under- Self-testing kits for glucose, sugar, and stand about the effects of poor indoor air pH levels, and kits to determine the quality and how it can decrease performance levels of protein or vitamins in the body and cause illness. Students could visit a are examples of such tools. This hospital or factory or even tour their school in information may help determine if a order to learn about the different technological person’s health is stable, or if he or she is means that have been developed to promote a developing an illness. healthy living and working environment.

143 STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies

VIGNETTE A Pharmacy Connection

This example uses a visit The students in Ms. B’s fifth grade class visited their local drug store to learn more about various medicines in general. They focused particularly on to a local pharmacy to individualized kits designed to help people learn more about their bodies. encourage students to Ms. A, the local pharmacist, showed the students how people use various develop and put to use kits to check their bodies’ pH and glucose levels, as well as their protein their understanding of and enzyme levels. The students were particularly interested in the saliva testing kits used to determine sugar levels. In addition, the students how the design of a noticed all the different devices available for checking their temperature — vaccine or medicine from the traditional thermometer to the new strips used on the forehead. Ms. A also demonstrated how the electronic ear thermometer worked. relates to the process of When they were shown the numerous drugs kept in a pharmacy, the design and how vaccines students were amazed. They asked Ms. A how she was able to keep track of and medicine are related all the information about the many drugs and customers. She explained that thousands of records were kept in large filing cabinets before they to various technological had computers. Ms. A further explained that computers not only enable devices. [This example pharmacists to link customer information with doctors’ orders, they also help in delivering advice about how to use medicines safely. highlights some elements After the students returned to their classroom, Ms. B asked them to of Grades 3-5 STL investigate more about the development of various medicines and standards 1, 6, 8, 11, vaccines, in addition to finding out about the tools used in their development. She asked the students to refer to lessons they had studied and 14.] on design and to consider what processes of design may have been used in the development of a medicine or vaccine. A few students used the Internet to check information, and others referred to several books about medical technologies. After the students had written down their information, Ms. B provided them with an opportunity to share their findings. The students reported that in order for many vaccines to work, physicians send things into the body that tell them how the body works. They are then able to determine if a vaccine is functioning properly. Many students commented on how similar the design and use of a vaccine is to the design and use of a product or system.

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144 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES n Grades 6-8, students are interested that may come to people and the environ- in themselves and their own bodies. ment. Students should, therefore, have 6-8 Learning about technologies designed opportunities to assess different aspects of Ito protect and keep them healthy is genetic engineering. For example, they could a natural extension of that interest. investigate what technologies are used in Students can research and discuss the genetic engineering, how genetic engineering various technologies that have enabled is used in the health care field, and how gene people to live longer, more productive lives. therapy may affect medical costs and care. They could also discuss personal experi- In order to select, use, and understand ences in which a technology has helped medical technologies, students in them with a medical situation, such as Grades 6-8 should learn that getting glasses or braces. G. Advances and innovations in medical Students should have opportunities technologies are used to improve to explore and discuss recent medical health care. A super-quick, ultra-low developments to learn what types of radiation digital X-ray machine, technologies are used to improve medical originally developed to detect diamond care in different environments. For smugglers, has been adapted to save example, the use of many new technologies, lives. Patients undergo a full-body X- such as lasers for surgeries, electronic ray, which can locate bullets and devices for monitoring and evaluating pinpoint fractures in seconds. health, and modified treatment procedures, has helped to increase the well-being of H. Sanitation processes used in the individuals. Likewise, students should disposal of medical products help consider how some people view the health to protect people from harmful care system as being dominated by the use organisms and disease, and shape of technology. They should learn about the ethics of medical safety. Proper how the uses of medical technologies have handling and management of helped advance medicine from inactive care hazardous materials, such as medicines, that was primarily diagnostic in nature to a clothing, and instruments, help to field dedicated to the aggressive treatment protect people from unnecessary harm and prevention of disease. In learning how and increase risk-free environments. different medical technology devices work, I. The vaccines developed for use in students could design and build models immunization require specialized that would demonstrate how they are used. technologies to support environ- Genetic engineering is the manipulation or ments in which sufficient amounts of modification of an organism’s genes to vaccines are produced. Immunization increase production or remove a genetic is the process of systematically vac- defect. Genetic engineering is often discussed cinating people through a series of in contradictory terms. Although using it is shots to prevent disease. The tech- viewed as a powerful means for curing genetic nological system designed to create the diseases, it is criticized for the potential harm proper environment in which a vaccine

145 STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies

GRADES may be cultured is paramount to the success of the large quantity of the 6-8 vaccine needed for immunization. Increasing the production of a vaccine requires understanding how an organism is tailored to produce a vaccine and how a vaccine works, in addition to addressing the quantity needed for all concerned and providing enough materials for proper production of the vaccine. J. Genetic engineering involves modifying the structure of DNA to produce novel genetic make-ups. Genetic engineering is done in a laboratory using reagents and other tools that allow researchers to make controlled changes in genetic informa- tion and structure. A practical example in the molecular pharmaceutical industry involves the process to remove the human insulin gene from human cells and to move it into bacterial cells (E. coli) with other genetic signals that instruct the bacteria to make human insulin. Large amounts of human insulin can be produced by this recombinant DNA method. The human insulin (Humulin) has been found to be superior to that derived from the pancreas of pigs (porcine insulin) because patients using pig insulin can develop allergies that can compromise the effectiveness of 7 diabetic treatment.

146 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES t this level, the technologies used for addition, students should be aware of how health and medicine should be technology is being used regarding such 9-12 critically researched and discussed, topics as population control, gene mapping, A including the global concerns and the medical effects of pesticide usage. regarding the environment and the Similarly, students should examine how ethical concerns about altering life. Students computers in the healthcare system play an should gain the ability to debate such integral role keeping track of patients’ questions as: How do people know when a diagnostic information, medicines, results medical technology is beneficial? At what of procedures, and in analyzing data in point should people be involved in the order to help clinicians do their work more testing of a medical invention and efficiently and effectively. innovation? To what degree are designers In order to select, use, and understand responsible for the safety of their products or medical technologies, students in systems? How will certain products and Grades 9-12 should learn that systems affect the current and future environment? K. Medical technologies include pre- vention and rehabilitation, vaccines Students should have opportunities to and pharmaceuticals, medical identify emerging health and medical and surgical procedures, genetic technologies, such as genetic engineering, engineering, and the systems within noninvasive surgeries, arthroscopies, and which health is protected and main- nuclear magnetic resonance, by using tained. For example, the development trends, research, and forecasting techniques. of vaccines and drugs, such as the polio For example, students could study and learn vaccine, penicillin, and chemotherapy, how a laser works by making, testing, and has helped to eradicate or cause remis- evaluating a model and then relating its sion of many serious illnesses. The adaptation to use in many surgical pro- development of diagnostic tools, such cedures. They should communicate their as the x-ray machine, computerized findings to a wide variety of audiences, tomography (CT) scan, and lasers, including peers, family, and the community, allows for less invasive interior views in order to explain their viewpoints on how of the body than surgery. The use of products and systems can be used to specially designed equipment can help promote safe and healthy living. provide rehabilitation to disabled Advances in medical technology have persons. Using a wheelchair and other helped to improve human health by specially designed equipment, a reducing the instances of serious diseases paraplegic person can play basketball; such as polio and smallpox. Yet there is still dialysis maintains health for those with a great need for continued improvements no kidneys; and laser eye shaping helps and more innovations. Students should eliminate the need for glasses or contact investigate both the benefits of the advances lenses. Many technologies designed for in medicine made through the use of health, medicine, and safety are technology and the associated costs. In specialized and can be expensive to

147 STANDARD 14 Medical Technologies

GRADES maintain. determination of a treatment. 9-12 L. Telemedicine reflects the M. The sciences of biochemistry and convergence of technological molecular biology have made it advances in a number of fields, possible to manipulate the genetic including medicine, telecom- information found in living munications, virtual presence, creatures. Recombinant DNA computer engineering, informatics, technology, in the form of applied artificial intelligence, robotics, molecular research, has resulted in materials science, and perceptual methods for screening and diagnosis of psychology. Telemedicine is designed disease states and disease predisposition for emergency situations, rural health (molecular diagnostics). The potential care, forensic medicine, and for misuse of this information should monitoring chronic conditions. compel society to establish ethical Telemedicine represents a significant mandates for regulating the incidence change in the delivery of medical care of testing and the uses of test results. by increasing the number of doctors who can diagnose illness and offer treatment in unsafe and remote areas via computer or videoconference. For example, when a scientist in Antarctica discovered a potentially cancerous lump and could not fly out for medical care, equipment was airlifted to the location, and doctors, located in the United States, were able to use the medical equipment and communication devices in the

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STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be able to 15 select and use agricultural and related biotechnologies.

bout 14,000 years ago, the Biotechnology applications, both classical Agricultural Revolution transformed and modern, have long been a driving force society by allowing humans for the in the field of agriculture. Biotechnology is A first time to produce more food than defined as “any technique that uses living they needed. The development of a organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or variety of agricultural tools and practices, modify products, improve plants or animals, such as the plow and irrigation, improved or to develop microorganisms for specific productivity and made it possible for fewer purposes” (OTA, 1988/1991, FCCSET, people to feed all of a society, thereby freeing 1992/1993). It encompasses a broad up some of the society for other tasks. Further spectrum of purposes from changing the advances in agricultural technology since that form of food and improving health to time have continued the pattern, so that now disposing of waste or using DNA to store only about one out of a hundred people data. Living organisms involved in bio- working on a farm is enough to provide food technology can be microorganisms, plants, for everyone in the United States. and animals, as well as their parts (i.e., enzymes and proteins). Although it has a Agriculture is the growing of plants and modern ring to it, biotechnology has been animals for food, fiber, fuel, chemical or around for at least 8,000 years. Around other useful products. Many technological 6000 BC, for example, Babylonians used processes and systems are used in yeast to brew beer, and about 4000 BC agriculture. One example of a simple Egyptians learned how to use yeast in process is the saving of seeds from the end making bread. of one growing season to plant at the beginning of the next. Another is the use of In recent years, the use of biotechnology fertilization and weed control. Breeding has become vastly more important as plants and animals in order to produce scientists have become more proficient at offspring with desired traits is yet another manipulating cells and living tissue. They example of agricultural technology. Also, of have learned to read the genetic codes of course, there is a long line of agricultural living organisms and to manipulate their tools and machinery — from pointed sticks genetic instructions. The use of biotech- used to scratch a line in the soil for planting nology is opening the door to improving seeds to today’s most advanced combines or the fight against human and animal milking machines. Technology has not only diseases, promoting human health, fighting improved the yield and quality of food, but hunger by increasing crop yields through it has also made it possible for farmers to resisting plant diseases, and helping the adjust to changing circumstances in the environment by reducing pesticide use, but environment, such as weather-related this is just the beginning. Experts predict changes, water shortages and floods, and that an explosion of new products and overused soil. 149 STANDARD 15 Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies

services will result from biotechnology advances over the next century. More than other types of technology, biotechnology tends to raise ethical and social issues. How safe are bio-engineered crops? Should society allow the use of bioengineering methods? If society is to answer such questions responsibly, its members must have a basic understanding of biotechnology and the resulting products and systems involved. All of the technologies designed and used for agricultural and related biotechnology products and systems have an effect on the environment. The term “artificial eco- system” is used in this standard in its broadest sense, to include the design and manipulation of nature to create such artificial ecosystems as farms, ponds, gardens, and human-made forests. These artificial ecosystems are designed to provide food, fiber, fuel, chemicals, and other goods. A clear understanding is needed of the limitations of the technologies used to create the artificial ecosystems and how to use and manage them effectively in order to sustain the earth’s natural resources.

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150 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES tudents who live on farms or have a what techniques are needed to care for garden in their yards will be familiar them in an artificial ecosystem. K-2 with some of the products and In order to select, use, and understand systems used to grow plants and raise S agricultural and related biotechnolo- animals, while children who live in gies, students in Grades K-2 should cities may have only a vague understanding learn that of the technologies and processes. As a result of experiences in Grades K-2, all A. The use of technologies in students will have a basic understanding of agriculture makes it possible for how the food they eat and how the clothes food to be available year round and they wear are produced. to conserve resources. The processes of planting, growing, maintaining, Living things depend on air, energy (sun), harvesting, and preserving are important food, and water. If any one of these basic in providing food. Conservation of elements is missing, plants and animals will water requires using it wisely in homes, not survive. Students will discover how all yards, gardens, and farmlands. of these elements work together with technological products to form a system B. There are many different tools that enhances the growth of plants and necessary to control and make food. For example, they could plant several up the parts of an ecosystem. pots of seeds using various types of soils. An ecosystem is the collection of The different pots could be watered with organisms, such as plants and animals, different amounts of nutrients to in a shared physical environment. demonstrate to students how agriculture Understanding how plants, animals, relies on the use of supplements to enrich and their wastes interact with their the soil in various conditions. Some of the environment is important in order to pots could be placed in the direct sunlight, know how to use them as natural while others could be placed in the dark. devices for scrubbing or cleaning the The students could then observe what environment. For example, trees and happened to the different pots. grasses are used to help remove carbon dioxide from the air and generate Preparing a “biology-in-the-bottle” oxygen, while lakes, rivers, and ecosystem will help students learn marshlands help to maintain and about using the design process, working conserve water for all to use. with tools, and conserving water. Using a container that provides a closed environment, students decide what they want to grow and then research how much water and sunlight the plants need. The students could then prepare the soil, plant the seeds, and place them in a container. This activity will enable students to begin to understand how plants are grown and

151 STANDARD 15 Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies

GRADES lants and animals, just like students’ In order to select, use, and understand own bodies, require scheduled care. agricultural and related biotechnolo- 3-5 By applying what they have learned in gies, students in Grades 3-5 should Ptheir science lessons about how things learn that grow, students can research how the C. Artificial ecosystems are human- food that they eat is produced. Because water made environments that are is essential for living things, students should designed to function as a unit and explore different techniques for moving are comprised of humans, plants, water to its desired location, how to conserve and animals. A farm or a garden pond it, and how to keep it from becoming is an example of an artificial ecosystem polluted. They also should investigate what designed to use all parts to their fullest transportation systems are used to move potential. A farmer uses the plants, agricultural products from place to place. animals, and land to work together for At this level, students also should design, optimum production. A garden pond build, and assess artificial ecosystems for is designed to use plants to provide different organisms. Students should food and shelter for fish and other research how much food, space, and animals, in which animal waste, in sunlight organisms need in a given turn, is used to help support plant life. ecosystem, and how plants give off oxygen In particular, Biosphere II is a closed that in turn is needed by the animals. They artificial ecosystem, in which plants, could apply this sort of information by animals, and microbes, are used not raising a hamster in their classroom. In only to provide food, but also to filter designing the hamster habitat, students the air and water for reuse. should be attentive to how their system D. Most agricultural waste can be provides clean water for drinking and the recycled. Composting is a process types of materials used for bedding and used to recycle waste. Bio-fuels, such collecting waste. Students could observe as ethanol or methane, can be made the composting process as it develops in from recycled wastes. the material of their designed ecosystem. They might design and make a wildlife E. Many processes used in agriculture habitat by landscaping a small area in their require different procedures, schoolyard to attract birds, butterflies, products, or systems. The procedures beneficial insects, or small animals. In and products needed to plant a crop conjunction with this activity, students are different from those used in 7 could read and write about wildlife habitats harvesting. For example, propagating and their experiences in designing and and growing require plows and shovels, making one. Through these various tractors with planting drills, and activities, students will gain a better irrigation systems. In contrast, understanding of various technological harvesting requires shears and hoes, processes used in agriculture, including hay thrashers, and baling systems. propagating, growing, maintaining, evaluating, and harvesting.

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GRADES n middle school, students should learn the system is doing what it is supposed to about and understand how technological in order to maintain life, scrub or clean the 6-8 inventions and innovations have helped air and water, and assess the system for Ito reduce labor hours and decrease the proper functioning. Students should amount of land needed to grow crops troubleshoot and maintain the system and raise animals. For example, in 1930 it if any part fails to function properly. took five acres of land and 15-20 hours of Opportunities to examine how agricultural labor to produce 100 bushels of wheat. In waste is used and the trade-offs that are 1987, owing to the availability of better associated with waste recycling and other seed, improved fertilizer and pest control, agricultural practices will help students and advances in farm machinery — the understand how one action may cause an tractor, plow, planter, combine, and trucks, unexpected reaction. Improvements in for example — 100 bushels of wheat could fertilizers and pesticides have allowed large be produced on three acres of land with quantities of food to be grown. In some only three hours of labor. cases, however, these fertilizers, weed killers, At this level, students should broaden and insecticides have mixed with their understanding of the field of groundwater and have contaminated the biotechnology — the manipulation of water supply. Students must be able to living things to make products that benefit assess such pluses and minuses if they are to human beings. In addition to combating make reasonable decisions about the use of disease and promoting human health, agriculture and related biotechnologies and biotechnology is also being put to work in generate solutions to remedy problems. developing plants that resist diseases, In addition, students should recognize that increase crop yields, and reduce the use of many systems are used in agriculture, includ- pesticides. Using their research skills, ing irrigation and agroforestry. Often these students should investigate various systems are designed to work in coordination biotechnology practices and assess the with each other. For example, an agroforestry positive and negative consequences. system, which is the coordinated use of Students should continue to investigate the plants, crops, and water resources, is often agricultural processes and systems used combined with an irrigation system to when planting, treating, harvesting, increase crop yield. Planting trees, shrubs, preparing, and utilizing the products for and crops in alternating plots, in addition consumption. For example, students could to an irrigation system, will increase the design, develop, use, and assess a terrarium diversity of soil usage, conserve energy, or hydroponics station that functions as protect soil and water resources, and part of a larger closed system supporting increase production. living organisms. They could manage the system and determine the rate, amount, and timing of light, water, nutrients, and waste recycling that the system requires. They should also be able to determine if

153 STANDARD 15 Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies

GRADES In order to select, use, and understand raise plants or animals in an enclosed agricultural and related biotechnologies, habitat. The terrarium acts as a total 6-8 students in Grades 6-8 should learn that environment using all the systems of life, such as food, water, shelter, and F. Technological advances in space. Managing an artificial ecosystem agriculture directly affect the time requires gathering data to plan, and number of people required to organize, and control processes, produce food for a large population. products, and systems. For example, New tools and machinery, such as operating a hydroponics system within milking machines, trucks, and combines a closed (or open) environment are designed to make work easier and requires total control and cultivation. more productive. Today, fewer people Temperature, nutrients, light, air are involved in producing food, while circulation, and monitoring of insects more people are needed for processing, all need management in order for the packaging, and distributing it. system to function properly. G. A wide range of specialized J. The development of refrigeration, equipment and practices is used to freezing, dehydration, preservation, improve the production of food, and irradiation provide long-term fiber, fuel, and other useful products storage of food and reduce the health and in the care of animals. For risks caused by tainted food. For example, farmers use lasers to level example, the process of irradiation their fields and the global positioning involves bombarding food with low system (GPS) for precision farming. doses of high-frequency energy from Wildlife habitats create special environ- gamma rays, X-rays, or accelerated ments that encourage beneficial insects electrons. The purpose of the process is that in turn increase plant pollination to extend shelf life for weeks instead of and pest control. days by inhibiting maturation and H. Biotechnology applies the principles decay. of biology to create commercial products or processes. Advances in the area of molecular genetic bio- technology have been made in the pharmaceutical industry (improved therapeutic drugs), agricultural 7 industry (herbicide-resistant, pesticide resistant, and climate-adapted crops), as well as in medicine (gene therapies). I. Artificial ecosystems are human- made complexes that replicate some aspects of the natural environment. For example, a terrarium is used to

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GRADES n Grades 9-12, students’ understanding K. Agriculture includes a combination of the technologies used in agriculture of businesses that use a wide array of 9-12 can increasingly draw upon their products and systems to produce, Iknowledge of the underlying principles process, and distribute food, fiber, and concepts of technology, such as fuel, chemicals, and other useful design and systems. Researching and products. Crops (e.g., cotton, wheat, working with different types of agricultural tobacco, and grains) and livestock (e.g., products and systems will help students cattle, sheep, and poultry) are bought make connections to other topics studied in and sold by individuals, corporations, technology and understand the value of the and financial institutions. Local, state, use of technology in agriculture. and federal governments regulate the marketing and safety of agriculture Students may study the effects of waste and products and systems. pollutants deposited in watersheds. They may also study the various methods of L. Biotechnology has applications in restoring a polluted watershed including such areas as agriculture, pharma- bioremediation, which is the use of ceuticals, food and beverages, medi- microbial organisms to degrade and detoxify cine, energy, the environment, and pollutants. Students may test soil run-off for genetic engineering. Biological various pollutants and design and develop a processes are used in combination with system that might serve as a model for physical technologies to alter or modify improving environmental conditions. materials, products, and organisms. Fermentation, bio-products, microbial Students should discuss the need for applications, separation and purifica- regulations governing technologies used in tion techniques, and monitoring and agriculture. They also should discuss the growth processes are key examples of social side effects and trade-offs of using biotechnology applications. Selection various technologies in order to produce an of genetically modified seeds, applica- abundant supply of better-tasting and more tion of modified organisms (i.e., ice- nutritious food. To reinforce their under- minus bacteria to prevent frost damage standing, students could conduct research to plants), and uses of algal fertilizers and present their findings on the positive generated from photobioreactors are and negative effects of a particular process, good examples of extending agri- product, or system developed for agricul- cultural practices through biotech- ture. They could study the effects of nology applications. genetically altered plants or of plants newly introduced to an area. M. Conservation is the process of controlling soil erosion, reducing In order to select, use, and understand sediment in waterways, conserving agricultural and related biotech- water, and improving water quality. nologies, students in Grades 9-12 For instance, terraces, used in gardens or should learn that on farmland, prevent erosion by shorten-

155 STANDARD 15 Agricultural and Related Biotechnologies

GRADES ing the long slope of land into a series of systems. Management of agriculture shorter, more level steps. This allows requires considering such topics as the 9-12 heavy rains to soak into the soil rather amount, orientation, and distribution than running off and causing erosion. of crops and other plants, the effects of pests, and the management of land N. The engineering design and and animals to prevent fire or management of agricultural systems drought. For example, pest require knowledge of artificial management involves managing ecosystems and the effects of agricultural infestations (including technological development on flora weeds, insects, and diseases) to reduce and fauna. For example, wise water adverse effects on plant growth, crop use for gardens or farmland involves production, and environmental considering plant needs and efficient resources. watering methods before installing, using, and maintaining irrigation

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VIGNETTE Hydroponics System

This example provides Ms. M challenged her high school students to design a hydroponics system using plants to scrub the air and remove excess carbon dioxide. The system students with an oppor- would need to provide enough oxygen in an underwater research station for tunity to focus on the a four-person crew. Working in groups, the students selected a variety of vegetables that thrive in a hydroponics environment and have excellent gas application beyond exchange properties. They determined the amount of space needed for each growing foods to type of vegetable. One group conducted experiments to learn how to control the flow of water through tubes (PVC pipe) and regulate the distribution of incorporating the use nutrients to the plants. Another group tested pumps to lift water into of plants and animals reservoirs. The students invented devices to control the level of liquid in the reservoirs, and they experimented with lighting that would cause plants to to complete a total grow and produce more efficiently. Several groups designed an apparatus to environment. [This support the growing tubes, reservoirs, pumps, control devices, and lights. This design challenge facilitated student learning about plants, about how example highlights to increase productivity through the use of biotechnology applications, and some elements of provided an opportunity for them to explore the many uses of combined biological and physical technologies. Grades 9-12 STL standards 2, 8, 9, 10, Once the groups had designed various hydroponics systems, they made and tested prototypes. Through this prototyping process, they discovered 11, and 15.] whether the plants would grow, if the space requirements were adequate, and if the fluid and electrical systems functioned properly. They were even able to sample the produce. As an extension of this activity, Ms. M decided to introduce information- technology tools that could be used to convey the students’ experiences to other students, school staff, school board, parents, and the community. Some students chose to use the World Wide Web; some designed and made video programs; and others wrote illustrated articles in the school newspaper.

157 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be 16 able to select and use energy and power technologies.

nergy is the ability to do work. Large It is the responsibility of all citizens to supplies of energy are a fundamental conserve energy resources to ensure that requirement of the technological future generations will have access to these Eworld. Although energy and power are natural resources. To decide what energy often used interchangeably, they resources should be further developed, should not be — each has unique people must critically evaluate the positive characteristics that differentiate one from and negative impacts of the use of various the other. Energy is the capacity to do work. energy resources on the environment. Power may be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another or as the rate at which work is done. Technological products and systems need energy that is plentiful, cheap, and easy to control. Thus, the processing and con- trolling of energy resources, often called fuels, have been key features in the development of technology. Energy drives the technological products and systems used by society. The quality of life is sometimes associated with the amount of energy used by society. Choices about which form of energy to use influence our society and the environment in various ways. There are always trade-offs to consider in the source of energy that may be chosen. Energy and power systems can pollute the environment. Some sources of energy are non-renewable — once they are used, they will no longer be available — 7 while others are renewable, such as fuel made from corn. Many of our energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels. Nuclear energy provides a source with less air pollution and no carbon-dioxide buildup, but nuclear waste is more dangerous for longer periods of time than waste from other energy sources. 158 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES n Grades K-2, students will investigate In order to select, use, and understand the particular types of energy that they energy and power technologies, stu- K-2 are most likely to encounter. Energy dents in Grades K-2 should learn that enables plants to grow, cars to run, and I A. Energy comes in many forms. It is food to be cooked. Energy comes from used to do work. An early source of many different sources in nature, such as energy for machines was provided by fossil fuels and the sun. Many toys and human or animal muscle and was household items would not work without converted from food that was eaten. electricity, fuels, or other forms of energy. A car engine changes chemical energy Students at this early age need to be (gasoline) to mechanical energy exposed to many different sources of energy (motion). Many appliances in the to begin to develop an understanding of home and school use electrical energy. this complicated topic. They also should begin to understand the relationships B. Energy should not be wasted. Toys between energy, power, and work. Safety and appliances should be turned off should be stressed with young children in when they are not being used. Many working with energy and power. energy resources, often called fuels, that are used to heat and light our homes, Conservation is a very important concept run our cars, and cook our food are when working with energy resources, and nonrenewable. There is a limited students should learn to avoid wasting supply of these resources, and the energy in their schools and homes. For supply is being used up. example, students should learn to turn lights off when they are leaving a room and to turn the television off when they are no longer watching it.

