Journal
of the
Royal Society of Western Australia Vol. 42 Part 3
Rottnest Island: The Rottnest Biological Station and Recent Scientific Research Edited by E. P. Hodgkin and K. Sheard Foreword
The Rottnest Biological Station is an institu- the Wildlife Survey Section of C.S.I.R.O. It is tion of which the State of Western Australia our desire, however, that as trained personnel should be truly proud. To Professor H. Waring become available, some part of the research and Dr. E. P. Hodgkin of the Department of programme of the Fisheries Department will be Zoology. University of Western Australia, and undertaken there. Dr. K. Sheard of the Division of Fisheries and I am particularly happy that as chairman Oceanography, C.S.I.R.O., belong the credit for of the controlling committee I am able to keep bringing it into being. They deserve the thanks, my Department in such close touch with the not only of scientific workers but also of the work as well as the progress and development people of the State as a whole, for their timely of the station. In a State the size of Western recognition of the need and for the enthusiasm Australia, with myriad scientific problems but and vigour which they brought to bear in its only a small population and somewhat slender fulfilment. financial resources, it is of paramount import- The station was established primarily to en- ance that the most economical use be made of able research to be carried out on the marine all available personnel and finance. The only and terrestrial fauna and flora of Rottnest real way of doing this is by the closest co- Island, and for the training of undergraduate operation between all agencies engaged in simi- and post graduate students in essential field lar kinds of research. I believe that in the disciplines. Rottnest venture this desideratum is being Until now all research has been directed by achieved. University personnel, with the exception of cer- A. J. FRASER, tain quokka population studies undertaken by Director of Fisheries , W.A.
9.—Introduction
Broadly speaking, biological advance comes The various interim reports in this series show from either development of new techniques how such a station has been established and with which to attack classical problems or the indicate the number and kind of programmes exploitation of a previously inaccessible fauna that have been set in motion on ecological and using classical and other techniques. In the physiological themes. These reports not only latter case the developments usually proceed concern the work that has been attempted on a well-defined pattern. The forerunners < chiefly on the marsupial, Setonix brachyurus . are the collectors and taxonomists who move the quokka) but outline also a number of fields in to catalogue and list the animals in the where detailed work is worth while. The marine hitherto unknown field problems are little touched at present, a limita- ; this is a continuing- process which broadens into ecological studies of tion in this regard being the absence of sea- various kinds. It is a phase of describing what water aquaria for fish and crayfish work; so there is and what occurs. Sooner or later far these have been beyond our financial re- people want to know “why?” and “how?" Then sources. the physiologists and biochemists of various The choice of the quokka as a subject for sorts take up the story. intensive multipurpose research was a logical The potential attraction of academic biologi- one. I had come to Australia with the express cal work in Australia is its rich, little explored purpose of working on marsupials, but quickly fauna. This potential has never been fully realised the rarity within easy reach of the realised, chiefly because the distances to be metropolitan area of the numbers of individual travelled from central laboratories to field areas animals necessary for modern biological work. are prohibitive, particularly to University staffs In this context Rottnest Island as a research tied to teaching and administrative routines. area was a gift from heaven. As can be seen The existence of a local site such as that on from these reports, its large population of Rottnest Island with its attractive fauna, free quokkas provided not only a simple opportunity from predators and protected by statute from for introducing techniques of modern biology to man’s destructiveness, offers a way out from this students, but some very worthwhile problems in frustration if living quarters and simple labora- vertebrate biology. The opportunities presented tory facilities are available. by the Island for work in many other biological 65 fields are also evident, so that the Department The form of these reports has been dictatec of Zoology is in the happy position on the one by the necessity of fitting a large