From Baritone to Tenor: Making the Switch

D.M.A. Document

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts In the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Weilong Tao, MM

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2018

D.M.A. Committee:

Scott McCoy, Adviser

Katherine Rohrer

Robin Rice

Thomas Wells

Copyright by

Weilong Tao

2018

Abstract

The first chapter of this paper examines and classifies a particular vocal subcategory—the “baritenor” —from a pedagogical, technical, and professional (career) perspective. Multiple criteria, such as registration events, vocal range, timbre, and tessitura are examined in an attempt to determine whether a young baritone has the potential to become a dramatic tenor or Heldentenor.

Building upon the pedagogical theories of Richard Miller and others, Chapters 2 and 3 explore how the baritone-about-to-be-a-tenor can use vocal exercises as a means to master the techniques demanded by tenor singing. Chapter 3 provides vocal advice and presents exercises necessary to address the various technical issues present in Italian art songs and arias.

ii Dedication

This document is dedicated to the memory of my mentor, Herta Glaz.

iii Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my committee: Dr. Katherine Rohrer, Dr.

Robin Rice, Dr. Thomas Wells, and Dr. Scott McCoy, for your feedback, your support and encouragement in the completion of this document. To my advisor and voice teacher,

Dr. Scott McCoy, I would like to extend special thanks for constantly challenging me to do my best throughout this degree. Also, thank you to my former voice teachers: Cao

Yuping, Liu Chixia, Ge Chaozhi, Herta Glaz, Daniel Ferro, Arthur Levy, Carlo Bergonzi,

Pier Miranda Ferraro, Gianfranco Cecchele, Franca Ostini, and Roelof Oostwoud. You all have inspired and helped nurture me to become a better performer and teacher. I thank

Sean Ferguson, a librarian with extraordinary knowledge, for your invaluable help. Thank you, David Tomasacci, for your tireless work in engraving examples for this document.

Finally, I thank my family, my wife Yan, and my daughter Sonia. I could not have completed this degree without your unending support and love.

iv Vita

Febuary1982…………………………….B.A. Music, Anhui Normal University

July 1985………………………………..Voice, Shanghai Conservatory of Music

July 1989………………………………..Voice, University of Southern California

July 1991………………………………..Opera, The Juilliard School

1991-2012………………………………Professional Baritone and Tenor, in over 40

Major European Opera Houses

May 2014………………………….……M.M. Voice, University of British Columbia

August 2015 to present………………....Graduate Teaching Associate, Music School,

The Ohio State University

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Concentration: Voice Performance and Pedagogy

v Table of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………...... ii

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………….. iii

Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………..iv

Vita……………………………………………………………………………………...... v

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..ix

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………..x

List of Examples……………………………………………………………………….....xi

List of Exercises………………………………………………………………………..xiii

Chapter 1: Aspects and Problems of Voice Classification………………………………..1

§1.0. Introduction………………………………...………………………………..1

§1.1. Baritone or Tenor?...... 3

§1.2. Registration………………………………………………………………….8

§1.3. Vocal Registers………………………………………………………….....10

§1.4. Register Terminology………………………………………………………17

§1.5. Registration Events………………………………………………………...21

§1.6. Registration Events In Baritone And Tenor……………………………...... 25

Chapter 2: Pedagogic Techniques for the Baritone Transitioning to Tenor……………..37

§2.0. The Baritone-about-to-be-a-Tenor…………………………………...…….37

vi §2.1. Balanced Breath Control………………………...…………………………39

§2.2. Active Vowel Modification…...………………………..………...………...43

§2.3. Acoustic Registration…………………………………………….………...47

§2.4. The “Bad” (but Good) Vowel [æ]...... 55

§2.5. Early and Gradual Blending...... 55

§2.6. Sobbing and Falsetto...... 57

§2.7. A Warning for the Baritone-About-to-be-a-Tenor...... 60

Chapter 3: Pedagogic and Performance Approaches to Selected Italian Art Songs and

Opera Arias...... 62

§3.0. Introduction...... 62

§3.1. Tessitura...... 65

§3.1.1. Pedagogic Observation: Giulio Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella”...... 67

§3.1.2. Pedagogic Observation: Francesco Paolo Tosti, “Non t’amo più”...... 71

§3.2. Vowel Modification...... 74

§3.2.1. Pedagogic Observation: Gaetano Donizetti, “Quando è bella” from L’elisir

d’amore……………………………..…………………………….………….…..78

§3.2.2.Pedagogic Observation: Giuseppe Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” from

Macbeth…………………………………………………………………………..83

§3.3. The Vowel [æ]...... 88

vii §3.3.1 Pedagogic Observation: Giuseppe Verdi “Dio, mi potevi, scaglia” from

Otello………………………………………………….………………………….93

§3.4. Sobbing...... 96

§3.4.1. Pedagogic Observation: Giaccomo Puccini, “Recondita Armonia” from

Tosca………………………………………………………...………………..….98

§3.5. Conclusion...... 102

Bibliography...... 104

Musical Scores...... 107

viii List of Tables

Table 2-1. Vowel Modification (after Miller)……………………………………..…...... 45

Table 2-2. McCoy’s “Table of F1 frequencies of five cardinal vowels”…………….…..50

Table 2-3. The vowels’ F1 locations (after Bozeman)……………………………..……51

Table 3-1. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella”—Overview…………………………...……...67

Table 3-2. Francesco Paolo Tosti, “Non t’amo più” —Overview...... 71

Table 3-3. Vowel Modifications (after Miller)...... 76

Table 3-4. Donizetti, “Quando è bella” from L’elisir d’amore—Overview……...... 78

Table 3-5. Giuseppe Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” from Macbeth—Overview………...83

Table 3-6. Giuseppe Verdi, “Dio, mi potevi, scaglia” from Otello—Overview…...... 93

Table 3-7. Giaccomo Puccini, “Recondita Armonia” from Tosca—Overview………….98

ix List of Figures

Figure 1-1. The Baritone Range……………………………………………………..…….3

Figure 1-2. Hybrid Range………………………………………………………...……….6

Figure 1-3. Lyric Bass Passaggi (after Miller)………………………………….….…....28

Figure 1-4. Bass – Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)…………………………..……...….28

Figure 1-5. Dramatic Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)……………………..………...…29

Figure 1-6. Lyric Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)…………………………..…….….....29

Figure 1-7. Tenore Robusto Passaggi (after Miller)………………………..…….…...…29

Figure 1-8. Lyric Spinto Tenor Passaggi (after Miller)…………………….…….…...... 30

Figure 1-9. Lyric Tenor Passaggi (after Miller)…………...……...... ………30

Figure 1-10. Tenore Leggero Passaggi (after Miller)……………………….……...…...31

Figure 2-1. McCoy: Natural harmonic series from C2…………………………………..49

x List of Examples

Example 3-1. Caccini, ”Amarilli, mia bella” measures 1-7……………………...…...….68

Example 3-2. Caccini, ”Amarilli, mia bella” measures 36-42…….……………………..68

Example 3-3. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella” measures 43-49…………………...…..…..69

Example 3-4. Tosti, “Non t’amo più” measures 1-4...... 72

Example 3-5. Tosti, “Non t’amo più” measures 13-16...... 72

Example 3-6. Donizetti, “Quando è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), measures 5-11……79

Example 3-7. Donizetti, “Quando è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), measures 29-37….80

Example 3-8. Donizetti, “Quando è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), (cadenza)…………81

Example 3-9. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 8-9…….…...... 84

Example 3-10. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 17-18…...…...84

Example 3-11. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 26-28…….…85

Example 3-12. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 32-34….……85

Example 3-13. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 37-39………..86

Example 3-14. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 41-43....……..86

Example 3-15. Verdi, ”Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 23-24………..87

Example 3-16. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 44-45………..87

Example 3-17. Giordano, “Come un bel di” (from Andrea Chénier), measures 47-50…90

Example 3-18. Massenet, “Pourquoi me réveiller” (from Werther), measures 14-15…..90

xi Example 3-19. Puccini, “Che gelida manina” (from La Bohème), measures 65-66…….91

Example 3-20. Puccini, “Nessun dorma” (from Turandot), measures 29-31……..…….91

Example 3-21. Cadenza from Verdi’s “La donna e mobile” from Rigoletto……………...92

Example 3-22. Donizetti, “Spirto gentil” (from La Favorita), measures 50-53……...….92

Example 3-23. Verdi, “Dio! mi potevi scaglair” (from Otello), measures 18-22..………94

Example 3-24. Verdi, “Dio! mi potevi scaglair” (from Otello), measures 35-41…..……95

Example 3-25. Puccini, “Recondita armonia” (from Tosca), measures 13-17………..…99

Example 3-26. Puccini, “Recondita armonia” (from Tosca), measures 22-26…………100

Example 3-27. Puccini, “Recondita armonia” (from Tosca), measures 35-43…...….…101

xii List of Exercises

Exercise 3-1. Tessitura Exercise, Miller, Training Tenor Voices, p.107…………...... ….65

Exercise 3-2. Tessitura Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.107……………....…70

Exercise 3-3. Vowel Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.52………………..……77

Exercise 3-4. Vowel Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.54………………..……81

Exercise 3-5. [æ] Vowel Modification Exercise...... 88

Exercise 3-6. Vowel Modification Exercise, Miller Traning Tenor Voices, p.84...... 89

Exercise 3-7. Exercises from Falsetto to Head Voice, Miller Training Tenor Voices,

p.64………………………………………………………..……………..96

xiii Chapter 1: Aspects and Problems of Voice Classification

§1.0. Introduction

A singer’s Fach identity is dependent upon the classification and labeling of primary voice types.1 From a pedagogic standpoint, the practice of labeling or assigning voice types is complicated by the further subdivision of primary voice types into increasingly specific categories.

Classifying voice types is necessary for opera singers, as this helps to determine which roles they will be cast for and will perform. Attempting to perform demanding operatic roles that do not suit one’s voice type (i.e., they are not written for nor intended to be sung by singers of another voice type) can be damaging to the vocal instrument.

Singers often attempt unsuitable repertoire and choose to sing in an overly high or low tessitura2 because they may feel pressure to impress audiences with their range or because, especially in the operatic world (and tenors and sopranos particularly), they wish to be more desirable than other singers.

Improper classification of voice type commonly occurs with male singers. Young singers in particular have excellent and fine imitative facility and can produce acceptable vocal quality by imitating what they perceive to be a desirable sound. The

1 The Fach system was developed by German opera houses towards the end of the 19th century with the intention of creating distinct categories for all the roles in opera, as well as for non operatic singing voices, in order to aid in auditions and casting. 2 Tessitura is the part of the range in which the voice performs best, both as to sound and as to ease. According to William Vennard, Singing the Mechanism and the Technic, p.79 1 young singer will try to produce a huge, dark sound simply because he perceives it as masculine and impressive. Additionally, a voice that shows registration events suitable for the dramatic tenor is often perceived as a baritone by the voice teacher because of his tender age. A singer’s range can often be an indicator of voice type, but range cannot determine this alone. For example, some baritones can sing a better A4 than their tenor counterparts, and conversely, some tenors can produce a decent low G2.3

This paper examines and explains from pedagogic and practical perspective the concept of the “Baritenor”4, or the heavy tenor voice, and aims to develop the methods and criteria to distinguish these voices from their often-misclassified assignment to the baritone or tenor voice. In the course of this examination, techniques and strategies will be developed and presented to help young singers identify their voice types, and to provide useful technical guidance for singers in facilitating their switch along the way.

3 This paper uses the system of octave designation adopted by the Acoustical Society of America; C4, for example, is Middle C on the keyboard. 4 Richard Miller was the first among others to use this special term in his book “ Securing Baritone, Bass- Baritone, & Bass Voices” Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York: 2008, page.10. 2 §1.1. Baritone or Tenor?

The primary male voice types are tenor, baritone, and bass. These three types of vocal production share a common feature: unlike their female counterparts (soprano, mezzo soprano, and alto) they are each dominated by the chest register. In range these voice types are separated by a minor third. The intervallic distance between the tenor and baritone chest registers may be lesser or greater because the determining elements of voice classification often are weighted differently by voice teachers and pedagogues. This is an especially important aspect relating to the topic of this paper.

Baritone is the most common of the male voice types, with most men possessing a vocal range similar to that of a baritone voice. A typical baritone vocal range is somewhere between G2 (the G an octave and perfect fourth below middle C4) to the G4 a perfect fifth above middle C.5 The baritone voice is strongest in the middle of this range, somewhere around A3, A3-sharp, or B3, and moves into head voice at the D4, D4-sharp or E4 above middle C (see the author’s Figure 1.1: The Baritone Range, below).

Figure 1-1. The Baritone Range

5 Miller 2008, 9-12. 3 The baritone tessitura falls somewhere between the tessituras of the tenor voice (from B3 or C4 through E4 or F4) and that of the bass (G3 or A3-flat and C4 or D4-flat).

Tenor is the highest of the male voice types with which most people today are familiar. The typical tenor voice range spans C3 (the C one octave below middle C) to

C5, the C one octave above middle C. A typical tenor would likely transition his middle voice into head voice around F4 or F4-sharp. The tenor’s tessitura lies between C4 and

F4 or F4-sharp, just below the countertenor voice and sharing similar characteristics with the countertenor, in the sense that the tenor would also be able to sing most high notes with ease and vocalize head voice pitches with strength and brightness.

However, many singers - including those who have been improperly classified as baritones - have voices that fall outside of the primary classification of tenor and baritone. Improper classification is a particularly common phenomenon with certain young singers: those who have unusually strong elastic vocal muscles, excellent imitative ability, and who easily can produce multiple fine vocal timbres by mimicking what they perceive to be a fashionable sound (for example: brilliant high notes). Much to their pleasure, they can show their masculinity by producing a large dark sound as vocal pedagogue Richard Miller points out in his book Training Tenor Voices.6 And it is because of this large, dark sound, that they often are misidentified as baritones by their voice teachers.