159 STANDARD 16 Energy and Power Technologies

GRADES nergy is behind every movement and In order to select, use, and understand change in the world. Energy comes in energy and power technologies, students 3-5 many different forms, such as thermal, in Grades 3-5 should learn that radiant (light), electrical, chemical, E C. Energy comes in different forms. mechanical, and others. Many tech- Forms of energy include thermal, nological devices are driven by energy. Power radiant (light), chemical, mechanical, systems, such as gasoline engines, generators, electrical, and others. Some energy and solar cells, transform different forms of sources cost less than others, and some energy in order to do work. In Grades 3-5, give off less pollution. Electrical energy students will continue to study energy and is used in an electric motor, and solar how these ideas are related. cells can be used to transform solar Students should also learn how tools, energy to electrical energy to operate a machines, products, and systems need energy calculator. sources for their operation. Power systems are D. Tools, machines, products, and used to convert energy to work that results in systems use energy in order to do some thermal losses. Examples of these work. A well-designed tool, machine, conversion machines include electric product, or system minimizes energy generators (mechanical to electrical), electric losses. For example, machines should be motors (electrical to mechanical), dry cell designed to apply energy efficiently to batteries (chemical to electrical), home do a useful task. Energy is an important furnaces (chemical to thermal), automobile resource in technology. engines (chemical to thermal to mechanical), incandescent lamps (electrical to radiant), and solar cells (radiant to electrical). Students should also learn the proper procedure for plugging an appliance into an electrical outlet, and they should be taught to be careful of the socket when screwing in a light bulb. Energy should be used carefully so that it is not wasted. In elementary school, students should learn how to conserve energy, which is an important concept in technological literacy. Students can 7 take an active role in conserving energy by riding their bikes to school instead of riding in a car and by using a fan instead of air conditioning. They can also investigate how individuals who make products and systems can conserve energy.

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VIGNETTE Developing and Producing a Product or System Collaboratively

This vignette presents While studying about energy and power systems and reading books that discuss robots, haunted houses, and how things work, students were some activities related challenged to solve one of the following problems: (1) use age-appropriate to energy and power. circuit diagrams with proper assistance to make a robot out of reclaimed materials that includes at least one series circuit and provides light; The students study (2) make a construction paper model of a haunted house that includes technology-related at least one series and parallel circuit and lights up two different rooms; or (3) build a flashlight that works, using the following components: size problems that can be ‘C’ battery, wire, light socket, light bulb, paper towel tube, construction accomplished in paper, wire clips, and tape. elementary school After designing, developing, and producing their solutions, the students classes. [This vignette should discuss their solutions and evaluate their products and systems to see how closely their results fit the requirements. highlights some elements of the Grades 3-5 STL standards that provide connections with Standards 3, 8, 9, 11, and 16]

161 STANDARD 16 Energy and Power Technologies

GRADES t the middle school level, students In order to select, use, and understand will learn about the concepts of energy and power technologies, students 6-8 energy, power, and work. They will in Grades 6-8 should learn that engage in hands-on experiences in A E. Energy is the capacity to do work. converting energy from one form to Energy is required for a broad range of another and in learning that energy can be actions, from walking to running a transmitted from one location to another. diesel engine. Energy is an important There are many processes that are used to input to many technological systems. transform energy into useful work. Fossil Work is the product of force multi- fuels, such as oil, can be burned to produce plied by the distance through which thermal energy, which in turn is used to the force acted. Work is measured in boil water and produce steam that, in turn, newton-meters, or joules, in the is fed into a steam engine to propel a loco- metric system and foot-pounds in motive. Water falling over a dam can be the English system. converted into mechanical energy, which F. Energy can be used to do work, turns a generator that produces electricity using many processes. For example, for lighting and other conveniences in a electricity can be generated by using home. To understand these processes, geothermal energy to turn a turbine, students should design and build different which subsequently turns a generator devices that use energy to drive a product or to produce an electrical voltage. system. They should then test their devices Another example involves an internal in order to determine how efficiently they combustion engine: gasoline vapor are working. is combined with air and ignited If not used wisely, nonrenewable energy with a spark plug inside the cylinder, sources can be depleted too rapidly. Because creating high pressure and of these concerns, conservation and the temperature; the pressure acting on search for alternative energy sources have the piston pushes it down; the piston become important priorities for society. is connected to a piston rod that turns Students should investigate and discuss the crankshaft. various methods for conserving energy. G. Power is the rate at which energy is They can then build models of their ideas converted from one form to another and test them. Students also could design, or transferred from one place to build, and test alternative energy devices. another, or the rate at which work 7 In their study of energy students will come is done. Power is calculated by in contact with many devices and tools that dividing the energy provided by the require special care in the way they are time taken to provide it. Common used, handled, and stored. The develop- power measurements are kilowatt and ment of safe work habits cannot be over- horsepower. An example of the emphasized. It is essential that students difference between the concept of learn the proper safety procedures when energy (or work) and power can be working with these energy technologies. seen in a student climbing a set of

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stairs. To climb from one floor of a building to another takes the same amount of energy to do the same work no matter how fast the student climbs. However, to climb twenty stairs in 30 seconds is quite different from climbing the same twenty stairs in 10 seconds. Climbing faster requires the same amount of energy but more power — in the previous example three times more power. H. Power systems are used to drive and provide propulsion to other technological products and systems. A portable generator, for example, can be used to provide electricity to remote dwellings. I. Much of the energy used in our environment is not used efficiently. Conservation is the act of making better use of energy. Individuals can conserve energy by car pooling, driving the speed limit, and turning off lights. Builders can conserve energy by installing better insulation, and manufacturers can conserve energy by building more energy-efficient products. The rate at which energy is being used in the world is increasing. This rapid increase has created a concern that natural resources may be depleted in the future before other energy resources are available to replace them.

163 STANDARD 16 Energy and Power Technologies

GRADES tudents in Grades 9-12 will study Because many environmental and societal energy, power, and work concurrently concerns are associated with the proper use 9-12 in their science and technology classes. of energy, research and development are S They should synthesize the concepts underway to test alternative and renewable and principles learned in science with resources. Students should investigate our the knowledge gained in the study of dependence on fossil fuels, the use of technology to achieve a well-rounded alternative sources of energy, and the trade- understanding of energy and power. offs associated with each. Energy, which is the capacity to do work, All power systems have inputs, processes, can be converted from one form to outputs, and typically some type of another. Thermal energy is usually a by- feedback. Students should research energy product in a conversion process. Some inputs (e.g., thermal, chemical, nuclear, energy converters are more efficient than mechanical, radiant, and electrical), others. For example, electric generators are processes (e.g., conversion, transmission, more than 95 percent efficient at convert- and storage), and outputs (work and ing mechanical energy to electrical energy, thermal loss). At this level, students can while the fluorescent lamp is only about 20 learn about the various sources of energy, percent efficient in converting electrical the influence of energy and power on energy to radiant energy. However, the society, and energy and power systems. fluorescent lamp is more than four times as Students should be exposed to the Second efficient as the incandescent lamp. Law of Thermodynamics. Energy can be classified into two types — Conservation is also important in kinetic (energy associated with motion) managing energy sources. Conservation and potential (stored energy). Energy can can take various forms, from simply come from a number of resources in turning off appliances when they are not nature, such as the sun (radiant), from being used to designing products that are tides or falling water (mechanical), from more energy efficient. Students should the burning of fuels (chemical to thermal), investigate various approaches to and from chemicals such as those used in conserving energy. For example, they could batteries (chemical to electrical). Students investigate recycling materials instead of can work with devices that convert one producing new ones. When new energy form of energy to another, such as electrical and power systems are designed, to mechanical (motor), electrical to radiant conservation of energy and environmental (lamp), or mechanical to electrical (wind concerns must be incorporated. Students 7 generator). should investigate the by-products of systems, such as the waste stream in the The United States is among the most nuclear fuel cycle. Using this information, highly developed countries in the world, they could then design, develop, and test and Americans use an ever-increasing power systems and determine if they are amount of energy, even though much of it efficient and non-polluting. is derived from nonrenewable resources.

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In order to select, use, and understand generation systems strive for 40% effi- energy and power technologies, students ciencies. That means that 60% of the in Grades 9-12 should learn that energy from the coal is lost in the form of heating the environment rather than being J. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; turned into electrical energy. The law also however, it can be converted from one has many wide-ranging consequences, form to another. In scientific terms, this is such as the fact that there can be no called the Law of Conservation of Energy, perpetual motion machine. which can be stated as “The total energy of an isolated system does not change.” M. Energy resources can be renewable or Understanding scientific concepts and laws nonrenewable. Examples of renewable concerning energy is necessary in order to resources are the sun and agricultural develop technologies for utilizing energy. products, while nonrenewable resources These concepts and laws describe the include fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and nature of energy. Energy can be classified natural gas. Alternate and sustainable as either kinetic or potential. Kinetic energy resources are being developed and energy is the energy a body has associated tested in order to replace or supplement with its motion. Potential energy is energy nonrenewable sources. For example, a body has because of its position (if it can garbage can be used to produce methane be acted upon by a force) or condition; it gas and then burned for thermal energy. is often referred to as stored energy. Also, corn can be fermented to produce ethanol (grain alcohol), which then can be K. Energy can be grouped into major used as a fuel. Power systems should be forms: thermal, radiant, electrical, designed to conserve energy and to mechanical, chemical, nuclear, and provide maximum efficiency with minimal others. Some forms of energy cannot be environmental degradation. For example, transported easily. In transporting or aircraft manufacturers are making more transmitting energy, losses from the energy-efficient engines. Waste products source of energy to the destination associated with power systems can pollute occur. Many times technology systems the natural environment. that use a great deal of energy are located near the energy source. An N. Power systems must have a source of example of this is an electric generating energy, a process, and loads. Usually plant located near a source of energy, feedback is part of this system. For such as a coal mine. The combustion of example, the output of the system is fossil fuels (e.g., coal, natural gas, and sampled and provides a signal back to the petroleum) provides one of the largest input or process phase of the system in sources of energy today. order to modify it. Power systems convert energy from one form to another and L. It is impossible to build an engine to may transfer energy from one place to perform work that does not exhaust another. An example would be to burn thermal energy to the surroundings. coal in order to heat water and make This is one form of the “Second Law of steam, which turns a turbine and Thermodynamics.” No energy system can ultimately generates electricity. be 100% efficient. Large coal-fired electric 165 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be able to 17 select and use information and communication technologies.

eople have long used various mitters and receiving devices, entertainment technologies to communicate over products, and various other systems. distances. The invention of movable Powerful technologies that deal with type provided the means for a P information in a digital form — computers, transfer of knowledge to people all data-storage devices, fiber-optic communi- over the world. Although writing and cations, and others — have revolutionized printing have become visual means for society’s information-handling capacity and communication, people did not typically led to the current era being called the consider them to be communications Information Age. Information itself is a technologies, viewing them simply valuable commodity, which has become as technologies that met a particular need. more widely available than in the past. The book was viewed as not having much in common with the telephone, or the phonograph with the fax machine. In the past couple of decades, such thinking has changed dramatically. Technologies that record, store, manipulate, analyze, and transmit data have developed into important areas of study worthy of being considered equally with other technologies. The change has come with the recording and storage of all sorts of data in the same digital form as “bits” — strings of zeros and ones, or offs and ons — that can represent letters and numbers, colors on a computer monitor, notes in a Beethoven sonata, and many other types of information. Modern telephone companies, for example, transform the sounds of a telephone conversation into bits that are sent through fiber-optic cables in 7 exactly the same way as data is sent from computer to computer. Data, information, and knowledge have become the fuel that runs the communication technology engine. Information and communication tech- nologies include computers and related devices, graphic media, electronic trans-

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GRADES y the time children enter kinder- Information and communication tech- garten, they will already have had nologies use a specialized vocabulary that is K-2 many informal experiences in using important to understand, including words, Btechnology to communicate with symbols, and pictures. As students learn the their friends and family, as well as alphabet and numbers, they need to realize to find answers to their questions. For their importance as symbols. Language is example, many students will have looked key to communication. at picture books and used the Internet In order to select, use, and understand for entertainment and information. Addi- information and communication tech- tionally, they may have experienced various nologies, students in Grades K-2 entertainment activities, such as going to should learn that the movies, watching television, or using a telephone or a DVD player. A. Information is data that has been organized. Data includes such things The K-2 laboratory-classroom will provide as numbers, amounts, words, symbols, formal opportunities for students to learn sounds, and images. about the communication process and the different ways that they can locate B. Technology enables people to information and communicate with others. communicate by sending and At this level, students will learn that receiving information over a information is data that has been organized. distance. Communication systems In later grades, students will build on this help people to communicate concept and expand their vocabularies. information better and to locate information more easily. The Information and communication tools telephone is a good example of and systems are available in many different a technology that improves com- forms. Computers are at the center of the munication all over the world. Information Age and are the primary tools used. Students should be able to operate C. People use symbols when they computers to perform simple tasks, such communicate by technology. These as writing, learning basic operations, symbols are a part of the language of communicating with others, and making technology. For example, a stop sign is graphic images. In addition, they should be a type of symbol. Small pictures or able to use other information technology icons on a computer screen are other tools to locate information from both print types of symbols. and electronic sources. These experiences will reinforce their understanding of how communication systems work, how they can be used as an entertainment medium, and how they make communicating with others and gathering information easier.

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GRADES n Grades 3-5, the study of information experience firsthand how technology can be and communication technologies can used to enhance the communication 3-5 be invaluable in helping students better process, to help access information, and to Iunderstand what they are learning in provide entertainment activities. For language arts, science, mathematics, and example, in a unit of study about the solar social studies. It also will help students in system, students could use a computer to developing their research and communica- create a graphic representation of the tion skills, which are valuable components planets, or they could apply their building of every subject area. skills to make a model of the stars. They then can use these representations when The use of information and communication they present what they have learned to their systems can enhance human knowledge and classmates and teachers. Other types of productivity, as well as provide entertain- communication tools that students may ment. In Grades 3-5, students will learn use include digital or still cameras, video how facts, data, information, and cameras, audio recording devices (e.g., tape knowledge are interrelated. To reinforce recorders), World Wide Web pages, and these ideas, students will have hands-on spreadsheets. experiences in accessing facts, processing data, organizing these facts and data into Symbols, letters, numbers, and icons are information, and then interpreting the used to represent data. For instance, a information to produce knowledge. The popular symbol is a √ (check), which computer provides an important way to means, “correct” or “okay.” The letters of an access facts and data and then to convert alphabet are combined to create words. them into information. For example, the Icons are small pictures that represent students could use the Internet to collect information, such as a computer function. information about how technology has been Numbers are used to represent a quantity, used to improve agricultural production. to identify a location, to identify a specific Once they have collected their information, object in a collection, to name something, they could use a simple spreadsheet program or to represent a measurement. to show how agricultural production has In order to be able to select, use, increased over the years. This information and understand information and can then be used for writing a research communication technologies, students paper. in Grades 3-5 should learn that Communication is the exchange of D. The processing of information information among people over a distance. 7 through the use of technology can be Communication technology is the transfer used to help humans make decisions of information between people and/or and solve problems. Computers can machines through the use of technology. be used to record and store data, to Students at this grade level should be given access data easily, and to provide a various opportunities to use information means to display and manipulate it. and communication tools in order to

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E. Information can be acquired and G. Letters, characters, icons, and signs sent through a variety of are symbols that represent ideas, technological sources, including quantities, elements, and operations. print and electronic media. For example, “+” and “-” are used to Computers can be used very efficiently indicate addition and subtraction; an to store, retrieve, and process up arrow on a map refers to the north; information. A growing number of and a red octagonal sign means “Stop.” people work in jobs related to the Symbols, measurements, and sketches processing and distributing of represent information. information. F. Communication technology is the transfer of messages among people and/or machines over distances through the use of technology. Communication systems, such as the telephone, electronic mail, and television, are used to improve the communication process.

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GRADES nformation and communication of communication systems, paying close 6-8 technologies have become an important attention to each step of the process. part of everyday life. However, what The intended audience, the medium that is Ihappens behind the scenes when a used, the purpose of the message, and the telephone call is made or an e-mail nature of the message influence the design of message is sent is often puzzling. People a communication. As a result, information simply take for granted that the message will must be closely evaluated according to its arrive at the correct destination. Students source, content, purpose, and intent in order should develop an understanding of how to determine its value. Students should information and communication systems explore the different factors that influence a function. message. They then can apply this Information and communication systems information to help them define a set of allow information to be transferred from requirements in order to assess the humans to humans, humans to machines, information that they send or receive and machines to humans. These systems through information systems. enable people to gather and process data and In Grades 6-8, students should be provided information more easily and, therefore, to with numerous opportunities to use communicate more effectively. information and communication systems for Information and communication systems assistance in solving problems, making better assist humans in making decisions and decisions, and communicating with others. solving problems. Students should not Students could use information systems to interpret all communication messages as gather facts on technologies that have being true. They should research and positively affected society, the effect of examine messages to determine the facts. medical technologies on increasing life spans around the globe, or how information Entertainment has also been enhanced by technologies have made it difficult for various information and communication totalitarian states to maintain a stronghold technologies. Radio, television, movies, and on their citizens. Students should then video games are all products of technology. organize and maintain their information in a Students should explore the historical systematic manner. After analyzing the development of various forms of entertain- information that they have collected, ment and then project how they think students can communicate their findings to entertainment will change or stay the same. their classmates. At the middle school level, students should The use of symbols in technology has 7 explore the different steps in the become commonplace in today’s society. communication process. First, a message These symbols represent measurements, must be encoded and then transmitted or terms, and ideas. Drawings are graphic switched through a channel (wire, fiber representations of objects in either two or optics, etc.), and finally received and three dimensions. Students should gain decoded by the receiver. In order to experiences in the language of technology to understand this process, students should express themselves and to communicate to design and send messages using various types others.

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In order to select, use, and understand another. An example of a network is a information and communication tech- local area network (LAN), which nologies, students in Grades 6-8 connects computers to a server. should learn that Computers are the primary tools used for networking information and H. Information and communication communication technologies. systems allow information to be transferred from human to human, J. The design of a message is influenced human to machine, and machine to by such factors as the intended human. People create information and audience, medium, purpose, and communication technology systems to nature of the message. These factors gather data, manipulate, and should be taken into account when the communicate information more message is created and transmitted to a effectively. Information is transmitted particular audience. Communication- and received using various systems technology systems enhance the ability (e.g., telecommunications, digital, and of handicapped people to printed). Transmission involves sending communicate. Some examples include signals in a form, such as electro- audiotapes, the Internet, and closed- magnetic waves or fiber-optic cable, captioned television. that can travel over a distance. K. The use of symbols, measurements, I. Communication systems are made and drawings promotes clear up of a source, encoder, transmitter, communication by providing a receiver, decoder, and destination. common language to express ideas. A communication system is similar to Technological systems use specialized other systems in that it includes input, symbols and terminology. For example, processes, outputs, and sometimes an engineer uses specific symbols to feedback. Information is encoded using represent doorway openings, pipe symbols and graphics. To “encode” openings, and road widths. Symbols or means to change the form of a message icons are used on many computers, (as in pushing a key on a keyboard to elevators, and telephones — the pound produce a binary signal or changing a sign, the asterisk, and the letter “x,” for signal from analog to digital). example — to represent ideas and to Information must be decoded in order communicate what should be done to be understood by the receiver. when the symbol or icon is pressed or “Decoding” is the reverse of encoding, used. with data being converted back to symbols and graphics. Switching circuits allows signals to be sent back and forth in the communication process. A network is a system connected by communication lines to move information from one device to

171 STANDARD 17 Information and Communication Technologies

VIGNETTE Communicating Through a Home Page on the Web

This example presents a Very few students at Northwood Middle School had any knowledge of one of the fastest growing activities in their area — the production of home problem-solving activity pages for the World Wide Web. For this reason, Mr. M wanted to give his to develop a means to students experience in designing and putting a home page on-line. communicate to the The students began their study by contacting local Internet service public information about providers to find out about what they did. After the research phase, Mr. M gave the students a design brief that outlined the problem statement, a local industry. [This objectives, software and hardware, requirements, time frame, and evaluation vignette highlights some method. They were challenged to design and place into operation a home page for a local children’s clothing store. The new home page should convey elements of the Grades the products of the company in an exciting, creative, and appealing way. 6-8 STL standards that The students brainstormed various ideas and then produced sketches for a provide connections with layout of the home page. Each sketch included graphics, a slogan, a color scheme, and special products. The students selected the design they liked Standards 1, 3, 4, 6, best, and Mr. M reviewed the home pages and offered suggestions for 8, 9, 11, 17, and 19.] improvements. Mr. M, along with input from the store owner, then evaluated the students’ work — how well the home page communicated the message, the quality and variety of planning used by the students, the overall creativity of the design, the quality of the work, in addition to whether the students met the requirements of the design and completed the task on time. As a result of this activity, students were able to design, develop, and use a communication technology.

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GRADES y Grades 9-12, students should be Because information has become such a comfortable with terms such as facts, valued commodity in today’s society, many 9-12 data, information, and knowledge, commercial companies are involved in Band they should understand the information and communication tech- relationships among them. Addi- nologies. Students can research, synthesize, tionally, students should understand the and transmit messages to the public using processing and management of informa- mass media. They can also evaluate the tion, which will assist them in sending quality of information that is received by and receiving information. using such techniques as comparing and contrasting information sources and The classic communication system is made examining the relevancy of the message. up of an information source, an encoder, a transmitter, a receiver, a decoder, and an Graphic-communication systems involve information destination. Feedback may be visual messages, such as words and pictures; included in this process as well. Because newspapers, magazines, and print media noise is any unwanted signal that can exemplify this type of communication. interrupt or interfere with the communica- Entertainment, including television, movies, tion process, students should investigate videotape, music, and compact discs, is also a various methods to overcome noise and growing area of communication. promote clear communication. Symbols, measurement, conventions, icons, Messages are influenced by many factors, and graphic images are recognized such as timing, sequencing, and processing. components in the language of technology Because people today are bombarded daily that are used to communicate messages. with numerous messages, the usefulness of Students should communicate to others information depends on such factors as using the language of technology. relevancy, timeliness, truth, completeness, In order to select, use, and understand and cultural value. The knowledge and information and communication tech- information that is provided through nologies, students in Grades 9-12 information and communication systems should learn that can help to inform people, shape their personal views and concepts of reality, or L. Information and communication entertain them. At this level, students technologies include the inputs, should experience activities in designing, processes, and outputs associated using, and assessing with many different with sending and receiving informa- types of information and communication tion. All of these parts are necessary if systems, including television, telephones, information is to be shared and the Internet, data-processing systems, understood by the sender and receiver. fiber-optic cable systems, and graphic- M. Information and communication communication systems. They should know systems allow information to be the purpose of each system and be able to transferred from human to human, select the best one for a given situation.

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GRADES human to machine, machine to P. There are many ways to communi- human, and machine to machine. cate information, such as graphic 9-12 Examples of these are: a) two people and electronic means. Graphic- talking to each other over the telephone, communication systems involve the b) a person inputting data in a computer design, development, and production using a keyboard, c) an electric fax machine of visual messages. Examples of providing a copy of a message to a person, graphic systems include printing and and d) an automated system transferring photochemical processes, while financial records from one bank computer examples of electronic systems are to another bank computer. computers, DVD players, digital audiotapes, and telephones. This N. Information and communication information can be expressed in systems can be used to inform, various forms: electrical information persuade, entertain, control, can be formatted as digital (discrete manage, and educate. Examples of bits) or analog (continuously variable such systems include the Internet, signals). Multimedia combines telephones, televisions, radios, com- information from a number of formats puters, and fax machines. Information (audio, video, and data) and then and communication systems are widely transmits it. Television studios and used in commercial endeavors to assist telephone companies exemplify in decision making and problem businesses that deal with multimedia. solving. Entertainment, which has been enhanced through technology, provides Q. Technological knowledge and pleasure and enjoyment for people in processes are communicated using their free time. The overall usefulness of symbols, measurement, conventions, information is dependent upon such icons, graphic images, and languages factors as its relevance, timeliness, truth, that incorporate a variety of visual, completeness, and cultural value. These auditory, and tactile stimuli. For factors help shape the meaning of the example, the international symbols information, which has become a valued developed for transportation systems commodity in today’s society. have helped to communicate critical information to travelers: a circle with a O. Communication systems are made slash represents “No” or “Do not do.” up of source, encoder, transmitter, Emerging technologies often generate receiver, decoder, storage, retrieval, new symbols, measurement systems, and destination. Noise, an unwanted 7 and terminology. For example, ;-) is a signal that can interfere with the com- symbol used in e-mail and on-line chat munication process, can interrupt the rooms to represent a wink. The develop- signal at any point in the process. Data ment of the computer has spurred new and information can be stored to be terminology, such as gigabyte (a unit of retrieved later. Storage devices include computer storage capacity equal to one CD-ROMs, hard drives, flash memory, billion bytes) and nanosecond (one and memory chips. billionth of a second).

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STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be 18 able to select and use transportation technologies.

eople view transportation as one Now, through advances in technology and of life’s basic needs. Transportation improvements in the aviation system, the systems take individuals to work, same trip can be accomplished in six hours Poffer them convenient access to or less. If the Concorde were allowed to fly shopping, allow them to visit with within the continental United States, it their friends and family, provide would take just two hours to travel from opportunities for recreation, and carry all one side of the country to the other, and the material goods of a technological the space shuttle, once in orbit, makes the society. same trip in only nine minutes. The transportation system is a complex Because transportation has become such an network of interconnected components that integral part of life, people often take it for operate on land, on water, in the air, and in granted or consider it an ordinary part of space. Although traveling into space has the world. As transportation has advanced, been realized, it has not yet become a fully society has become increasingly dependent integrated part of the larger transportation upon cars, highways, and other aspects of system. Many of the subsystems of the travel. Too often little heed is paid to the transportation system, such as highways, environmental consequences or to the ports, airports, and others, are dependent effects of rapid expansion that has accom- upon other subsystems, and each in turn is panied transportation improvements. made up of yet smaller components that are Future use of transportation systems should themselves interlinked and interdependent. take into account ways to reduce energy Various forms of transportation have been consumption and air pollution while in use for many years by a wide assortment promoting economic development and of people — such as ships, boats, jets, supporting international commerce. helicopters, elevators, and escalators — while newer forms of transportation are used in limited areas or are still in experimental stages — magnetic-levitation trains and smart highways, for example. The more complex life and work become, the more indispensable the elements of transportation systems are. Throughout history, transportation systems have brought different parts of the world closer together. In the early twentieth century, for example, a plane flight across the United States would take approximately 26 hours. 175 STANDARD 18 Transportation Technologies

GRADES hildren at this level have experienced In order to select, use, and understand various forms of transportation in transportation technologies, students K-2 their lives, and they typically consider in Grades K-2 should learn that transportation only in terms of the C A. A transportation system has many individual devices, such as cars, parts that work together to help buses, trains, or planes. They know that a people travel. The roadway, vehicles, car uses roads and highways, but they do fuel, and controlling signs are just a not think of the roads and highways as part few of the parts in a transportation of a larger road system, nor do they system. Understanding how a understand how the highway system works transportation system works helps within the entire transportation system. people use it properly, such as walking Students need to learn how transportation on the left side of the street facing systems work and how to use those systems traffic when sidewalks are unavailable. safely and appropriately. Through experiences in Grades K-2, students will B. Vehicles move people or goods from begin to learn how various parts of the one place to another in water, air or transportation system work together, a space, and on land. People’s needs concept that will be further expanded in and wants influence the design of a later grades. transportation device, vehicle, fuel, and system. For example, cars replaced Students should understand that caring for the horse and buggy because they transportation vehicles is an important part allowed people to move faster. Goods of the process of how a transportation are often moved in specially designed system and its various parts work. For carriers, such as in refrigerated example, a class could explore how animals containers, on conveyor belts, or travel from place to place and then relate through piping systems. that movement to how students move from home to school and back. The students C. Transportation vehicles need to be could discuss how a vehicle could be cared cared for to prolong their use. People for and what parts could break down. In sometimes keep a log of what they addition, students should design, make, must do to care for a vehicle, such as and use models of various vehicles, such as keeping it clean, rotating the tires, and cars, boats, and planes, and discuss how the looking for damage. vehicles are used in different environments to move individuals and goods. 7

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GRADES t this level, children can begin to see In order to select, use, and understand transportation as a system in which transportation technologies, students 3-5 all the parts work together to help in Grades 3-5 should learn that move people and goods from place A D. The use of transportation allows to place. Examples of transportation people and goods to be moved from systems that students may explore include place to place. The development of railways, waterways, roadways, and airways. transportation systems has had a Components of these systems may involve significant influence on where people elevators, conveyor belts, pipelines, cars, live and work. ships, planes, refineries, and gas stations. E. A transportation system may lose Students will design, make, use, and assess a efficiency or fail if one part is simple transportation system in order to missing or malfunctioning or if a understand how it works and how it is subsystem is not working. For designed for a special purpose. An example instance, an accident on a highway of this is a people-mover system to be used can throw a whole traffic pattern into in the school. In addition, they should study chaos. Severe thunderstorms over how transportation systems, such as railways Atlanta can result in the cancellation or highways, are comprised of subsystems of airline flights up and down the east and how these subsystems act as the input, coast of North America. process, output, or feedback for larger transportation systems. Because balloons appeal to many children, a hot air balloon activity could be used as an introduction to explore how air transporta- tion has changed throughout history. The students could learn about the development of various air transportation vehicles and find out how a hot air balloon moves through the air. They could then design, make, and test a model of a hot air balloon. Using their knowledge of how things work in relation to what they have learned in science, mathematics, social studies, art, and language arts, students will recognize that the transportation system is a complex arrangement of many subsystems and that it requires large amounts of energy to operate.