amount of hand of being able to cater for a wide range of different- kinds of information into the one smal. specialist activities, and on the other of main- Journal part. Accordingly all references con- taining varied and worthwhile field courses for cerning Rottnest Island have been collected ir its students. a separate Bibliography and only those outsido Students and staff have reacted to these this scope, but necessary to a particular report opportunities with enthusiasm. At this point it have been included with that report. Also, is important to emphasize that the station and information with regard to individuals named ir its facilities were not taken over ready-made these reports has been given separately. There1 for research workers to walk into and use as a has been some duplication but only where this base. Credit is given elsewhere to those who is necessary for clarity. Perhaps some helpeic translated an idea into a site and buildings. may have been overlooked in the rush of pre- There were many others whose enthusiasm and paration. If so I tender my apologies ir labour made the building usable in the early advance. stages of the Rottnest studies. The present In conclusion I would like to offer my per- day student and research worker likewise helps sonal thanks to all who have co-operated ir where he can, but he should be aware that this most rewarding venture. Elsewhere tho there were others before him. A list of workers financial contributions of the University, State* contributing to Station activities 'research and Fisheries, and Australian Academy of Science* otherwise) is given at the end of these reports. are acknowledged. It is pleasing to me person- Of these the following tin alphabetical order) ally to here acknowledge the moral support ano were forerunners who should be doubly men- generous financial backing of the C.SXR.Ot tioned: J. Barker 10. —Rottnest Island as a Location for Biological Studies The choice of Rottnest Island as a research species of mammals apparently became extinc centre arises from certain obvious advantages, before settlement was extensive and certain!?; e.g., the ease of access and the abundance of before foxes and rabbits were present. The the quokka, the marsupial around which so suspicion that European man with his associ much of the research has centred. The titles of ates was not the sole agent of extinction i: the accompanying papers could suggest that strengthened when one studies the cave deposit: there is nothing further to be said on the along the Western Australian littoral. Here, in problems inherent in an insular situation. This extensive deposits (mostly originating from ow may be so. yet. as will be mentioned below, the pellets though there are many remains of large: solutions of problems attacked on Rottnest have animals), are an immense number of specimen: a potential application to continental situations of species which are either no longer found in which would not usually be considered as hav- the vicinity or are entirely extinct. ing anything in common with an island fauna. Glauert was (1910, 1912, 1914. 1948) the firs It thus seems desirable to give the general back- to work these deposits and more recently ground and aspirations of the research a little Lundelius has surveyed caves over a much wide: more discursive treatment than will be given in geographical area and, although this latte: other papers of this series in order that the worker has as yet published no C14 dates, then full implications of the work can be appreciated. is every indication that faunal changes have Even a superficial acquaintance with the proceeded throughout the deposits to the super- terrestrial fauna of the western portion of Aus- ficial zone and these must be considered tralia poses a number of problems all of which within historical times. Many of the bone.0 centre around the distribution of animal species collected by Glauert and Lundelius '1957) art* at the present, during the historical, the pre- con-specific with species now restricted to the historical and geological past. Many of the wetter south-east of Australia. The pre-historio extant terrestrial animals especially the mam- and geological evidence thus suggests that envir- mals have disjunct or restricted distributions onmental factors, as opposed to man-made which give every impression of being relicts of habitat changes, have perhaps played an im- wider ranges. Perusal of the records of occur- portant part in the range reductions and rence in the historical past confirm their relict extinctions witnessed in the past 100 years or nature for one soon discovers not only the wide so. extent of the former range but also the number Students of climatic change have proposed this of species which have become entirely extinct. mechanism