However, and in their teachers’ defense, it is quite difficult to correctly identify and locate the range and optimum tessitura of a singer’s voice when those pitches are

6 Miller 1993, 133. 4 obscured by singing with a manufactured timbre. This large, dark sound can be misleading, again Richard Miller:

“Sometimes the wide range of categories within the tenor classification is not recognized, and voices that exhibit registration events appropriate to heavier tenor instruments are perceived as indicating a baritone, or even a bass- baritone.”7

This kind of voice has timbres that resemble both baritone and tenor. In the upper middle and high voice the sound gets brighter and even larger—a quality associated with the tenor’s voice. But when he approaches the lower range of his voice, the timbre gets darker and richer—a quality reminiscent of the baritone timbre. His registration events

(registration breaks) overlap both that of the baritone (which is between B3 and E4, somewhere between his first and second passaggio) and that of the tenor (which is generally between C4 and F4, somewhere between his first and second passaggio).8

His optimal tessitura, which depends on his skill in coordinating between the muscles that control the registers of his voice and his physical stamina in supporting this subtle balance, is located between his first and second passaggio; an area which is called the zona di passaggio, and that usually falls in between B3-flat or B3 and E4 or F4.9

An additional factor causing the misclassification of this particular voice type is that this hybrid voice possesses a larger than usual vocal range. The bottommost pitch of his range is G2 or A2-flat, and his uppermost is typically found at A4, B4-flat , or even

7 Ibid. 8 The passaggio (plural: passaggi) is the point at which control of phonation moves from one muscle group to another. 9 Zona di passagio: Italian for the passage zone. It lies between the speech range and the upper-mid range of the singing voice. See Miller 2008, 60. 5 B4, giving this singer a range of at least two octaves and a half step, and possibly as much as two octaves and a major third (see the author’s Figure 1-2 below).

Figure 1-2. Hybrid Range.

As a general rule, a singer’s voice type is partly determined by the physical size and structure of the larynx and the rest of the vocal tract. A number of low-voiced males have long necks and prominent larynges. In the larynx of a low-voiced male, there is frequently a visible external demarcation between the thyroid and the cricoid cartilages.

With many low-voiced males, the entire laryngeal structure is larger, longer, and externally more defined than those of high-voiced males; for example, many tenors are short-necked individuals who do not display large laryngeal prominences. However, there are a number of baritones who are also short-necked with larynges scarcely more externally visible than those of most tenors, and conversely, there are also physical oddities among high-voiced males. This special third type (the potential dramatic tenor) could fit just into the description.

Unfortunately, many such voices are prematurely cast in a drawer that does not suit. Some voice teachers, and singers themselves, foist a heavy, dark production upon the voice in an attempt to suit the baritone category because the student does not yet have the necessary lightness of the tones and does not yet possess the necessary high notes. 6 Whether by singing below his true vocal identity or above, forcing any voice beyond its natural capabilities eventually can cause a number of vocal problems—both physical and psychological—over time.

In order to correctly classify voice types such as baritone or tenor, one needs to take the following qualities and characteristics into consideration: range, tessitura, weight, timbre, and vocal registration. More decisively, as Miller points out: “the most certain aid in determining voice classification concerns the identification of registration pivotal points …”10 In other words, as compared to the other qualities and characteristics mentioned above, the most reliable factors in deciding vocal type are the registration events.

10 Miller 1993, 134. 7 §1.2. Registration

The passaggi are the two pivotal registration points or register transition points at which the human voice switches from one register into the adjacent register. The primo passaggio (first passage) lies between the chest register and the middle register in women or between the chest register and the zona di passaggio (passage zone) in men. The secondo passaggio (second passage) is located between the middle register or zona de passaggio and the head register.11

It is widely accepted that registers exist not only in the human voice but also in other instrument (such as woodwinds and strings). Scott McCoy, American vocal pedagogue, describes the similarities between human voice and musical instruments:

“All musical instruments, including the human voice, have at least three features in common: to make sound they must have a power source, a vibrator, and a resonator. For a trumpet, the power source is the breath, the lips are the vibrator and the tubing of the instrument is the resonator. Violins and other bowed stringed instruments use the bow as the power source, the string as the vibrator and the body of the instrument as the resonator. Pianos rely on the hammer—actuated by the fingers—as the power source, the string as the vibrator and the sounding board as the resonator…. How does this apply to the human voice? Actually, the voice has a lot in common with the trumpet: the power source is the breath, the vibrator is a pair of vibrating folds of tissue (the vocal folds), and the resonator is the vocal tract.” 12

Furthermore, like our voice instruments, each of these musical instruments is capable of making a variety of sounds that are divided into groups of pitches that share a

11 Miller 1993, 3. 12 McCoy 2012, 26. 8 similar timbre. These unique timbres are the result of the mechanical action that produces the vibration and the capacity of the resonating chamber to amplify that vibration.

Resonance is the intensification and enriching of a musical tone by supplementary vibration. It enhances a particular series of overtones in relation to the fundamental pitch and this combined effect of the mechanical action and the resonating chamber provides a large variety of timbres for any given pitch.13

There are a few ways to create a particular pitch in some musical instruments.

William Alex Martin uses the violin to illustrate this point in the following example.14

The violin can produce A440 on more than one string, and each string is different in shape and tension. The A440’s produced on each string create a unique timbre to that sound. Correspondingly, the human voice is able to produce A440 in a number of ways.

While most of the time the singer is unaware of the mechanical maneuver of stretching or contracting of the vocal folds, the result of changing the balance between the muscle group of the vibrator and the form and dimension of the resonator (the vocal tract) is exactly what produces the unique timbre of each A440.

The uniqueness of the human voice is that it is capable of shaping its resonating spaces. Capabilities and limitations in creating vocal timbres vary among individual vocalists because of differences such as physical structure and the elastic abilities of the laryngeal muscles, and these differences among others lie at the core of this discussion.

13 Martin 2010, 5-6. 14 Ibid., 6. 9 §1.3. Vocal Registers

The term register can be somewhat confusing, as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice, including a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a particular range of pitches, and a characteristic type of tone or quality of sound. In other words, a register in the human voice is a particular series of tones that possess the same quality and that are produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds within a certain range or series of pitches. As Canadian vocal pedagogue Karyn O’Connor explains.15

Manuel Garcia, one of the most renowned teachers of singing of the 19th century, provides the following similar brief definition:

“A register is a series of consecutive homogeneous sounds produced by one mechanism, differing essentially from another series of sounds equally homogeneous produced by another mechanism…” 16

Scientific study of the structure and function of the larynx led by Manuel Garcia has shown in singing, that there are mainly two muscle groups that are capable of regulating pitch: the thyroarytenoid muscles (the medial edge of the thyroarytenoid

[behind the vocal ligament] is sometimes called the thyrovocalis) and the cricothyroid muscles. Thyroarytenoid muscles build a linkage between the thyroid cartilage and the arytenoid cartilage and cricothyroid muscles form a linkage between the cricoid cartilage at the bottom of the larynx and the thyroid cartilage.

15 See O’Connor 2008/2018. 16 Garcia 1982, 8. 10 The vocalis or internal thyroarytenoid forms the main mass of the folds and its primary function is as an isometric tensor. It can vary frequency and manner of vibration

(thickness and tension) by partial or segmental contraction. Therefore, thyroarytenoid muscles are responsible for producing low notes. Dominance of these muscles is called the “heavy mechanism” by Vennard.17

Although the dimensions of the glottis (the space between the folds) are highly variable between individuals and even within a single person, the front or membranous portion of the vocal folds takes up about two-thirds of their total length. The remaining one-thirds is called the cartilaginous section because its border is formed by the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The cricothyroid muscles lie approximately vertically at the base of the larynx and contract to tilt the entire larynx forward; directly manipulating pitch by controlling the length of the cords. As pitch rises, the activity of the cricothyroid muscles increases. The vocal folds elongate and the mass of the vocal folds diminishes. This stretching and thinning process increases with ascending pitch.

Dominance of the cricothyroid muscles is called the “light mechanism.”18

Together with the movement of air coming from lungs, the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles are able to produce a series of pitches. The series of pitches produced by the thyroarytenoid muscles is labeled the chest register, and the series of pitches produced by the cricothyroid muscles is labeled the falsetto register.

The field of voice pedagogy is in strong agreement as to the existence of vocal registers; however, questions persist about how many registers there are, and

17 Vennard 1967, 66. 18 Idem., 67. 11 subsequently, their training. Most members of the scientific community believe that two primary registers exist, which are determined mainly by laryngeal function. As Barbara

Doscher reiterates, this view has been shared for more than the last two decades – namely, that the primary influence on registers is laryngeal.19

The vast majority of speaking is done in chest register; men speak almost entirely within their chest register, while women speak in both their chest and middle registers.

Chest voice is often referred to as the heavy (laryngeal) mechanism because the vocal folds are thickest and fattest in the chest register when vocalis are active and has more glottal closure. Chest voice begins and ends in different places within the human voice, depending on voice category or type, although it can be carried upwards, through the primo passaggio, into men’s head registers.20

The head register lies above the middle register or zona di passaggio. The term

“head voice” is generally used to describe the feeling that the resonance (sympathetic resonance) of singing is occurring primarily in the head. It has a characteristic “ringing” tone and modified acoustics. The falsetto register is sometimes called the “lighter mechanism” of the voice because of how the vocal folds elongate and become thinner.

The glottal closure becomes brief and incomplete. As a result, most singers experience a sense of “lightening” in timbre as they enter the head register. Head voice can be carried down and maintained lower, into what would naturally be the chest register, with little to no risk to the voice, although the tone of the voice will become thinner at lower pitches

18 Doscher 1994, 173. 20 This practice is widely considered to be potentially injurious to the vocal instrument. 12 and resonate more poorly than it would if the natural (chest) voice were being used for those same pitches.

As mentioned previously, the interval of a fourth above the first pivotal point in the scale locates the secondo passaggio.21 The zone between these two male-voice passaggi is called the zona di passaggio. To negotiate this zone (particular notes above

E4 or F4), the action of shouting or calling comes in to play for male singers. This is the result of the lack of coordination between the muscles controlling each register. In order to move smoothly up or down in pitch between the chest and head voice registers, the registers must make some adjustments to blend with each other. If they do not, noticeable voice breaks (register breaks) will occur. When a register break occurs, the tone of the voice will often suddenly become weak, thin, and lacking in intensity and volume, and pitch changes will sound abrupt. Sometimes the voice will crack, or there may even be a momentary cessation of sound. It is theorized that these problem spots in a singer’s range are caused by the mal-coordination of the laryngeal mechanism or static laryngeal adjustment (as opposed to dynamic adjustment)22 in which the vocal folds fail to make necessary changes as the next set of pitches approaches. These changes to the folds and the laryngeal muscles need to happen gradually rather than suddenly, and need to be accompanied closely by an adjustment of breath energy (subglottic pressure).

Most singers intuitively achieve a degree of coordination between these two mechanisms, but for sustained classical singing, this untrained coordination is far from sufficient. Therefore it is imperative both for the singer and the teacher to understand the

21 Miller 1993, 3. 22 Vennard 1967, 58. 13 function of vocal registers and to develop the strategies of tuning these muscles. The singer must learn to bridge areas of lower and upper ranges by means of vowel modification, accomplished by resonance balancing, and by coordination of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles for a smooth transition or “blending.” As mentioned above, Vennard proposes the existence of two registers which he calls “light mechanism” and “heavy mechanism.” Additionally, he points out that these two registers can overlap by an octave, which can be sung in either laryngeal adjustment. He calls that zone (the one- octave overlap between the light and heavy mechanism) “middle.”

An overwhelming majority of vocal pedagogues share the common thesis that there are two pure registers in male voices: falsetto and chest. For example, Cornelius

Reid relates that there “are two registers, or mechanisms, in all voices, one called the

‘falsetto,’ the other the ‘chest’.”23 And as Vennard explains: “we have two extremes of vibration, two ‘registers’ if you wish to call them that. One covers the lower two thirds of the compass, and the other applies to the upper two thirds.”24

This theory (of two pure male registers) is supported by the fact that the thyroarytenoid muscles and the cricothyroid muscles are the only two intrinsic muscles systems of the larynx capable of influencing and controlling sustained phonation. As

Christy elaborates:

“Physiologists explain that there are only two sets of muscles in the larynx which control all singing and speaking: the thyroid and the arytenoid. There are, therefore, only two registers, the lower controlled by the thyroid muscles and the upper (falsetto) controlled by the arytenoid.”25

23 Reid 1950, 67 24 Vennard 1967, 63. 25 Christy 1961, 79. 14 A clear understanding and distinct knowledge of the terminology related to vocal registers is important in order to avoid confusion. However, the theory of two registers over-simplifies this very complicated matter. One particular area that deserves to be given more detailed attention is the middle register; the blending area or “unused register” (as Vennard terms it).26 Miller refers to this register as the “voce media.”27

Because one learns to sing through the sensation of sound, it is imperative that the two mechanisms and their resultant sounds are understood. Only then may the student truly evaluate the balance of coordination between the mechanical actions involved and the sound, adjusting manipulation by reacting to the requirements of the musical lines.

Here this coordination—the act of balancing (blending) —plays a crucial role. As

Richard Miller purports: “the most crucial area of the male singing scale, historically designated as the zona di passaggio (the passage zone), lies between the speech range and the upper-mid range of the singing voice, an area also termed voce media.28

John Carroll Burgin claims that “accomplishing the equalization of the different registers, as well as the perfection of smooth transitions from one register singing to the next, is interpreted as an accomplishment of good singing technique and a goal of singing instruction.”29 Burgin further explains:

“…the low chest register is especially well developed in low-voice classifications, whereas the high head register is more extensive in the high vocal types. Extending between these two principle registers, is the middle register or mid- voice, also spoken of as “voix mixte.” At the borders of the principal registers, transitional tones may be produced by the mechanism of either register. This

26 Vennard 1967, 73. 27 Miller 2008, 60. 28 Ibid. 29 Burgin 1973, 118. 15 passage, or bridge is more noticeable in the male voice, between the lower and upper registers. In the untrained, natural voice, an unpleasant “break” separates, to varying degrees, these two registers. The vocal technique of “covering” is used for the equalization of these register passages.”30

A well-trained professional tenor voice masters this difficult “middle” area at all times. He is able to balance constantly between the thyroarytenoid muscles and cricothyroid muscles. Dynamic balance (the opposite of static balance) between these muscular processes is necessary to achieve the evenness of scale throughout the range that is demanded by the ears of modern audiences and leads to the perception of a “one register” voice. More importantly, mastery of the middle area will pave the way to high register and therefore, facilitate and extend the upper vocal range.