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GRADES tudents will explore and learn how In order to select, use, and understand various methods of transportation are transportation technologies, students 6-8 used in the environments of land, in Grades 6-8 should learn that water, air, and space. Each environ- S F. Transporting people and goods ment requires specialized vehicles involves a combination of and systems for moving people and goods. individuals and vehicles. For A skyscraper, for example, employs example, the movement of a product elevators and escalators to move people from one part of the country to up and down within the building. another may involve the person Asking what might happen if a particular shipping the item, a delivery truck, a subsystem were not working (or was missing) bus, plane, or train, and the people could lead students to reflect on the interde- involved in controlling the product’s pendence of systems in transportation, as well location, as well as those who made the as the relationships of those systems to other road, the car, and the fuel. systems. Students will be able to recognize G. Transportation vehicles are made up the different subsystems of the transportation of subsystems, such as structural, system (e.g., structural, propulsion, suspen- propulsion, suspension, guidance, sion, guidance, control, and support) and control, and support, that must recognize how they work together. To function together for a system to increase their understanding of these work effectively. Structural systems are subsystems, students may design and develop the framework and body of a transporta- models of them. For example, the structural tion vehicle or system. Propulsion subsystem includes the framework and body systems provide the energy source, of a vehicle. Students should design and energy converter, and power transmitter develop a model of a new vehicle to be used to move a vehicle. Suspension systems on land, in the sea, in the air, or in space in connect or associate a vehicle with its order to see firsthand how the structural environment. Guidance systems provide subsystem is related to the environment in information to the operator of a vehicle. which the subsystem is used. Control systems receive information Finally, to develop an appreciation of how from the guidance system to determine transportation systems can be adjusted or the changes in speed, direction, or modified to help the environment, students altitude of a vehicle. Support systems could study the environmental consequences provide life, legal, operational, of using various alternative fuel sources. maintenance, and economic support 7 for safe and efficient operation.

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GRADES H. Governmental regulations often I. Processes, such as receiving, holding, influence the design and operation storing, loading, moving, unloading, 6-8 of transportation systems. State delivering, evaluating, marketing, agencies regulate the use of highway managing, communicating, and systems, set speed limits, and control using conventions are necessary for other operating conditions. The Federal the entire transportation system to Aviation Administration regulates air- operate efficiently. These processes space and air safety and issues licenses may be used individually or in various to pilots. combinations to move goods and people. For example, a conveyor system uses many of these processes to move boxes of goods in stages from one location to another.

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GRADES n Grades 9-12, students’ understanding These issues should inspire students to of the transportation system will expand devise solutions or innovations to solve the 9-12 to encompass the entire concept of inter- problems. Students, for example, could Imodalism, which provides a seamless and design, develop, operate, and assess an an effective method to move people and improved transportation system for moving goods. They will also learn about the vital role people that takes into account such factors that transportation plays in manufacturing, as speed, cost, safety, and environmental construction, communication, health and impacts. safety, recreation and entertainment, and In order to select, use, and understand agriculture. For example, the movement of transportation technologies, students goods in just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing is in Grades 9-12 should learn that directly dependent on the global transpor- tation system. Many industries use materials J. Transportation plays a vital role in and prefabricated parts from other countries the operation of other technologies, or from other parts of the country. These such as manufacturing, construction, goods arrive just as they are needed (instead communication, health and safety, and of being stored and used at a later time) to agriculture. The transportation system be used to manufacture products such as includes the subsystems of aviation, rail cars and clothing. The transportation system transportation, water transportation, is key to the use of JIT manufacturing, which pedestrian walkways, and roadways. helps in the reduction of storage needs and Each subsystem uses a wide array of resource costs. devices, vehicles, and systems in order to move people, materials, and goods. Although concepts can be learned from reading and discussion, students should K. Intermodalism is the use of different have direct experiences with designing, modes of transportation, such as developing, using, and assessing various highways, railways, and waterways, transportation systems to understand them as part of an interconnected system thoroughly. For example, students could that can move people and goods design and develop a bicycle pathway that easily from one mode to another. would offer cyclists a safer alternative to An example of intermodalism is a truck congested streets. Students also could container that is hauled on an ocean examine and develop examples of cargo ship from another country, intelligent transportation systems. These transported to a railcar, and finally, systems integrate such technologies as attached to a truck that travels a 7 computers, electronics, communications highway to deliver goods. The same gear, and safety devices in order to make process is used by people who travel to traveling more efficient and safe. all parts of the world using different modes of travel, from airplanes to Classroom discussions should include such ships, to buses, trains, or cars. transportation issues as pollution, conges- Intermodalism provides a system that tion, accidents, and fuel consumption. allows people to travel more efficiently and cheaply.

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L. Transportation services and methods transportation system — smart have led to a population that is highways with electronic message regularly on the move. For instance, boards, for instance — require the use people today can travel to foreign lands of coordinated subsystems to determine or to sites of interest hundreds of miles capacity of lanes, traffic flow, and from home as quickly as they used to potential congestion problems. Non- take a relatively short trip into town in intelligent transportation systems, such a wagon 200 years ago. as walkways and bicycle paths, attract individuals and groups of people M. The design of intelligent and non- through innovative designs that intelligent transportation systems capitalize on natural settings and depends on many processes and provide convenience. innovative techniques. For example, the development of an intelligent

181 STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be 19 able to select and use manufacturing technologies.

anufacturing is the production natural form. They must first be processed of physical goods. These goods to some degree before they can be used to can range from tools, such as produce goods that are ready for market. M kitchen appliances and For example, some clothing is made of computers, to products, such as cotton. But before cotton can be used to shoes and tennis balls. make clothing, it must first be harvested, processed, and woven into cloth. The same The manufacturing of goods has changed is true of all materials from steel and lumber tremendously over the last century, especially to plastic. Materials must first be processed in recent years. Before manufactured goods into standard stock, which in turn is used to became widely available, many goods were make manufactured products. The process- custom made — individuals made each ing of materials into standard stock is product by hand, one at a time. With referred to as primary manufacturing. developments, such as standardized parts, assembly lines, and automation, production We live in a global economy where changed dramatically. For the first time, products made in the United States, goods became cheaper as more of them were Finland, Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia, Mexico, produced, an effect known as economies of Canada, or any other country are sold and scale. As machines became more accurate, used worldwide. Our lives have been making more complex items with inter- enhanced because of manufacturing changeable parts became possible. The first technology. It provides a segment of the interchangeable items were handmade parts population with jobs; it is a major factor in for firearms and plows produced before the economy (Gross National Product); and machine-based industry had developed. As it provides us with many products that previously discussed in Standard 18, some improve the quality of life. industries use a process called just-in-time (JIT) production, in which supplies, components, and materials are delivered just when they are needed. This process, which is designed to reduce the need to store inventory, places the burden on the suppliers 7 to deliver quality parts and materials on an as-needed basis. All goods are made of materials, and without these material resources, production is impossible. Although every material can be traced to one or more natural resources, very few materials can be used in their 182 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES anufactured goods include most study how people work and the ways they of the items that a student will earn money. K-2 wear or bring to school, from In order to select, use, and understand jeans and backpacks to pencils M manufacturing technologies, students and textbooks. Some goods last a in Grades K-2 should learn that long time, while others are designed to be used and thrown away. At the K-2 level, A. Manufacturing systems produce students will learn that a manufactured products in quantity. Products can good is an item made for consumption or be made faster, cheaper, and better use. These goods are regularly being through the use of technology. People designed and redesigned to be made better, have different roles in the manufac- more cheaply, and more quickly as the turing process. If people work technology advances. One way for students together, they can produce much to see such improvement directly is by more than if they work alone to make having them compare goods used today the same product. with similar ones from 10, 20, or even 100 B. Manufactured products are years ago. A visit to a museum or viewing a designed. Designers and engineers videotape on the historical development of anticipate what people want and need manufacturing may provide resources for with the intention that products will be such a comparison. bought. Some things are designed to be Students also will begin to develop an thrown away, while others are made to understanding of how products are last a long time. designed, produced, tested, packaged, and marketed. To reinforce this understanding, students could simulate this process by producing a snack comprised of nuts and dried fruit. They could begin by con- ducting a survey among their peers to learn what type of nuts and fruit were preferred for a snack mix. They should include questions about allergies — peanuts, for example. From the results of their testing, they could determine an appropriate recipe for the snack mix. Next, they could devise simple processes for controlling the amount of each ingredient that would go into each package. They could market the product to others, and finally, they could manufacture and package the snacks. In the process of learning how goods are made, students will have many opportunities to learn about teamwork and job specialization. They will

183 STANDARD 19 Manufacturing Technologies

GRADES n Grades 3-5, students will gain a greater manufacturing systems. Some of the understanding of how goods are manu- processes include designing the item, 3-5 factured. They will explore how proper gathering inputs (e.g., materials and energy), Iservicing of the goods ensures that they using tools and machines to change the form work properly and are up-to-date. As a of the materials, manufacturing and result of experiences in designing, pro- marketing the finished products. Chemical ducing, and marketing a product, students technology also can play an important role as will attain a greater insight into how to a processing technology because it modifies purchase products. and alters chemicals, elements, and com- pounds in order to produce materials with Everyone in our society uses manufactured the desired chemical properties. Throughout goods on a daily basis. For example, students the manufacturing process, feedback should ride to school in a bus, wear clothes, and use be collected in order to monitor the quality pens and pencils. They have come to depend of these products. Feedback should also be on these items. Starting at this early age, gathered after the item is completed to students should be taught how to be wise determine if consumers like the product as consumers. They should discuss how they well as its effects on the family and society. make decisions, and whether those decisions These effects can be recognized by enhanced are based on advertising, color, cost, customer satisfaction, improved product warranties, peer pressure, quality, or a sales, more jobs, and a stronger economy. combination of these factors. In order to select, use, and understand The use of technology and its impact on manufacturing technologies, students the environment should be considered in in Grades 3-5 should learn that the design of goods. Designers of these items should take into consideration how C. Processing systems convert natural long the product will last and what waste is materials into products. Materials, produced as well as what happens when the which come directly from nature or product is no longer in use and is discarded. are created by humans (synthetic), are Recycling is an important factor in the life essential inputs in the manufacturing of goods and structures. system. Manufacturing systems generally include D. Manufacturing processes include two steps. First, natural (raw) materials that designing products, gathering are grown or extracted from the earth are resources, and using tools to converted into standard stock items. separate, form, and combine 7 Second, these standard stock items and materials in order to produce some natural or synthetic materials are used products. Many manufactured to make products. For example, trees are products are composed of standardized made into lumber, and the lumber is then parts, which reduces the cost of used to make furniture. manufacturing and makes it easier to service and repair the products. It is At this level, students should discuss and important to consider the manu- experiment with the various processes used in

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facturing process during the design of a product. It is also important to con- sider how long materials will last, what their effect will be on the environment, and how they will be disposed of. E. Manufacturing enterprises exist because of a consumption of goods. When these enterprises produce goods that people need and want, they will spend money to purchase them. This cycle provides jobs and helps the economy.

185 STANDARD 19 Manufacturing Technologies

GRADES tudents routinely use computers, book very quickly, often with little intervention bags, bicycles, and watches. Many of from humans. 6-8 them take these products for granted. Manufacturing processes include both Although they know how to buy them S mechanical and chemical processes. and, in many cases, how to use them, Students should have opportunities to their understanding often goes no deeper. experience processes that include Students at this level will build upon their separating, forming, combining, and knowledge from prior grade levels to conditioning materials. The students develop an in-depth understanding of should understand that some materials where these products and systems come must be obtained from the earth through from, how they are made, how to use them such processes as harvesting, drilling, and appropriately, how they are marketed, and mining. Many of these materials then are how to dispose of them. For these goods to changed into standard stock materials continue to work properly and efficiently, before they are used to produce goods. For they must be serviced. Services include example, iron ore, limestone, and coke can those activities that provide support for a be combined to make steel; steel can be good after it has been sold or leased. processed into bars, rods, and pipes; and Students must be aware of how the manu- then these parts can be used to manufacture facturing processes can have impacts on cars, for example. Middle-level students people and the environment. They should should test and evaluate various types of explore and experiment with various tech- materials and processes before selecting the niques for designing and developing most appropriate ones to use when they are processes and systems that are compatible working on a product in the laboratory- with the natural environment. classroom. Manufactured goods are classified according Products need to be marketed before they to their longevity — durable or non- can be distributed and sold. Marketing durable, for example. Many of these goods involves researching potential customers are given a guarantee that protects the and advertising the product. Servicing is buyer for a specified period of time. important after a product is in use. In our country today, more people are employed in Manufacturing processes encompass the the service sectors of the economy than in designing, producing, and marketing of the manufacturing sectors of the economy. goods. Some things are made one at a time, such as homemade clothes, custom In order to select, use, and understand 7 cabinets, industry processing equipment, manufacturing technologies, students and some musical instruments. With the in Grades 6-8 should learn that growth of modern manufacturing plants, F. Manufacturing systems use however, this custom production has mechanical processes that change become relatively rare. With the use of the form of materials through the machines, computer-aided design (CAD), processes of separating, forming, automation, robots, and moving assembly combining, and conditioning. lines, many identical items are produced

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Separating includes cutting, sawing, In general, machines, many of which shearing, and tearing. Forming are computer controlled, are capable of includes bending, shaping, stamping, producing higher quality goods than and crushing. Combining includes an expert craftsperson could do gluing, welding, riveting, and using individually. Services include those fasteners (e.g., nuts, bolts, and screws). activities that provide support for a Conditioning involves processing product or system after it is sold or materials, such as by heating or leased. These services could include cooling, to improve their structures. installing, troubleshooting, Tempering metals is an example of maintaining, and repairing. conditioning. I. Chemical technologies are used to G. Manufactured goods may be modify or alter chemical substances. classified as durable and non- The products of chemical technologies durable. These classifications are include synthetic fibers, pharmaceu- based on the life expectancy of a ticals, plastics, and fuels. product or system. Durable goods J. Materials must first be located before include automobiles, kitchen they can be extracted from the earth appliances, and power tools, while through such processes as harvest- non-durable goods include tooth- ing, drilling, and mining. Because brushes, disposable diapers, and few materials occur in nature in a automobile tires. Manufactured goods usable state, they must be changed into have life cycles, including initial plan- new forms before they can be used as ning and design, and continuing to inputs in the manufacturing process. their eventual disposal. Factors to be There also are other resources that are considered include what by-products needed in order for manufacturing were created, when the item was made, systems to operate properly, such as and how the item will be disposed of at financing, people, tools and machines, the end of its life cycle. information, and time. Natural (raw) H. The manufacturing process includes materials are typically converted into the designing, development, making, standard stock items, which, in turn, and servicing of products and become the resources that are used by systems. This process includes the use manufacturers. of materials (natural and synthetic), K. Marketing a product involves hand tools (e.g., hammers and informing the public about it as well scissors), human-operated machines as assisting in selling and distribu- (e.g., drills, sanders, and sewing ting it. Marketing entails assessing machines), and automated machines what the public wants and then (computer-controlled). Manufacturing advertising and selling products to the systems have greatly increased the buyers. number of products available while improving quality and lowering costs.

187 STANDARD 19 Manufacturing Technologies

VIGNETTE A Team Approach to Plastics

This vignette presents The seventh-grade technology, language arts, and science classes worked together to implement an interdisciplinary unit on making and recycling some activities that plastics. The students were challenged to investigate the chemistry of deal with plastics as a plastics, the various products made with plastic, how new products are made from recycled plastic and plastic scraps, and the benefits the manufactured product. community receives through the use of plastics and recycling. Students not only study The students developed an action plan to complete the project, plastics, but they also interviewed various engineers, scientists, technologists, and industry design and make plastic personnel, and toured a local plastic manufacturing plant and a recycling facility. In the course of the unit, the students worked with various types products. Finally, they of plastics and designed and made examples of the individual objects communicate to others they had investigated. the material which they Students also conducted research on how synthetic materials differ from natural materials. Additionally, the teacher asked the students to learned. [This vignette create a company that involved the design, development, production-line highlights some elements operation, and assessment of a plastic product made in quantity. During their activities, the students documented their work by using videos and of the Grades 6-8 STL cameras. They produced a three-minute presentation describing what they standards that provide had learned and then broadcast the segment on the school’s television station. Finally, they produced a similar presentation for their school’s connections with World Wide Web site. Standards 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, and 19.]

7

188 CHAPTER 7 The Designed World

GRADES roducts and systems have a certain goods. Students can learn how to service life expectancy. Many products are various products through such processes as 9-12 made with built-in obsolescence, installing, repairing, altering, maintaining, Pwhich means that they are no longer and upgrading. used after an expected period of time. Manufacturing systems can be classified This trend has contributed to a throwaway according to the type of item being mentality in our society. Many people produced. Customized production involves regularly discard old products and buy making a single item that was designed new ones, which in turn has created large with the needs of an individual in mind. amounts of waste. Students should Batch productions turn out parts or explore this trend and look for various components — typically referred to as ways to use products longer through proper standard stock items — that are assembled maintenance and repair, as well as through at some later time. In developed countries, recycling. They also should conduct continuous (assembly-line) production is research on the depletion of resources the most common way to make products and develop ways to sustain them. today. One of the key features of assembly The basic processes in manufacturing can be lines is the use of interchangeable parts, classified into separating, forming, which is an important concept for students combining, and conditioning. To gain a to learn about and experiment with at the deeper understanding of the manufacturing high school level. process, students can produce items on an In order to select, use, and understand assembly line. They should safely use various manufacturing technologies, students materials, tools, and processes in order to in Grades 9-12 should learn that design, make, and assess their products. Materials have many qualities, and they can L. Servicing keeps products in good be classified by how they are found or made, operating condition. Servicing such as natural materials (found in nature), processes include installing, diagnosing synthetic materials (human made), and a and troubleshooting, recalling, mixture of both natural and synthetic maintaining, repairing, altering and materials. The study of chemicals is upgrading, and retrofitting. Some important because they are significant products are designed for eventual resources in today’s world. In addition, obsolescence. Sometimes obsolescence students should be familiar with the work is due to changing styles — the colors that people do in manufacturing and how and shapes of kitchen appliances, for products are marketed to consumers. example. Marketing and advertising products is M. Materials have different qualities important to better assure sales. Once the and may be classified as natural, goods are sold or leased through a marketing synthetic, or mixed. Examples of effort, servicing becomes an important materials found in nature are wood, concern. One type of servicing is main- stone, and clay. Synthetic materials are tenance, which, if performed on a regular human-made, such as plastics, glass, basis, can increase the life expectancy of

189 STANDARD 19 Manufacturing Technologies

GRADES and steel. Mixed materials are a R. Marketing involves establishing combination of natural and synthetic a product’s identity, conducting 9-12 materials, such as plywood, paper, research on its potential, advertising and wool-polyester blends of fabric. it, distributing it, and selling it. Marketing should be considered from N. Durable goods are designed to the design stage of a product to its final operate for a long period of time, sale. Large corporations typically have while non-durable goods are their own marketing departments, designed to operate for a short whereas smaller companies with period of time. Examples of durable limited resources may contract goods are steel, furniture, and stoves. with a marketing firm. Non-durable goods, or consumable goods, include food, batteries, and paper. O. Manufacturing systems may be classified into types, such as customized production, batch production, and continuous production. Customized production meets the specific needs and wants of an individual or small group by producing a single item or small quantities of goods. Batch production generates parts to be assembled later into larger products. Continuous production makes items on an assembly line or in a processing plant. P. The interchangeability of parts increases the effectiveness of manufacturing processes. Com- ponents of a product or system must be interchangeable. Since manufacturing has become global, international standards for the interchangeability of parts have emerged. 7 Q. Chemical technologies provide a means for humans to alter or modify materials and to produce chemical products. Chemical technologies have been used to improve the health and well-being of humans, plants, and animals.

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STANDARD Students will develop an understanding of and be 20 able to select and use construction technologies.

umans have been building and airplane hangers. structures for millennia. The Some structures are temporary, while Chinese erected the Great Wall; the others are permanent. Such structures Egyptians built pyramids; the H as scaffolding, cofferdams (a temporary Greeks constructed elaborate structure used to create a dry space in water buildings; and the Romans created so that a pier or bridge foundation can be remarkable roads. Today, many of the same built), and even tree houses are deliberately principles for building structures used designed to last only for brief periods at a centuries ago are still being applied. Large given location. As a result, less time and structures, for instance, need substantial expense are invested in the construction. foundations, and for many centuries, Permanent structures are those that are builders have known that triangles have designed and constructed to last for a long more compressive strength than rectangles time. Examples include parking garages, for making roofs, bridges, and high-rise office buildings, water towers, school buildings. Hard materials (steel and buildings, bridges, and air-traffic control concrete) have also been found to withstand towers. Even permanent structures, some weather conditions better than softer however, will eventually wear out or materials (wood and limestone). become obsolete. The processes involved in designing and Whereas manufacturing typically uses making structures are typically referred to as assembly-line processes, construction construction. People from many different typically uses customized processes. Even professions work in the construction though many houses and office buildings industry, including architects and engineers, look alike, they are usually built one at a builders, estimators and bidders, carpenters, time, and each one tends to have defining plumbers, concrete workers, and electricians. characteristics. Many structures have Structures, such as houses, office buildings, unique, “one of a kind” designs. Another agricultural-storage facilities, roads, and difference between manufacturing and bridges, serve a variety of purposes. In some construction is that manufacturing usually cases, they are designed primarily to provide takes place in factories, whereas construction shelter and a place to live. Other structures typically occurs on a building site. are used for entertainment and recreation, such as concert halls, amusement parks, and football stadiums, and yet others are primarily for work, such as factories and oil drilling rigs. Another major class of structures includes those that support transportation, such as bridges, roads, 191 STANDARD 20 Construction Technologies

GRADES t an early age, children develop In order to select, use, and understand ownership of “their place,” construction technologies, students in K-2 typically a room in an apartment Grades K-2 should learn that or house. This place is a part of the A A. People live, work, and go to school constructed environment in which in buildings, which are of different they can receive protection, shelter, and types: houses, apartments, office comfort. During the early grades, students buildings, and schools. Buildings are can expand their understanding of the con- designed, built, and maintained by structed environment to include the places people. Special materials are used to with which they interact on a daily basis. In make buildings. Historically people addition to their homes, such environments tended to use materials available in can include their school, a library, a church, their communities for building stores, and places where parents work. materials. With the advent of modern The construction of shelter for human ways to convert natural materials into protection has evolved from caves and huts building materials and improved to houses, apartment complexes, and office transportation systems, special buildings. Technological advances in such materials are now available, including areas as glass windows, tile making, lumber, stone, brick, and plywood. lighting, furniture, air conditioning, and B. The type of structure determines electrical utilities have helped improve the how the parts are put together. The conveniences and comforts of dwellings. way the parts are arranged or put Almost every community has active together to form a whole determines construction sites — homes, buildings, the type of structure. Some common sidewalks, bridges, or roads that are being structures include buildings, which built or refurbished. At these community protect people and goods, and roads examples, children can actually see the and bridges, which support construction process in progress. They can transportation. see that special materials, such as concrete, bricks, lumber, steel, and glass are being used. They also can observe the many different people who are involved in the construction process. In addition, students should be given the opportunity to design and fabricate models of construction works 7 in the laboratory-classroom — involving them in making a planned model community, for example. Some students could be assigned to work on roads, others could design buildings, while others could work with utilities and landscapes.

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GRADES tudents at this level should begin to In order to select, use, and understand understand the notion of community construction technologies, students in 3-5 development. They live in a Grades 3-5 should learn that residential area, go shopping at local S C. Modern communities are usually stores, and use local parks. Students planned according to guidelines. should understand that these constructed Special areas are designated for schools, areas were planned and designed. stores, parks, houses, apartments, As with other technologies in the designed manufacturing plants, and offices. world, resources are needed as inputs into Sidewalks, trails, roads, and bridges the construction process. These resources provide routes for people to move include tools and machines, materials, throughout the community. In addi- information, energy, capital (money), time, tion to building materials — sand, and people. Maintenance is an important gravel, lumber, and brick — specialized concept in the preservation of buildings. tools and machines and large amounts People, including children, can cause wear of money — are needed in the con- and tear on such things as buildings, roads, struction industry as well as time, and bridges. Weather also contributes to energy, land, and people. deterioration, and regular maintenance is D. Structures need to be maintained. important for structures to last. Weather and usage cause deterioration By the time students complete the fifth in any structure. grade, they will have enlarged their concept E. Many systems are used in buildings. of the constructed environment to encom- Some are simple, while others are pass more than buildings. The constructed complex. For example, a plumbing environment also includes trails, roads, system provides water and eliminates railways, utility services, dams, pipelines, sewage, and a heating and cooling waterways, airports, and bridges, which system maintains comfortable tempera- allow people to move freely about the tures in summer and winter. Other community and enable goods to be moved technologies are an integral part of a from place to place. building as well. For example, the Students should have the opportunity to telephone is a part of communications design and build models of structures. This technology. When building a house or process can provide a meaningful way for office building, one part of the whole them to develop spatial relationships. They process is installing telephone lines so also should begin to recognize that many that the people who live or work in systems are used in structures that provide that structure can communicate with such conveniences as drinking fountains, the outside world. toilets, lights, and comfortable temperatures, which make their lives more enjoyable.