repeatedly to account for disjuncl Commonly such range restriction and extinction or relict distributions in the Australian fauna are ascribed to habitat destruction following the Some workers suggest a great aridity at about advent of European-type culture in Australia as 5,000 years ago while others disagree and Tin- well as the impact of introduced predators such dale points out that because of the uniqueness as foxes or herbivores such as rabbits. How- and sensitivity of some relict populations the ever, this cannot be the whole story for some climate could not have been much more arid 66 — — in the recent past than it is at present. The the morphs on the mainland of: Striped, 0.37; apparent continuity of the process of species lyrate, 0.37: and patternless. 0.26. On Rottnest extinction from Pleistocene time to the historic patternless animals are not found and the re- past might be taken as supporting Tindale maining two morphs are equally frequent. In U955). The question is open. However it is this case, if we assume that individual morphs quite clear that we will gain no real understand- and morph frequencies in the population have ing of the faunal depauperisation until some- an adaptive significance then we have a meas- thing is known of the way species react to ure of the magnitude of the changes which may deteriorating environmental conditions. As the be expected in other non-polymorphic popula- accompanying papers show, it is as a deterior- tions. Nevertheless the principal research tar- ating environment that Rottnest oilers such a get has been the quokka which offers an oppor- valuable experimental “laboratory/’ tunity for investigating the possible causes of But Rottnest is not the only such “laboratory”; marsupial extinction which had been so wide- there are a number of other islands along the spread during Quaternary time. There is no W.A. coast extending from the vicinity of doubt that the study has lived up to expecta- Shark Bay to south of Esperance. These con- tions and it is now possible to use the data in tain relicts of Pleistocene faunal assemblages hand as a basis for analogous reasoning when which were cut off from the mainland with the studying other macropod marsupials. eustatic rise of the seas at the close of the So much for theorising and speculation. The Pleistocene. Some of these islands, e.g., the results, though not yet applicable directly to Abrolhos, contain fauna which is unknown on studies of faunal extinction generally have the adjacent mainland but is found several application to other fields, viz.: The Rottnest Biological Station had its origin friends and relatives, those attending annual 1 in a visit that Professor Waring and I paid to student camps, and by some of the technical the Island in May, 1948, shortly after he arrived staff of the University who have spent part in W.A. on first appointment. He at once of their holidays at the Station. Officers of the recognised the potentialities of the Island for State Department of Fisheries have assisted also. biological studies and especially the research Rottnest Island is a Reserve for recreation, asset represented by the large quokka popula- and is under the control of the Rottnest Island tion. We talked then about the possibility of Board. It is primarily a holiday resort and establishing a field station. The Island had been each summer large numbers of visitors occupy the scene of active biological study before, as the bungalows of the settlement on Thompsons evidenced by the Bibliography, and there had Bay. There is nc private ownership of land been student camps under Professor G. E. and no private transport is allowed. Lack of Nicholls. The last of these, in November, 1945. transport would have severely handicapped work was my first introduction to Rottnest. On that at the Station and permission of the Board was occasion we used two bungalows in the settle- sought to use a vehicle. A second-hand Land ment, both as living accommodation and as Rover was purchased and transported to the laboratories. 1 vividly remember the untidy Island in April, 1954, by the Army. It has array of microscopes and other apparatus that recently been replaced with a new vehicle. cluttered the kitchen table, the smelly collections Throughout the development of the Station we of marine animals we examined, and the happy have had the friendly co-operation of the Board friendly relations between students and staff. members, of its employees, and especially of Physiological research on the quokka started its Secretary, Mr. Jim Stark. Good relations almost immediately in the Zoology Department were cemented recently (February, 1959) when and another student camp was held in 1951. Board members and Island residents were enter- However no further action was taken to