30 Ibid. 16 §1.4. Register Terminology

Blending chest voice and head voice qualities and colors is a major source of confusion and frustration for many aspiring singers. The student may remain ignorant of the mechanics involved in producing his aesthetically pleasing and technically skillful sound; however, for the voice teacher, an understanding of the muscle systems involved in registration is useful to the success of the singing teaching. It is the teacher’s goal to help the student gain control of involuntary muscles. Once the student understands how the voice works, blending becomes easier and nearly automatic.

It is useful for students to understand the names of registers involved in singing.

When it comes to the question of how many registers exist, there is a wide range of viewpoints. At one end, there are teachers who deny the existence of registers, as shown below:

“Such ‘true-art singer’ shows no different registers, with him the ‘one-register- voice became reality. The intensity of the head-resonance and the diaphragm support is incomparably stronger in this singer than in the mediocre one.”31

And there are those who ignore registers:

“The safest and best teaching, totally ignores registers and allows the tessitura (that part of the range in which one sings the easiest) to develop in each individual naturally through correct techniques of posture, respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation.”32

31 Ruth 1963, 4. 32 Westerman 1955, 39. 17

And there are others who claim there are as many as seven. The seven registers theory includes chest, head, middle, mix, falsetto, fry, and modal.33 Traditionally, names for registers are still used in the voice studio with such terms as chest, head and falsetto.

The wide use of these three labels is based on singer’s sensations.

When singers refer to chest resonance—chest voice, they are actually talking about a vocal tone that is characterized by darker vowel qualities or mellowness, sometimes accompanied by a distinct sensation of vibration in the chest (especially in the sternum and breastbone area). This register mode occurs in the lower to middle range of speaking pitch. The term itself, however, is incorrect since an effective resonating chamber is a hollow place surrounded by hard surfaces, and the chest is too full of organs to be suitable for amplifying the singing tone. Since resonance occurs where there is plenty of empty space for amplification of the lower vibrations created by the thick vocal folds (the ligament lining the inside of the thyroarytenoid muscles), what singers may associate with chest resonance is actually sympathetic vibration. The application of the label voce di petto stems from this sensation.

Head resonance or head voice has a brilliant ringing tone quality as compared to the chest resonance singing tone. This bright voice tone is developed in bones and cavities such as the nasal passages and sinus cavities that are often called the “mask” or

“masque.” This contributes to the sensation that the voice is situated in the head, thereby causing the use of the label voce di testa. Head voice occurs as a result of the laryngeal tilt (or cricothyroid adjustment, in which the larynx rocks forward as pitch rises). Without

33 Martin 2010, 11. 18 this laryngeal adjustment, the singer will find singing in the higher register extremely difficult.

The term falsetto designates a timbre in the male upper range that is imitative of the female voice. It is most generally defined as the thin, unsupported tones of the male high voice. Many singers incorrectly think that falsetto and head voice are two names for the same technique. This, however, is not the case. Although head voice and falsetto may be produced at the same pitches in male voices, the techniques and resulting sounds between the two voice productions are different. Unlike the sound of head voice (which is richer in overtones, has the potential to produce a substantial Singer’s Formant,34 and has a strong “ring”), the falsetto voice is weak in overtones, has a more ‘flute-like’ quality, and produces no Singer’s Formant.35

The main difference between the sounds of falsetto and head voice production rests in the amount of laryngeal involvement. Falsetto is a voice production in which the vocalis muscles are inactive, making it possible for the cricothyroid muscles to place great longitudinal tension upon the vocal ligaments. The thyroarytenoid muscles remain motionless. The sound of falsetto is the result of air traveling through the thin edges of the thyroarytenoid muscles. The very thin edges of the vocal folds are easily blown open by the air traveling through and offer little resistance to the flow. The sound of head voice is produced by increasing tension of the thyroarytenoids to create a tauter, more substantial edge to the vocal fold, which in turn creates more resistance to the flow of breath, and building subglottic pressure. Increasing the activity of the thyroarytenoids in

34 The singer’s formant is found usually by classically trained singers who produce a timbre that is described as having ring quality in voice. 35 See O’Connor 2008/2018. 19 resistance to the stretching action of the cricothyroids will increase the subglottic pressure and change the tone quality from falsetto to the ringing sound of the head voice.

In voice training, sometimes falsetto tones are used to help tenor singers with pressed phonation reduce vocal-fold tension in the zona di passaggio and in the upper range. As Richard Miller points out:

“The falsetto onset is utilized solely as a pedagogical device for avoiding any tendency toward pressed muscular onsets. As was previously mentioned, the intrinsic laryngeal muscle activity that produces falsetto (the imitation of female vocal timbre by the male) is not the same phenomenon as male “head-voice” function. Factors of vocal-folds elongation are present in the falsetto but with reduced activity of the vocal-fold closure mechanism. Therefore, in some cases, treating the falsetto as a kind of grace note to pitches that lie in the zona di passaggio, or even higher, removes the tendency of the overly athletic tenor to make a rigid presetting of the laryngeal and respirator musculatures.” 36

Historically, there are a number of famous tenors who have used this sob-like vocal technique to facilitate the upper register. The most well-known singer is Beniamino

Gigli, who perhaps overused it so frequently that he was criticized by the Londoner press.37 The most present example is Jonas Kaufmann. In his singing there is never shortage of using this techniques to provide a momentary vocal relief.38

Understanding the labels assigned to registers and the muscular processes resulting in these registers will enhance both the teacher’s and singer student’s chances for success in working toward a satisfactory vocal progress.

36 Miller 1993, 63-64. 37 Steane 2000, 115. 38 For a more detailed analyses of Kauffmann’s vocal technique, see Chapter 2, §2.5. 20 §1.5. Registration Events

There are only two primary registers: a chest register and a falsetto register, and this holds irrespective of the singer’s Fach system classification (bass, baritone, or tenor) with lower voices (basses) using less falsetto register. The location of these registers

(with respect to the voice’s overall range) varies, and so does the range of these specific pitches circled by the muscular mechanism responsible for the production of each register. The endpoint or boundary of one register and the beginning of the next register is equivalent to what is known as the “passaggio.”39

As mentioned previously, there are numerous theories regarding how to classify a young singer. The three main determining factors of these many theories are timbre, tessitura, and range.

It is common to use timbre as a criterion of classification. This is in part because timbre is often associated with formant frequencies, and formant frequencies can indicate the size and dimensions of the vocal tract.40, 41 But at the same time, vocal timbre can be manufactured. A potential tenor who can sing with a very dark color may have the formant frequencies of a baritone. Johan Sundberg believes that the development of a voice timbre in voice training is a matter of learning a special articulation.42 Furthermore, as Barbara Doscher points out:

39 In this sense, the passaggio is a vocal register pivotal point. 40 A formant is a resonance of the vocal tract, and “formant frequencies” are the same as “resonance frequencies.” See McCoy 2012, 40. 41 The vocal tract is the supraglottal resonantor system. See Miller 1993, 160. 42 Sundberg 1973, 87. 21 “Another problem with the use of timbre is its deceiving aural nature. If a young female has a naturally darker singing voice than her peers, she generally is classified as a mezzo. Many a big-voiced soprano has sung as a mezzo into her mid-20’s, only to find that her voice was misclassified…The sad thing about this kind of classification by timbre alone is that the rare voices, such as the spinto soprano and the dramatic tenor, are the ones most often misclassified. At best, their potential is never realized; at worst, permanent vocal damage results.”43

Another important criterion is tessitura: the part of the range in which the voice feels the easiest or sounds the best. It has, to certain degree, a reliability. The problem with this criterion is that tessitura of a singer changes with training and maturity. As young singers grow older, they will learn to use the vocalis muscles more actively in the upper range. As a result, the tessitura moves. Therefore, it is wise for both the teacher and the student to wait and exercise great caution before classifying voice type, only doing so after sufficient time and hard work have done their jobs.

In determining vocal category, the vocal range does play an important role, but neither it is an entirely sufficient method. Like the tessitura, a young singer’s vocal range moves up or down as the result of physical and technical maturity. Particularly, range is partially dependent on the elasticity of the vocal cords and the strength of the muscles

(the thyroarytenoid, cricothyroid, and inter-arytenoid muscles) that control their length, mass, tension, and closure. As a voice improves and physically develops, the intrinsic muscles of the larynx gain strength and at the same time become more flexible. As a result, the singer’s vocal range may possibly extend:

43 Doscher 1994, 196. 22 “Probably the least reliable and the most dangerous way to classify a voice is by range. Other than indicating whether a voice is male of female, a relatively simple judgment to make about normal voices, range is a ‘sometime thing.’ Particularly in young voices, it can bob up and down like a yo-yo. A mezzo-soprano range is common for a young soprano who has yet found the light or head voice. Young male singers frequently have the low notes of a bass and may eventually become baritones or even tenors. A conclusive range is almost always a product of vocal maturity and, as such, is of little use as a tool to classify voices during training.”44

As outlined above, timbre, tessitura, and range are not enough to correctly classify voices during training, and neither is the measurement of such anatomical features as the length and thickness of vocal folds, the size of the resonating tract, and the overall body structure. While these latter features can give some indication of classification, they generally merely speak to some patterns, and not to a definitive voice type. As Doscher enquires: “A young baritone with all the physical attributes of his voice type may have the ringing high tones of a tenor. Which is he? How should he be trained?”45

Since all the methods to classify young voices mentioned above are not enough, voice teachers often use registration events to assess voice type more accurately. The particular events of interest are the note breaks when ascending from one mechanism

(chest) to another mechanism (falsetto) – in other words, at the second passaggio. The phenomenon of “breaking” happens due to the fact that while phonating at a certain pitch, one mechanism must give way to the other mechanism, and as a consequence the voice experiences a sudden shift in quality and timbre. In one study, Vennard and Hirano found that with rising pitch in “open” singing, the activity of the vocalis and sternohyoid

44 Doscher 1994, 196. 45 Idem, 195. 23 muscles increased dramatically until the activity suddenly dropped and the voice broke into falsetto.46

Roughly at the interval of a fourth above the first pivotal point (primo passaggio) in the scale lies the secondo passaggio. So long as they can be located, a voice’s registration is a significant pedagogical tool for classifying and therefore training voices.

That being said, by no means does the author of this paper advocate the use of registration events as the only factor when it comes to determining classification.

However, as compared to other factors, registration is the dominating criterion for classification.

46 Vennard and Hirano 1971, 31. 24 §1.6. Registration Events In Baritone And Tenor

This paper primarily discusses two main male voices—the baritone and tenor—as well as their subcategories. Every one of these categories has their fingerprint: a unique zona di passaggio (passage zone). Karyn O’Connor 47 indicates that the passaggi

(passages) are the two pivotal registration points or register transition points at which the human voice switches from one register into the adjacent register. The primo (first) passaggio lies between the chest register and the zona di passaggio in men. The secondo

(second) passaggio is located between the middle register or zona di passaggio and the head register. The typical zona di passaggio between the first and second passages spans on average the interval of a perfect fourth.

The location of the passaggi and zona di passaggio in each individual voice is related to the range of each register. Further, the range of each register is affected by the size of the larynx and the elasticity of the muscles of phonation.

Most singers have little to no awareness of the existence of the first passage. It is the second passage that occurs to every singer, tenor in particular.

To locate the secondo (upper) passaggio, the singer should continue singing chromatically up the scale. The student should begin around G3 or A3-flat and sing a full eight-note ascending scale by half step. The location of these starting points should place the voice several notes below the average secondo passaggio pitch, and the scale should extend to a few notes above these (secondo passaggio) pitches and the singer will

47 O’Connor 2008/2018 25 experience a noticeable change of tone quality, often with a crack in the voice. Soon the voice is forced to flip into the falsetto register; this marks the second passaggio.

Not all passaggi are located on equally-tempered tones within the scale, according to O’Connor.48 The passaggi of the human voice are not necessarily related to pitches on a piano. Some voices may actually transition between registers microtonally, in intervals smaller than the usual semitone of twelve-tone equal temperament. As such, it might help to use shorter chromatic scales—playing all semitones so that the location of the register shift is detected more precisely.

Since sometimes the passaggi may differ slightly from one vowel to the next,

O’Connor also recommends the method of singing several vowels, which will also help to reveal the most consistent register shift pattern and location. It is wise to use all five

Italian cardinal vowels ([a], [e], [i], [o], and [u]) to find a more accurate determination of the vocal fach.

Being able to sing beyond the primo passaggio without elevating the larynx and beyond the secondo passaggio without taking to the falsetto register is the result of coordinated action of the thyroarytenoid muscles and cricothyroid muscles, and careful tuning of vocal tract resonance. This coordinated action helps to extend the vocal range, and provides a better understanding of which direction—baritone or tenor—his training should take.

The difference in the passaggi locations from one individual to the next reflects the differences in their individual physical structures. These differences are not necessarily discernable to the naked eye, as they are within the body (i.e., the larynx and

48 Ibid. 26 vocal tract). A person of smaller frame and stature may have a surprisingly low range or heavy, powerful voice, whereas another person of larger build and height may have a surprisingly high range or a light vocal weight.

Although the passaggi for every mature singer remain stable and are consistent, they may not be completely uniform for all singers within the same voice type. As

Richard Miller relates, “no single, arbitrary pitch can be established which functions as a line of demarcation between register…”49 This is significant for the protagonist of this paper (the hybrid baritenor voice). As will later be discussed, some dramatic tenors share the same passaggio characteristics with lyric or dramatic baritones, yet they bear different names and vocal categories.