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GRADES t is important for students in the middle types of materials needed in a construction grades to become involved not only in job that are used to provide form, decora- 6-8 designing and making models of tion, protection, and strength. Materials Istructures, but also in developing an can be natural (rocks, timber) or synthetic understanding of the importance of the (bricks, asphalt, concrete, steel). constructed environment in their daily In order to select, use, and understand lives. Students will learn through activities construction technologies, students in in the laboratory-classroom about types of Grades 6-8 should learn that structures and the purposes that each serves, the importance of proper design, F. The selection of designs for struc- the importance of maintaining structures, tures is based on factors such as the use of subsystems in a building, and the building laws and codes, style, need for community planning, including convenience, cost, climate, and laws and regulations. function. Building laws and codes are part of the city or county regulations Through these activities, students will for construction. understand that the foundation of a structure is built to provide the footing or G. Structures rest on a foundation. underpinning on which it stands. The The structures determine the type of foundation provides a stable base, which is foundation needed. Foundations can level and solid. be made from such materials as concrete, steel, and wooden poles. The constructed environment is a complex array of structures which are used for many H. Some structures are temporary, while different purposes and which have been others are permanent. Many times, constructed over a long period of time. temporary structures are built to aid It is an environment that is undergoing the construction of permanent struc- continual change. Some structures can fall tures. For example, scaffolding is often into disrepair, and the original design no assembled to support workers who lay longer meets current needs. As a result, bricks, and forms are used as containers many structures are demolished, and in to hold poured concrete. There are many their place new structures are built. An different types of interior and exterior understanding of how and why these building materials. These materials changes take place will help students include brick, rock, stone, siding, log, understand the world in which they live. wood, brick veneer, plywood, metal, wallboard, concrete, glass, and straw 7 Students should have opportunities to and mud. design, use, and assess buildings and materials. They should understand that I. Buildings generally contain a variety buildings have subsystems that are used to of subsystems. These subsystems do specific things. For example, the electrical include waste disposal, water, electrical, system is used to light the building, and a structural, climate control, and heating and air conditioning system provides communication. Most of these comfortable temperatures. There are many subsystems are referred to as utilities.

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GRADES y the time students graduate from should know whom to contact for high school, they should know about professional assessments and have sufficient 9-12 a number of factors associated with knowledge to interpret inspection reports. evaluating and purchasing structures B A number of factors are used to guide the of various types. Virtually all citizens process of designing and making structures. are affected in one way or another by Students should understand that various construction technologies. They purchase requirements are used to make construction and live in homes. They work in offices and decisions. Some relate to personal factories. They receive radio and telephone preference, such as location, style, and size. signals that have been transmitted through Other factors deal with legal restrictions, towers. They drive over bridges and park in such as zoning laws, building codes, and multi-deck garages. professional standards. Additionally, the Structures are explored in greater depth at selection of requirements often depends this level. Students should design structures on the kind of structure. For example, a and make models of them. They should primary consideration for a bridge is understand that certain structures can be strength, whereas style and affordability thought of as part of a much larger system are important criteria for many homes. that underlies the functioning of the entire Periodic improvement or even renovation society. Roads and bridges, airports and of a structure is vital to extend its lifetime railways, electrical transmission and or improve its usefulness. In urban areas, distribution systems, dams, ships, water- two-lane highways are widened to four treatment plants, water-supply systems, lanes to accommodate more traffic, for and sewers all constitute the physical instance. A structure can be altered to infrastructure of a society. An adequate change its size, appearance, or function. infrastructure is necessary for other In some instances, buildings are torn down technologies to function efficiently. in order to make room for new ones. At the high school level, students should Students should realize that, as with other be able to identify the various materials technologies, decisions related to construc- and systems that comprise buildings. tion have impacts on individuals, society, These include utilities, such as water, and the environment. An important waste, electrical, climate control, telephone, purpose of construction is to provide and gas, as well as component systems, shelter and structures for humans. such as foundations, framing, insulation, In order to select, use, and understand and lighting. construction technologies, students in Since a home is often the single largest Grades 9-12 should learn that financial investment an individual makes, it J. Infrastructure is the underlying base is important that citizens be equipped to or basic framework of a system. An assess the quality of homes and other infrastructure often includes the basic structures, including the quality of buildings, services, and installations processes and materials used in the needed in order for a society or construction job. At the very least, they

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GRADES government to function, such as tenance. For example, because electrical transportation, communication, water, and telephone systems typically need to 9-12 energy, and public information systems. be upgraded in office buildings, easy access must be included in the original K. Structures are constructed using a design process — renovating a hotel to variety of processes and procedures. serve as a nursing home, for example. In some cases, the procedure used Sometimes, alterations and renovations depends on the type of material are necessary because a structure has available. For example, welds, bolts, become outdated or is in need of repair. and rivets are used to assemble metal framing materials. Sometimes pro- N. Structures can include prefabricated cedures are selected as a function of materials. Certain kinds of materials cost, skills, and preference of the are appropriate for some prefabricated worker, or the level of quality desired. structures and parts of structures, while Citizens should be equipped to others are not. For example, for various evaluate the appropriateness of reasons, wood, concrete, and steel are procedures used. commonly used as prefabricated frames for houses, bridges, and buildings. One L. The design of structures includes a important quality variable concerns the number of requirements. One of the type and quality of materials used and most important design constraints with the support loads required. Prefabricated structures is function. For example, the sections of buildings can be set in place function of houses is to provide safe and to reduce costs, and a wide range of pleasant shelter for families, whereas the options at different costs is typically primary function of a bridge is to carry available. loads over barriers or obstructions. Other important constraints include appear- ance, strength, longevity, maintenance, and available utilities. The design and construction of structures are regulated by laws, codes, and professional standards. Common design constraints used by engineers and architects in the design of structures include style, convenience, safety, and efficiency.

7 M. Structures require maintenance, alteration, or renovation period- ically to improve them or to alter their intended use. Structures must be designed and constructed to provide for maintenance. Most structures are comprised of a variety of systems, each of which commonly requires main-

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VIGNETTE A Look at Energy Efficient Homes

This vignette presents The city of Westlake and the surrounding areas experienced an accelerated growth in the construction industry, especially in new home construction. an activity to design and The local high school technology teacher, Mr. S, thought it would be helpful construct a model home. for his students, as future consumers, to have an in-depth understanding of the housing industry and to know about the latest developments in home Criteria and constraints construction techniques, materials, and practices. are given to guide the Mr. S decided to organize a lesson where students were invited to participate students in their problem- in designing an energy-efficient home for a family of four. He guided the solving processes. [This students to consider all forms of energy and not to limit their imaginations. Students were instructed to consider costs of using energy-efficient designs vignette highlights some and how those costs might affect the resale value of a home. elements of the Grades The students in the technology classes were challenged to design, draw, and 9-12 STL standards which build a scale model of a residential home using heating and cooling systems that were energy efficient, aesthetically pleasing, functional, marketable, provide connections with and innovative. The house also had to accommodate a family of four with Standards 8, 9, 10, 11, a maximum size of 2100 square feet. The students had to work within a budget of $150,000, and they had nine weeks to complete the project. 12, 13, 16, and 20.] The students began by researching homes in their area that already incorporated features that were required in their home. They conducted library and Internet searches to learn about the latest materials and techniques available in the housing industry. Students also interviewed local architects and building contractors to learn about various practices and how they were integrating innovative features. For example, they learned about incorporating increased day lighting, which takes into account the home’s orientation, into the design of the home. They also learned about designing and installing environmentally sound and energy-efficient systems and incorporating whole-home systems that are designed to provide maintenance, security, and indoor-air-quality management. The students then began the process of sketching their homes. Many students had to gather additional research as they realized they needed more information to complete their sketches. Using their sketches, the students built scale models of their homes out of mat board. A group of building industry professionals from across the area was invited to evaluate students’ work and provide feedback on their ideas in several categories, including design, planning and innovations, energy conservation features, drawing presentation, model presentation, and exterior design. As a result of this experience, the students learned firsthand what it takes to design a home for the 21st century. Students also learned how to successfully plan and select the best possible solution from a variety of design ideas in order to meet criteria and constraints, as well as how to communicate their results using graphic means and three-dimensional models.

197

8 Call to Action

Because technological literacy is so important to all of us, ITEA is calling for interested parties to join it in advancing the cause of technological literacy as laid out in these standards. Foremost, ITEA encourages the adoption of Standards for Technological Literacy in states, provinces, and localities. In conjunction with the nationwide adoption of these standards, ITEA recommends that the following topics or groups be addressed: Call to Action 8 • Curriculum Development and Revision • Learning Environments, Instructional Materials, Textbooks, and Other Materials n order to meet the goal of • Technology Education Profession I • Students technological literacy for all, • Overall Education Community a collaborative effort among • Parents and the Community interested parties — teachers, • Engineering Profession principals, superintendents, • Other Technology Professionals supervisors, teacher educators, • Business and Industry • Researchers students, parents, educational • Additional Standards equipment providers and publishers, engineers, Curriculum Development and Revision scientists, mathematicians, Standards for Technological Literacy defines what the study of technology in grades K-12 should be, but it does not lay out a technologists, and the curriculum — that is, it does not specify how the content should be structured, sequenced, and organized. This task is left, as it community at large — should be, to individual teachers and other curriculum developers will be essential. in the schools, school districts, and states and provinces. Because the 20 standards with their supporting benchmarks contained in Standards for Technological Literacy outline what a curriculum should accomplish, developers of new and existing curricula are encouraged to use this document as a roadmap. After a curriculum is devised, the next step is to convert it into day-by-day lesson plans used by teachers in their laboratory-classrooms. To make it easier for educators to implement the standards, ITEA’s Center to Advance the Teaching of Technology & Science (CATTS) will support localities, states, and provinces in developing curricula based on Standards for Technological Literacy. In addition, ITEA will provide instructional materials, publications, and professional development activities to assist teachers in putting the standards into practice.

200 CHAPTER 8 Call to Action

Standards for Learning Environments, Those who educate technology teachers Technological Instructional Materials, should review and revise undergraduate Literacy Textbooks, and Other Materials and graduate degree programs by using defines what Standards for Technological Literacy as the the study of If the study of technology is to be effective, basis for teaching technology. Furthermore, technology in the facilities, equipment, materials, and strategies can be designed and implemented Grades K-12 other parts of the infrastructure must be for recruiting and preparing a sufficient should be, appropriate and current. In particular, number of newly trained and credentialed but it does instructional materials and textbooks used not lay out a technology education teachers. Alternate in the study of technology should be curriculum — certification programs may be established in modified to reflect Standards for that is, it states and provinces with serious shortages Technological Literacy. The suitability of does not of technology teachers. specify how instructional materials, modules, and the content textbooks can be assessed by comparing Students should be their content to the content of this structured, document. Similarly, it is recommended The Technology Student Association (TSA) sequenced, that the developers and publishers of provides co-curricular and extra-curricular and instructional material follow the educational experiences that enrich students’ organized. “Administrator’s Guidelines For Resources learning about technology. To further that Based on Standards for Technological Literacy” goal, TSA is encouraged to use Standards for presented in Chapter 2. Technological Literacy in the development of new activities and competitive events. Technology Education Profession The Junior Engineering Technical Society Those who Support from the technology education (JETS) also has a number of services and educate profession is vital to the acceptance and student activities that could be enhanced by technology implementation of Standards for incorporating the standards and benchmarks teachers Technological Literacy. By using this from Standards for Technological Literacy. On should review and revise document as a basis for modifying their the collegiate level, the Technology undergraduate instruction, teachers will demonstrate the Education Collegiate Association (TECA), a and graduate importance of technological studies, the university-based student organization for degree pro- value of technological literacy, and their pre-service teachers, can incorporate grams by own abilities to teach about technology. Standards for Technological Literacy in its using programs. Standards for In-service programs must be developed to Technological teach technology educators how to Since there is a major demand for tech- Literacy as implement Standards for Technological nology teachers, students who have an the basis for Literacy. Supervisors are encouraged to interest in both teaching and technology teaching provide support and philosophical are encouraged to consider becoming technology. leadership for reform in the field because technology teachers. They can choose from they are in an ideal position to implement a number of universities that offer pre- long-range plans for improving the delivery service technology teacher education of technology education subject matter at programs that license teachers. the local, district, state, and province levels. 201 Everyone Overall Educational Community Standards for Technological Literacy. This is interested in important because high school graduates who At the elementary level, the regular classroom technological are technologically literate may have an is where technology should be taught. literacy is interest in pursuing careers in engineering encouraged to Although elementary teachers may initially technology. Additionally, community college understand feel unqualified to teach technology, personnel who work with tech prep programs the impor- experience has shown that, with appropriate in high schools with 2+2 configurations are tance of the in-service training, they perform asked to become familiar with Standards for study of tech- exceptionally well and excel at integrating nology and Technological Literacy so that articulated technological concepts across the curriculum. support it as technology programs can be developed for For the study of technology to become an a basic field those students who wish to pursue technical integral part of study in or technology related careers. public schools of elementary curricula, it is recommended by developing that all elementary teachers have courses in Beyond the classroom, school administrators policies and technology in their undergraduate teacher — principals, curriculum developers, providing preparation program in colleges or univer- directors of instruction, superintendents, and funding that sities. This means that teacher preparation others — can recognize the importance of will allow for institutions are encouraged to include technological literacy for all students and the implemen- technology teacher education as a part of support the study of technology. To that end, tation of Standards for elementary teachers’ undergraduate degree they can provide the support and funding for Technological requirements. the materials, equipment, and laboratories needed for the teaching of technology. Literacy in At the secondary school level, teachers from kindergarten Current staff should be provided with other fields of study can help by becoming through professional development activities and familiar with Standards for Technological twelfth grade. in-service programs that will prepare them to Literacy. If teachers of subjects other than put the STL standards into practice. technology apply Standards for Technological Literacy in their own classes, students in It is important that local school boards, state middle and high school will learn about the and provincial legislators, and public officials rich interdisciplinary relationships between also become familiar with Standards for technology and other fields of study, such Technological Literacy. They are encouraged to as science, mathematics, social studies, understand the importance of the study of language arts, and the humanities. Because of technology and support it as a basic field of the particularly close interrelationship among study in public schools by developing policies technology, science, and mathematics, and providing funding that will allow for the teachers are encouraged to work implementation of Standards for cooperatively in planning and implementing Technological Literacy in kindergarten through curricula that are based on standards from all twelfth grade. three fields of study. Parents and the Community At the community college level, faculty and administrators who work with associate By supporting and reinforcing the concepts 8 degree engineering technology programs learned in school, parents and other are encouraged to become familiar with caregivers will play a central role in the 202 CHAPTER 8 Call to Action

education of their children. Students’ factors: attitudes toward the study of technology will, The nation’s engineering education in large measure, reflect the attitudes of their system includes not just higher parents. Therefore, parents with positive education but also K-12, community stances towards the study of technology will colleges, and continuous (lifelong) impart those attitudes to their children. engineering education. These elements Parents and other caregivers are in an ideal are embedded in the larger society, position to advance technological literacy for whose political and economic influences their children. Relatively few, however, will typically affect engineering schools have been exposed to technology education through the academic institution of during their school years. For this reason, which they are a part. Those many parents may have the wrong idea socioeconomic and political factors also about what the study of technology involves. drive demand for engineers, as well as A common misunderstanding, for example, the supply, recruitment, and retention is confusing technology education with of engineering students. (p.40) computer education or with educational Technological literacy will benefit the technology (equipment and software used in engineering profession in a number of laboratory-classrooms to enhance the ways. As more students receive high-quality teaching and learning process). To promote instruction in technology, for example, technological literacy for all students, parents more will be likely to select engineering are encouraged to embrace and understand as a career. In the long run, improved the value of the study of technology. engineering will strengthen the techno- Ideally, other members of the community logical base of the economy and of society. can also become knowledgeable about the The engineering community can encourage study of technology and the importance of technological literacy in a number of standards as a means to bring about reform important ways. Those in charge of in education and promote technological engineering programs at colleges and literacy. Community leaders also need to universities will advance technological help the youth in their communities by literacy by supporting undergraduate and supporting quality technology programs. graduate degree programs in technology teacher education. To that end, college Engineering Profession and university engineering faculty can By serving as champions of technological collaborate with technology teacher literacy for all, members of the engineering education faculty in interdisciplinary community will not only benefit society in courses. Some engineering institutions also general, they will also benefit their own may conduct pre-service summer schools profession. As noted by the National for college students with majors in science Research Council in the publication or mathematics education. Some institu- Engineering Education: Designing an Adaptive tions might establish programs for System (1995), the health of the engineering engineering graduates who are interested profession is dependent upon a wide range of in teaching Grades K-12, for example, 203 In particular, by having engineering graduates work as personnel, and others. They are encouraged research is visiting per diem teachers who receive credit to read Standards for Technological Literacy needed that toward a teaching certificate. and support its implementation in Grades explores the K-12 in their community and schools. specific ways Through statewide consortia, engineering Because we live in a technologically in which the institutions could set up centers where K-12 oriented world, collaborative efforts will be study of teachers would acquire in-service training on most beneficial to future generations. technology teaching tools and topics in technology. enhances a Engineering colleges and universities might student’s Business and Industry set up programs to “adopt” elementary education. and secondary schools and assist them in It is vital that business and industry leaders at developing laboratory projects and classroom the national, regional, and local level become activities. Similarly, members of engineering more involved in school programs in general, societies might form partnerships with K-12 and in particular, with technology programs. teachers to provide students with hands-on These individuals typically have both the engineering experiences. resources and expertise to help implement Standards for Technological Literacy. They are The engineering education community, encouraged to become familiar with Standards perhaps through the National Academy of for Technological Literacy and work with local, Engineering or the National Research state, and province personnel to improve Council, is encouraged to support ongoing technology programs by using the document efforts to reform K-12 science, mathematics, as a guideline. Business and industry leaders and technology at the national, state, pro- also are encouraged to donate instructional vincial, and local levels. A task force may be materials and equipment to K-12 schools and established to examine the college curricula to persuade professionals within their com- of students who are planning to teach K-12 panies to join with K-12 teachers in providing mathematics, science, and technology. The relevant, hands-on experiences for students. task force could focus particularly on the technological literacy of these students and Recognizing the value of support from the on what they are taught about engineering business community, technology educators and engineering achievements. An effort can need to actively pursue backing for their be initiated to redesign many undergraduate programs from business and industry in science courses for K-5 teachers to include their areas. more content about technology. Researchers Other Technology Professionals Because few studies have examined K-12 In addition to engineers, many other technology programs, there is an acute need professionals support technological literacy for additional research about technology. In for all students. Examples of some of these particular, research is needed that explores technology-oriented professionals include the specific ways in which the study of architects, computer scientists and pro- technology enhances a student’s education. 8 grammers, industrial designers, technicians, This information will be important in draftspersons, equipment maintenance assuring decision-makers of the value of 204 CHAPTER 8 Call to Action

When we con- adding technology to an already provides additional standards that are sider that overcrowded curriculum. Furthermore, supportive of STL. many of the research is needed to move Standards for most influen- Technological Literacy forward and to Four “Addenda” to STL and AETL have tial people of provide support and direction for future been produced, which are: the last mil- lennium were revisions, as well as new standards in other inventors or areas. • Measuring Progress: Assessing Students for Technological Literacy (2004) innovators, Members of the technology education the central • Realizing Excellence: Structuring profession in particular, and the educational role of tech- Technology Programs (2005) community in general, are encouraged to set nology is • Planning Learning: Developing forth new priorities for identifying a research undeniable. Technology Curricula (2005) agenda. This research agenda can be pursued • Developing Professionals: Preparing by all members of the educational Technology Teachers (2005) community, including teachers, local school administrators, and higher education faculty. These documents provide easy-to-use Without an accepted and refined research assistance in implementing standards-based agenda, future efforts could be haphazard content, student assessment, professional and disjointed. The time has arrived for development, curriculum, and programs. A education professionals to realize that CD was produced by ITEA and NEA in much more research must be conducted 2006 to provide briefings of STL, AETL, if the teaching and learning of technology Addenda, and marketing technological is to advance. Research will be invaluable programs. It is available from ITEA at in developing future editions of the www.iteaconnect.org or you may purchase a standards. copy for your school system, school, or It is recommended that future international classroom. comparisons of students’ achievements in Improvement the study of technology complement and ITEA’s Engineering byDesign model has of technologi- add to those already being undertaken, such based all of its publications on STL and cal literacy as the Third International Mathematics and AETL. Support is available from EbD on begins with Science Study (TIMSS). Additionally, providing Curriculum and Standards the implemen- research groups can be organized to study Specialists, workshops, and presentations to tation of the relationships among technology, the educational community. these standards. science, and mathematics. Concluding Comments Additional Standards and Support When we consider that many of the most Materials influential people of the last millennium were Since STL was published in 2000 (and inventors or innovators, the central role of revised in 2002), ITEA and its TfAAP have technology is undeniable. Consider the power produced a wide range of companion and promise of some of their momentous standards as well as support materials. technologies — Gutenberg’s movable printing AETL was published in 2005 and it press, Galileo’s telescope, Da Vinci’s flying 205 machine, Ford’s Model-T, Edison’s light bulb, and Brattain, Bardeen, and Shockley’s transistor. Without them, the history of humankind would be vastly different. In light of the past, technological literacy for all students is a noble goal for the future. Standards for Technological Literacy does not represent an end, but a beginning. In other fields of study, the development of standards has often proved to be the easiest step in a long, arduous process of educational reform. Getting these technology standards accepted and implemented in Grades K-12 of every school will certainly be far more challenging than developing them. This document, which is a starting point for action within schools, districts, states, and provinces, is aimed at making the study of technology essential for all students. Improvement of technological literacy begins with the implementation of these standards.

8

206 APPENDICES

History of the Technology A for All Americans Project p. 208

Listing of the B STL Standards p. 210

C Compendium p. 211

Articulated Curriculum D Vignette from Grades K-12 p. 215 APPENDIX ITEA, through its Technology for All Americans Project History of the Technology (TfAAP), published Technology for All Americans: A Rationale A for All Americans Project and Structure for the Study of Technology (Rationale and Structure) in 1996. This document provided the foundation for Standards for Technological Literacy and established the guidelines for what each person should know and be able to do in order to be tech- nologically literate.

The goal of Standards for Technological Literacy was to build upon this work and to present a general-content framework for technology education. TfAAP created two advisory groups to assist with the development and refinement of the standards. One of these groups was the Standards Team, which was instru- mental in advising the project and creating and refining the standards. The project also created an Advisory Group, which advised the project on the process of developing standards and gave specific input into the wording of the standards. Members of both of these committees, along with other groups and individuals that were instrumental in the development of Standards for Technological Literacy, are listed in the acknowledgements.

In the development, consensus-building, and validation processes, six drafts of the document were generated. The fol- lowing TfAAP chronology highlights key dates in this process.

208 APPENDIX A History of the Technology for All Americans Project

FALL 1994 TO FALL 1996 Ⅲ Phase I—Development of Rationale and Structure.

FALL 1996 TO SUMMER 1997 Ⅲ Start of Phase II of the Technology for All Americans Project. Ⅲ The Standards Team began the process of developing the core of the standards.

SUMMER 1997 TO FALL 1997 Ⅲ Draft 1 of Standards for Technological Literacy was developed and distributed by mail, at hearings, and on the World Wide Web (WWW). Each individual or group had the opportunity to comment on the draft.

WINTER 1998 TO SUMMER 1998 Ⅲ Based on the input received, the document was revised, and Draft 2 was produced. This draft focused on collecting input on the K-12 content standards only. Again, input was received through standards hearings, mail review, and the Internet or the project’s Web site. Ⅲ Draft 3 was produced from the winter of 1998 to the summer of 1998.

SUMMER 1998 Ⅲ Field review of Draft 3 of Standards for Technological Literacy by classroom teachers and administrators.

F ALL 1998 Ⅲ Draft 3 was finalized, mailed out for review, and additional hearings were conducted.

WINTER 1999 Ⅲ Based on input received, ITEA and the project staff decided that the document should be revised again before being published.

SPRING 1999 TO FALL 1999 Ⅲ National Research Council’s Standards Review Committee (SRC) was formed and charged with reviewing the structure and format of the document. Ⅲ Draft 4 was developed and then reviewed by SRC and a Technical Review Committee (TRC) in August 1999.

FALL 1999 Ⅲ Draft 5 of Standards for Technological Literacy was developed and reviewed by SRC and a National Academy of Engineering (NAE) committee. Ⅲ Draft 6 was developed and reviewed by the NRC/SRC and the NAE Committees in late fall of 1999. Ⅲ Final layout and editing of Standards for Technological Literacy.

WINTER TO SPRING 2000 Ⅲ Standards for Technological Literacy was published and disseminated.

209 APPENDIX STANDARD Listing of the STL B Standards

THE NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY ABILITIES FOR A TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD

STANDARDS STANDARDS

1 Students will develop an understanding of the 11 Students will develop the abilities to apply the characteristics and scope of technology. design process.

2 Students will develop an understanding of the 12 Students will develop the abilities to use and core concepts of technology. maintain technological products and systems.

3 Students will develop an understanding of the 13 Students will develop the abilities to assess relationships among technologies and the the impact of products and systems. connections between technology and other fields of study.

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY THE DESIGNED WORLD

4 Students will develop an understanding of the 14 Students will develop an understanding of and cultural, social, economic, and political effects be able to select and use medical of technology. technologies.

5 Students will develop an understanding of the 15 Students will develop an understanding of and effects of technology on the environment. be able to select and use agricultural and related biotechnologies. 6 Students will develop an understanding of the role of society in the development and use of 16 Students will develop an understanding of and technology. be able to select and use energy and power technologies. 7 Students will develop an understanding of the influence of technology on history. 17 Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use information and communication technologies. DESIGN 18 Students will develop an understanding of and be able to select and use transportation 8 Students will develop an understanding of the technologies. attributes of design. 19 Students will develop an understanding of and 9 Students will develop an understanding of be able to select and use manufacturing engineering design. technologies.

10 Students will develop an understanding of the 20 Students will develop an understanding of role of troubleshooting, research and and be able to select and use construction development, invention and innovation, and technologies. experimentation in problem solving.