estab- tained at the Station and told about research lish a field station until 1953. In this year conducted on the Island by the Zoology Depart- Dr. K, Sheard undertook successful personal ment. At the outset the Lighthouse Department negotiations with the Naval Officer-in-Charge, helped with transport; throughout we have W.A. for the lease of the naval barracks and drawn on their supply of bore water, and suc- signal station near the central lighthouse. In cessive Light Keepers have acted as caretakers September the Navy agreed to lease the build- to the Station. ings to the State Department of Fisheries at All research projects are separately financed a nominal rental. This was finalised by the (through University Research Grants, C.S.I.R.O. Department of the Interior and a ten year lease Scholarships. Nuffield and Rockefeller Grants), commenced on 21st December at an annual and hence this is not a worry to the Committee, rental of £1, which has no funds directly at its disposal. A committee of management, the Rottnest Development and maintenance have been fin- Biological Station Committee, was set up under anced by the participating organisations. On the Chairmanship of Mr. A. J. Fraser, Super- the recommendation of Mr, E. M. Barker, at intendent of Fisheries for Western Australia. that time Chairman of the Senate Finance Com- This held its first meeting on 11th January, mittee, the University made an initial grant for 1954. The other members at that time were the purchase of the Land Rover, a small lighting the Hon. Mr. L. F. Kelly. M.L.A., Minister for plant and essential furnishing and now makes Fisheries and Chairman of the Rottnest Island an annual maintenance grant. Annual grants Board with Dr. K. Sheard of the C.S.I.R.O. from the State Fisheries Department have been Division of Fisheries, Professor H. Waring used to provide floor coverings, for the re- representing the University, and Mr. B. K. current expenditure on painting and for other Bowen of the Fisheries Department as Secretary. outside facilities. C.S.I.R.O. has made available Subsequently Dr. J. M. Dunnet. of C.S.I.R.O. a 32/250 volt lighting plant and for two years Wildlife Survey Section, joined the Committee supplied petrel to the Station. Mileage is (October, 1955 to July, 1956), Mr. T. Sten re- charged for the use of the vehicle but at present placed Mr. Kelly as a representative of the no other Station charge is made. Rottnest Board, I took Professor Waring ’s From its inception the Station has been in place, and in September, 1958, Mr. R. W. George frequent use. During 1954 the principal users was appointed to represent the W.A. Museum. were Sharman and Barker in their pioneer work The Committee meets auarterly. One meeting on quokka biology. In 1955 and early 1956, a year is held at the Station. Dunnet and his assistants spent much time When they were first leased the buildings there making population studies of the quokka. were little more than shells and. although in In 1957 and 1958, Shield and his team made fair condition, had had no maintenance since repeated visits to conduct their studies of quokka they were vacated after World War II. Even nutrition. While these have been the regular before the lease had been formally signed parties users of the Station many others have made of volunteers had started to put the building as in order, to paint, them outside and to install constant use of it for their investigations, essential furnishings and fittings. Since then will be evident from succeeding articles. The a great deal has been dene to maintain and first student camp was held in November, 1954, improve the buildings, much of it by the volun- and since then undergraduate training has been tary labour of those using the Station, their a regular feature of the Station. 68 The Station has no resident staff: permanent valuable organisms within the purview of State facilities are at present limited to ordinary Fisheries and C.SJ.R.O. The concern of the domestic requirements and a laboratory fitted Committee for the preservation of this unique with light, power and water, but to which equip- habitat led to an approach to the Australian ment is brought from the mainland according Academy of Science for funds to extend the to the needs of particular work. The proximity fenced enclosures. A grant was made and two cf the Station to Perth and the University and fences have been erected. In addition to work- the accessibility of Rottnest by boat and aero- ers from the sponsoring bodies, a number of plane, has thus made it possible to conduct much visiting biologists have used the Station for valuable research at a relatively insignificant short periods and it is hoped that more may be cost. The policy of the management committee welcomed in the future. is to facilitate in every way the academic study of fauna and flora and the study of economically E. P. HODGKIN. 