In his books Securing Baritone, Bass-Baritone, and Bass Voices and Training

Tenor Voices, Miller provides us with a table of the register events for the baritones, tenors and their subordinate types.50 But as related earlier, determining vocal Fach is not always clear-cut, as every voice is unique. There is a great deal of overlap, so the passaggi locations listed below should be taken as approximate, and should not be used exclusively as the single, defining voice characteristic. Instead, register transition points should be reviewed and analyzed together along with the other characteristics of the individual singing voice mentioned previously; namely: range, tessitura, and timbre.

Of particular interest, in the context of this discussion, there are only the voice types ranging from lyric bass at the low end to lyric tenor at the high end. In the

49 Miller 1986, 117. 50 See Miller 2008, 9 and Miller 1993, 9. 27 following examples, the first, lower pitch indicates the first passaggio and the second, higher pitch indicates the second passaggio for each voice type under consideration.

Figure 1-3. Lyric Bass Passaggi (after Miller)

The passaggi above are generally associated with the lyric bass or basso cantabile

(lyric bass): a lighter bass voice, likely with more agility and an ability to handle more florid passages than a heavier bass voice.

Figure 1-4. Bass-Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)

The pitches shown above reflect the registration pivotal points of the bass- baritone, an intermediate voice type with a range and tessitura somewhere between that of the bass and that of the baritone. The bass-baritone may have an extensive lower range, but have more of the timbral qualities of the baritone. He may also exhibit the upper range of a baritone.

28

Figure 1-5. Dramatic Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)

These pitches shown above in Figure 1-5 reflect the registration transition locations for a dramatic baritone. The dramatic baritone is a heavier-weighted baritone voice with a darker quality that is richer, fuller, and sometimes harsher than a lyric baritone.

Figure 1-6. Lyric Baritone Passaggi (after Miller)

The passaggi locations of Figure 1-6 above reflect those of the lyric baritone. The lyric baritone is a lighter-weighted baritone voice that (along with the dramatic baritone) could be classified as a dramatic tenor because of the lighter timbre, soaring high notes, and the vocal agility as compared to other baritones.

Figure 1-7. Tenore Robusto Passaggi (after Miller) 29 Figures 1-7 through 1-10 are based on Miller’s 1996 book Training Tenor Voices.

The passaggi locations of Figure 1-7 on the previous page reflect those of the tenore robusto or the “robust tenor.” (Some refer to this tenor as the tenore dramatico – the dramatic tenor, and the Heldentenor – the “heroic tenor.”) These tenor voices are the heaviest and lowest of all tenor voices. Singers who change registers at these locations may eventually have to choose between training as either a baritone or a tenor.

Figure 1-8. Lyric Spinto Tenor Passaggi (after Miller)

The notes of Figure 1-8 above reflect the passaggi locations for the lyric spinto tenor. The lyric spinto tenor is a tenor of substantial weight, with a rich, emotive, ringing, very powerful and dramatic voice that can deliver the dramatic aspects of the Verdian and verismo repertories. Some spinto tenors may have a somewhat darker timbre than a lyric tenor, as well, without being as dark as a dramatic tenor.

Figure 1-9. Lyric Tenor Passaggi (after Miller)

30

The lyric tenor changes registers roughly at the pitches shown on the previous page in Figure 1-9. The lyric tenor voice is warm and graceful, with a bright, full timbre that is strong enough to be heard over an orchestra, but is not heavy.

Figure 1-10. Tenore Leggero Passaggi (after Miller)

The light tenor or tenore leggero likely changes registers at the D4-sharp and G4- sharp shown in Figure 1-10 above. This voice is a light, lyric instrument, very agile, and able to perform difficult and florid passages.

The minor third between the first passaggi of the lyric baritone (B3) and the lyric tenor (D4) overlaps with the location of registration events of two subcategories of the tenor voice: the dramatic tenor’s C4 and F4 (see Figure 1-7), and the lyric spinto tenor’s

C4-sharp and F4-sharp (see Figure 1-8 on the previous page). Furthermore, according to

Miller, the Heldentenor’s registration events could vary from B3-flat and E4-flat to C4 and F4.51 As many as three other vocal categories could also share this range of registration events: the dramatic baritone, lyric baritone, and dramatic tenor. Again

Miller:

51 Miller 1993, 13 31 “Sometimes the wide range of categories within the tenor classification is not recognized, and voices that exhibit registration events appropriate to heavier tenor instruments are perceived as indicating a baritone, or even a bass- baritone. Nor is range an entirely reliable indicator of vocal category, inasmuch as some tenors have a good low G2 and some baritones do not. A baritone, on the other hand, may actually have a better A4 than the potential tenor. Many young tenors do not know how to achieve entry into upper voice and if the voice is sizable they may well be falsely classified as baritones.”52

As Miller points out in the passage above, proper classification can be a complicated matter. It is therefore important for teachers to combine their knowledge of registration events with other criteria such as range, weight, tessitura, and physical construction in order to classify voices precisely. They need to take the time to observe their students over a long period; the virtue of patience is required.

Classifying voice types can be challenging, especially for the intermediate voice types. They may have a range or tessitura that falls somewhere between two voice types, or may have a vocal weight somewhere between light and heavy. They may even share the same registers. There are at least two voice types whose registration events lie at C4 and F4, and both of them are tenors. The matter is further complicated in that these registration events are only a half step away from those of the baritone’s, as William Alex

Martin points out.53 Often, these two kinds of tenors usually start their training as baritones.

The singers who start their training as a baritone and later become a tenor are usually late-bloomers, as Miller calls them.54 There are a number of reasons why these

52 Idem, 133. 53 Martin 2010, 19. 54 Miller 1993, 132. 32 late-bloomers exist. The most frequent case is because of improper or over-cautious classification in the early stages of their vocal study. A voice teacher rarely has a problem identifying light tenors, since this vocal category already has rather advanced techniques and an extensive vocal range at a fairly early stage. The challenge that teachers face at this stage is not technical, but rather psychological. As young singing students who sing well enough often want to sing dramatic literature too soon, the teacher’s job at this stage is to instill patience.

The late-bloomer whose zona di passaggio lies between C4 and F4 is usually in his mid-to-late twenties, or even older. This voice could fit into a few possible categories: a lyric baritone or Italienischer Bariton, a lyric tenor or Mozart tenor (usually it is sufficient to possess a solid A4), or a Heldentenor or Wagner tenor (which demands a special type of voice).

A certain number of young male voices at this age are in constant change related to physical development. Their voices sound fairly pleasant but lack the extreme high and low pitches. Yet they are well-trained musicians and eager to sing. Therefore the easiest and safest way for them to pursue a professional singing carrier is to sing as a light baritone. The author of this paper was once told by his voice teacher that he should stay as a baritone instead of rushing into tenor, even though he was capable of singing

Rodolfo’s aria “Che gelida manina” from Puccini’s opera La Bohème. Precisely as Miller suggests:

33 “A singer whose zona di passaggio lodges between C4 and F4 would be well advised to adhere to the lyric baritone literature during early training. He should not too soon attempt the higher-lying tenor repertoire that may later become appropriate.”55

After a few years of technical development and physical maturity have passed, such a singer may feel vocally strong enough to sing higher dramatic phrases because there is an upper register flip (upper register mechanism) that is completely different from a baritone. His sound grows even larger and A4, B4-flat, and even B4 became easy to tackle, yet still hard to sustain. Meanwhile, his lower vocal range begins to fade and low notes become weak. Now, he faces a few difficult professional questions worthy of careful consideration:

1). Is he ready to make the switch from baritone to tenor; a switch that is highly

prized, and that guarantees excitement (due to the greater challenge of tenor

singing), but at the same time carries high risk?

2). Should he remain as a baritone? His artistic career might be less exciting, but

at least a safe career of longevity is almost guaranteed.

3). The most important question of all: Can he easily sustain the murderously high

tessitura (the area around the tenor’s second passage: somewhere from through

G4) with his large, dark instrument all night long, and still be able to sing A4 or

B-flat 4 a few dozen times before the performance is over?

55 Miller 2008, 11. 34 Before any career decision is made, there are also a few technical questions that need to be answered in order to determine whether he should choose singing as a tenor as his career path:

1). Is the lower part of the voice losing both timbre and volume after a

performance or a long period of singing? At the same time, is the upper range

getting freer and easier? Tenors without a reliable upper extension may be

misclassified as baritones, and can cause damage by attempting to establish

the validity of the lower voice through a heavy, dark production that is not natural

to the voice.

2). Can the seconda passaggio area around E4, F4, and even F4-sharp be sung

without colorization, and still sound easy and pleasant?

3). Is the voice getting more flexible, with more freedom when less dark sounds

are being produced?

4). Once this freedom is gained, is the upper range voice getting more

“shining?” As Vennard relates, “the important criterion is tessitura, that is, that

part of the range in which the voice performs best, both as to sound and as to

eases…” 56

5). Do coaches and conductors who work with the singer often compare his voice

to someone who was or is a dramatic or spinto tenor?

56 Vennard 1967, 79. 35 If the majority of the above questions are answered with “yes,” then the way is cleared for the baritone to become a potential tenor, or in other words, to become the baritone-about-to-be-a-tenor.57 In the course of this transition, it would be wise to consider the following advice concerning Fach switching from Miller:

“The erstwhile baritone being reborn as a tenor needs to know that such an event is not sudden but gradual. The singer should first be absolutely certain that sound advice from a number of sources has been sought. Changing from baritone to tenor is a drastic career decision for an established singer. (It is, of course, much easier for the student baritone, but still requires time and patience.) The change of category ought not be made when the predictable number of performing years ahead is limited. If re-examination of the basic premises of free vocal production (breath management, agility, resonation, vowel modification, the unified vocal scale, and vocal endurance) shows clearly that problems have resulted from the superimposition of baritone “color” on a tenor instrument, the change is appropriate.”58

57 This term originates in Miller’s book Training Tenor’s Voices. See Miller 1993, 136. 58 Idem, 137. 36 Chapter 2: Pedagogic Techniques for the Baritone Transitioning to Tenor

§2.0. The Baritone-About-To-Be-A-Tenor

The baritone-about-to-be-a-tenor usually has a large, dark, thicker, and more dramatic voice that sometimes produces a timbre in the high range similar to what it possesses in the middle voice. It is a tenor, specifically a dramatic and Heldentenor (the reason for grouping these two voice types together is simply because they both share the same location of the second passage) with an exceptionally powerful bottom range, or from the perspective of a baritone voice, a baritone with exceptionally easy high notes.

Many Verdi baritones, for example, can sing a high C5, including Piero Cappuccilli and

Leo Nucci. History also provides us with an impressive list of fine tenors who began their singing careers as baritones, including Jean de Reszke, Giovanni Zeatello, Ramon Vinay,

Lauritz Melchior and in our own time, Carlo Bergonzi and Placido Domingo. All of the singers mentioned above exhibited or exhibit brilliance and a fullness of sound in their upper tones traceable to the baritone-like quality.

The singers in this voice category are strong enough to sustain higher dramatic phrases because there is an upper register mechanism that is different from that of a baritone. While a baritone may have similar acoustical changes, the dramatic tenor has a stronger upper register mechanism that allows this voice to soar higher and with more dramatic color and intensity than even the lyric baritone.

37 Consequently, this type of tenor student often will face numerous technical challenges and a long period of training before he succeeds, due to the prolonged overuse of thyroarytenoid muscles. The biggest challenge he will face is to sustain or maintain high tessitura, as being able to sing a single tenor aria is one thing, while to stay in the tenor’s high tessitura (D4-G4) for an extended performance is quite another. Having sung as baritone for a considerable amount of his life, he cannot be trained to go easily into the high range until the vocal weight, which often is caused by depressing the larynx with the root of the tongue, overuse of thyroarytenoid muscles, and too much subglottic breath pressure, is taken out of the middle voice (zona di passaggio) and upper passaggio.

In order to successfully maintain a high tessitura, there are a few things a singer needs to take into consideration: well-balanced breath control, vowel modification, the singer’s formant, and gradual laryngeal muscle adjustment.

38 §2.1. Balanced Breath Control

Due to the size and the timbre of this particular tenor’s voice, it is essential to have an understanding of breath management; it is critical for the creation of vocal freedom in any voice, but it is a “must” for this particular breed of tenor. Miller makes the following interesting observation:

“A look at the tessitura of roles sung by protagonists in most operas reveals why the life of the tenor is not always easy. When one considers where the pivotal points of the registers occur in lower male voices – and how the relative literatures lie with regard to those register events – one realizes that the tenor has to negotiate a greater number of phrases and sustained notes in upper range than does the baritone or bass with his voice. It may be asked, “Well, why not? Isn’t that the expectation for a ‘high’ voice?” It is no easier for the tenor to sing in the upper third of his voice than for the baritone to do so in his, yet the literature demands it more frequently of the tenor than of any other vocal types. As a result, the breath energy level to be maintained is frequently much higher for tenor voices than is the case for other singers...”59

For singing in general, an essential element of vocal technique is the control of subglottal pressure; this is particularly crucial in tenor singing. There are a number of technical problems of breathing in phonation that stem directly from the control of subglottal pressure, and again, this particularly affects tenor singing. As James Stark testifies in his book Bel Canto: “Male singers, especially tenors singing above the passaggio, typically generate higher subglottal pressure than females…”60 Stark provides the following particular measurements:

59 Miller 1993, 105. 60 Stark 1999, 115. 39 “Subglottal pressure is the primary control mechanism for intensity as measured in decibels. Subglottal pressures during singing are generally higher than in speech. Proctor says that most singing generates between 5 and 20 61 cmH2O ; certain tones may go as high as 40 to 70 cmH2O, but the upper limit is rarely above 60 cmH2O. Sears put the upper limit as 50 cmH2O for a “maximally loud crescendo,’ but Schutte found higher levels, especially for 62 tenors, who might reach 100 cmH2O or more on high, loud tones.”