210 APPENDIX STANDARD C 11Compendium

Compendium of Major Topics for Standards for Technological Literacy

Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

CHAPTER3 NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY

The •Natural world and •Things found in nature •Usefulness of technology •Nature of technology 1 Characteristics human-made world and in the human-made •Development of •Rate of technological and Scope of •People and world technology diffusion Technology technology •Tools, materials, and skills •Human creativity and •Goal-directed research •Creative thinking motivation •Commercialization of •Product demand technology

The Core Concepts •Systems •Systems •Systems •Systems 2 of Technology •Resources •Resources •Resources •Resources •Processes •Requirements •Requirements •Requirements •Processes •Trade-offs •Optimization and Trade-offs •Processes •Processes •Controls •Controls

•Connections between •Technologies integrated •Interaction of systems •Technology transfer The Relationships technology and other •Relationships between •Interrelation of •Innovation and Invention 3 Among subjects technology and other technological •Knowledge protection and Technologies and fields of study environments patents the Connections •Knowledge from other •Technological knowledge Between fields of study and and advances of science Technology and technology and mathematics and vice Other Fields versa

CHAPTER4 TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

The Cultural, •Helpful or harmful •Good and bad effects •Attitudes toward •Rapid or gradual changes 4 Social, Economic, •Unintended consequences development and use •Trade-offs and effects and Political •Impacts and consequences •Ethical implications Effects of •Ethical issues •Cultural, social, economic, Technology •Influences on economy, and political changes politics, and culture

The Effects of •Reuse and/or •Recycling and disposal of •Management of waste •Conservation 5 Technology on the recycling of materials waste •Technologies repair •Reduce resource use Environment •Affects environment in damage •Monitor environment good and bad ways •Environmental vs. •Alignment of natural and economic concerns technological processes •Reduce negative consequences of technology •Decisions and trade-offs

The Role of •Needs and wants of •Changing needs and wants •Development driven by •Different cultures and 6 Society in the individuals •Expansion or limitation of demands, values, and technologies Development and development interests •Development decisions Use of Technology •Inventions and •Factors affecting designs innovations and demands of •Social and cultural technologies priorities •Acceptance and use of products and systems

211 APPENDIX C Compendium

Compendium of Major Topics for Standards for Technological Literacy (Continued)

Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

CHAPTER4 TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY (Continued)

The Influence of •Ways people have •Tools for food, clothing, •Processes of inventions •Evolutionary development 7 Technology on lived and worked and protection and innovations of technology History •Specialization of labor •Dramatic changes in •Evolution of techniques, society measurement, and •History of technology resources •Early technological history •Technological and •The Iron Age scientific knowledge •The Middle Ages •The Renaissance •The Industrial Revolution •The Information Age

CHAPTER5 DESIGN

The Attributes •Everyone can design •Definitions of design •Design leads to useful •The design process 8 of Design •Design is a creative •Requirements of design products and systems •Design problems are usually process •There is no perfect design not clear •Requirements •Designs need to be refined •Requirements

Engineering •Engineering design •Engineering design •Iterative •Design principles 9 Design process process •Brainstorming •Influence of personal •Expressing design •Creativity and considering •Modeling, testing, characteristics ideas to others all ideas evaluating, and modifying •Prototypes •Models •Factors in engineering design

The Role of •Asking questions and •Troubleshooting •Troubleshooting •Research and development 10 Troubleshooting, making observations •Invention and innovation •Invention and innovation •Researching technological Research and •All products need to •Experimentation •Experimentation problems Development, be maintained •Not all problems are Invention and technological or can be Innovation, and solved Experimentation •Multidisciplinary in Problem approach Solving

CHAPTER6 ABILITIES FOR A TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD

Apply the Design •Solve problems •Collect information •Apply design process •Identify a design problem 11 Process through design •Visualize a solution •Identify criteria and •Identify criteria and •Build something •Test and evaluate constraints constraints •Investigate how solutions •Model a solution to a •Refine the design things are made •Improve a design problem •Evaluate the design •Test and evaluate •Develop a product or system •Make a product or system using quality control •Reevaluate final solution(s)

Use and Maintain •Discover how things •Follow step-by-step •Use information to see •Document and communicate 12 Technological work instructions how things work processes and procedures Products and •Use tools correctly •Select and safely use tools •Safely use tools to •Diagnose a malfunctioning Systems and safely •Use computers to access diagnose, adjust, and system •Recognize and use and organize information repair •Troubleshoot and maintain everyday symbols •Use common symbols •Use computers and systems calculators •Operate and maintain •Operate systems systems •Use computers to communicate

212 APPENDIX C Compendium

Compendium of Major Topics for Standards for Technological Literacy (Continued)

Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

CHAPTER6 ABILITIES FOR A TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD (Continued)

Assess the •Collect information •Use information to •Design and use •Collect information and 13 Impact of about everyday identify patterns instruments to collect judge its quality Products and products •Assess the influence of data •Synthesize data to draw Systems •Determine the technology •Use collected data to find conclusions qualities of a product •Examine trade-offs trends •Employ assessment •Identify trends techniques •Interpret and evaluate •Design forecasting accuracy of information techniques

CHAPTER7 THE DESIGNED WORLD

Medical •Vaccinations •Vaccines and medicine •Advances and innovations •Medical technologies for 14 Technologies •Medicine •Development of devices to in medical technologies prevention and •Products to take care repair or replace certain •Sanitation processes rehabilitation of people and their parts of the body •Immunology •Telemedicine belongings •Use of products and •Awareness about genetic •Genetic therapeutics systems to inform engineering •Biochemistry

Agricultural and •Technologies in •Artificial ecosystems •Technological advances in •Agricultural products and 15 Related agriculture •Agriculture wastes agriculture systems Biotechnologies •Tools and materials •Processes in agriculture •Specialized equipment and •Biotechnology for use in ecosystems practices •Conservation •Biotechnology and •Engineering design and agriculture management of ecosystems •Artificial ecosystems and management •Development of refrigeration, freezing, dehydration, preservation, and irradiation

Energy and Power •Energy comes in many •Energy comes in different •Energy is the capacity to •Law of Conservation of 16 Technologies forms forms do work Energy •Energy should not be •Tools, machines, products, •Energy can be used to do •Energy sources wasted and systems use energy to work using many •Second Law of do work processes Thermodynamics •Power is the rate at which • Renewable and non energy is converted from renewable forms of energy one form to another • Power systems are a source, •Power systems a process, and a load •Efficiency and conservation

Information and •Information •Processing information •Information and •Parts of information and 17 Communication •Communication •Many sources of communication systems communication systems Technologies •Symbols information •Communication systems •Information and •Communication encode, transmit, and communication •Symbols receive information systems •Factors influencing the •The purpose of design of a message information and •Language of technology communication technology •Communication systems and sub-systems •Many ways of communicating •Communicating through symbols

213 APPENDIX C Compendium

Compendium of Major Topics for Standards for Technological Literacy (Continued)

Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Benchmark Topics Standards Grades K-2 Grades 3-5 Grades 6-8 Grades 9-12

CHAPTER7 THE DESIGNED WORLD (Continued)

Transportation •Transportation system •Transportation system use •Design and operation of •Relationship of 18 Technologies •Individuals and goods •Transportation systems transportation systems transportation and other •Care of transportation and subsystems •Subsystems of technologies products and systems transportation system •Intermodalism •Governmental regulations •Transportation of services •Transportation processes and methods •Positive and negative impacts of transportation systems •Transportation processes and efficiency

Manufacturing •Manufacturing •Natural materials •Manufacturing systems •Servicing and obsolescence 19 Technologies systems •Manufacturing processes •Manufacturing goods •Durable or non-durable •Design of products •Consumption of goods •Manufacturing processes goods •Chemical technologies •Chemical technologies •Manufacturing systems •Materials use • Interchangeability of parts •Marketing products •Chemical technologies •Marketing of products

Construction •Different types of •Modern communities •Construction designs •Infrastructure 20 Technologies buildings •Structures •Foundations •Construction processes and •How parts of •Systems used •Purpose of structures procedures buildings fit •Buildings systems and •Requirements sub-systems •Maintenance, alterations, and renovation •Prefabricated materials

214 APPENDIX STANDARDArticulated Curriculum One of the challenges of implementing Standards for Vignette from Technological Literacy is developing an articulated curriculum for D Grades K-12 Grades K-12 that translates each of the standards into a planned curriculum with instructional activities suited for content being taught at each grade level. The following example illustrates how this could work in the laboratory-classroom.

This example revolves around the theme of transportation tech- nology. Each of the transportation activities presented is age appropriate and designed to fit with the developmental charac- teristics and needs of children at the various grade levels. Also, each grade level builds upon the prior one, showing the impor- tance of a continuous and articulated experience in technological studies from Grades K-12.

215 APPENDIX D Articulated Curriculum Example

GRADES tudents in Grades K-2 exhibit a range In addition, younger students can organize of characteristics that influence the mechanisms by characteristics including K-2 teaching and learning process in tech- type, size, weight, and color to practice Snological studies. These students need sorting tasks and to strengthen their skills a wide variety of activities because in measurement and classification. they have short attention spans and tire eas- Throughout these grade levels, students can ily, especially younger students. They are begin to use the terminology associated typically energetic and curious learners who with Standards for Technological Literacy. enjoy cooperative learning activities that This vocabulary development can be keep them active and allow them to use acquired by involving students in activities their rich imaginations. Because small mus- that promote language development, such cles in the hands and fingers are not fully as orally presenting the projects and designs developed teachers must be cognizant of they have made, making a collage of trans- their students’ limited capabilities to do portation vehicles in various classifications precise, manipulative tasks. (e.g., land, water, air, and space), and Technology activities in Grades K-2 should sketching and labeling drawings of devices address students’ developmental characteris- they designed. tics, including their natural curiosity and Teachers should clearly integrate technolog- inventive thinking skills. For example, stu- ical studies with other areas of the curricu- dents in Grades K-1 should be given ample lum throughout Grades K-2. For example, opportunities to explore and use wheels, connections to history and geography axles, levers, gears, pulleys, and cams by can be made by exploring the use of playing with a variety of toys and construc- the inclined plane in the building of the tion kits that include these mechanisms. Pyramids. Links to mathematics can be Older students can take apart, describe, and made by having students determine the reassemble a simple toy vehicle or build a rank of the vehicles they build (from slow- model of a conveyor system made with est to fastest). Reading stories and engaging plastic building bricks. students in discussions about how their life By the end of Grade 2, students should be could be different without cars and other able to design, plan, and make original vehi- powered vehicles could clearly support cur- cles using commercial construction kits and riculum in language arts and social studies. recyclable or consumable materials (e.g., boxes, straws, and craft sticks). Moreover, they should be able to use simple tools (e.g., hammers, scissors, and saws) safely and appropriately to accomplish their tasks. When students explore mechanisms and design vehicles, they can sketch and describe these components and products to further enhance their understanding of the components’ shapes, uses, and names.

216 APPENDIX D Articulated Curriculum Example

GRADES tudents in Grades 3-5 are beginning late the assets and liabilities of their solu- to exhibit more individualism, but tions and the positive and negative impacts 3-5 peer relationships are also important. of their designs. These young learners have fully devel- S In addition, fourth grade students could oped hand muscles and greatly design and construct a model of a waste- improved hand-eye coordination that makes water treatment system that moves and them more skillful at manipulative tasks filters contaminated water (polluted with requiring smaller and more numerous parts. oil or containing sediments). Fifth grade Because their ability to stay focused on students also could build and test hydraulic assignments is much improved, students are devices that simulate how the human body prepared to tackle design and problem-solv- moves fluids. ing activities that require attention to greater detail for longer periods of time. As students All students at this level are capable of doc- mature, they become more capable of inter- umenting their design and problem-solving preting abstract concepts and making broad processes with conventional and computer- generalizations — essential traits for students based sketching tools. Likewise, students being asked to evaluate designs and assess should begin to use the World Wide Web solutions to hypothetical, yet realistic, prob- (WWW) to display their designs (Grades lems. 3-4) and should document their problem- solving process through the use of a note- Activities in Grades 3-5 should provide stu- book or an electronic portfolio on the dents with diverse opportunities to develop WWW (Grade 5). and enhance skills in designing, making, assessing, and presenting solutions to tech- nological problems. Students can be chal- lenged to use tools and materials for more ambitious tasks, such as creating vehicles that incorporate computer-controlled devices and use light, sound, or motion sen- sors. Using raw materials and simple hand tools, students can design, build, and test products that incorporate electricity, mag- netism, and motors. Problems at this level should build in complexity, and design constraints should become increasingly challenging. For exam- ple, students could build and use only one mechanism in their solutions at early levels, whereas students in Grade 5 could incorpo- rate as many as three mechanisms, each perhaps working in combination with the others. Students should more clearly articu-

217 APPENDIX D Articulated Curriculum Example

GRADES iddle-level students are teetering Middle-level students need to be challenged between childhood and early to refine skills learned in Grades K-5 and to 6-8 adulthood. They are experiencing apply them to new problems and opportu- Msignificant physical growth and nities. Teachers should expect these students change. Girls tend to mature ear- to take a more active role in formulating lier than boys, and they show markedly dif- design problems and establishing constraints ferent interests from their male peers. These in order to ensure that activities reflect students are greatly influenced by their both male and female students’ interests. friends, and they typically reject adult guid- Adolescents need to be given more decision- ance, making them more vulnerable to risky making roles, and they should be encour- behaviors and more apt to present attitudi- aged to have positive interactions with nal difficulties. Likewise, these adolescents adults (e.g., parents, relatives, and other have an increased sense of self and a blos- teachers) as they analyze their design options soming interest in members of the opposite and assess the value and impacts of their gender. Placing middle-level students in solutions. In the process of compiling teams allows them to have smaller commu- eletronic portfolios on the WWW or nities for learning within the larger school using another means of documenting their and enables educational leaders to more progress, these students will be able to effectively satisfy students’ emotional and clearly communicate how they transformed guidance needs as they make the transition their ideas into practical solutions and how to adulthood. they appraised their solution’s functional, aesthetic, social, and economic value. They Students in Grades 6-8 are ready to tackle also will use a variety of informational- more difficult technological problems that technology tools, such as computer-aided make them feel more mature and allow design (CAD), multimedia software, database them to apply concepts and skills from and spreadsheet applications, online search other fields of study, such as mathematics tools, and computer-control systems over and science. Small group activities may be networks, in order to accomplish these tasks. particularly effective in building students’ self-esteem by enabling boys and girls to have success with new and perplexing tasks. Constructing motors and generators from scratch or designing a game contraption that incorporates numerous simple machines and mechanisms to transport marbles or balls through a complicated maze may be well received at this level if students are given the opportunity to work in pairs or teams.

218 APPENDIX D Articulated Curriculum Example

GRADES tudents in Grades 9-12 become Students also might address social issues increasingly independent while con- and conduct environmental impact studies 9-12 tinuing to seek social acceptance. associated with such systems. Their ability to think and visualize S In another scenario, students could work in abstractly provides them with greater “engineering teams” to design and build a flexibility in problem solving. Physical mat- space station simulation, giving full consid- uration during these years results in greater eration to the variety of life-sustaining sys- size, dexterity, and strength as they mature tems required in space. Or perhaps the sim- into young men and women. They develop ulation would be a virtual environment, a clearer definition of their identity and existing in three dimensions on the WWW their role in society, and they begin to for- and accessible and controllable by students mulate life ambitions and goals. Wage earn- across the nation or on another continent. ing is often an immediate interest, with col- lege and vocational decisions weighing A third approach might challenge students heavily on their minds as they complete to design and build a solar-powered car for a their high school “careers.” state-wide competition. Along the way, stu- dents could explore social and environmental Technological studies at the high school impacts, the working of solar cells, and the level should take advantage of the particular various subsystems at work within a car. interests students have during these years. Employment and career options, as well as Summary consumer issues, are relevant topics for Grades 9-12. Instructional activities should The study of technology could be be challenging enough to hold their interest addressed, in part, with a series of articu- and encourage independent thinking as lated activities from Grades K-12 of increas- they pursue solutions to problems encoun- ing sophistication focusing on a particular tered along the way. theme. The transportation activities depicted in this example progress from High school students are quite capable of imaginative play to exploratory design to developing sophisticated designs for sophisticated engineering. The activities research and development projects, so many recommended are developmentally appro- activities at this level should have the look priate, so that students will be challenged and feel of engineering projects. For exam- intellectually every step of the way. On this ple, they could develop a “smart” trans- journey, students will experience a wide portation system that employs computers range of technologies in the context of real- and sensors. Their background research world problems, thereby developing a very could require them to use online U.S. rich understanding of the technological Patent Office searches and technical jour- world in which they live. nals in their search for answers. They could also review the development of the inter- state highway system in the United States.

219

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New York: Oxford University A review and synthesis of the research literature (Informa- Press. tion Series No. 356). Washington, DC: Office of Welch, M. W. (1996). The strategies used by ten grade 7 stu- Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC dents, working in single-sex dyads, to solve a technological Document Reproduction Service No. ED 372 305). problem. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill 226 University, Montreal, Canada. Acknowledgements

The following lists have been compiled as carefully as possible from our records. We apologize to anyone whom we have omitted or whose name, title, or affiliation is incorrect. Inclusion on these lists does not imply endorsement of this document.

Technology for All Americans University, Indiana Project Staff Everett Israel, DTE, CTTE Director, Eastern Michigan University, Michigan William E. Dugger, Jr., DTE, Director Harold Holley, ITEA-CS Director, Oklahoma Pam B. Newberry, Researcher & Contributing Writer Department of Vocational and Technical Education, Melissa Smith, Editor Oklahoma Stephanie Overton, Publications Coordinator Thomas Bell, Region 1 Director, Millersville University, Constance Moehring, Volunteer Librarian & Researcher Pennsylvania Crystal Nichols, Editorial Assistant & Data Coordinator Gary Wynn, DTE, Region 2 Director, Greenfield-Central High, Indiana International Technology Education Duane Rogers, Region 3 Director, Eastern Hills High Association Staff School, Texas Dean Christensen, Region 4 Director, Davis School Kendall Starkweather, DTE, Executive Director District, Utah Thomas Hughes, Jr., Past Director of Foundation Development Standards Team Brigitte Valesey, DTE, Director of Professional Development Grades K-2 and 3-5 Kathie Cluff, Assistant Editor Jane Wheeler, Monte Vista Elementary, California, Leader Katie de la Paz, Advertising/Marketing Coordinator Michael Wright, DTE, University of Missouri-Columbia, Catherine James, Administrative/Website Coordinator Missouri, Recorder Michele Judd, Meeting Planning Coordinator Clare Benson, University of Central England, United Barbara Mongold, Publications Services Coordinator Kingdom Lee Anne Pirrello, Exhibits Coordinator Kristin Callender, Deane Elementary, Colorado Lari Price, Member Services Coordinator Linda S. Hallenbeck, East Woods School, Ohio Moira Wickes, Database Coordinator/Registrar Jane Hill, Brazosport Independent School District, Texas Phyllis Wittmann, Accounting Coordinator Stephan Knobloch, Crossfield Elementary, Virginia Connie Larson, John Wetton Elementary, Oregon International Technology Education Kathy Thornton, University of Virginia, Virginia Association Board of Directors Grades 6-8 Anthony Gilberti, DTE, President, Indiana State Franzie Loepp, DTE, Illinois State University, Illinois, University, Indiana Leader Barry Burke, DTE, President-Elect, Montgomery County Brigitte Valesey, DTE, Center to Advance the Teaching of Public Schools, Maryland Technology & Science (CATTS), Virginia, Recorder Ronald Yuill, DTE, Past-President, Tecumseh Middle William Ball, DTE, Clague Middle, Michigan School, Indiana Barry Burke, DTE, Montgomery County Public Schools, Kendall Starkweather, DTE, Executive Director, ITEA, Maryland Virginia Denise Denton, University of Washington, Washington William Havice, DTE, TECA Director, Clemson Michael Hacker, The State University of New York at University, South Carolina Stony Brook, New York James Kirkwood, DTE, TECC Director, Ball State Chip Miller, Century High, Oregon 227 Tonia Schofield, Sylvan Middle, Georgia Karin Borgh, BioPharmaceutical Technology Center Leon Trilling, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Institute, Madison, Wisconsin Massachusetts Rodger Bybee, Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS), Colorado Springs Grades 9-12 Elsa Garmire, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Rodney Custer, DTE, Illinois State University, Illinois, Hampshire Leader James Rutherford, American Association for the Anthony Gilberti, Indiana State University, Indiana, Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. Recorder Robert Daiber, Triad High, Illinois National Academy of Engineering Focus Jeffrey Grimmer, Mankato East High, Minnesota Group Review Norman Hackerman, The Robert A. Welch Foundation, Texas Alice Agogino, Professor, University of California Michael Jensen, Paonia High, Colorado George Bugliarello, Chancellor, Polytechnic University, Michael Mino, The Gilbert School, Connecticut New York Scott Warner, Lawrenceburg High, Indiana Samuel Florman, Chairman, Kreisler Borg Florman Construction Company, New York George Willcox, Virginia Department of Education, Virginia Elsa Garmire, Professor, Dartmouth College, New Hampshire Carl Hall, Engineer, Engineering Information Services, Representatives Virginia John Truxal, Professor, State University of New York at Carl Hall, National Academy of Engineering, Stony Brook Washington, D.C. Flint Wild, National Aeronautics and Space National Academy of Engineering Administration, Washington, D.C. Special Review Committee Advisory Group Richard Alkire, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Frank Aplan, Pennsylvania State University Rodger Bybee, Executive Director, Center for Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Education, National Shu Chien, University of California, San Diego Research Council, Washington, D.C. George Fox, Grow Tunneling Corporation, New York Daniel Goroff, Mathematics Department, Harvard William Friend, Bechtel Group, Inc., Washington, D.C. University, Massachusetts Elmer Gaden, Jr., University of Virginia Thomas Hughes, Jr., Director of Development, Donald Johnson, Grain Processing Corporation, Iowa Foundation for Technology Education, Virginia Dean Kamen, DEKA Research and Development George Nelson, Director, Project 2061, American Corporation, New Hampshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, David Kingery, University of Arizona, Arizona D.C. John Lee, Texas A&M University, Texas Linda Rosen, Former Executive Director, National Council Margaret LeMone, National Center for Atmospheric of Teachers of Mathematics, Virginia Research, Colorado James Rutherford, Education Advisor, Project 2061, Matthys Levy, Weidlinger Associates, New York American Association for the Advancement of Science, Henry Paynter, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Washington, D.C. Massachusetts Kendall Starkweather, Executive Director, International Greg Pearson, National Academy of Engineering, Technology Education Association, Virginia Washington, D.C. Gerald Wheeler, Executive Director, National Science Jerome Schultz, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Teachers Association, Virginia Hardy Trolander, The Yellow Springs Instrument William Wulf, President, National Academy of Company, Inc., Ohio Engineering, Washington, D.C.

National Research Council’s Standards National Research Council’s Technical Review Committee Review Panelists Dennis Cheek, Rhode Island Department of Education, William A. Wulf, National Academy of Engineering, Rhode Island Washington, D.C., Chair 228 Rodney Custer, DTE, Illinois State University, Illinois Acknowledgements

Denny Davis, Washington State University, Washington William S. Pretzer, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Marie Hoepfl, Appalachian State University, North Village, Michigan Carolina John M. Ritz, DTE, Old Dominion University, Virginia Larry Leifer, Stanford University, California Richard E. Satchwell, Technology for All Americans Peggy Lemone, University Corporation for Atmospheric Project, Virginia Research, Colorado Kendall N. Starkweather, DTE, International Technology Thomas Liao, SUNY at Stony Brook, New York Education Association, Virginia Franzie Loepp, DTE, Illinois State University, Illinois Charles E. Vela, MITRE Corporation, Virginia A. Frank Mayadas, Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, New York, Walter B. Waetjen, Cleveland State University, Ohio New York John G. Wirt, Columbia University, New York Bruce Montgomery, MIT/PSFC, Cambridge, Michael D. Wright, University of Missouri-Columbia, Massachusetts Missouri John Ritz, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia Mark Sanders, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia Field Review Sites Fredrick Stein, CSMATE, Fort Collins, Colorado Agawam Junior High School, Massachusetts—John George Toye, wiTHinc Inc. and Stanford University Burns, James Graveline, and David Littlewood Learning Center, California Agawam Middle School, Massachusetts—Maynard Baker Scott Warner, Lawrenceburg High School, Indiana Belleview High School, Florida—Dale Toney Kenneth Welty, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Wisconsin Bloomfield Hills Middle School, Michigan—Al Binkholz Jane Wheeler, Monte Vista Elementary School, Rohnert Burris Laboratory School, Indiana—James Kirkwood, DTE Park, California *Cass Elementary School, Michigan—James Lauer Caverna Junior/Senior High, Kentucky—Dennis Bledsoe The National Commission for Century High School, Oregon—Chip Miller Technology Education Columbia City Elementary School, Florida—Cheryl Cox (Phase I, 1994-96) Cumberland Valley High, Pennsylvania—Robert Rudolph G. Eugene Martin, School of Applied Arts and Cutler Ridge Middle School, Florida—Jeff Meide Technology, Southwest Texas State University, Texas, Damascus High School, Maryland—Robert Eilers, Robert Chairperson Turnbull, and George Thomas J. Myron Atkin, Stanford University, California Dan River High School, Virginia—Robert Huffman E. Allen Bame, Virginia Tech, Virginia Dublin Scioto High School, Ohio—Kevin Burns M. James Bensen, DTE, Bemidji State University, Forest Hills High School, Pennsylvania—Terry Crissey Minnesota Fruita Monument High School, Colorado—Ed Reed Gene R. Carter, Association for Supervision and G. Ray Bodley High School, New York—Tom Frawley Curriculum Development, Washington, D.C. Gilbert School, Connecticut—Mellissa Ann Morrow Robert A. Daiber, Triad High School, Illinois Gladstone High School, Oregon—Roy DeRousie James E. Davis, Ohio University, Ohio Greenfield-Central High School, Indiana—Gary Wynn, Paul W. Devore, DTE, PWD Associates, West Virginia DTE Ismael Diaz, Fordham University, New York *Grant Wood Elementary, Iowa—Sandra Ann Lawrence William E. Dugger, Jr., DTE, Technology for All Harrisonville Middle and High, Missouri—David Vignery Americans Project, Project Director, Virginia *Hellgate Elementary School, Montana—Bruce Frank L. Huband, The American Society for Engineering Whitehead Education, Washington, D.C. Hermosa Valley School, California—Teri Tsosie Thomas A. Hughes, Jr., Foundation for Technology Education, Virginia Hershey Middle School, Pennsylvania—Kevin Stover Patricia A. Hutchinson, Trenton State College, New Jersey Hobart Middle School, Indiana—Bob Galliher Thomas T. Liao, Sate University of New York at Stony Hoffman T.E.C.H. Center, Illinois—Cecil Miller Brook, New York Homewood High School, Alabama—Leah Griffies Franzie L. Loepp, Center for Mathematics, Science, and John T. Baker Middle School, Maryland—Brian Niekamp Technology, Illinois Kalida High School, Ohio—Dale Liebrecht Elizabeth D. Phillips, Michigan Sate University, Michigan LakeVille High School, Michigan—Dennis Harrand Charles A. Pinder, Northern Kentucky University, Kentucky *Lange Middle School, Missouri—Carole Kennedy 229 Lehman Middle School, Ohio—John Emmons ITEA and TfAAP also would like to express our appreciation Louis M. Klein Middle School, New York—Henry Strada to Jack Frymier and Jill Russell, representatives of Phi Delta Marlboro Middle School, New Jersey—Alan Lang Kappa, for serving as our evaluators throughout Phase II. Monte Vista Elementary School, California—Jane The project staff would like to thank Robert Pool for his Wheeler, Carey Dahlstrom, Diana Klein, Betsy Smith, and expertise and creativity in writing and editing sections of the Carol Licht book. We are also appreciative of his willingness to attend numerous development meetings in order to gain a greater Normal Community West High, Illinois—Jim Boswell understanding of the subject matter and of the project’s vision. Pine River Area, Michigan—Carla Chaponis, Mike Regarding Draft 5, special thanks is extended to John Maskill, and Carol Posey Wells for expertise and suggestions on incorporating Pleasant Hill Elementary School, Texas—Vanessa Jones elements of his Technology Education Biotechnology Rancho Cotate High School, California—Adam Littlefield Curriculum (TEBC) taxonomy. Also, we thank selected Rochelle Township High School, Illinois—Rick Bunton members of the NRC Technical Review Committee for Rocky Hill Middle School, Maryland—Michael Callaway their editorial and content input. Suncoast Elementary School, Florida—Jo Ann Hartge Syosset High School, New York—Barry Borakove Special Appreciation is given to the following schools for allowing us to take photographs for STL: Thomas Dale High School, Virginia—Christopher Kelly Hidden Valley Middle School, Roanoke County, VA., Twelve Corners Middle School, New York—Joseph Priola Ottobine Elementary School, Dayton, VA. Venice High School, Florida—Arnall Cox Vernon Township Public Schools, New Jersey—Mark Thanks also to John McCormick for taking photographs, Wallace, Gaylon Powell Ed Scott and the staff at Harlow Typography for designing Westlake High School, Ohio—Scott Kutz the book, RR Donnelley & Sons Company for printing *Representatives of National Association of Elementary the standards. Also we thank Rhonda Simmerman, School Principals (NAESP) Stephanie Overton, and Brigitte Valesey for their work in editing the standards, and Jeff Swab for help in designing ITEA and TfAAP wish to thank the National Science our homepage. Special appreciation is given to Jack Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Hehn, manager, Education Division, American Institute Space Administration (NASA) for their funding of Phase of Physics for his review and edit of Standard 16, Energy II of the project. Special appreciation is given to Gerhard and Power Technologies. Also we would like to thank Bob Salinger of NSF and Frank Owens of NASA for their Englander of Englander Indexing Services for creating the advice and input. index. Thanks to Deanna Colaianne for help in the final editing of the document.