12.—Geology of Rottnest Island Introduction Shale is a marine formation which extends from Rottnest Island lies on the continental shelf 933 feet to 2,185 feet. It consists of impure along the western flank cf the Perth Basin. It sandstone, grey sandy shale, and thin beds of forms the northern termination of two parallel impure limestone. Numerous fragmentary in- chains of low islands and shallow reefs that vertebrates were recovered from the available strike in a north-north-westerly direction from cores. Spore and pollen studies confirm the the vicinity of the mainland south of Perth. correlation with the Middle to Upper Eocene Both chains are composed mainly of Quaternary Kings Park Shale cf the Perth bores. Coarse- aeolianite and represent major series of cal- grained, red, brown and yellow sandstone careous sand dunes which formed close to the occupies the interval between the base of the shore line when the sea-level was considerably “Coastal Limestone. ” at 233 feet, and the top lower than at present. The eastern chain con- of the Kings Park Shale, at 933 feet. Samples sists of the Murray Reefs, Seal Island, Bird of this part of the section are not available for Island, Point Peron, Garden Island, Carnac study, but the unit may represent part of an Island and the Stragglers Reefs; the second ancient delta of the Swan River. A thin un- chain lies approximately two miles to the west named formation cf late Tertiary or Pleistocene of the first and includes Coventry Reef. Hawley age occurs below the “Coastal Limestone” in the Shoal and Casuarina Shoal. Gravity surveys Public Works Department Swan River bores evening Meinesz 1948: Thyer and Everingham directly to the west of the Fremantle Traffic 1956) show Bouguer Anomalies cf between -65 Bridge. It is perhaps of similar age and origin and -70 milligals in the vicinity of Rottnest to the sandstone beneath the “Coastal Lime- Island and suggest that a thickness of about stone” in the Rottnest Island Bore. Sandy 20,000 feet of sedimentary rocks separates the limestone extends from the top of the unnamed surface exposures from the underlying crystal- sandstone formation, at 233 feet, to the surface line basement complex. of the bore. Recent contributions to our knowledge of the The Rottnest Island Bore, which is the second geology of Rottnest Island have been made by deepest hole drilled in the Perth Basin, pene- Teichert (1950) and Fairbridge (1954). The trated the thickest known section of the Kings present authors wish to acknowledge the valu- Park Shale. Comparison of the depths of able assistance of Mr. B. E. Balme, Dr. E. P. formations in the bores of the Perth area sug- Hodgkin. Mr. P. E. Play ford and Miss M. E. gests that the Mesozoic and Tertiary sections Redman in the compilation of this review. Two in this area are faulted. of us (C.W.H., E.W.S.K.) are currently engaged in a study of the geology cf Rottnest Island. Exposures All lithified strata exposed on Rottnest Island Succession are referred to the “Coastal Limestone.” They All rock exposures on Rottnest Island are consist predominantly of coarse-grained, cross- thought to be of Quaternary age, but Tertiary bedded aeolianite and include minor develop- and Cretaceous strata were penetrated in the ments of marine limestone. Fossil soils of Rottnest Island Bore. This bore was drilled near limited areal extent are fairly common in the the Rottnest Cemetery at a surface elevation of cliff sections west of Narrow Neck. approximately 10 feet above mean-sea-level. It The aeolianite of the “Coastal Limestone” is reached a total depth of 2,582 feet. A Lower similar in composition to the sands on the pre- Cretaceous sequence of dark grey, sandy, glau- conitic claystone and shale and dense sandstone sent day beaches of the island. It is composed was penetrated between 2,185 feet and 2,582 feet: mainly of comminuted shells, calcareous algae, this interval is correlated with the South Perth Fcraminifera and other calcareous microfossils, Formation, known from bores in the Perth but includes rounded quartz grains and minor Metropolitan Area. The overlying Kings Park amounts of heavy minerals. Quartz grains are 69 - usually only minor constituents of the aeolianite, “Calaisian” and those at 2-3 feet to the “Dun- but in some bands within the fossil dunes they kirkian.” Emerged coral reefs at Salmon Bay reach a high concentration. and Stark Bay and shell beds around the lakes An emerged coral reef in Salmon Bay, lithified yield unmistakable evidence of higher sea -levels. shell deposits at Geordie Bay, and the shell beds However, studies in progress suggest at least around the margins of the salt lakes represent some of the low-water-level benches