It is clear that tenor singing generates higher subglottal pressure; however, a much-discussed topic in the voice science literature is whether or not this is the best way to approach the second passage and above. Some voice researchers advocate the

Stauprinzip (German for “stemming principle,” also known as breath damming). Richard

Miller describes this special theory of breath control:

“Breath damming is a technique of breath retention through marked sub-glottal muscular pressures. The flow of breath is stemmed by the glottis as a result of muscular tension similar to that experienced in a painful groan or grunt. In other words, this kind of muscular control requires extreme use of breath pressure and glottal resistance. Though in the last century this kind of theory had produced a long list of successful German singers including a number of Wagnerian Heldentenöre.”63

In his book, Stark relates that this was particularly popular in the late 19th century, and was practiced in order to have the ability to sing in a declamatory style with large enough power to be heard over a large orchestra, as opposed to the singing style of grace and flexibility as in earlier operatic singing. 64

611 cmH2O , or “centimeter of water,” is an unit of measurement for pressure in the speech sciences. 1 cmH2O (at 4˚C) is equivalent to 98.0665 Pa, and to approximately 0.0142233433071196 psi. See Thompson and Taylor 2008, 47. 62 Stark 1999, 115. 63 Miller 1977, 28. 64 Stark 1999, 109. 40 Paul Bruns, the author of Minimalluft und Stütze (German for “minimum air and support”) identifies a downside to the technique of Stauprinzip, and offers an opposing view of subglottal pressure. As Stark relates Bruns’ theory:

“… the singer should only partially fill the lungs, and then use the ‘residual air’ (Residualluft) in order to capture the Freilauf (free run) of the voice. …Bruns suggested that Freilauf was largely intuitive, that it was based upon relaxation, that it preferred the fluty resonance of the upper partials to the deeper resonance of the lower partials. That it used ‘lofty’ resonance imagery, and that it was antithetical to the strong, muscular approach of Stütze (support). He said the residual air was sufficient for 17 to 20 seconds of singing, and resulted in a light, lyrical, disembodied tone quality which he considered typical of the ‘old Italian method’ as opposed to the ‘new German dramatic style.’ For him, the secret of good singing was not in strong lungs (which resulted in a lack of flexibility and a reliance on the chest voice) but rather in a mobile diaphragm (which resulted in elasticity, an emphasis on falsetto tones and upper partials) and the inscrutable Freilauf-Phänomen.”65

Even though he did not provide a concrete physiological explanation, the author maintains that Bruns’ approach, as compared to the German Stauprinzip, is the healthier one. Elasticity is the key element in any style of singing. In order to achieve mobility and elasticity of the vocal muscles, the lungs must remain less saturated. Additionally, generating great subglottic pressure to strike the vocal folds, directly results in irregular vibratos over time. When strong breath pressure collides with heavy mechanism of the vocal folds, this interrupts the free, well-balanced vibrato rate (which is in the approximate range of 4.5 to 7 cycles per second [cps]).66 As such, what we hear from great subglottic pressure is either too fast or too slow vibrato, and most likely the latter.

65 Stark 1999, 109. 66 McCoy 2012, 5 41 This author maintains that the quality of the breath control, and not the quantity of air filled in the lungs, is paramount. This involves well-balanced subglottal pressure (the antagonism of inspiratory and expiratory), airflow, and more importantly, intensity

(tonus) of the vocal folds.67 According to Sonninen (as again quoted by Stark in his book), an increase of the internal tension of the vocal folds reduces the effective vibrating mass, which then avoids the maximal length and tension of the chest register.68

As a voice teacher, one’s goal is to train singers to develop lung capacity and maintain fine control of subglottal pressure, airflow, and the valving action of the glottis during phonation in a more economical way. It is certainly not the case that bigger volume equates with better technique; rather, the singer and teacher should strive for efficiency.

67 In his book “Training Tenor Voices,” Miller states that “muscle tension is to be avoided, but muscle tonus is vital to all energized physical action.” Miller 1993, 26. 68 Aatto Sonninen, The Role of the External Laryngeal Muscles in Length Adjustments of the Vocal Cords in Singing, In Acta Otolarygologica, Supplementum, p.130. In Stark 1999, 84. 42 §2.2. Active Vowel Modification

It is crucial for a former baritone to realize that there is a fundamental difference in tenor singing. The ex-baritone is accustomed to “heavy mechanism” throughout most of his singing range; now, as a tenor, he will need to better balance breath technique (the antagonism of inspiratory and expiratory actions), increasing the intensity of vocalis (not heavy adduction) while at the same time keeping it elastic, and the whole vocal tract

(widening and hardening pharyngeal walls) in order to maintain the same sound quality in the upper tessitura, avoiding the quick fatigue of vocal muscles.

If a tenor sings to the top of the scale with the same coordination of the laryngeal muscles and resonance used in the lower and middle portions of his range, he is singing

“wide open” all the way, and the tone becomes more tense and strident until the moment the voice cracks, which is when he enters the zona di passaggio and breaks at the approximate secondo passaggio. These tense tones mostly start at D4, E4-flat and E4 for an ex-baritone. Eventually, once he reaches F4, it feels as if there is nowhere to go and nothing to do but to yell or shout through and beyond the second passage. In order to prevent this from happening, certain adjustments must be made. One of the correct adjustments can be achieved mainly through vowel modification.

In a number of pedagogic orientations, the use of vowel modification or

“covering” seems to be accepted among most vocal pedagogues, from voix sombrée

(French for “covered voice”), to the voce copertura (Italian for “voice covering”).

Covering techniques from the Italian school include arrotondamento (“vowel rounding”) and aggiustamento (a vowel “adjustment” related to the singer’s formant), which does

43 not demand drastic changes in the laryngeal and the neighboring supraglottal regions, as opposed to a typical German school where Deckung (covering) takes sudden, strong mechanical action in the region of larynx and supraglottal resonators.69 The Italian

Copertura method begins at the zona di passaggio as a gradual process of vowel change.

With its gradual mouth opening in mounting pitch, the arrotondamento method achieves scale unification. This gradual process of “covering” is one the keys for successfully singing through and beyond the zona di passaggio.

The essence of vowel modification is that as one sings higher pitches, the initial vowel is modified toward its near, more closed neighbor. In order to avoid either “white sound” (open sound) or overly covered singing, the tenor modifies a vowel to its nearby neighbor, aware that some adjustment of the upper harmonic partials that identify the vowel will have to occur. By doing so, the “white” voice (voce bianca, voix blanche) and the open sound will disappear. Table 2-1 on the following page provides some recommended possible combinations of vowel migrations:70

69 Miller 1993, 39. 70 After Miller 1993, 53-4. 44 Initial Vowel Near Neighbor Modification [e] [y]

[y] [I]

[I] [ɛ]

[ɛ] [æ]

[æ] [a]

[a] [ɔ]

[ɔ] [ʌ]

[e] [i]

[e] [æ]

[e] [ɛ]

Table 2-1. Vowel Modifications (after Miller)

As the tenor approaches the zona di passaggio (which starts at C4 or C4-sharp), he needs to move into head voice early enough in the scale to allow the voice to release into the upper passage in such a way as to create a perfect blending of the registers.

Specifically, he needs to feel an [ɔ] starting around C4 or C4-sharp, and then an [ə] by D4 or E4-flat (the specific location depends on the individual voice size and dynamic level.

In this author’s experience, this [ə] should be felt in the soft palate (not raised), and the pharyngeal walls directly next to it should widen.

45 These actions where the vowel is “narrowed” or “darkened” just prior to the area where the voice would naturally flip into the next register are necessary, and are a part of the closing and opening processes that need to happen when ascending and descending in pitch, respectively. When transitioning up to head voice register, if a “rounding” of the vowels does not take place, the singer will be pulling up too much vocal weight (thicker vocal cord mass) into the higher register.

46 §2.3. Acoustic Registration

Until recently, laryngeal muscular adjustment has been considered the dominant factor when speaking of vocal registration; that is, the theory of chest (mode 1) and falsetto (mode 2) register where thyroarytenoid muscles dominate in lower range (chest, modal), and cricothyroid muscles dominate the upper voice (head, falsetto), with a balanced coordination of both thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles in the middle

(Zona di passaggio). We conceive of this physical phenomenon as a laryngeal registration.

However, with the rapid development of scientific research in recent decades, more voice teachers, pedagogues, and researchers in scientific voice communities have started to question traditional theories, including that of laryngeal registration.

Researchers such as Don Miller and Kenneth Bozeman believe that, beyond the traditional conception of vocal registration as a muscular phenomenon, it is also an acoustic one. Bozeman states: “A laryngeal register has to do with the shape of the vocal folds by the laryngeal muscles (primarily thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles), acoustical registers have to do with the relationship of source harmonics to the first formant.”71 In other words, acoustical registers have to do with the relationship of F1H2.

The author of this document thinks this new theory of registration deserves attention, and that it can contribute useful observations to many areas of voice pedagogy, including the present topic of voice classification.

71 Bozeman www.kenbozeman.com Pedagogic Resources (accessed on 30 June, 2018). 47 As discussed earlier, a traditional understanding of male passaggio holds that there is a perfect forth between the primo and secondo passaggio. For a heavy tenor, this perfect fourth typically would be found somewhere between B3 and F4, and ideally, a gradual, smooth transition (blending) from mode 1 to mode 2 would be well executed over the zona di passaggio. However, recent studies find that there is more to this process than previously thought. Again Bozeman:

“While these laryngeal muscular adjustments do occur and are crucial to mastery of male passaggio, it is now clear that acoustic factors play a prominent, interdependent, and influential role. Timbral shifts previously thought to indicate changes in laryngeal muscular adjustment turn out more often to be caused by the changing interactions between voice source harmonics and vocal tract resonances (formants).”72

In order to fully understand the concept of acoustic register, an understanding of the harmonic series and series of formants is necessary. The tone we sing is called pitch—a complex tone composed of multiple frequencies called harmonics. The lowest harmonic of the series is called the fundamental frequency (H1). It is the strongest and loudest of all the harmonics. As McCoy explains, “the relationship between the fundamental and its harmonics is given the name harmonic series. For any given fundamental, the first twelve harmonics…only can be present in the following intervallic pattern in ascending order: unison, octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth.”73 Figure 2-1 on the following page reproduces McCoy’s Figure 2-9: Natural harmonic series from C2.74

72 Bozeman 2010, 291-297. 73 McCoy 2012, 21. 74 McCoy 2012, 22. 48

Figure 2-1. McCoy: Natural harmonic series from C2

In addition to the harmonic series, there is a furthermore a series of frequencies

called formants. Formants (F#) are the natural resonances of the vocal tract, and are based on the shape of our sound making organs (lips, tongue, cavities, pharyngeal column, etc.).

Because the vocal tract is not uniform in shape and size, it is able to produce multiple frequencies. Unlike harmonics, formant frequencies can be adjusted. Adjusting the first two formant frequencies (also called the vowel formants) to match or come close to one or more harmonics (a process know as formant tuning),75 gives the voice an acoustic

“boost” (energy), and enhances vocal carrying power.

Both Donald Miller and Kenneth Bozeman’s studies show that a significant timbral shift occurs when the second harmonic (H2) of the voice passes through the first formant (F1) of the vocal tract, creating a sound variously described as “ turning over,” or historically, “covering.”76 Bozeman elaborates:

75 Bozeman 2017, 78. 76 Miller, D. 2008, 61. 49 “If such shifts occurred primarily as the result of changes in laryngeal muscular adjustment (as previously thought), one would expect to encounter them at or near the same pitch for all vowels of a particular singer. Instead, they occur somewhat independently of laryngeal adjustment and approximately one octave below the various F1 locations of each vowel, the moment at which H2 would be passing through F1.”77

This is significant in terms of voice classification, as we are able to find the transitional points (secondo passaggio) through this new theory. We know that the voice turns at the frequency one octave below the first formant of a certain sung vowel. As such, voice classification becomes almost a mathematical calculation. Once we have the certain sung vowel, the location of the vocal break is therefore calculated. Table 2-2 below reproduces the content of McCoy’s “Table of F1 frequencies of five cardinal vowels.”78 Table 2-3 on the following page provides the vowel’s F1 locations according to Bozeman.79

Cardinal Vowel F1 frequency

/i/ 270Hz (C4-sharp)

/e/ 530Hz (C5)

/a/ 730Hz (F5-sharp)

/o/ 570Hz (D5)

/u/ 300Hz (D4)

Table 2-2. McCoy’s “Table of F1 frequencies of five cardinal vowels”

77 Bozeman 2010, 291. 78 McCoy 2012, 42-44. 79 Bozeman 2010. 50 Vowel F1 Location

/a/ F4-sharp

/e/ C4

/O/ E4-flat

/i/ C3-sharp

/u/ D3

Table 2-3. The vowels’ F1 locations (after Bozeman)

For example, from the table above we know that when a singer approaches his passaggio ascending with the vowels /e/ and /O/, this phenomenon of turning takes place approximately around C4 and E4-flat respectively, and we can be rather assured that he is a tenor. We notice that the vowels /i/ and /u/ have the lowest F1, whose locations are so low—well below what one would consider to be the passaggio—that, Bozeman explains, the closing/turning of those vowels often goes unnoticed.80

However, in exercising this new method of determining voice categories, one should be cautious. Since the shape of the vocal tract plays a decisive role, it is of utmost importance to keep the vocal shape unchanged throughout any test (for voice classification). Knowledge of these locations can be used to help train and habituate a stable laryngeal position. Furthermore, knowledge of the vowels’ F1 locations—and therefore, their points of turning—is helpful for vocal health, freedom inducing, and

80 Bozeman 2010, 294. 51 pedagogically useful, as Bozeman concludes.81 Furthermore, it provides an additional reliable source for determining tenor fach.

81 Idem, 297. 52 §2.4. The “Bad” (but Good) Vowel: [æ]

There is one particular vowel that deserves to be paid more attention: the so-called

“bad” vowel. The [æ] vowel is found in the English word “bad.” It is the vowel that can help the tenor to bring more tenor-like brilliance (squillo). According to Richard Miller:

“…it has a unique spectral envelope, with the three energy peaks (formants) evenly distributed across the spectrum at about 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, and 3000 Hz, which ensures a strong acoustic energy concentration in the mid-region and upper regions of the spectrum. It is this combination of harmonics that can be used pedagogically to induce the “ring” into subsequently sung vowels. When vowels of the back series [a], [ɔ], [o], and [u] tend to lose “frontal brilliance,” a better balance can be established by prefacing “low” vowels with the pilot phoneme [æ].”82

Using the [æ] vowel can also provide an advantage with high second formants.