We would like to thank William Wulf, President of the National Academy of Engineering, who chaired the National Additionally, we wish to acknowledge the TfAAP staff, Research Council Standards Review Committee and the who generously supported each step of the development National Academy of Engineering Focus Group which process. Also, thanks to Jodie Altice, Diane Kitts, Amy reviewed the final drafts of Standards for Technological Literacy. Mearkle, and Taryn Sims, former staff members, for their Also, we would like to thank Greg Pearson, who coordinated enthusiasm and devotion to the project. the National Academy of Engineering Focus Group Review and Special Review Committee. We appreciate the advice and council from Pamela Mountjoy and Flint Wild of NASA. A special thanks to Fred Brown and Gail Connelly Gross of the National Association of Elementary School Principals for their involvement in the field review of the document.

230 Acknowledgements

Reviewers Tyson Brown Sam Cobbins, DTE Alan Brumbaugh Kenneth Cody We would like to express appreciation to all of the reviewers of Silas Bruner Alden Colby Standards for Technological Literacy. This list includes people from around Sharon Brusic Mark Coleman the world who provided valuable input into strengthening the document. George Bugliarello Kathryn Collins There are many different backgrounds represented in this group of Margery Brutscher-Collins Kenneth Collins reviewers who came from the ranks of elementary and secondary teachers; Leah Bug-Townsend Sharon Collins supervisors at the local and state level; teacher educators; administrators Michael Bunner Lizabeth Comer including elementary and secondary school principals; school system Rick Bunton Douglas Cone superintendents; engineers; and scientists; parents; school board members; Walter Burgin Paul Contreras international leaders in technology education; and others. Standards for Barry Burke, DTE Bruce Coon Technological Literacy has been improved in its various iterations as a result Jerry Burmeister Judith Cope of the comments and recommendations of all reviewers. John Burns Charles Corley, DTE Edward Burton William Cosenza, Jr. Gary Aardappel Mohamed Bandok Crystal Blackman Joe Busby Joel Cotton Patrick Abair Victoria Bannan Dennis Bledsoe Jeffrey Bush Sam Cotton George Abel Gary Bannister Cynthia Blodgett- Edward Butler Ed Coughlin Paul Adam Moshe Barak McDeavitt James Butler Bryce Coulter Michael Adams Steven Barbato Roy Blom Peter Butler Peggy Cowan Stephanie Adams Ronald Barker Carla Boeckman Keith Butterfield Arnall Cox Alice Agogino Colleen Barnes Dennis Bohmont Rodger Bybee Barry Cox Paul Agosta Michael Barnes Jill Bohn Fernando Cajas Cheryl Cox Shaul Aharoni Wiley Barnes Kelly Bolender Anthony Calabrese Alan Cram John Aiken Bill Barowy Janet Boltjes Richard Call Caren Cranston Tom Akins Michael Barry Dominick Bonanno Kristin Callender Terry Crissey Ari Vilppu Alamaki Tom Barve Kathleen Bond Michael Callaway Pamela Croft Bryan Albrecht Lynn Basham Paul Bond Allan Cameron Lois Ann Cromwell Nelle Alexander Susan Bastion Ernest Bonner Anne Campbell Terry Cross Donald Allaman Michael Bastoni Wayne Bonsell Brian Canavan Larry Crowder Cynthia Allen Debra Baxter Lewis Boone Roger Cantor Anita Cruikshank Jerry Allen Steven Baylor R. J. Booth Hershey Card David Culver Paul Allen Jon Bean Barry Borakove Vaughn Cardashian Roy Culver Jay Alsdorf Michael Beck Karin Borgh Phillip Cardon Barbara Cummins Richard Ambacher John Beggs Jim Boswell David Carey Glenn Current Alex Amoruso Mark Beise John Brandt Botti Mary Agnes Carling Rodney Custer, DTE Kenneth Amos Thomas Bell Charles Boucher Patrick Carlson Jennifer Cutler Darrell Andelin Gary Bender Roy Boudreau Christopher Carroll F. J. Cutting Byron Anderson Christine Bengston Paul Bouffard Del Carson Christopher Cytera Debbie Anderson Barbara Bennett David Bouvier Frank Casey Osnat Dagan Sheila Anderson Russell Bennett Ramona Bowers James Cedel Richard Dahl Ernie Ando James Bensen Sue Boyer Alverna Champion John Dahlgren Ronald Ankeny Clare Benson Dianne Braden Susan Chandler Robert Daiber Piet Ankiewicz David Beranek Morgan Branch Ken Chapman Richard Daignault Frank Aplan Michael Beranek Chad Brecke David Chatland Wayne Dallas Mike Appel Richard Bergacs Andy Breckon Victor Chavez Thomas D’Apolito, DTE Richard Archibald William Berggren Damuan Breeze John Chen Donald Darrow Spence Armstrong Gordon Bernard Norman Brehm Shu Chien Michael Daugherty Wayne Arndt Kenneth Bertrand Bruce Breilein Vincent Childress Jack Davidson Steven Ashby Julia Best Kenneth Bremer Dean Christensen Kevin Davis Pamela Askeland Carl Betcher Gail Breslauer Jim Christensen Richard Davis Denise Atkinson-Shorey Bill Bewley Carole Briggs Gary Christopher Phillip Dean Robert Austin William Bien Gregory Briggs Karen Christopherson Robert Deans Dwight Back David Biggs Andrew Britten Thomas Claassen Brad Dearing Bruce Baker Keith Bigsby Edward Britton Craig Clark, DTE Beverly DeGraw Richard Baker David Billington Katherine Brophy David Clarke Greg Dehli-Young Maynard Baker Ken Bingman John Brown, DTE Barbara Clements Michael De Miranda Jerry Balistreri, DTE Al Binkholz Paul Brown Toss Cline Carol Denicole William Ball, DTE Burton Bjorn Ron Brown Beatrice Clink Clair Denlinger Allen Bame Gerry Blackburn Timothy Brown Margaret Clinton Denise Denton

231 Ed Denton Rosemary Eskridge Adele Gomez Jo Ann Hartge Patricia Hutchinson Howard Denton Bruce Evans Tom Good Helen Hasegawa Joseph Huttlin Peter Denzin Mark Evans Linda Goodwin Dean Hauenstein Steve Ickes Roy DeRousie Marsh Faber Morris Gordon James Havelka Nicholas Iliadis David Devier, DTE Leonard Fallscheer Dave Gorham Brad Hawk Anthony Infranco Thomas Devlin Eloise Farmer Kenneth Gornto Shirley Hawk Everett Israel, DTE Paul DeVore Geraldine Farmer Daniel Goroff Lynn Hawkins Michael Ive Marc de Vries John Fecik Kevin Gotts Simon Hawkins Michael Izenson Yasin Dhulkifl Paul Fecke Manny Grace Tina Hayden David Izzo Ismael Diaz Sheryl Feinstein Gary Graff Daryl Hayes Ron Jacobitz Dan Dick Esperznaz Fernandez Sandi Graff Douglas Hayhoe Joe Jakopic Eric Dickie John Fialko Kathrine Graham William Haynie, III Lee James James Dieringer William Finer Thomas Gramza Irene Hays David Jarzabek Doug Dillion Craig Firmender Laury Grant Carl Healer Judy Jeffrey Randy Dipner Ronald Fisher Wayne Grant Don Healer Thomas Jeffrey Anthony Docal John Fitzgibbon James Graveline Roland Hebert Susan Jeffries James Dolan James Fitzpatrick Donald Gray Chad Heidorn Gerald Jennings Spencer Dolloff Stephen Florence Joy Gray Neil Heimburge Mike Jensen Tim Dolphay Samuel Florman John Gray, DTE Jan Heinrich Lars Jenssen Jon d’Ombrain Judy Forman Clark Greene Hal Helsley Jeffrey Jobst Lori Donnelson Richard Foster David Greer, DTE Merritt Hemenway Hardy John Robert Dorn Tad Foster Laura Grier Joyce Henstrand Albert Johnson Michael Doyle Gary Foveaux Leah Griffies Tom Hession Arden Johnson David Drexter David Fowler Jeff Greuel Clynell Hibbs Arthur Johnson Mike DuBois Dave Frankmore Ann Grimm Garth Hill Bud Johnson Kenneth Dues David Fraser, DTE Jeffrey Grimmer Gerald Hill Donald Johnson Frank Duggan Tom Frawley Richard Grimsley Jane Hill Glenn Johnson Stephen Duncan Boe Fred June Grivetti Mike Hill Jimmie Johnson Larry Dunekack Kathy Fredrick Eric Gromley Robert Hinderer Ken Johnson Robert Dunkle Richard Freeburg Marvin Grossman Lee Hipkiss Maren Johnson Dorothy Dunn Brad Freeman Peter Grover Linda Hodge Richard Johnson Robert Dunn William Friend Mae Groves Marie Hoepfl Todd Johnson Ron Dunn David Fromal Darren Grumbine Lorna Hofer Alister Jones Phyllis Dunsay Bruce Fuchs Karen Guillet Donald Hoff Docia Jones Phyllis Durden Sherry Fuller Genesta Guirty William Hoffman John Jones Bill Dutton Elmer Gaden, Jr. Jack Gundolfi Anne Holbrook Mark Jones Nancy Dyck Michael Gadler Jean Guzek Jim Holderfield Patricia Jones Michael Dyrenfurth Thomas Gaffney Michael Hacker Harold Holley Vanessa Jones Vanik Eaddy Sue Galayda Norman Hackerman Sidney Holodnick Kathleen Jordan Naomi Edelson Robert Galliher Carl Hader Elroy Holsopple Joe Josephs Glenn Edmison, DTE Carl Gamba Jaonne Hagedorn Michael Hoots Richard Junkins Robert Eilers Joyce Gardner Cindy Hager Gerd Hopken James Justice Mauka Elem Mike Gargiulo Carl Hall Alan Horowitz Roberta Kaar Jeffrey Elkner Elsa Garmire Jack Hall Daniel Householder, Ronald Kahn Deborah Elliott Marlane Garner John Hall DTE Stephen Kahn Audie Ellis Jennifer Gasser Linda Hallenbeck Fred How Marie Kaigler Nathaniel Ellis Cyndi Gaudet Christopher Halloran Mark Howard Lee Kallstrom Nancy Elnor Brett Gehrke Dale Hanson John Howarth Dean Kamen Leo Elshof Peter Genereaux Robert Hanson Tim Howes Tapani Kananoja Mark Emery Bradford George Kevin Hardy James Howlett Gregory Kane John Emmons James Gertz Lawrence Hardy Michael Hoye James Kane Sherman England Elissa Gerzog Paul Harley Hai Hu Anne Kanies Dan Engstrom Don Getzug Henry Harms Robert Huffman Rolland Karlin Ronald Engstrom James Gianoli Andrea Harpine Thomas Hughes, Jr. Robert Karolyi Julie Enstrom Anthony Gilberti Carroll Harr Van Hughes John Karsnitz Thomas Erekson Doran Gillie Dennis Harrand Dale Hummel Wayne Kazmierczak David Erlandson Dorothy Gleason Elden Harris Damon Hummel Philip Keefer Don Eshelby Richard Glueck Myril Harrison Susan Huntleigh-Smith Rob Keeney Neil Eshelman Darlene Godfrey Margaret Harsch William Husby Pat Keig

232 Acknowledgements

Ed Keller James Lauer T. Majors Chip Miller Kathaleen O’Bosky Margaret Keller Keith Lavin Norb Malik Dyann Miller Karen O’Donovan Christopher Kelly Christopher Lawn Chiquita Marbury Kenneth Miller Steven O’Green Colleen Keltos Sandra Ann Lawrence Roger Marchand Kevin Miller Tom Oahs Michale Kemp M. Lazaraton Linda Markert Michael Miller Lynn Ochs James Kendrick Scott LeCrone Suzanne Marks Russell Miller Tom Ochs Carole Kennedy John Ledgerwood Lynn Marra Simon Miller Virginia Okamoto James Kennedy Brett Lee Benjamin Martin Stanley Miller Nancy Oppenlander Kenneth Kern Evelyn Lee Corrie Martin Kevin Milner Susan Oppliger Wanjala Kerre Hillary Lee Gary Martin Charles Minear William Oppliger Scott Kessler John Lee Gene Martin Michael Mino Paul Oravetz Scott Kiesel Lung-Sheng Lee John Martin Andrew Mitchell Richard Ortega Richard Kimbell Mark Leeper Pete Martin Sharon Miya Donna Ostrowski-Cooley Rene Kimura Amanda Leinhos Mike Maskill Hidetoshi Miyakawa Deborah Owens Charlene Kincaid Margaret LeMone Katharine Mason J. P. Mobley Clarence Owens, Sr. Brent Kindred Scott Lenz Joanne Masone Annette Moders Ned Owings Cyril King Victor Leonov Janne Mathes Torin Monahan Brad Paddock David King Bob Lesch Jill Mathes Prokop Robert Montesano Beverly Paeth David Kingery James Levande Nancy Mathras Perry Montoya Brenda Page Mary Kinnick Jane Leven Cole Edward Mattner Kevin Moorhead Cathy Bradley Page James Kirkwood, DTE Walter Lewandowski Kathleen Mau Bob Morris William Paige, DTE Kurt Klefisch Fred Lewis Mike Maxwell Linda Morris Russell Palumbo Glenn Klutz Jerry Lewis Brian McAlister Laura Morrison Ellen Pantazis James Knapp Peter Lewis Joseph McCade Mellissa Ann Morrow Scott Papenfus Zondra Knapp Theodore Lewis Tim McCarty Tim Motherhead Berlin Parker Stephan Knobloch Thomas Liao Gerald McConaghy Denis Mudderman Jill Parker Steve Knox Barbara Libby Robert McCormick Sharon Muenchow Teresa Parks Judith Koenig Dale Liebrecht Ann McCoy Jamie Mulligan James Partridge Matthew Koliba Bill Lind David McCready Clint Mullins Paul Parzych Stan Komacek Leah Lindblom David McCrory Shoji Murata Gale Passenier Kevin Konkel Robert Lindemann Douglas McCue Gregory Murphy Lin Patty Holly Koon Sue Linder Linda McElvenny Harrison Murphy Alan Paul Stephen Koontz William Linder-Scholer Phillip McEndree Janet Murphy Alona Paydon Curt Kornhaus Theodore Lindquist Dennis McGowan Don Musick Judy Payne Susan Kostuch Kerry Lintner Kelli McGregor Veny Musumecci Henry Paynter Denny Kozita Len Litowitz, DTE Randy McGriff Donald Mydzian Mary Pearce John Kraljic David Littlewood Robert McGruder James Myers Diana Pearson Phillip Krueger Chin-Tang Liu Robert McIntosh Ilia Natali Greg Pearson Gerald Kuhn Brent Lockliear Heather McKenna Terry Neddenriep Peter Pedersen M. Kunesh Franzie Loepp, DTE Stephen McKenzie Michael Neden Barbara Pellegrini George Kunkle Kevin Logan Charles McLaughlin Diane Neicheril Michael Pennick Scott Kutz Deborah Longeddy Maggie McLean Mark Nellkam William Pennington Paul Kynerd Roger Lord Tim McNamara George Nelson Marjorie Pentoney Judy Lachvayder Susan Loucks-Horsley Sue McPherson Mary Nemesh Don Perkins Henry Lacy Gerald Lovedahl, DTE Mark McVicker Albert Newberry Todd Perkins John Laffey Diane Lovins Steve Megna Peter Newell Charles Perrin Teri Lampkins Peter Lowe Jeff Meide Gerri Newnum James Perryman Wayne Lancaster Phillip Loyd Martin Meier Richard Nicholson Wesley Perusek Patricia Lancos Steven Lubar Sherry Meier Brian Niekamp Frank Pesce Tabitha Landis Judith Luce Kathleen Melander Chris Nielsen Donald Peterson C. Landry Laura Lull Darcy Mellinger Ken Nimchuk Michael Peterson Alan Lang Charles Lupinek Frank Meoli Ben Ninoke Bruce Peto Wayne Lang Pierre Lussier Joseph Merenda, Jr. Scott Noles Stephen Petrina James LaPorte Robert Lyle LaVon Merkel Lee Noonan Edward Pfeifer Ted Larsen James Lynch Jody Messinger Gerald Nordstrom Betty Phillips Connie Larson Kathleen MacNaughton Howard Middleton Hana Novakova Dennis Phillips Gini Larson Lee Madrid Dan Migliorini James Novotny Kenneth Phillips Victor Larson Tara Magi John Mihaloew Brian Nulsan David Pickhardt Stanley Lathrop G. S. Mailhot, Sr. Al Miller J. Nuzzo Thomas Pieratt

233 Alan Pierce George Rockhold Marvin Selnes Howard Stob Bill Turner Randal Pierce Rose Rodd Bolivar Senior Ken Stovall Hank Turner Steven Pille Mark Rodriguez Marty Sexton Kevin Stover William Turner David Pilo Nelson Rodriquez Robert Sexton Scott Stowell Matthew Uibel Charles Pinder John Roeder Ray Shackelford Henry Strada Scott Underwood Liliane Pintar Steve Rogers Rich Shadrin Nancy Strada Brian Uslan Theodore Piwowar Harry Roman Richard Shadrin Jason Strate Charles Utz Kelly Podzimek Ruben Romero Don Shalvey Beth Stroh John Vaglia Beth Politz Douglas Root Theodore Shatagin Eric Suhr Richard Valencia Gary Porter Mary Rose Kathy Sheehan Gregory Sullivan Edward Valentukonis Carol Posey Linda Rosen Jeenson Sheen Kazuhiro Sumi Joyce Valenza Paul Post Becky Ross John Sheley Gary Surratt Linda Valenzuela Andy Potter Raymond Ross Leonard Shepherd Kris Swanson Brigitte Valesey, DTE Richard Potts Jerry Roth Rick Shepker Darlina Swartz Dean Vanderbyl Gaylon Powell Zipora Roth Mark Sherman Rick Swartz Eric Van Duzer J. Powell Christopher Rowe George Shield Andrew Sweeney Arvid Van Dyke Bill Powers Rob Roy Mary Shield Neal Swernofsky Paul Van Hulle Eldon Prawl Ruth Rozen Geoffrey Shilleto John Sylvester Carol VanSpybrook William Pretzer Robert Rudolph Scott Shook Mary Szoka Marguerite Vavalla Hugh Price James Rutherford Thomas Shown Judy Tamfu Steve Vergara Joseph Priola Ernest Ruiz Deborah Shumate-Wesbrook Ed Taylor Margaret Vescio Kurt John Proctor John Ryden Matt Sinclair Rick Taylor Paul Vetrano Dennis Ptak Betsy Rymes Ron Skalsky Terrance Taylor David Vignery Annie Purtill Matt Sabin Dennis Skurulsky Becki Teague Chris Vodopich Katrina Pyatt Marsha Sagmoe Jeffrey Smith Jim Teicher Daniel Vrudny David Quinn Nicasio Salerno Robert Smith Jeffrey Testa Scott Vugteveen Anna Quinzio-Zafran Esteban Salinas Rus Smith Paul Thallner Walter Waetjen Sidney Rader Gerhard Salinger Terrel Smith Charles Theis Doug Wagner Daniel Raether Frank San Felice Theresa Smith George Thomas Vincent Walencik William Ragiel Vern Sandberg Thomas Smith John Thomas Carmen Walker Senta Raizen Mark Sanders Woodrow Smith Daniel Thompson Terry Walker Richard Ralstin Karen Sanko Bart Smoot Duren Thompson Mark Wallace Gene Ranger Richard Sanko William Snelson Eric Thompson Gregg Walls Gregory Ratliff Gary Santin Kyo Song Kristy Thompson Kathleen Walters Robert Raudebaugh Scott Sassaman Valerie Sorensen Steven Thompson Cathy Walton Martin Reardon Richard Satchwell Lawrence Soscia Carole Thomson Kin Kwok Wan David Redding B. D. Satterthwaite Linda Southworth Charles Thorneycroft Changhua Wang Roderick Reece Ernest Savage, Joseph Spadavecchia Kathy Thornton Daniel Wang Ed Reed DTE Loretta Speed Kathy Tibone Ding Ming Wang Julene Reed Randy Schaeffer Ken Spellman Wade Tischner Michael Warner Philip Reed Barry Schartz John Spencer Barbara Todd Scott Warner Edward Reeve Arthur Schattle Mark Spoerk Donald Todd Shelly Wasson-McRel David Reeves Glenn Schenenga Kevin Squires Ronald Todd Peggy Watson James Regilski Jo Schiffbauer Kay Stables Norman Tomazic Gina Webber JoAnne Reid K. Schipper Cathy Stacy Dale Toney Brian Webberley Rondel Reynolds Brian Schmidt Richard Stacy Steven Topp Robert Weber Jeff Rhodus Rick Schmidt Craig Stahly Sherri Torkelson Jerry Weddle Michael Ribelin Diane Schmidtke Jan Stark Dorothy Towler Paul Weir Mark Richardson Laurie Schmitt Ken Starkman Alicia Townsend Barry Weisberg Barbara Riester Jane Schmottlach Kendall Starkweather Bernie Trilling Cheryl Welch Diana Rigden Tonia Schofield Gregg Steele, DTE Leon Trilling Malcolm Welch Marian Rippy Frederick Schroedl Nicholas Steill Hardy Trolander Sandra Wellens Patricia Ritchey Jerome Schultz Sam Steindel Dan Troshynski Chris Weller John Ritz Anthony Schwaller, Paul Stengel Dan Troxel Jack Wellman David Roae DTE Katherine Stephens Philip Trudeau John Wells Donna Roberson Robert Scidmore Leonard Sterry John Truxal Ken Welty Jessie Roberts Mark Sebek Mike Stevens Teri Tsosie Rob Weneck Roger Robidoux Debra Seeley Gary Stewardson Dave Tundo Daniel Weselak Marsha Robison David Seidel Lori Stewart Robert Turnbull Geoffrey Westervelt

234 Acknowledgements

Gerald Wheeler Barbara Worden Vignette Credits Jane Wheeler Wes Worley Mary White Charles Wright page 29. Creating a safer working environment. Adapted from a vignette Bill Whited John Wright written by James Graveline, Agawam Junior High School. Bruce Whitehead Michael Wright, DTE page 37. The bicycle as a vehicle for learning. Written by Michael Wright, Petrina Whiteside Thomas Wright, DTE Southwest Missouri State University. Jack Whiting William Wulf page 47. Helping out Stuart Little. Adapted from a Project UPDATE vignette. Lorraine Whitman Connie Wyant Mike Whittaker Mary Wyatt page 53. A hands-on experience. Adapted from a vignette written by Skip Wiarda Gary Wynn, DTE Sharon Brusic, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Robert Wicklein, DTE Rusty Wynn page 64. Students plan new airport site. Written by Sharon Brusic, Chris Widmer John Wyrick Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Sandy Wiegers Dorothy Yager page 70. The best bag in Agawam. Adapted from a vignette written by Emerson Wiens Joseph Yarbrough John Burns, Agawam Junior High School. Flint Wild Connie Yeatts page 75. The development of the button. Adapted from a vignette written Jim Wiljanen Wallace Yoho, DTE by Sharon Brusic, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. George Willcox Deanna Young Darrell Williams Posey Young page 82. A time line comparison of communicating a message. Written by Deborah Williams Robert Young Catherine Ney, Christiansburg Middle School. John Williams LaVerne Young-Hawkins page 96. Designing a gift of appreciation. Adapted from a vignette written Marcia Williams Chien Yu by Sharon Brusic, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. David Wilson Ronald Yuill, DTE page 101. Can you help Mike Mulligan? Adapted from a vignette written Mark Wilson John Zahn by Marie Kellam-Cook and Amy Hackett, students of James Melissa Wing-Ronca Edward Zak Kirkwood, Ball State University. George Winner Ron Zanini page 109. Navigational technology. Adapted from a vignette written by John Wirt Kimberly Zeidler Jane Wisniewski Eric Zelanko David Bixby and Bruce Whitehead, Hellgate Elementary School. Kendra Wofford Pamela Zelaya page 117. Building something to float. Adapted from a vignette written by Leonard Wolf Fredele Zouzounis Carole Thomson, Northern College, Scotland. Chris Wonderly Jim Zucchetti page 122. The great paper car race. Adapted from a vignette written by Bobby Woods Karen Zuga Bob Galliher, Hobart Middle School. page 125. The America’s cup challenge. Written by Rob Cronk, reprinted with permission from International Technology Education Association. (1995). Technology Learning Activities II. Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association, 22. page 129. Take it apart. Reprinted with permission from Wells, J. G. and S. A. Brusic. (1993). Mission 21: Launching technology across the curriculum. New York: Delmar Publishers, Inc., 128-131. page 136. Clean up an oil spill. Adapted from a vignette written by Tiffany Cupp, Cassie Fugiett, Sarah Meyers, and Jenny Shumowsky students of James Kirkwood, Ball State University. page 144. A Pharmacy connection. Suggested by J.G. Wells, West Virginia University. page 157. Hydroponics system. Written by Franzie Loepp, DTE, Illinois State University. page 161. Developing and producing a product or system collaboratively. Adapted from the work of Linda Gostomski and Pat Ward-Mytinger, Roosevelt Elementary School. page 172. Communication through a home page on the web. Adapted from a vignette written by Scott Kutz, Westlake High School. page 188. A team approach to plastics. Adapted from a vignette written by Sharon Brusic, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. page 197. A look at energy efficient homes. Adapted from a vignette written by Scott Kutz, Westlake High School. page 215-219. Articulated curriculum example from Grades K-12. Written by Sharon Brusic and Mark Sanders, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. 235 Glossary

The terms defined and described in this glossary apply specifically to Standards for Technological Literacy. These terms may have broader meanings in different contexts.