McCoy records that the typical Italian cardinal vowels [i] and [e] generate 2,290 Hz and

1,840 Hz respectively for the male voice. 83 Voice scientist Bloothooft reports that progressively higher second formant vowels produce higher levels of singer’s formant.

He found over a 10-decibel advantage in the sound pressure level of the singer’s formant for [i] over the vowel [u].84 Ingo Titze testifies further: the acoustical advantage of a louder sound may be one of the reasons that singers systematically raise the second formant on all their vowels (except [u]), especially in the high voice.85 The vowel [æ], as

82 Miller 1993, 83. 83 McCoy 2012, 43. 84 Bloothooft and Plomp 1986, 2030. 85 Titze et al. 1994 53 it shares characteristics of both [i] and [e], naturally becomes a favorite vowel for most tenors.

Both Italian opera composers and singers tend to favor this vowel for the tenor’s upper register. Good composers know perfectly well to use it to create dramatic effect and facilitate tenors achieving the good, easy acuti (“high notes”). This is important for the future dramatic tenor as he already possesses the scuro side of the voice, and this technique will help him to gain chiaro timbre. The dark/bright timbre (chiaroscuro) is the ideal vocal timbre for a good, covered singing.86 Covered singing is characterized by a comfortably low laryngeal position, a strong fundamental, appropriate vowel modification, and a rich spectrum of higher harmonics.

86 According to Richard Miller, “chiaroscuro” is the “light-dark” timbre that characterizes well-balanced resonance in the singing voice. See Miller 1993, 155. 54 §2.5. Early and Gradual Blending

Accessing the head register poses particular challenges for many untrained singers, largely because they fail to anticipate and allow adjustments to take place naturally and gradually. Changing into the head voice timbre a little earlier (in other words, lower in the scale), rather than waiting until the voice absolutely must switch, may free up the upper register, and improve tone quality and ease of transition. A dramatic tenor naturally starts incorporating head voice timbre into his voice around B-flat3 or B3 depending on the vowel, even though his voice could probably hold onto the middle voice timbre and not need to modify the vowels for another few steps; however, it is not in his best interest to maintain the timbre of the lower register until his voice absolutely must switch (around F4 or F-sharp4)—the transition to head voice would be abrupt and highly perceptible, and his voice would start to sound and feel a little pinched or squeezed.

Beginning the transition into head voice early enough in the scale allows the singer to find freedom and release in the head register so that a perfect blending of the registers (from zona di passaggio to secondo passaggio) is created. More importantly, this will allow the tenor to gain the necessary vocal rest in order to execute the tones beyond the second passage. In the passage on the following page, Barbara Doscher relates a story that took place during a master class in Italy when Luciano Pavarotti described the Italian school of arrotondamento and aggiustamento:

55 “A tenor normally starts to cover his notes or better to ‘focus’ on F, F-sharp, and G, and it is usually a forced and unnatural sound which a young man finds hard to believe in, but it is a sound which technically and anatomically speaking produces in the voice a rest for the vocal cords, which will then be ready when the voice goes higher, to vibrate with greater elasticity and therefore enables the notes to be taken which are B-flat, B and C, the most difficult notes for a tenor.”87

Pavarotti points out the uneasy reality of hearing, or more aptly, feeling our sound at this tessitura because of increased pharyngeal space and intensity. Pavarotti knew that this uncomfortable maneuver serves an important bridge to the better top pitches. As a lyric tenor (like Pavarotti), the process of covering should take place around F4, F4-sharp or G4 for best effect. However, a dramatic tenor must start “focus” (covering) a few steps earlier, around D4. The key to the correct transition in the upper passaggio is to affect a gradual transition.

However, despite the benefits of covering, one should be aware of a downside of the vowel rounding: namely, over-covering. A common cause for over-covering is pulling down the back of tongue, which results in the tongue depressing the larynx. Here both teacher and student need to exercise their common judgment in avoiding this extreme.

87 Doscher 1994, 161. 56 §2.6. Sobbing and Falsetto

Falsetto and head voice are essential for tenor singing. This is somewhat unfamiliar territory for the ex-baritone singer, as where he used to sing with his middle- range chest voice, he now has to sing with more head voice. However, head voice and falsetto have two different meanings. Historically, the word “falsetto” has caused a great deal of confusion in terms of how to define it. It has a timbre or vocal sound in the male upper-range that is similar to and imitates the female voice quality. The word itself originally came from the Italian word for “false”—indicating it is differentiated from a

“true” vocal timbre.

Head voice is located just above the zona di passaggio. The term derives from the sensation that the resonance of singing is being felt primarily in the head (as such, some also call head voice voce piena in testa, or “full voice in head”). For male voices, falsetto is normally associated with the vocal register above the chest and head register. Many voice teachers incorrectly use the terms “falsetto” and “head voice” interchangeably, incorrectly referring to any pitch above the primo passaggio as falsetto; as such, falsetto becomes in fact full head voice. Although fundamentally different from one another, and produced by two different mechanisms, they do however share some features in common.

As discussed in Chapter 1, when singing falsetto, the vocalis muscles are inactive, making it possible for the cricothyroid muscles to place great longitudinal tension upon the vocal ligaments. The thyroarytenoid muscles remain motionless. The sound of falsetto is the result of air traveling through the thin edges of the thyroarytenoid muscles.

The very thin edges of the vocal folds are easily blown open by the air traveling through

57 and offer little resistance to the flow. The head voice (voce di testa) is also called the

“lighter mechanism” of the voice. This is because when the vocal folds elongate, it reduces the vibrating mass. Both of these muscle mechanisms can be particularly helpful for the heavy tenor’s singing.

One of the greatest vocal problems facing the heavy tenor is the issue of too great subglottal pressure, overloading the larynx and requiring the vocal folds to become the primary regulators of breath flow. This type of tenor tends to be a large-bodied person or a person of great strength. Through his previous singing habits as a baritone, his vocal production is dominated by the heavy mechanism, which means the vocal folds remain relatively thick during phonation as their mass per unit of length increases. The sound is too thick and heavy. It can soon lose the elasticity of the muscles, and therefore lack much needed stamina. Healthy vocal muscle coordination, even though laryngeal position is slightly lowered, still operates with the thin edge function of the vocal folds. For many accomplished singers, and tenors particularly, falsetto serves as a short vocal release.

Vennard explains:

“Specifically, when a man sings in falsetto he overcomes some of his fear of high tones, and he gets the feel of relaxation of the vibrator and activation of the breath that he does not achieve in chest voice. It may be the means of discovering his ‘head voice,’ voix mixte, or mezza voce. In the adjustment known by these names, the vocalis muscles are not as relaxed as in falsetto, but they are much less active than in chest. The relaxation makes possible greater longitudinal tension and higher pitches, but the partial activity gives a continuity with the quality of chest voice. It is as if the singer had gone partway into falsetto, but still retained some of chest.”88

88 Vennard 1967, 76 [265]. 58 As discussed previously, this method is similar to sobbing (the short period of releasing the tension of the vocal folds by singing a crack sound, like falsetto), and has been practiced by a number of great singers, such as Benegemino Gigli89 and Jonas

Kaufmann90, among others. As Miller observes:

“It should be recalled, however, that there are some pedagogical, as opposed to performance, uses for falsetto. As earlier noted, and onset in falsetto with an immediate transition to voce mista or voce piena in testa may reduce the tendency toward rigid muscular setting.”91

89 J.B. Steane’s reports in Singers of the Century, pages 114-115: “Gigli was always good at crying and one critic noted in this 1930 season that he indulged in ‘sobbing tricks,’ even in Act I of La Traviata before any milk had been spilt.” Examples of Gigli’s sobbing technique can be heard from his album Italian Songs available at the following address: www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xoDFBg0piQ 90 The reader is encouraged to listen the following recordings of Kauffman singing “Recondita Armonia” from Puccini’s Tosca at www.youtube.com/watch?v=EVPvUt7-nsk and “Torna a Surriento” at www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVFfjNfZteE 91 Miller 1993, 131. 59 §2.7. A Warning for the Baritone-about-to-be-a-Tenor

A Fach change from baritone to tenor poses a tremendous challenge for any voice student and especially for a professional singer with an already established career (as was the case for the author of this paper). While a high baritone can master the vocal challenges of arias for dramatic tenors or even Heldentenors because of their similar registration events, he will now face much greater vocal challenges as a tenor in sustaining tessitura alone. To illustrate the difference of vocal tasks between tenor and his counterpart, Richard Miller has examined the score from Puccini’s opera La Bohème to find out how many notes for Rodolfo lie above the second passage point F4-sharp and

G4 and how relatively few of Marcello’s notes lie above his pivotal point, which is at E4- flat. Not surprisingly, the role of Rodolfo is far more demanding than the role of Marcello as far as high tessitura is concerned.92 According to Miller, the role of Mimi also is far less difficult than the role of Rodolfo with respect to tessitura; while Mimi may have equal amounts of notes above her pivot point (which is somewhere around F5-sharp), she does not require the same level of subglottic energy as Rodolfo needs for his F4-sharp passage point. For him to sing a ringing high B4-flat in the third act unison duet with the soprano, he would need a far greater energy level considering the large size of his instrument. Miller goes on:

92 Idem, 105. 60 “One of the reasons there is a shortage of tenors is that it takes great skill to maintain the high tessitura, which exceeds that of any other vocal category of comparable size or weight.”93

Tessitura is only one of many obstacles the ex-baritone has to face. Vocal endowment does not solely ensure a career; rather, it is beautiful, pleasant vocal production, artistry, musicianship, a fine ear for languages, and physical condition that contribute to the successful singing career of a tenor. Some of these qualities require tremendous personal commitment and discipline to develop.

It needs to be pointed out that there are many baritones who have tried to make this switch without success, and cut their careers short as a direct result of this failure.

Without exception, this is a rather daunting task and decision for anyone.

The baritone/tenor dilemma is both rational and emotional. One needs to examine every technical aspect carefully and thoroughly. It is in the singer’s best interest to sing for a number of experienced voice pedagogues, conductors, and professional singers, and ask for their opinions and advice. Even if it is confirmed by all interested parties that he should, in fact, be singing tenor, there still remain risks all along the course of this incredible endeavor. But as in all good things, nothing ventured, nothing gained. The singer would be wise to equip himself with not only his daring desire to succeed, but also the necessary and beneficial vocal techniques outlined in this chapter. In terms of vocal power, vocal beauty, virility, grace, bravura, and tenderness, the dramatic tenor rivals any of his male counterparts; the privilege of performing it is limited to a select few.

93 Idem, 106. 61 Chapter 3. Pedagogic and Performance Approaches to Selected Italian Art Songs and

Opera Arias

§3.0. Introduction

It takes great effort and caution to select appropriate repertoire for an incoming tenor, which can be a potentially tricky undertaking. As discussed previously, while range is an important barometer to consider, teachers and students should avoid choosing repertoire based solely on range. Instead, tessitura should be the most reliable factor in choosing repertoire. Richard Miller provides the following valuable advice:

“… most of the work in changing from baritone to tenor should take place in the lower-middle range (not yet in the hoped-for higher register) and in the zona di passaggio, as far up as the secondo passaggio. Until lyric singing and tenorial timbre have been established in that tessitura.”94

It is in their interests for young tenors to learn the best strategies in sustaining the necessary tessitura. An ex-baritone may lack proper technique in moving in and out of the tenor’s second passaggio; he must realize that head voice is a crucial part of the

94 Miller 1993, 135 62 tenor’s tonal production, and that head voice mostly relies on a greater involvement of the cricothyroid muscle (light mechanism), as opposed to what he has been used to: the thyroarytenoid muscle (heavy mechanism). Additionally, gaining a sense of balanced breathing technique (in order to sustain high tessitura) should be taken into serious consideration when choosing a new repertoire for the young tenor.

The main focus of this chapter is to provide specific vocal exercises designed to address various technical aspects and pedagogic issues relevant to the emerging tenor’s new repertoire. Particularly, some of the vocal exercises presented in this chapter cover the transition in and out of the higher tessitura. Furthermore, some of the exercises presented are related to and drawn from the passages and examples taken from the songs and arias from the emerging tenor’s repertoire.

Additionally, this chapter addresses arias and art songs from a pedagogical point of view, specifically for advanced tenors. Before the voices reach maturity and the necessary vocal techniques are mastered, young singers are advised not to focus on this heavy repertoire that could potentially damage the voice. It is primarily the responsibility of the teacher to lead the student patiently through repertoire work to acquire the technique that will provide the performer with a long and stable career.

For the benefit of mature singers in various stages of the transition from baritone to tenor, the following examples have been classified as either intermediate, intermediate- advanced, or advanced. “Intermediate” examples are appropriate for singers who are in the early stages of making the switch from baritone to tenor, and as such have little to no mastery of the tenor Fach, and who still sing with too much heavy mechanism.

“Intermediate-advanced” examples are appropriate for singers who have some experience

63 with the switch from baritone to tenor, are beginning to establish a balance of the heavy and light mechanisms, but for whom this balance still remains unstable. Lastly,

“advanced” examples are appropriate for singers who have successfully made the switch from baritone to tenor, established a stable area around the secondo passaggio, mastered the balance of the heavy and light mechanisms, and are ready to begin their new professional careers as tenors.

Only Italian language repertoire has been presented in this chapter. In the author’s opinion, among many other languages, Italian remains the optimal language with which to begin vocal study; not only for tenors, but for all types of voices. As Lamperti claims,

Italian is an ideal language for singing “because it is the only one without aspirates.”95

Italian vowels are pure as compared to other languages (such as German, French, or English, each of which have diphthongs and glottal strokes). Italian has high vowel density, and most Italian words end with vowels. The language has continuous tone and vowel sound; as such, it remains the most legato, musical language. It is important for young tenors to gain skill in singing legato lines despite having to sing with consonants, and thereby guarantee an energetic and lively sound.