Agriculture — The raising of crops and animals for food, Biological processes — The processes characteristic of, or feed, fiber, fuel, or other useful products. resulting from, the activities of living organisms. Agroforestry — Land management for the simultaneous Biotechnology — Any technique that uses living organ- production of food, crops, and trees or the intentional isms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products, designing of land through a system of planting trees, shrubs, improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms crops, or forage in order to improve habitat values, access by for specific uses. humans and wildlife, and woody plant products. Brainstorming — A method of shared problem solving in Alternative energy source — Any sources or resources of which all members of a group spontaneously and in an energy that are renewable through natural processes, can be unrestrained discussion generate ideas. renewed artificially, or that are regarded as practically inex- Bronze Age — The stage or level of development of haustible. These include solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and human culture that followed the Stone Age and was char- wood resources. Also referred to as renewable energy. acterized by the use of bronze tools and weapons and Alternative fuel — Transportation fuels other than gaso- ended with the advent of the Iron Age; about 3000 B.C.E. line or diesel. Includes natural gas, methanol, and ethanol. to 1100 B.C.E. Articulate — A planned sequence of curriculum and Build — To make something by joining materials or com- course offerings from Grades K-12. ponents together into a composite whole. Artifact — A human-made object. By-product — Something produced in the making of some- Artificial ecosystem — Human-made environment or thing else; a secondary result; a side effect. system that functions as a replication of or to produce the CAD (computer-aided design or computer-aided drafting) — equivalent of the natural environment. 1. (Design) The use of a computer to assist in the process of Assessment — 1. An evaluation technique for technology designing a part, circuit, building, etc. 2. (Drafting) The use that requires analyzing benefits and risks, understanding the of a computer to assist in the process of creating, storing, trade-offs, and then determining the best action to take in retrieving, modifying, plotting, and communicating a order to ensure that the desired positive outcomes outweigh technical drawing. the negative consequences. 2. An exercise, such as an activity, Capital — One of the basic resources used in a technolog- portfolio, written test, or experiment that seeks to measure a ical system. Capital (money) is the accumulated finances student’s skills or knowledge in a subject area. Information and goods devoted to the production of other goods. may be collected about teacher and student performance, stu- Category — As used in this document, the large organizers dent behavior, and classroom atmosphere. for the study of technology. The categories are: The Nature Batch production — The process of producing parts of Technology, Technology and Society, Design, Abilities for or components in quantity to be assembled into larger a Technological World, and The Designed World. products. Chemical technology — Any technological process that Benchmark — 1. A written statement that describes the modifies, alters, or produces chemical substances, ele- specific developmental components by various grade levels ments, or compounds. (K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12) that students should know or be Closed-loop system — A system that uses feedback from able to do in order to achieve a standard. 2. A criteria by the output to control the input. which something can be measured or judged. Cognitive knowledge — The level of understanding just Biodegradable — The ability of a substance to be broken beyond comprehension (basic understanding of meaning). down physically and/or chemically by natural biological This may include the application of rules, methods, con- processes, such as by being digested by bacteria or fungi. cepts, principles, laws, and theories. Bioengineering — Engineering applied to biological and Combining — The joining of two or more materials by medical systems, such as biomechanics, biomaterials, and such processes as fastening, coating, and making composites. biosensors. Bioengineering also includes biomedical engi- Communication — The successful transmission of informa- neering as in the development of aids or replacements for tion through a common system of symbols, signs, behavior, defective or missing body organs. 236 speech, writing, or signals. Glossary

Communication system — A system that forms a link Culture — The beliefs, traditions, habits, and values con- between a sender and a receiver, making possible the trolling the behavior of the majority of the people in a exchange of information. social-ethnic group. These include the people’s way of Complex system — A system consisting of intercon- dealing with their problems of survival and existence as a nected or interwoven parts that interact in such a way continuing group. as to produce a global output that cannot always be Curriculum — The subject matter that teachers and stu- predicted. dents cover in their studies. It describes and specifies the Component — A part or element of a whole that can be methods, structure, organization, balance and presentation separated from or attached to a system. of the content. Compost — Substance composed mainly of partly Curriculum development — The process of planned decayed organic material, used to fertilize the soil and development of curriculum pedagogy, instruction, and increase its humus content. Usually made from plant presentation modes. materials (e.g., grass clippings and leaves), manure, and Custom production — A type of production in which soil, and can include chemical fertilizers and lime. products are designed and built to meet the specific needs Computer — A machine for carrying out calculations and and wants of an individual. performing specified transformations of information, such Data — Raw facts and figures that can be used to draw a as storing, sorting, correlating, retrieving and processing conclusion. data. Data processing system — A system of computer hard- Conditioning processes — Processes (using force, heat, ware and software to carry out a specified computational cold, electricity, etc.) in which the internal structure of a task. material is changed to alter its properties to make it Decision making — The act of examining several possi- stronger, improve its function or appearance. ble behaviors and selecting from them the one most likely Consequence — An effect that naturally follows and is to accomplish the individual’s or group’s intention. caused by a previous action or condition; referred to as an Cognitive processes such as reasoning, planning, and judg- outcome. ment are involved. Conservation — The preservation and protection of the Decode — To convert a coded message into understand- environment and the wise use of natural resources. able form using ordinary language. Constraint — A limit to the design process. Constraints Design — An iterative decision-making process that pro- may be such things as appearance, funding, space, materi- duces plans by which resources are converted into prod- als, and human capabilities. ucts or systems that meet human needs and wants or solve Construction — The systematic act or process of build- problems. ing, erecting, or constructing buildings, roads, or other Design brief — A written plan that identifies a problem structures. to be solved, its criteria, and its constraints. The design Control — An arrangement of chemical, electronic, electrical, brief is used to encourage thinking of all aspects of a prob- and mechanical components that commands or directs the lem before attempting a solution. management of a system. Design principle — Design rules regarding rhythm, bal- Control system — An assemblage of control apparatus coordi- ance, proportion, variety, emphasis, and harmony, used to nated to execute a planned set of actions. evaluate existing designs and guide the design process. Convention — A technique, practice, or procedure that is Design process — A systematic problem-solving strategy, established by usage and widely accepted. with criteria and constraints, used to develop many possi- ble solutions to solve a problem or satisfy human needs Creative thinking — The ability or power used to pro- and wants and to winnow (narrow) down the possible duce original thoughts and ideas based upon reasoning solutions to one final choice. and judgment. Design proposal — A written plan of action for a solu- Credentialed teachers — Teachers who are licensed by a tion to a proposed problem. state department of education in a particular area of com- petence in order to be qualified to teach a particular sub- Develop — To change the form of something through a ject or group of subjects. succession of states or stages, each of which is preparatory to the next. The successive changes are undertaken to improve Criterion — A desired specification (element or feature) the quality of or refine the resulting object or software. of a product or system. Developmentally appropriate — Educational programs Critical thinking — The ability to acquire information, and methods that are intended to match the needs of stu- analyze and evaluate it, and reach a conclusion or answer dents in the areas of cognition, physical activity, emotional by using logic and reasoning skills. growth, and social adjustment.

237 Diagnose — To determine, by analysis, the cause of a Experimentation — 1. The act of conducting a con- problem or the nature of something. trolled test or investigation. 2. The act of trying out a new Discipline — A formal branch of knowledge or teaching procedure, idea, or activity. (e.g., biology, geography, and engineering) that is system- Fact — A statement or piece of information that is true or atically investigated, documented, and taught. a real occurrence. Drawing — A work produced by representing an object Feedback — Using all or a portion of the information or outlining a figure, plan, or sketch by means of lines. A from the output of a system to regulate or control the drawing is used to communicate ideas and provide direc- processes or inputs in order to modify the output. tion for the production of a design. Figure — A written symbol, other than a letter, represent- Durable goods — An item that can be used for many ing an item or relationship, especially a number, design, or years. graphic representation. Economy — The system or range of economic activity, Forecast — A statement about future trends, usually as a such as production, distribution, and consumption in a probability, made by examining and analyzing available country, region, or community that manages domestic information. A forecast is also a prediction about how affairs and resources. something will develop usually as a result of study and Educational technology — Using multimedia technolo- analysis of available pertinent data. gies or audiovisual aids as a tool to enhance the teaching Forming — The process that changes the shape and size and learning process. of a material without cutting it. Efficient — Operating or performing in an effective and Grade level — A stage in the development of a child’s educa- competent manner with a minimum of wasted time, tion; an acceptable grouping of different grades in school (e.g., energy, or waste products. K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12). Emergent — Occurring as a consequence. Guidance system — A system that provides information Encode — To change a message into symbols or a form for guiding the path of a vehicle by means of built-in that can be transmitted by a communication system. equipment and control. Energy — The ability to do work. Energy is one of the Human factors engineering — See Ergonomics. basic resources used by a technological system. Human wants and needs — Human wants refers to Engineer — A person who is trained in and uses technologi- something desired or dreamed of, and human needs refers cal and scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. to something that is required or a necessity. Engineering — The profession of or work performed by Hydroponics — A technique of growing plants without soil, an engineer. Engineering involves the knowledge of the in water or sometimes an inert medium (e.g., sand) containing mathematical and natural sciences (biological and physi- dissolved nutrients. cal) gained by study, experience, and practice that are Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) — The com- applied with judgment and creativity to develop ways to puter language used to create World Wide Web pages, utilize the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of with hyperlinks and markup for text formatting. mankind. Impact — The effect or influence of one thing on Engineering design — The systematic and creative applica- another. Some impacts are anticipated, and others are tion of scientific and mathematical principles to practical ends unanticipated. such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient Industrial Revolution — A period of inventive activity, and economical structures, machines, processes, and systems. beginning around 1750 in Great Britain. During this Ergonomics — The study of workplace equipment design or period, industrial and technological changes resulted in how to arrange and design devices, machines, or workspace so mechanized machinery that replaced much of which was that people and things interact safely and most efficiently. Also previously manual work. The Industrial Revolution was called human factors analysis or human factors engineering. responsible for many social changes, as well as changes in Ethical — Conforming to an established set of principles the way things were manufactured. or accepted professional standards of conduct. Information — One of the basic resources used by tech- Evaluation — 1. The collection and processing of infor- nological systems. Information is data and facts that have mation and data in order to determine how well a design been organized and communicated in a coherent and meets the requirements and to provide direction for meaningful manner. improvements. 2. A process used to analyze, evaluate, and Information Age — A period of activity starting in the appraise a student’s achievement, growth, and perfor- 1950s and continuing today in which the gathering, mance through the use of formal and informal tests and manipulation, classification, storage, and retrieval of infor- techniques. mation is central to the workings of society. Information is presented in various forms to a large population of the 238 Glossary world through the use of machines, such as computers, Irradiation — Treatment through the use of ionizing facsimile machines, copiers, and CD-ROMs. The radiation, such as X-rays or radioactive sources (e.g., Information Age was enhanced by the development of the radioactive iridium seeds). Internet; an electronic means to exchange information in Irrigation system — A system that uses ditches, pipes, or short periods of time, often instantaneously. streams to distribute water artificially. Information system — A system of elements that receive Iterative — Describing a procedure or process that repeat- and transfer information. This system may use different edly executes a series of operations until some condition is types of carriers, such as satellites, fiber optics, cables, and satisfied. An iterative procedure may be implemented by a telephone lines, in which switching and storage devices are loop in a routine. often important parts. Just-in-Time (JIT) manufacturing — A systems approach Infrastructure — 1. The basic framework or features of a to developing and operating a manufacturing system, in system or organization. 2. The basic physical systems of a which manufacturing operation component parts arrive just country’s or a community’s population, including trans- in time to be picked up by a worker and used. portation and utilities. Kinetic energy — The energy possessed by a body as a Innovation — An improvement of an existing technologi- result of its motion. cal product, system, or method of doing something. Knowledge — 1. The body of truth, information, and Inorganic — Lacking the qualities, structure, and composi- principles acquired by mankind. 2. Interpreted informa- tion of living organisms; inanimate. tion that can be used. Input — Something put into a system, such as resources, Laboratory-classroom — The formal environment in in order to achieve a result. school where the study of technology takes place. At the In-service — 1. A full-time employee. 2. Workshops and elementary school, this environment will likely be a regu- lectures designed to keep practicing professionals abreast lar classroom. At the middle and high school levels, a sepa- of the latest developments in their field. rate laboratory with areas for hands-on activities as well as Instructional technology — The use of computers, multi- group instruction, could constitute the environment. media, and other technological tools to enhance the teaching Literacy — Basic knowledge and abilities required to and learning process. Sometimes referred to as educational function adequately in one’s immediate environment. technology. Machine — A device with fixed and moving parts that Integration — The process of bringing all parts together modifies mechanical energy in order to do work. into a whole. Maintenance — The work needed to keep something in Intelligence — The capacity to acquire knowledge and proper condition; upkeep. the skilled use of reason; the ability to comprehend. Management — The act of controlling production Intelligent transportation system — Proposed evolution processes and ensuring that they operate efficiently and of the entire transportation system involving the use of effectively; also used to direct the design, development, information technologies and advances in electronics in production, and marketing of a product or system. order to revolutionize all aspects of the transportation net- Manufacturing — The process of making a raw material work. These technologies include the use of the latest into a finished product; especially in large quantities. computers, electronics, communications, and safety sys- Manufacturing system — A system or group of systems tems to provide traffic control, freeway and incident man- used in the manufacturing process to make products for agement, and emergency response. an end user. Interdisciplinary instruction — An educational approach Market — 1. A subset of the population considered to be where the students study a topic and its related issues in the interested in the buying of goods or services. 2. A place context of various academic areas or disciplines. where goods are offered for sale. Intermodalism — The use of more than one form of Marketing — The act or process of offering goods or ser- transportation. vices for sale. Internet — The worldwide network of computer links, Mass production — The manufacture of goods in large begun in the 1970s, which today allows computer users to quantities by means of machines, standardized design and connect with other computer users in nearly every coun- parts, and, often, assembly lines. try, and speaking many languages. Material — The tangible substance (chemical, biological, Invention — A new product, system, or process that has or mixed) that goes into the makeup of a physical object. never existed before, created by study and experimentation. One of the basic resources used in a technological system. Iron Age — The period of human culture characterized Mathematics — The science of patterns and order and by the smelting of iron and its use in industry beginning the study of measurement, properties, and the relation- after the Bronze Age somewhat before 1000 B.C.E. in ships of quantities; using numbers and symbols. western Asia and Egypt. 239 Measurement — The process of using dimensions, quan- Open-loop system — A control system that has no means for tity, or capacity by comparison with a standard in order to comparing the output with input for control purposes. Control mark off, apportion, lay out, or establish dimensions. of open-loop systems often requires human intervention. Medical technology — Of or relating to the study of Optimization — An act, process, or methodology used to medicine through the use of and advances of technology, make a design or system as effective or functional as possi- such as medical instruments and apparatus, imaging sys- ble within the given criteria and constraints. tems in medicine, and mammography. Related terms: bio- Output — The results of the operation of any system. medical engineering and medical innovations. People — One of the basic resources in a technological sys- Medicine — The science of diagnosing, treating, or pre- tem. Humans design, develop, produce, use, manage, and venting disease and other damage to the body or mind. assess products and systems. Message — 1. The information sent by one source to Plan — A set of steps, procedures, or programs, worked out another, usually short and transmitted by words, signals, beforehand in order to accomplish an objective or goal. or other means. 2. An arbitrary amount of information Political — Of or relating to the structure and affairs of a whose beginning and end are defined or implied. government, state, or locality and their related politics. Micro-processing system — A computer made up of Pollution — The changing of a natural environment, integrated circuits that is capable of high speed electronic either by natural or artificial means, so that the environ- operations. ment becomes harmful or unfit for living things; especially Middle Ages — The period in European history between applicable to the contamination of soil, water, or the antiquity and the Renaissance, often dated from A.D. 476 atmosphere by the discharge of harmful substances. to 1453. Portfolio — A systematic and organized collection of a stu- Mixed-natural materials — Natural materials modified dent’s work that includes results of research, successful and to improve their properties. Mixed-natural materials may less successful ideas, notes on procedures, and data collected. be leather, plywood, or paper, for example. Potential energy — The energy of a particle, body, or sys- Mobility — The quality or state of being mobile; capable tem that is determined by its position or structure. of moving or being moved. Power — 1. The amount of work done in a given period of Model — A visual, mathematical, or three-dimensional time. 2. The source of energy or motive force by which a representation in detail of an object or design, often physical system or machine is operated. smaller than the original. A model is often used to test Power system — A technological system that transforms ideas, make changes to a design, and to learn more about energy resources to power. what would happen to a similar, real object. Pre-service — Undergraduate coursework taken by those Module — A self-contained unit. intending to teach. Multimedia — Information that is mixed and transmitted Problem solving — The process of understanding a prob- from a number of formats (e.g., video, audio, and data). lem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and evaluating the Natural material — Material found in nature, such as plan in order to solve a problem or meet a need or want. wood, stone, gases, and clay. Procedural knowledge — Knowing how to do something. Network — An interconnected group or system. The Process — 1. Human activities used to create, invent, Internet is a network of computers. design, transform, produce, control, maintain, and use Noise — An outside signal that interrupts, interferes, or products or systems; 2. A systematic sequence of actions reduces the clarity of a transmission. that combines resources to produce an output. Non-biodegradable — The inability of a substance to be Produce — To create, develop, manufacture, or construct a broken down (decomposed) and therefore retaining its human-made product. form for an extended period of time. Product — A tangible artifact produced by means of either Non-durable goods — Items that do not last and are human or mechanical work, or by biological or chemical constantly consumed, such as paper products. processes. Nonlinear — Not in a straight line. Product lifecycle — Stages a product goes through from Nonrenewable — An object, thing, or resource that concept and use to eventual withdrawal from the market- cannot be replaced. place. Product life cycle stages include research and devel- Nuclear power — Power, the source of which is nuclear opment, introduction, market development, exploitation, fission or fusion. maturation, saturation, and finally decline. Obsolescence — Loss in the usefulness of a product or Production system — A technological system that system because of the development of an improved or involves producing products and systems by manufacturing superior way of achieving the same goal. (on the assembly line) and construction (on the job). 240 Glossary

Propulsion system — A system that provides the energy Scientific inquiry — The use of questioning and close source, conversion, and transmission of power to move a examination using the methodology of science. vehicle. Sender — A person or equipment that causes a message to Prototype — A full-scale working model used to test a be transmitted. design concept by making actual observations and neces- Separating — The process of using machines or tools to sary adjustments. divide materials. Quality control — A system by which a desired standard Service — 1. The installation, maintenance, or repairs of quality in a product or process is maintained. Quality provided or completed by a dealer, manufacturer, owner, control usually requires feeding back information about or contractor. 2. The performance of labor for the benefit measured defects to further improvements of the process. of another. Receiver — The part of a communication system that Side effect — A peripheral or secondary effect, especially picks up or accepts a signal or message from a channel and an undesirable secondary effect. Some side effects become converts it to perceptible forms. the central basis for new developments. Recycle — To reclaim or reuse old materials in order to Sketch — A rough drawing representing the main features make new products. of an object or scene and often made as a preliminary study. Renaissance — The transitional movement in Europe Skill — An ability that has been acquired by training or between medieval and modern times beginning in the experience. 14th century in Italy, lasting into the 17th century, and Society — A community, nation, or broad grouping of marked by a humanistic revival of classical influence people having common traditions, institutions, and collec- expressed in a flowering of the arts and literature and by tive activities and interests. the beginnings of modern science. Solution — A method or process for solving a problem. Renewable — Designation of a commodity or resource, such as solar energy or firewood, that is inexhaustible or Standard stock items — A supply of items that are com- capable of being replaced by natural ecological cycles or monly used and kept in inventory for quick access. sound management practices. Standardization — The act of checking or adjusting by Requirements — The parameters placed on the develop- comparison with a standard. ment of a product or system. The requirements include Stone Age — The first known period of prehistoric the safety needs, the physical laws that will limit the devel- human culture characterized by the use of stone tools. opment of an idea, the available resources, the cultural Structural system — A system comprised of the frame- norms, and the use of criteria and constraints. work or basic structure of a vehicle. Research and development (R&D) — The practical Structure — Something that has been constructed or built application of scientific and engineering knowledge for of many parts and held or put together in a particular way. discovering new knowledge about products, processes, and Subsystem — A division of a system that, in itself, has the services, and then applying that knowledge to create new characteristics of a system. and improved products, processes, and services that fill market needs. Support system — 1. A network of personnel or profession- als that provides life, legal, operational, maintenance, and Resource — The things needed to get a job done. In a economic support for the safe and efficient operation of a technological system, the basic technological resources are: system, such as a transportation system. 2. The technical sys- energy, capital, information, machines and tools, materi- tem that supports the operation of a system, as in a life sup- als, people, and time. port system on board the Shuttle. Risk — The chance or probability of loss, harm, failure, Suspension system — A system of springs and other or danger. devices that insulates the passenger compartment of a Sanitation — The design and practice of methods for vehicle from shocks transmitted by the wheels and axles. solving basic public health problems, such as drainage, Sustainable — 1. Of, relating to, or being a method of water and sewage treatment, and waste removal. harvesting or using a resource so that the resource is not Scale — A proportion between two sets of dimensions depleted or permanently damaged. 2. Relating to a used in developing accurate, larger or smaller prototypes, human activity that can be sustained over the long term, or models of design ideas. without adversely affecting the environmental conditions Schematic — A drawing or diagram of a chemical, electri- (soil conditions, water quality, climate) necessary to sup- cal, or mechanical system. port those same activities in the future. Science — The study of the natural world through obser- Symbol — An arbitrary or conventional sign that is used vation, identification, description, experimental investiga- to represent operations, quantities, elements, relations, or tion, and theoretical explanations. qualities or to provide directions or alert one to safety. 241 Synthetic material — Material that is not found in Thematic unit — Set of lesson presentations that orga- nature, such as glass, concrete, and plastics. nize classroom instruction around certain texts, activities, System — A group of interacting, interrelated, or interde- and learning episodes related to a topic(s). A thematic unit pendent elements or parts that function together as a might integrate several content areas. whole to accomplish a goal. Tool — A device that is used by humans to complete a task. Systems-oriented thinking — A technique for looking at Trade-off — An exchange of one thing in return for a problem in its entirety, looking at the whole, as distinct another; especially relinquishment of one benefit or from each of its parts or components. Systems-oriented advantage for another regarded as more desirable. thinking takes into account all of the variables and relates Transmit — To send or convey a coded or non-coded social and technological characteristics. message from a source to a destination. Technological design — See Engineering design. Transportation system — The process by which passengers Technological literacy — The ability to use, manage, or goods are moved or delivered from one place to another. understand, and assess technology. Trend — 1. A tendency; 2. A general direction. Technological literacy standard — A written statement Trend analysis — A comparative study of the component that specifies the knowledge (what students should know) parts of a product or system and the tendency of a product and process (what students should be able to do) students or system to develop in a general direction over time. should possess in order to be technologically literate. Trial and error — A method of solving problems in Technology — 1. Human innovation in action that which many solutions are tried until errors are reduced or involves the generation of knowledge and processes to minimized. develop systems that solve problems and extend human Troubleshoot — To locate and find the cause of problems capabilities. 2. The innovation, change, or modification of related to technological products or systems. the natural environment to satisfy perceived human needs and wants. Use — The act or practice of employing something to put it into action or service. Technology education — A study of technology, which provides an opportunity for students to learn about the Vignette — A brief description or verbal snapshot of how a processes and knowledge related to technology that are standard or group of standards may be implemented in the needed to solve problems and extend human capabilities. laboratory-classroom. Technological studies — See Technology education. Virtual — Simulation of the real thing in such a way that it presents reality in essence or in effect though not in actual fact. Technological transfer — The process by which prod- ucts, systems, knowledge, or skills, developed under fed- Vocational education — Training within an educational eral research and development funding, is translated into institution that is intended to prepare an individual for a commercial products to fulfill public and private needs. particular career or job. Telemedicine — The investigation, monitoring, and Waste — Refuse or by-products that perceived as useless, management of patients and the education of patients and and must be consumed, left over, or thrown away. staff using systems which allow ready access to expert Work — The transfer of energy from one physical system to advice and patient information, no matter where the another, expressed as the product of a force and the distance patient or the relevant information is located. The three through which it moves a body in the direction of that force. main dimensions of telemedicine are health service, World Wide Web (WWW) — An abstract (imaginary) telecommunications, and medical computer technology. space of information, which includes documents, color Test — 1. A method for collecting data. 2. A procedure images, sound, and video. for critical evaluation.