95 Lamperti 1957, 7 64 §3.1. Tessitura

As noted earlier, tenors sing much more frequently in the high pitch territory; that is, in their upper tessitura. Ease in the high tessitura is essential for a tenor’s singing.

Where the tessitura is located can be determined through the passage points, and a tenor will find ease even with his problem notes with sufficient training. The key is to reduce the muscle activity of the thyroarytenoid (heavy mechanism) and engage more of the cricothyroid muscle (light mechanism). In other words: to sing high pitches with light voice quality.

The following exercise should be sung in the written key as well as neighboring keys. The singer first sings the front vowel [e] and establishes a strong sense of resonance; later in the exercise, this [e] vowel is replaced by [a]:

Exercise 3-1. Tessitura Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voice, p.107.

The tenor ought to begin singing Exercise 3-1 above on B3, and proceed upwards, transposing chromatically up through E4-flat, E4, or F4. The purpose of this exercise is to reduce the heavy mechanism that was so adherent in the emerging tenor’s

65 earlier baritone singing habit, and to establish a new, light sensation of resonance between the chest voice and the blending area (the zona di passaggio). For a heavy tenor, it is essential to start blending as early as the middle register. As Miller says in his book

Training Tenor Voices:

“Pure “chest voice” should never be carried beyond the primo passaggio (roughly C-sharp4 – D4). As a general rule “chest” should be mixed with “head” even earlier than the primo passaggio registration pivotal point… Most well–trained tenors have the subjective feeling that they achieve registration unity over the complete range of the voice by bringing “head voice” sensations downward through an entire descending scale.”96

The singer will have to reduce the weight of chest resonance, and gradually increase head voice in order to get rid of unnecessary heaviness. He learns to develop the skill to calculate the so-called “tug of war” game to find the ideal balancing (sharing) of the two mechanisms.97 This is the key to having a smooth transition into the second passage; it is only by doing so that the singer makes possible the chance of having a successful second passage and above.

96 Miller 1993, 79. 97 The “tug of war” between the heavy and light mechanism is discussed in Vennard 1967, 66-7, [244]. 66 §3.1.1. Pedagogic Observation: Giulio Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella”

Giulio Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella”

Range E3-F4-sharp

Tessitura A3-E4

Passaggio vowels [a], [i], [e], [I], [o], [ɔ], [u]

Tempo Quarter note equals 100

Meter 4/4

Classification Intermediate level

Key(s) A minor

Table 3-1. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella”—Overview

The very first note requires special attention (see Example 3-1 on the following page). It is E4—the tenor’s second passage (for a dramatic tenor)—a very instructive pitch for a tenor for maintaining the coordination of the light mechanism of “covered sound” or voix sombrée. The singer should avoid approaching the tone as if it were in the first passage and avoid singing with an open sound. Instead, a more vertical [ʌ] vowel will help to establish an ideal onset that will not fatigue the voice. And the same approach should apply to “non credi” and “dolce desio” subsequently. The author has found in his practice that it is important that the heavy mechanism or activities of the thyroarytenoid

67 muscle group is limited. The soft palate stays in a domed position, the larynx sits low, and the pharyngeal wall widens simultaneously.

Example 3-1. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella” measures 1-7.

This song provides an excellent opportunity to practice a vocal onset that requires the perfect coordination between breath energy (subglottal pressure should not be generated to strike the onset) and the adjustments of muscles, and furthermore, the vocal tract (vowel modification).

The [a] vowel maintains a forward placement in the first passage (refer to

Example 3-2 below), but as it reaches B3 in bar number 39, [ʌ] will gradually set in so that the process of blending into D4-sharp becomes more natural.

Example 3-2. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella” measures 36-42.

68 Vowel modification will take place at bar 45 (see Example 3-3 below) where a more open [I] vowel replaces [i]; thus, it will create more space and help to prevent the sound from becoming too narrow and strident as a result of a tightened jaw and elevated larynx.

Example 3-3. Caccini, “Amarilli, mia bella” measures 43-49.

Agility is beneficial for a tenor, as it requires freedom and flexibility in the voice.

Caccini’s “Amarilli, mia bella” provides a perfect opportunity to practice agility in bars

46 and 47 (see Example 3-3 above). It is imperative that the voice remains in the fashion of the light mechanism; the vocal folds stay elastic and flexible, as in falsetto. Richard

Miller points out that agility stems from balanced muscle coordination, and the mastery of the appoggio breath is the foundation for vocal agility.98

98 Miller 1993, 88. 69

[e] [ɛ] [e] [ɛ] [e] [e] [æ] [e] [æ] [e]

Exercise 3-2. Tessitura Exercise, Miller, Training Tenor Voice, p.107.

Exercise 3-2 above serves the purpose of maintaining high tessitura beyond the second passage. The singer should start, however, in the key of C major and stop in the key shown (E Major), as this will encompass the tenor’s zona di passaggio and two steps beyond it. The purpose of this exercise is to establish a unified tone through the zone and above. The singer should look for the lightness of the voice and for less mass involvement of the vocalis muscles in singing this exercise. The singer could go further up to A4 or even A4-sharp on the vowel [æ] (i.e., singing the exercise in the key of F and

F-sharp major), but only when general freedom and a sense of lightness in vocal production is gained.

70 §3.1.2. Pedagogic Observation: Francesco Paolo Tosti, “Non t’amo più”

Francesco Paolo Tosti, “Non t’amo più”

Range: D3-F4-sharp

Tessitura: G3-E4

Passaggio vowels: [a], [ɛ], [e], [i], [ɔ], [o], [u]

Tempo: Quarter note equals 66

Meter: 4/4

Classification: Intermediate level

Key(s): e minor and E Major

Table 3-2. Francesco Paolo Tosti, “Non t’amo più”—Overview

In this song, there is a pattern of skips and leaps in thirds and fourths in the zona di passaggio. It provides abundant opportunities for young tenors to negotiate the secondo passaggio. For example, in the beginning phrase on the words “recordi ancora”

(shown in Example 3-4 on the following page), the voice moves from B3 up to E4, and the singer has to be careful not to carry the weight up to E4 in order not to fatigue the voice.

71

Example 3-4. Tosti, “Non t’amo più” measures 1-4.

Here, an open o [ɔ] would be optimal for the word of “an-co-ra.” Pedagogically, the author has found that the technical approach to the E4 should be to let the soft palate slightly drop, or at least, remain unchanged, and certainly not raised. This way, the pharyngeal wall will be slightly stretched horizontally together with a comfortably lowered larynx position. One has a sense of placing “lid” over the tone in this particular position. The same approach should also apply to the phrase “dileguante in ciel” shown in Example 3-5 below.

Example 3-5. Tosti, “Non t’amo più” measures 13-16.

72 Because of the melancholic nature of this song, the singer is required to sing in a more restrained manner. A fine, well-balanced breath control is required in order to honor

Tosti’s dynamic writing (he never writes beyond mezzo forte in this song). “Non t’amo più” serves as an extended exercise in tenor resonance balancing.

73 §3.2. Vowel Modification

Vowel modification (or “covering”) is of vital importance when singing in the seconda passaggio, as the tenor’s tessitura is located in an area where vowel migration is necessary. Miller explains:

“…the initial vowel undergoes some migration as the scale ascends, by modifying toward a near neighbor. The laryngeal configuration changes for each vowel, and there should be a corresponding change in the shape of the resonator tract.”99

Vowel modification contributes to the unification of the vocal scale. Furthermore, vowel modification is mainly responsible for the tenor’s upper range resonance enrichment (the singer’s formant). By shaping the vocal tract, the tenor gathers a resonance of a cluster of formants (the third through fifth formants) that has a boosting energy at a frequency level between 2400 – 3200Hz.100 This energy is strong enough to carry the voice well over a large orchestra.

Vowels are directly reflected by the first two formants of the vocal tract.

According to Scott McCoy, the Italian vowels [i] and [e] have a very high second

formant, and a low first formant in male voices: F2 - 2,290Hz [i] and 1,840Hz [e]; F1 -

270Hz [i] and 530Hz [e]101. In contrast, the Italian vowels [o] and [u] have very low

99 Miller, 1993, 41. 100 McCoy 2012, 48. 101 Formants will be identified in a manner consistent with McCoy’s Your Voice: An Inside View: formants will be designated with a capital “F” (for “formant”), with a subscript denoting the first or second formant, as in “F2” for the second formant. See McCoy 2012, 40. 74 102 second formants: F2 - 840Hz [o] and 870Hz [u]. The vowels [i] and [e] are perceived as brilliant due to these high second formants, and conversely, the [u] and [o] vowels have low second formants, therefore their sounds are considered weak and dark.

Modification takes place when pitch and formants do not go hand in hand. Ingo

Titze makes the following observations:

“1) All formants decrease as the length of the vocal tract increases. 2) Formants decrease with lip rounding and increase with lip spreading. 3) A mouth constriction lowers the first formant and raises the second formant. A pharyngeal constriction raises the first formant and lowers the second formant.”103

As to the effect of vowel modification on timbre, the result of adjusting the series of overtones, Miller offers more technical advice: “Modification toward a closed vowel is to be used for a tone that is spread or too open. Modification toward a more open vowel is to be used to address a narrow or excessively bright tone.” 104 And ultimately, modification helps singers to facilitate and achieve the perfect sound of “chiaroscuro.”

Understanding how the vowel formants are influenced by articulation is an important part of tenor singing for both the teacher and student. But while vowel integrity must be maintained, the timbre has to be equalized by the application of the aggiustamento process, as Miller cautions.105 Young tenors ought to work on vowel modification effectively in order to achieve a smooth, uniform quality of sound throughout their vocal range.

102 McCoy 2012, 42-44. 103 Titze 2000, 179-80. 104 Miller 1993, 39. 105 See Miller 2008, 73. 75 Table 3-3 below lists seven initial vowels ([a], [ɛ], [e], [i], [o], [ɔ], [u]) and provides general possible modifications (which include the additional vowels [æ], [ʌ], and [I]) to each initial vowel in the tenor’s zona di passaggio.106 The tenor should experiment with applying these modifications as appropriate to applicable problematic passages in his repertoire. The initial vowel will migrate to its neighboring vowel in order to create better resonance and to help the singer achieve a smooth “blending.” The three additional vowels that are not necessarily stemmed from the Italian language ([æ], [ʌ], and [I]) will play a very important role in achieving the singer’s formant; particularly the

“bad” vowel [æ].

Initial Vowel Modifications

[a] [a] to [æ] [a] to [ɔ] [a] to [ʌ]

[ɛ] [ɛ] to [e] [ɛ] to [æ] [ɛ] to [ə]

[e] [e] to [i] [e] to [ɛ] [e] to [æ]

[i] [i] to [I] [i] to [e]

[o] [o] to [ɔ] [o] to [u]

[ɔ] [ɔ] to [o] [ɔ] to [ʌ]

[u] [u] to [o]

Table 3-3. Vowel Modifications (after Miller)

106 Table 3-3 is based on Richard Miller’s book Training Tenor Voices, p.41. 76

Exercises 3-3. Vowel Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.52.

Exercise 3-3 above consists of a melodic pattern that spans the interval of a fourth

(first perfect, then augmented); this pattern is then transposed up by one half step and repeated. This exercise should be sung with the front vowels [i] or [e], so that the student will learn to gain the sensation of forward resonance. As the pitch rises, the singer will feel the need to adjust the necessary vowel to a more neutral one in order to keep the singer’s formant consistent. The singer will also learn to negotiate subtle vowel migration from a “high” (front vowel) to a “low” (back vowel) on the upper pitch of each phrase.

This exercise should be sung half-step up repeatedly until two or three steps beyond the secondo passaggio has been reached.

77 §3.2.1. Pedagogic Observation: Donizetti, “Quanto è bella” from L’elisir d’amore

Donizetti, “Quanto è bella” from L’elisir d’amore

Range: E3-A4

Tessitura: G3-E4

Passaggio vowels: [a], [e], [ɛ], [e], [i], [u]

Tempo: Larghetto

Meter: 2/4

Classification: Intermediate-Advanced level

Key: C Major

Table 3-4. Donizetti, “Quanto è bella”from L’elisir d’amore—Overview.

The very first note, E3, which is also the lowest pitch in the aria, needs to be set in a higher placement and lighter vocal production so that it prepares the singer to sing a free, open “son capace” beginning on G4 in bar 10. Once lightness is established, the singer will have to keep this lightness, because the most significant passaggios around E4 are found throughout the entire piece. It takes great effort to balance muscle coordination so that chest voice never overshadows the head voice. Once established, the singer will find himself in a better position to negotiate the area above the secondo passaggio; in particular, the G4. Example 3-6 on the following page reproduces measures 5-11.

78

Example 3-6. Donizetti, “Quanto è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), measures 5-11

The most challenging part of this aria falls from the chromatic phrase that begins in bar 29 (“In quel cor non son capace…”), and lasts through the end of the aria. In general, all the pivotal notes need to be approached with open vowels: either [a], [I], [ɛ] or [ɔ]. The sensation of a “lid” on those pivotal notes (around D4, E4, and F4) will reduce the tightness of the voice and therefore create stamina for the tenor; a stamina which he needs for the final optional cadenza. The G4 “rar” of “d’inspirar” on the downbeat of measure 33 should be sung on the vowel [ɔ] instead of an open [a] to avoid tightening the jaw. Example 3-7 on the following page reproduces measures 29-37.

79

Example 3-7. Donizetti, “Quanto è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), measures 29-37.

The successful negotiation of “pace” in the cadenza (shown in Example 3-8 on the following page) will prepare the final high A4 well. The key is to lower the jaw in order to create the spatial height needed for the A4. Again, the “ah” on A4 should ideally be sung with the modified vowel [ɔ] instead of [a] as it is written to gain a perfect balance of “chiaroscuro.”

80

Example 3-8. Donizetti, “Quanto è bella” (from L’elisir d’amore), (Cadenza)

[e]______[ɔ]______

Exercise 3-4. Vowel Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.54.

In the exercise shown above, the singer first sings with a closed vowel [e], and then switches gradually to the more open vowel [ɔ]. In this exercise, there is a large scale covering range (a major sixth). The exercise should be repeated, ascending by half-step until the top note of the exercise reaches A4-flat, which is three steps beyond the secondo passaggio. In this exercise, the tenor should experiment with the gradual migration from closed vowels to more open vowels, so that he gets a feeling of slight modification during this important process. An additional challenge in this exercise is to keep a consistent timbre throughout the piece.

This exercise also can benefit from the use of other vowel migrations such as:

81 from [i] to [I], [i] to [o], and [e] to [ʌ]. Conversely, it can also be sung from back vowels to front vowels. Eventually, the singer should feel comfortable singing this useful exercise of copertura in order to have a smooth transition from the zona di passaggio to secondo passaggio and beyond.

82 §3.2.2. Pedagogic Observation: Giuseppe Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” from Macbeth

Giuseppe Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” from Macbeth

Range: F3-B4-double-flat

Tessitura: A3-E4-flat

Passaggio vowels: [a], [ɛ], [e], [ɔ], [o], [ʌ], [u]

Tempo: Quarter note equals 50

Meter: 3/4

Classification: Intermediate-Advanced level

Key: D-flat Major

Table 3-5. Giuseppe Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” from Macbeth—Overview

This is an ideal piece for an ex-baritone to explore his ability in the new Fach singing. The modest demands on the upper extension of this piece, as well as throughout the opera, serves as a stepping-stone for his very first trial. The singer is encouraged to maintain his baritonal timbre when singing the recitative wherein Macbeth bursts out his sorrow to his people. But the aria, however, absolutely should be sung in a lyric, bright, and light-weighted manner. The F4s, which are prevalent in the whole piece, should always be sung without push in order to reserve stamina. More importantly, the D4-flat and E4-flat ought to be handled with much care. They need to be sung with openness due to the fact that they are the pre-notes for top notes in the aria. Although vowel 83 modification is essential in this piece, in places such as bars 8, 18, 27, 33, 37 and 41

(reproduced respectively in Example 3-9 through Example 3-14 below) each of the open vowels [a] should not be over darkened, in order to maintain integrity.

Example 3-9. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 8-9.

Example 3-10. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 17-18.

84

Example 3-11. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 26-28.

Example 3-12. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 32-34.

85

Example 3-13. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” from Macbeth measures 37-39.

Example 3-14. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 41-43.

As stated previously, for a well-sung A4-flat (such as in bar 42 shown above in

Example 3-14 and in bar 23 shown in Example 3-15 on the following page), the preceding note E4-flat is important. The key is to have openness in E4-flat, F4-flat, and

G4-flat. The sung vowels therefore should be [ʌ], [ɔ], [a], and [ʌ], respectively.

86

Example 3-15. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 22-24.

In bar 45 (shown in Example 3-16 below), the key to the cadenza B4-double-flat is to blend in the head voice as early as C4, and importantly, modifying toward an [æ] vowel will help to secure a well-sitting voice with a lot of ring in the tone, as Verdi indicates in the score (via the accent along with a crescendo).

Example 3-16. Verdi, “Ah, la paterna mano” (from Macbeth), measures 44-45.

87 §3.3. The Vowel [æ]

As discussed previously (Chapter 2), the vowel [æ], being a unique part of creating vocal power in the tenor’s upper range, is useful for both extending high vocal range and improving the “ring” quality for a dramatic tenor. As Miller states:

“The vowel [æ] has a unique spectral envelope, with the three energy peaks (formants) evenly distributed across the spectrum at about 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, and 3000 Hz, which ensures a strong acoustic energy concentration in the mid- region and upper regions of the spectrum. It is this combination of harmonics that can be used pedagogically to induce the “ring” into subsequently sung vowels.”107

[e]______[æ]___ [e]______

Exercise 3-5. [æ] Vowel Modification Exercise.

In Exercise 3-5 above, the student should first sing the exercise in the key of F major (beginning on F3), and then modulate chromatically upwards through B Major

(and beginning on B3). The singer should begin with a normal shape of mouth, then, as indicated by the [æ] vowel, should sing with a rapid opening of the mouth horizontally.

That is the only movement that takes place; everything else should remain unchanged.

107 Miller 1993, 83. 88 The jaw stays relaxed, and a more intensified breath pressure should also be put into action simultaneously.

[æ] [a]______[æ] [ɔ]_____ [æ] [o]______[æ] [u]______

Exercise 3-6. Vowel Modification Exercise, Miller Training Tenor Voices, p.84.

The purpose of Exercise 3-6 (shown above) is to help the singer access more

“ring” (singer’s formant) in singing acoustically disadvantaged back vowels. The singer is instructed to spread the lips toward the sides while singing the vowel [æ], then to gradually migrate to the vowels [a], [ɔ], [o], or [u] by adjusting the lips. Due to its unique mouth formation (both lateral and perpendicular), the vowel [æ] is the last vowel in the front-vowel series. It can serve well to balance resonance between bright and dark vowels. Therefore, when well executed, the more disadvantaged back vowels will achieve more “ring” quality in voice.

Traditionally, great opera composers were well aware of this vowel color and resonance factor in writing phrases, especially when writing in the tenor’s upper range.

The following passages (Example 3-17 through Example 3-22 reproduced on the following pages) are a small representative of good pedagogical and compositional use of the pilot vowel [æ].

89

Example 3-17. Giordano, “Come un bel di” (from Andrea Chénier), measures 47-50.

Example 3-18. Jules Massenet, “Pourquoi me rèveiller” (from Werther), measures 14-15.

90

Example 3-19. Puccini, “Che gelida manina” (from La Bohème), measures 65-66.

Example 3-20. Puccini, “Nessun dorma” (from Turandot), measures 29-31.

91

Example 3-21. Cadenza from Verdi’s “La donna è mobile” from Rigoletto

Example 3-22. Donizetti, “Spirto gentil” (from La Favorita), measures 50-53.

92 §3.3.1. Pedagogic Observation: Giuseppe Verdi “Dio! mi potevi scagliar” from Otello

Giuseppe Verdi “Dio! mi potevi scagliar” From Otello

Range: E3-flat – B4-flat

Tessitura: A3-flat – E4-flat

Passaggio vowels: [a], [ɛ], [e], [i], [o], [u]

Tempo: Quarter note equals 60

Meter: 4/4

Classification: Advanced level

Key: E-flat Major

Table 3-6. Giuseppe Verdi, “Dio! mi potevi scagliar” from Otello—Overview

The entire recitative should be sung parlando (“speech-like”), yet matching the indicated pitches. The singer has to resist the tendency to yell through the sentence “e a vrei portato la croce crudel d’angoscie e d’onte con calma fronte” in measures 18-22, reproduced in Example 3-23 on the following page.

93

Example 3-23. Verdi, “Dio! mi potevi scagliar” (from Otello), bars 18-22.

In bar 36, at the text “quell ra—ggio,” the vowel [a] should be mixed together with pilot phonation [æ] to create a more front ringing sound, as most heavy tenors lose brilliance of sound. The same technique applies to the climax of the aria in bars 39 and

40: the vowel [a] should be replaced almost entirely by [æ] in order to create a strong

“singer’s formant,” so that the tenor will have a better chance to carry his voice over a large orchestra. The final high note of the aria lands on B4-flat; instead of singing the written vowels [io], it is recommended that he will sing it with more open vowel [iæ] in order to not to be buried by the heavy orchestra. Measures 35-41 have been reproduced in

Example 3-24 on the following page. 94

Example 3-24. Verdi, “Dio! mi potevi scagliar” (from Otello), bars 35-41.

95 §3.4. Sobbing

The practice of using falsetto in voce di testa has been in use for quite a long time.

While the author has failed to find any historical testament to support pedagogical use of this practice, a number of historical recordings evidence that such a practice does exist.

One can find the use of the “sobbing” singing technique dating back to the time of

Beniamino Gigli, as well as instances of current usage by the great dramatic tenor Jonas

Kaufmann.

From the pedagogic point of view, using the sobbing sensation helps to reduce muscle tension in the same manner as the “falsetto grace note” in Miller’s explanation below:

“…the intrinsic laryngeal muscle activity that produces falsetto (the imitation of female vocal timbre by the male) is not the same phenomenon as male “head voice” function. Factors of vocal-fold elongation are present in the falsetto but with reduced activity of the vocal-fold closure mechanism. Therefore, in some cases, treating the falsetto as a kind of grace note to pitches that lie in the zona di passaggio, or even higher, removes the tendency of the overly athletic tenor to make a rigid presetting of the laryngeal and respiratory musculatures.” 108

Exercise 3-7. Exercises from Falsetto to Head Voice, Miller Training Tenor Voices, page.64

108 Miller 1993, 64. 96

Exercise 3-7 (on the previous page) can be sung beginning in the key of E Major and then proceeding upward by half step until reaching a high C5. The singer is encouraged to produce the starting high note explosively and make the switch to voce piena (full voice) soon after the sobbing (cracking) sound is established. And conversely, the exercise should also start from low E (E3) with voce piena and ascend to E4 with cracking at the E4 and repeatedly move up to C5. Miller continues:

“…this is an exercise in which the singer immediately progresses from an onset in falsetto to legitimate voce di testa timbre. The purpose of the exercise is to avoid the laryngeal muscle-setting that sometimes accompanies attempts to sing beyond the speech range. The move from falsetto to full voice must be rapid, without pause. With fairly sizable voices there will be an audible timbre change in the shifting from falsetto to legitimate voice; this is in no way undesirable.” 109

This author has found this exercise to be of great assistance in his own practice, particularly when dealing with long, high tessitura phrases in opera. It provides vocal rest for the singer and facilitates overcoming fatigue for singing in prolonged high tessitura.

However, it is strongly advised that over usage of this exercise be avoided; otherwise, it could be tasteless stylistically.

109 Idem, 61-2. 97 §3.4.1. Pedagogic Observation: Giaccomo Puccini, “Recondita armonia” from Tosca

Giaccomo Puccini, “Recondita armonia” from Tosca

Range: A3 – B4-flat

Tessitura: A3 – E4

Passaggio vowels: [e], [ɛ], [ɔ], [o], [i], [a], [u]

Tempo: Quarter note equals 48

Meter: 6/8, 3/4

Classification: Advanced level

Key: F Major

Table 3-7. Giaccomo Puccini, “Recondita armonia” from Tosca—Overview

For the most part, this aria is sits either in the seconda passaggio or beyond. It poses great difficulty for a heavy tenor if he fails to negotiate the zone to his advantage.

However, this aria provides a classical example for asserting the “sobbing” sensation to help singer accomplish the work.

At the beginning of the aria, in measures 14, 16, and 17 (see Example 3-25 on the following page), the singer should employ the “sobbing” technique on the words “-ta armonia’, “belle-zze,” and “ver-se,” (respectively).110

110 In “-ta,” “belle-zze,”and “ver-se”above, the dash (-) indicated where the singer should apply the sobbing technique; the consonants following the dash should be cracked in each case. The same is true of the discussion of Examples 3-26 and 3-27 on the following pages. 98

Example 3-25. Puccini, “Recondita armonia,” measures 13-17.

The same technique applies for “e -te, bel-ta de ignota,” “cinta di -chiome,” and

“-bionde” in measures 22-24, 25, and 26, respectively, reproduced in Example 3-26 on the following page.

99

Example 3-26. Puccini, “Recondita armonia,” measures 22-26.

Lastly, it is strongly recommended the passage “ma nel ritrar -costei il mio solo

-pensiero, ah! Il mio -sol pensier sei-tu! -Tosca, -sei tu!” from measures 35 through 43 also be sung with the “sobbing” technique, to guarantee a great sound of B4-flat as well as a long impressive G4 on “Tosca.” Example 3-27 on the following page reproduces measures 35-43.

100

Example 3-27. Puccini, “Recondita armonia,” measures 35-43.

Usually, this exercise of falsetto transferring to voce di petto results in avoiding vocal tension; however, as Miller cautions, even if moving from falsetto to full chest voice proves highly successful in some cases, if it produces any vocal strain, it should be abandoned.111

111 Miller 1993, 63. 101 §3.5. Conclusion

One often hears the lament that today there is a “crisis in tenors,” as Richard

Miller states in his preface to Training Tenor Voices. There always have been such outbursts. Among the many reasons for this shortage in tenors are:

1) the tenor’s voice is abnormal (most male voices are baritone);

2) the tenor requires higher than normal levels of precision in his technical

function;

3) the insufficient vocal training of some tenors;

4) the lack of the proper understanding of the nuances of vocal classification.

Most heavy or dramatic tenors reach their vocal maturity later than singers in other voice classifications. They need more time to develop adequate technique and skill to reveal their true vocal identity. It is unsurprising that most dramatic tenors come from a baritone background, because often voice teachers—and singers themselves—are misguided by the similar vocal range, register events, vocal timbre, and physical appearance between baritone and tenor. While these criteria are important aspects in classifying vocal types, the most decisive element for such decisions is tessitura. Being able to sustain the long, high tessitura is the cornerstone for a successful tenor career.

Richard Miller’s book Training Tenor Voices has been this paper’s primary starting point. In this paper, I have combined and created specific vocal exercises from both Miller’s book and the experiences I learned over years of singing on stage. These

102 exercises are based on important melodic passages from the repertoire, so that the singer can later apply these learned techniques into his actual repertoire.

Tenor singing poses a unique challenge to both teacher and singer, and dramatic tenor singing is even more daunting. Ex-baritones not only must overcome technical issues (particularly in balancing muscle mechanisms and finding the adequate vowel modification), but also must possess strong physical conditioning and an indestructible psyche.

The approach of this paper is designed particularly for, and can only be applied to, tenors who are or were baritones, and facing identification challenges. It is hoped that the technical, pedagogical, and professional advice offered in this paper serve as valuable and useful resources for those singers who decide to make the switch, and for those teachers whose task it is to guide them.

103 Bibliography

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