242 Index

A researchers, 204–205 Contrasting information, 135 Abilities for a technological world, Standards 11-13; students, 201 Controlling (management process), 43 see under Standards technology educators, 201 Controls, as core concept, 33, 40 Abstract thinking, 104–105 technology professionals, 204 Control subsystems, vehicles, 178 Accuracy, of data, 137 textbooks, 201 Conventions, 174, 179 Administrator guidelines, 19 Capital, 32, 35 Core concepts of technology, Standard 2; see under Advertising, 28, 78, 190 Carpenters, 191 Standards Agricultural Revolution, 149 Characters, 169 Corporations Agricultural waste, 152, 153 Chemical energy, 165 cultures in, 78 Agriculture, 79, 149 Chemical technologies, 187, 190 demand created by, 28, 73 Standard 15; see under Standards Circular design models, 99 goals of, 78 transportation and, 180 Civilization, evolution of, 85 Costs, 42 Architects, 191 Classification, of information, 135 cost/benefit analysis, 5 Articulated curriculum examples, 215–219 Classification system, technology, 140 Creativity, 26, 27–28, 42, 106 Artifacts, 9 Closed-loop systems, 39 design and, 91–92, 93, 95, 99, 102, 104–105, Artificial ecosystems, 150, 152, 154, 156 Cognitive knowledge, 14 106 Artificial intelligence, 148 design and, 90 Criteria, 33, 91, 95, 97–98, 120–121, 123–124 The Arts, 86 Comfort, personal, 60 Critical thinking, 99 Assessment Communication, 179 Cultures of products/systems, 33 electronic, 174 cultural landscape, 85–86 of students, 13, 18, 19 fiber-optic, 166 influences on development, 26 Attitudes, 60 graphic, 174 priorities of, 77 Availability, of resources, 42 of ideas, 100, 102 technology and society, 61 of processes/procedures, 131 unique technologies and, 78 B Standard 17; see under Standards Curriculum, 13, 18, 90 Back-to-basics movement, 3 systems, 57, 86–87 articulated examples of, 215–219 Batch production, 190 telecommunications; see Telecommunications development/revision, 200 Benchmarks, 3, 14–16, 18; see also individual transportation and, 180 Customized construction, 191 Standards by Grade level Community concerns Customized production, 190 content concepts of, 16 call to action for, 202–203 format of, 17 technological development and, 76 D Benefits of technology, 4 Comparisons, of information, 135 Data; see Information/data Beverages, 155 Compendium, Data-storage devices, 166 Bidders, 191 Standards for Technological Literacy, 19, Decoder, 171, 174 Biochemistry, 148 211–214 Dehydration, 154 Bioengineering, 150 Competition, 73 Delivering, 179 Biotechnologies, 149 Complex systems, 43, 114 Demand for products Standard 15; see under Standards Computer engineering, 148 created by corporations, 28, 73 Body parts, repair/replacement, 143 Computers, 79, 128, 130, 132, 148, 166, 169 market-driven; see Market-driven demand for Brainstorming, 97–98, 99, 103, 116 Conceptual models, 124 products Bronze Age, 57, 86 Concrete workers, 191 Design, 89–112, 91, 139–198 Builders, 191 Consequences, of technology, 59 abstract thinking, 104–105 Building codes, 194 Conservation, 65, 71, 155–156 applying design processes, Standard 11; see Buildings; see Construction of energy, 71, 158, 163, 165 under Standards Business, call to action for, 204 Constraints, 56 brainstorming; see Brainstorming By-products, 65 design, 90, 91, 95, 97–98, 120–121, 123–124 communication of ideas, 100, 102 monetary, 90 constraints; see Constraints C resource, 90 creativity and; see Creativity Calculators, 130, 132 time, 90 criteria; see Criteria Call to action, 199–206 Construction critical thinking, 99 business and industry, 204 building codes, 194 the designed world, defined, 140 the community, 202–203 practices, advanced, 86–87 evaluating; see Evaluations curriculum development, 200 technologies, Standard 20; see under Standards experimentation, 90 educational community, 202 transportation and, 180 feedback and; see Feedback engineering profession, 203–204 Consumption of goods, 185 idea generation; see Ideas instruction materials, 201 Content concepts, of benchmarks, 16 invention/innovation, 90 learning environments, 201 Content standards; see under Standards knowledge; see Knowledge parents, 202–203 Continuous manufacturing, 86–87, 190 manufacturing and, 187 243 measurability, 91 Engineering design, Standard 9; see under Standards Standard 14: Medical technologies, 142 Design (continued ) Engineers, 23, 191 Standard 15: Agricultural and related models; see Models call to action for, 203–204 biotechnologies, 151 perfection and, 95 Engine of history, technology as, 56 Standard 16: Energy and power technologies, principles of, 104 Engines, performing work, 165 159 problem definition; see Problem definition Environment/Environmental concerns, 42, 155 Standard 17: Information and communication process, 4, 5–6, 33 effects of technology, Standard 5; see under technologies, 167 proposals, 97–98 Standards Standard 18: Transportation technologies, 176 prototypes; see Prototypes Equipment, 154; see also Machines Standard 19: Manufacturing technologies, 183 requirements; see Requirements Estimators, 191 Standard 20: Construction technologies, 192 research and development (R&D), 31, 90, 99, Ethics, 61, 63 Grades 3–5 106–112, 187 of medical safety, 145 articulated curriculum example, 217 resourcefulness and, 104–105 Evaluations Standard 1: Characteristics and scope of solutions, 92–94, 100, 102 of products/designs, 103, 119, 121, 124 technology, 25–26 specifications, 97–98 transportation systems, 179 Standard 2: Core concepts of technology, 35–37 Standards 8–11; see under Standards Evolution Standard 3: Technology and other fields, 48 steps in, 103 of civilization, 85 Standard 4: Cultural, social, economic, and systematic, 91 of inventions/innovations, 83, 85 political effects of technology, 59 testing; see Tests, of products Experimentation, 90, 106–112, 138 Standard 5: Environmental effects of troubleshooting; see Troubleshooting technology, 67 vignette, “Can You Help Mike Mulligan?”, 101 F Standard 6: Impact of society on technology, 76 visualization and, 104–105 Factories, 79 Standard 7: The history of technology, 81 Desirability, 42 Fads, 78 Standard 8: Attributes of design, 94 Destination, 171, 174 Failure of products, 107 Standard 9: Engineering design, 102 Development, 4, 27–28, 51 Family, development and, 76 Standard 10: Problem-solving approaches, cultural influences on, 26 Feedback, 33, 38–39, 42, 43, 99 design and, 108 economic influences on, 26 Fiber-optic communications, 166 Standard 11: Applying design processes, personal choices and, 60 Financial incentives, 73 118–119 rate of, 31 Foods, 155 Standard 12: Use and maintenance of Devices, medical, 143 preservation of, 154 products/systems, 128 Diagnoses, of malfunctioning systems, 131 production of, 154 Standard 13: Impacts of products/systems, 135 Diffusion, rate of, 31 quality of, 149 Standard 14: Medical technologies, 143 Directions, following, 128 year-round availability, 151 Standard 15: Agricultural and related Disasters, environmental, 71 yield of, 149 biotechnologies, 152 Diseases, Standard 14; see under Standards Forecasting techniques, 138 Standard 16: Energy and power technologies, Distribution, 190 Fossil fuels, 158 160 Documentation, 121, 131 Foundations, structural, 194 Standard 17: Information and communication Drawings, 171 Freezing, 154 technologies, 168–169 Durable goods, 187, 190 communication technology defined, 169 G Standard 18: Transportation technologies, 177 E Genetics, 146–148, 155 Standard 19: Manufacturing technologies, Economic concerns Global economy, 182 184–185 economic landscape, reshaping, 85–86 Goods, transportation of, 177, 178 Standard 20: Construction technologies, 193 economy, strength of, 78 Government, impact of, 73, 178 Grades 6–8 environmental effects of technology, 69 Grades K–2 articulated curriculum example, 218 technological development and, 26, 76 articulated curriculum example, 216 Standard 1: Characteristics and scope of technology and society, 61 Standard 1: Characteristics and scope of technology, 27–28 Ecosystems, 151 technology, 24 Standard 2: Core concepts of technology, 38–40 artificial, 150, 152, 154, 156 Standard 2: Core concepts of technology, 34 Standard 3: Technology and other fields, 49–50 Education; see also individual Grade levels Standard 3: Technology and other fields, 46–47 Standard 4: Cultural, social, economic, and improved, 86–87 Standard 4: Cultural, social, economic, and political effects of technology, 60–61 Educational community, call to action for, 202 political effects of technology, 58 Standard 5: Environmental effects of Educational technology, 3 Standard 5: Environmental effects of technology, 68–69 Efficiency, 91, 124 technology, 66 Standard 6: Impact of society on technology, of transportation systems, 177 Standard 6: Impact of society on technology, 77 Electrical energy, 165 74 Standard 7: The history of technology, 83–84 Electricians, 191 Standard 7: The history of technology, 80 Standard 8: Attributes of design, 95 Electronic communications, 174 Standard 8: Attributes of design, 93 Standard 9: Engineering design, 103 Electronic media, 169 Standard 9: Engineering design, 100 Standard 10: Problem-solving approaches, Elementary schools, 7–8; see also Grades K-2; Standard 10: Problem-solving approaches, design and, 110 Grades 3–5 design and, 107 Standard 11: Applying design processes, Encoder, 171, 174 Standard 11: Applying design processes, 116 120–121 Endangered species, 65 Standard 12: Use and maintenance of Standard 12: Use and maintenance of Energy, 32, 35, 155 products/systems, 127 products/systems, 130 Standard 16; see under Standards Standard 13: Impacts of products/systems, 134 Standard 13: Impacts of products/systems, 137

244 Index

Standard 14: Medical technologies, 145–146 Human needs and wants, 2, 74, 76 Landfills, 65, 67 Standard 15: Agricultural and related Languages, 174 biotechnologies, 153–154 I Law of Conservation of Energy, 165 Standard 16: Energy and power technologies, Icons, 169, 174 Learning; see also individual Grade levels 162–163 Ideas about technology, 4–5 Standard 17: Information and communication communication of, 100, 102 to do technology, 5–6 technologies, 170–171 generation of, 49, 52, 97–99, 118 environments for, 201 Standard 18: Transportation technologies, Impacts of products/systems, Standard 13; see under Leisure time, 86–87 178–179 Standards Letters, 169 Standard 19: Manufacturing technologies, Incentives, for environmental responsibility, 65 Lifecycles of products, 65, 68 186–187 Individuals Life expectancy, 141 Standard 20: Construction technologies, 194 technological development and, 76, 138 Life support systems, 141 Grades 9–12 technological literacy and; see Technological Linear design models, 99 articulated curriculum example, 219 literacy Loading, transportation and, 179 Standard 1: Characteristics and scope of Industrial Age, The, 57, 79, 86–87 Loads, power systems and, 165 technology, 30–31 Industrial Revolution, 86–87 Logic, 42 Standard 2: Core concepts of technology, 41–43 Industry, call to action for, 204 Standard 3: Technology and other fields, 51–52 Informatics, 148 M Standard 4: Cultural, social, economic, and Information Age, 57, 87, 166 Machines, 32, 35–36 political effects of technology, 62–63 Information/data, 32, 35, 167 energy use by, 160 Standard 5: Environmental effects of accuracy of, 137 as helpful or harmful, 58, 59, 60–61 technology, 71–72 classifying, 135 the history of technology and, 86 Standard 6: Impact of society on technology, 78 collection of, 134, 138 for systems repair, 130 Standard 7: The history of technology, 85–87 instruments for, 137 Maintenance, 4, 6, 25, 33, 40 Standard 8: Attributes of design, 97–98 comparing, 135 Standard 12; see under Standards Standard 9: Engineering design, 104–105 contrasting, 135 of structures, 193, 196 Standard 10: Problem-solving approaches, storage devices, 166 Malfunctioning systems, 32, 39 design and, 111–112 synthesis of, 138 diagnosing, 131 Standard 11: Applying design processes, use of, 130 Management, 33, 43 123–124 Information technologies, Standard 17; see under of transportation processes, 179 Standard 12: Use and maintenance of Standards Manuals, 130 products/systems, 131–132 Infrastructure, 195 Manufacturing, 25, 44, 51 Standard 13: Impacts of products/systems, 138 Innovations; see Inventions/innovations Standard 19; see under Standards Standard 14: Medical technologies, 147–148 Inputs, 38–39, 173 transportation and, 180 Standard 15: Agricultural and related Instruction materials, 201 Market-driven demand for products, 31, 73–77 biotechnologies, 155–156 Instruments, for data collection, 137 Marketing, 28, 179, 187, 190 Standard 16: Energy and power technologies, Integrators, technological studies as, 6–9 Market research, 190 164–165 Intelligent transportation systems, 181 Mass production, 79 Standard 17: Information and communication Interchangeability of parts, 190 Materials, 25–26, 32, 34, 35 technologies, 173–175 Intermodalism, 180 construction, 196 Standard 18: Transportation technologies, Internet, 5, 6, 172 history of technology and, 79, 85, 86 180–181 Inventions/innovations, 23, 25, 28, 51, 52, 90, manufacturing and, 182, 186–187, 189–190 Standard 19: Manufacturing technologies, 106–112 materials science, 148 189–190 evolution of, 83, 85 for systems repair, 130 Standard 20: Construction technologies, as results of research, 31, 90, 99 Materials science, 148 195–196 The Iron Age, 57, 86 Mathematical models, 124 Gradual changes, caused by technology, 62 Irradiation, 154 Mathematics, 44, 52, 124 Graphics, 174 Isolated abstractions, education using, 16 Measurements, 171, 174 Guidance subsystems, vehicles, 178 Mechanical energy, 165 J Medicine/Medical technologies, 155 H Junior Engineering Technical Society (JETS), 201 Standard 14; see under Standards Hands-on activities, 34 Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, 180, 182 Messages, design of, 171 Hand tools, 127 The Middle Ages, 86 Health and safety, transportation and, 180 K Middle schools, 8; see also Grades 6–8 Healthcare, 145 Know-how, 86 Mixed materials, 189–190 Standard 14; see under Standards Knowledge, 52, 99 Models, 33, 97–98, 102, 103, 121, 124 High schools, 8; see also Grades 9–12 cognitive, 14 Molecular biology, 148 Highways, 180 as function of the setting, 31 Monetary constraints, 90 History of technology, The, Standard 7; see under gained from other fields, 50 Moving, transportation and, 179 Standards procedural, 14; see also Processes Multidisciplinary approach, to problem-solving, Holding process, transportation and, 179 112 Humanities, 86 L Human-made world, natural world vs., 23, 24 Laboratory-classroom, 2, 8, 34; see also individual N production and, 25 Grades Natural disasters, damage repair after, 69 systems and, 34 applying design processes, 120 Natural materials, 189–190

245 Natural world, 138, 140 communication of, 131 Resourcefulness, design and, 104–105 human-made world vs., 23–25, 34 construction, 196 Resource(s) Natural world (continued ) documentation of, 131 constraints, 90 modifications to, 23 surgical, 147 as core concept, 32, 35, 42 Nature of technology, Standards 1-3; see under Processes, 49, 173 managing, 65, 71–72 Standards alignment of, 72 Retrieval, 174 Negative effects of technology, 57–59 construction and, 196 Reusing, conservation and, 71 environmental, 65, 67, 72, 138 as core concept, 33, 38–40 Robotics, 148 impacts of products/systems, 60–61, 134, 135, design and, 90 Robustness, 33 137, 138 as function of the setting, 31 product usage and, 60–61 manufacturing, 184–185 S reducing, 72 power systems and, 165 Safety, personal, 60 trade-offs with positive effects, 62, 72, 135 Processing, of information, 168 Sales, 190; see also Marketing Nondurable goods, 187, 190 Processing (manufacturing), 184 Sanitation, 145 Nonintelligent transportation systems, 181 Production, 25, 51; see also Manufacturing Science, 44, 52 Nonrenewable energy sources, 165 Productivity, 124 Scientific knowledge, rise of, 79, 84, 86 Nuclear energy, 158, 165 Products, 4, 49–50 Second Law of Thermodynamics, 165 Nutrition, 141 assessment of, 33 Self-care products, 142 careful consideration of, 57 Servicing, of products, 187, 189 O criteria for; see Criteria Settings, knowledge as function of, 31 Open-loop systems, 39 energy use by, 160 Side effects, environmental, 71 Operation of systems, 132 environmental effects of, 65 Signs, 169 Optimization impacts of, Standard 13; see under Standards Skills, 25–26, 52 as core concept, 33, 42 market-driven demand for, 31, 73–77 Social landscape, reshaping, 85–86 design and, 99 meeting needs and wants, 2, 74, 76 Social priorities, 77 the environment and, 65 for problem solving, 27 Social systems, 42 Organizational culture, 73 use and maintenance of, 4, 6, 25, 33, 40 Social world, 140 Organizing, 43 Profit motive, 31 Society; see Technology and society Outputs, 38–39, 173 Proposals, for designs, 97–98 Soil conservation, 71 Propulsion subsystems, vehicles, 178 Solutions, to design problems, 92–94, 100, P Protocols, 130 102 Parents, call to action for, 202–203 Prototypes, 97–98, 99, 105, 124 Source, 171, 174 Patents, 52 Psychology, perceptual, 148 Specialization, 79, 83 People resources, 32, 35 Specifications, design, 97–98 Perceptual psychology, 148 Q Spin-offs (technology transfer), 51–52, 63 Perfection, design and, 95 Quality/quality control, 42–43, 106, 124 Stability, of systems, 42 Performance, process alignment and, 72 of foods, 149 Standardized competency tests, 3 Permanent structures, 191, 194 of information/data, 138 Standards, 3, 4, 14 Personal computers, 56 Std. 1: Characteristics and scope of technology, Pharmaceuticals, 141, 147, 155 R 23–31 Physical environment, development and, 56 Radiant energy, 165 Grades K–2, 24 Physical models, 124; see also Models Railways, 180 Grades 3–5, 25–26 Planning, 34, 43 Rapid changes, caused by technology, 62 Grades 6–8, 27–28 Plumbers, 191 Real-world problems, 9, 42, 90 Grades 9–12, 30–31 Political issues, 61, 85–86 Receiver, 171, 174 vignette, “Creating a Safer Working Pollution, 65 Receiving, transportation and, 179 Environment,” 29 Population, movement of, 181 Recommendations for use, Technology Content Std. 2: Core concepts of technology, 32–43 Positive effects of technology, 57–59, 135 Standards, 18 controls, 33, 40 environmental, 65, 67, 72, 138 Recycling, 65–67 Grades K–2, 34 impacts of products/systems, 134, 137, 138 of agricultural waste, 152, 153 Grades 3–5, 35–37 product usage and, 60–61 conservation and, 71 Grades 6–8, 38–40 trade-offs with negative effects, 62, 72, 135 Reducing, conservation and, 71 Grades 9–12, 41–43 Power technologies, Standard 16; see under Refinements, to products, 83, 85 optimization, 33, 42, 65 Standards Refrigeration, 154 design and, 99 Prefabricated construction materials, 196 Regulations, 73 processes; see Processes Preservation, of food, 154 Rehabilitation, 147 requirements, 32–33, 36, 39, 42; see also Preventive medicine, 141, 147 The Renaissance, 86 Design Primary users, Technology Content Standards, 18 Renewable energy sources, 165 resources, 32, 35, 42 Printing, 166, 169 Renovation, 196 systems; see Systems Problem definition, 97–100, 102, 123 Requirements trade-offs, 5, 33, 39, 42 Problem solving, 5–6, 9, 27, 90 as core concept, 32–33, 36, 39, 42 vignette, “The Bicycle as a Vehicle for design; see Design for design, 91, 94, 95, 98, 99, 196 Learning,” 37 Procedural knowledge, 14; see also Processes Research and development (R&D), 31, 90, 99, Std. 3: Technology and other fields, 44–54 design and, 90 106–112, 187 Grades K–2, 46–47 Procedures Researchers, call to action for, 204–205 Grades 3–5, 48

246 Index

Grades 6–8, 49–50 specialization, 83 applications of, 155 Grades 9–12, 51–52 Stone Age, 57, 86 for commercial products, 154 vignettes structures, 83–84 conservation, 155–156 “A Hands-on Experience,” 53 technological know-how, 86 food, 154 “Helping Out Stuart Little,” 47 tools and, 79, 81, 85, 86 Grades K–2, 151 Std. 4: Cultural, social, economic, and political vignette, “A Time Line Comparison of Grades 3–5, 152 effects of technology, 57–64 Communicating a Message,” 82 Grades 6–8, 153–154 ethical issues and, 61, 63 Std. 8: Attributes of design, 91–98 Grades 9–12, 155–156 Grades K–2, 58 Grades K–2, 93 vignette, “Hydroponics System,” 157 Grades 3–5, 59 Grades 3–5, 94 year-round food availability, 151 Grades 6–8, 60–61 Grades 6–8, 95 Std. 16: Energy and power technologies, Grades 9–12, 62–63 Grades 9–12, 97–98 158–165 negative effects of technology; see Negative vignette, “Designing a Gift of energy effects of technology Appreciation,” 96 as capacity for work, 162 positive effects of technology; see Positive Std. 9: Engineering design, 90, 91, 99–105 conservation, 71, 158, 163, 165 effects of technology of agricultural systems, 156 defined, 158, 162 technology transfer (spin-offs) and, 51–52, Grades K–2, 100 forms of, 159, 160, 165 63 Grades 3–5, 102 nonrenewable, 165 vignette, “Students Plan New Airport Site,” Grades 6–8, 103 renewable, 165 64 Grades 9–12, 104–105 wasting of, 159, 163 Std. 5: Environmental effects of technology, Std. 10: Problem-solving approaches, 90, 99, engines performing work, 165 65–72, 99 106–112 Grades K–2, 159 economic concerns and, 69 Grades K–2, 107 Grades 3–5, 160 environmental disasters, 71 Grades 3–5, 108 Grades 6–8, 162–163 environmental monitoring, decision making Grades 6–8, 110 Grades 9–12, 164–165 and, 72 Grades 9–12, 111–112 power defined, 162–163 Grades K–2, 66 vignette, “Navigational Technology,” 108 power systems, 163, 165 Grades 3–5, 67 Std. 11: Applying design processes, 115–125 trade-offs in, 158 Grades 6–8, 68–69 Grades K–2, 116 vignette, “Developing and Producing a Grades 9–12, 71–72 Grades 3–5, 118–119 Product or System Collaboratively,” negative effects of technology; see Negative Grades 6–8, 120–121 161 effects of technology Grades 9–12, 123–124 Std. 17: Information and communication positive effects of technology; see Positive vignettes technologies, 166–174 effects of technology “The America’s Cup Challenge,” 125 communication systems components, 171 processes, alignment of, 72 “Building Something to Float,” 117 Grades K–2, 167 vignette, “The Best Bag in Agawam,” 70 “The Great Paper Car Race,” 122 Grades 3–5, 168–169 Std. 6: Impact of society on technology, 73–78 Std. 12: Use and maintenance of Grades 6–8, 170–171 corporate cultures, 78 products/systems, 126–132 Grades 9–12, 173–175 cultural priorities, 77 Grades K–2, 127 information defined, 167 Grades K–2, 74 Grades 3–5, 128 information transfer, 171, 173–174 Grades 3–5, 76 Grades 6–8, 130 vignette, “Communicating Through a Grades 6–8, 77 Grades 9–12, 131–132 Home Page on the Web,” 172 Grades 9–12, 78 vignette, “Take It Apart,” 129 Std. 18: Transportation technologies, 174–181 market-driven demand for products, 31, 73–77 Std. 13: Impacts of products/systems, 133–138 Grades K–2, 176 social priorities, 77 Grades K–2, 134 Grades 3–5, 177 societal changes, 77 Grades 3–5, 135 Grades 6–8, 178–179 unique technologies, 78 Grades 6–8, 137 Grades 9–12, 180–181 vignette, “The Development of the Button,” Grades 9–12, 138 intermodalism, 180 75 negative effects of technology; see Negative transportation systems, 176 Std. 7: The history of technology, 79–87 effects of technology vehicles, 176–177, 178 Bronze Age, 57, 86 positive effects of technology; see Positive Std. 19: Manufacturing technologies, 182–190 evolution of civilization and, 85 effects of technology Grades K–2, 183 evolution of inventions/innovations, 83, 85 trade-offs of use, 135 Grades 3–5, 184–185 Grades K–2, 80 vignette, “Clean Up an Oil Spill,” 136 Grades 6–8, 186–187 Grades 3–5, 81 Std. 14: Medical technologies, 141–148 Grades 9–12, 189–190 Grades 6–8, 83–84 Grades K–2, 142 manufacturing defined, 182 Grades 9–12, 85–87 Grades 3–5, 143 vignette, “A Team Approach to Plastics,” Industrial Age, 57, 79, 86–87 Grades 6–8, 145–146 188 Industrial Revolution, 86–87 Grades 9–12, 147–148 Std. 20: Construction technologies, 191–197 Information Age, 57, 87, 166 vignette, “A Pharmacy Connection,” 144 Grades K–2, 192 Iron Age, 57, 86 Std. 15: Agricultural and related Grades 3–5, 193 machines and, 86 biotechnologies, 149–157 Grades 6–8, 194 materials and, 79, 85, 86; see also Materials agricultural waste, 152, 153 Grades 9–12, 195–196 Middle Ages, 86 agriculture as a business, 155 vignette, “A Look at Energy Efficient The Renaissance, 86 artificial ecosystems, 150, 152, 154, 156 Homes,” 197 scientific knowledge, rise of, 79, 84, 86 biotechnology 247 Standards for Technological Literacy, 4, 6, 9, 12 Technological studies; see Technology education V administrators guidelines, 19 Technological world, preparing for Vaccinations, 142–147 assessment of students, 13, 18, 19 Standards 11–13; see under Standards Values and beliefs, 73 benchmarks; see Benchmarks technological literacy, need for, 2–4 Vehicles, 176–178, 178 call to action for; see Call to action Technology, 2, 9, 22, 23; see also individual Vignettes, 16 compendium of, 19 topics Standard 1: “Creating a Safer Working features of, 13 Technology and society, 55–88, 99 Environment,” 29 format of, 14, 16, 17 societal expectations of products, 77 Standard 2: “The Bicycle as a Vehicle for listing of, 15 society defined by technology, 57 Learning,” 37 overview of, 11–20 Standards 4–7; see under Standards Standard 3: primary users of, 18 Technology education, 3 “A Hands-on Experience,” 53 recommendations for use, 18 as an integrator, 6–9 “Helping Out Stuart Little,” 47 standards explained, 14 profession, 201 Standard 4: “Students Plan New Airport Site,” vignettes, 16 Technology Education Collegiate Association 64 Steam engine, 79 (TECA), 201 Standard 5: “The Best Bag in Agawam,” 70 Stone Age, 57, 86 Technology for All Americans Project, history of, Standard 6: “The Development of the Button,” Storage, communications systems, 174 208–209 75 Storing process, 179 Technology Student Association (TSA), 201 Standard 7: “A Time Line Comparison of Structural subsystems, vehicles, 178 Technology transfer (spin-offs), 51–52, 63 Communicating a Message,” 82 Structures, 83–84 Telecommunications, 167, 169 Standard 8: “Designing a Gift of Appreciation,” Student(s) healthcare delivery and, 141, 148 96 assessment of, 13, 18, 19 networks, 79 Standard 9: “Can You Help Mike Mulligan?”, benchmarks; see Benchmarks Telemedicine, 141, 148 101 call to action for, 201 Temporary structures, 191, 194 Standard 10: “Navigational Technology,” 108 preparing, for technological world, 1–10 Tests, of products, 83, 85, 97, 103, 119, 121 Standard 11: Subsidies, government, 73 Textbooks, 201 “The America’s Cup Challenge,” 125 Subsystems, 35, 178, 194 Thermal energy, 165 “Building Something to Float,” 117 Subtle changes, caused by technology, 62 Three-dimensional models, 121 “The Great Paper Car Race,” 122 Support subsystems, vehicles, 178 Time, 32, 35 Standard 12: “Take It Apart,” 129 Surgical procedures, 147 constraints, 90 Standard 13: “Clean Up an Oil Spill,” 136 Suspension subsystems, vehicles, 178 Tools, 24–26, 32, 34–36 Standard 14: “A Pharmacy Connection,” 144 Symbols, 127, 128, 167, 169, 171, 174 energy use by, 160 Standard 15: “Hydroponics System,” 157 Synthetic materials, 189–190 hand tools, 127 Standard 16: “Developing and Producing Systems, 32, 49–50 as helpful or harmful, 58, 59 a Product or System Collaboratively,” as building blocks, 42 product usage and, 60–61 161 used in buildings/structures, 193, 194 the history of technology and, 79, 81, 85, 86 Standard 17: “Communicating Through a closed-loop, 39 medical, 143 Home Page on the Web,” 172 complex, 43 as parts of ecosystems, 151 Standard 19: “A Team Approach to Plastics,” components of, 34 safely using, 128 188 as core concept, 32 for systems repair, 130 Standard 20: “A Look at Energy Efficient energy use by, 160 Trade-offs Homes,” 197 environmental, 42 in choosing energy sources, 158 Virtual presence, 148 impacts of, Standard 13; see under as core concept, 5, 33, 39, 42 Visualization, 104–105 Standards positive vs. negative effects of technology, 62, Visual presentations, 119 missing parts, 35 72, 135 natural vs. human-made, 34 resource reduction and, 71–72 W open-loop, 39 Transformations, driven by technology, 79 Waste, 42, 65 for problem-solving, 27 Transmitter, 171, 174 agricultural, 152, 153 social, 42 Transportation breaking down of, 69 subsystems, 35, 178, 194 Standard 18; see under Standards disposal of, 67 systems thinking, 32, 39, 42 systems, 57, 86–87 of energy, 159, 163 Trend analysis, 138 management, 68 T Troubleshooting, 32, 90, 106–112, 132 reduction, 69 Taxonomy, of technology, 140 Two-dimensional models, 121 Water conservation, 71 Techniques, for doing things, 24 Waterways, 180 Technological design; see Design U Work, capacity for, energy as, 162 Technological diffusion, rate of, 31 Unloading, 179 Writing, 166 Technological know-how, 86 Use and maintenance of products/systems, Standard Technological knowledge; see Knowledge 12; see under Standards Y Technological literacy, 9–10, 114, 126; see also Call Year-round food availability, 151 to action Yield, of foods, 149 need for, 2–4 Standard 12; see under Standards

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Standards for Technological Literacy Standards for Technological Literacy

Content for the Study of Technology Study of Technology Content for the

International Technology Education Association Technology for All Americans Project 1914 Association Drive, Suite 201 Reston, VA 20191-1539 Phone (703) 860-2100 Fax (703) 860-0353 Email [email protected] URL www.iteaconnect.org ISBN: 1-887101-02-0 ird Edition