formed marine incursions into the “Coastal Limestone” during these periods of higher sea-level have during periods of higher sea -level. The fossil been either drastically remodelled or obliterated soils are characterised by their massive structure by rapid erosion. Some of the benches around and the presence of the terrestrial gastropod the present coastline appear to owe their form Bothriembryon. They formed fairly rapidly in to surface induration of the aeolianite near the flat interdunal areas and do not exhibit signs upper limit of the splash zone, and it therefore of soil maturity. seems that they are unrelated to eustatic Soils forming at the present time are shallow phenomena. and immature. They show the initial stage in A fall in present sea-level of approximately soil formation, namely the accumulation of five fathoms would link Rottnest Island to the organic matter near the surface. mainland as a peninsula extending through Garden Island to Point Peron. Fossil pollen Physiography and radiocarbon studies (Churchill 1959) in- B.C., sea- Rottnest Island is characterized by rolling dicate that, approximately 5.000 years sand dune topography, and reaches a maximum level stood five fathoms lower than at present. elevation of only 154 feet. Permanent drainage The separation of Rottnest as an island is thus channels are absent, but a number of swamps a young geological event. form in favourable interdune locations during BRIAN F. GLENISTER, C. W. HASSELL and winter (see n. 85 herein). The system of salt E. W. S. KNEEBONE. lakes represents shallow arms of the sea which were isolated in recent times, by bar and dune formation near the present coast. References A striking physiographic feature of the Island Churchill, D. M, (1959).—Late Quaternary eustatic changes in the Swan River District. J. Roy. is the ubiouitous occurrence of narrow marine Soc. W. Aust. 42: 53-55. benches situated a few feet above mean-sea Fairbridge, R. W. ( 1954) .—Quaternary eustatic data for level along the present coastline and around the Western Australia and adjacent states. Proc. Pan-lnd. Ocean Sci. Conyr.. Perth, Sect, F: margins of the salt lakes. Previous authors 64-84. (Teichert 1950: Fairbridge 1954) have inter- Teichert, C. (1950). —Late Quaternary changes of sea- preted these features as remnants of low -water- level at Rottnest Island. Western Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 59: 63-79. level marine benches formed during recent Tliyer, R. F., and Everingham, I. B. (1956).—Gravity eustatic still-stands or slow retreat of sea-level. survey of the Perth Basin, Western Australia. Benches at 10-11 feet above the present mean- Bull. Bur. Miner. Resour. Aust, 33. Veiling Meinesz, F. A. (1948). Gravity expeditions at sea-level related to the “Flandrian” — have been sea, 1923-38, Vol. IV. (A. J. Mulder). sea-level of Europe, those at 5-6 feet to the (Drukkerij Waltmann: Delft.) 13.—The Vegetation of Rottnest Island Our earliest record of the vegetation of what dominant plant of Rottnest fore-dunes is is now Rottnest Island comes from fossil pollen Spinifex longifolius; associated with it are and megascopic remains in swamp sediments Atriplex isatidea and the introduced Anthericum and dunes of late Pleistocene age. Apart from divaricatum. species still feund on the Island, the past An entirely different suite (mostly of succu- occurrence of Eucalyptus (fomphocephala, E. lents) occupies rocky shores: Carpobrotus marginata , E. calophylla. Agonis, Casuarina. aequilaterus, Threlkeldia diffusa, Tetragonia Banksia, Macrozamia and Xanthorrhoea indi- implexicoma, Sporobolus virginicus , Ercmophila cates that a tuart woodland similar to that of glabra, Nitraria schoberi, Enchylaena tomentosa, the present mainland once existed here. Since Artlirocnevium halocnemoides , Salicornia aus- then, rising sea-level and erosion have reduced tralis and Atriplex paludosa. Many of these the area to an island, 7 miles long and 3 miles species are now abundant only on offshore stacks wide. Consequent increase in wind exposure and islets. Except at Cape Vlaming, excessive and deterioration in rainfall have played their browsing by quokkas in summer has exterminated part in rendering former habitats unsuitable for or impoverished most of the succulent-dominated tuart woodland. Thus the present vegetation communities on the main island coast. consists solely of elements of a coastal complex . Coastal Dun? Vegetation Supralittoral Vegetation This is a fairly open formation of low, generally In comparison with the mainland, the strand microphyllous, shrubs, 1 to 5 feet high. Com- plants Cakile maritima and Arctotheca nivea, position and height depend on wind exposure and the fore-dune species Spinifex hirsutus and and depth of sand over the consolidated dune. Tetragonia zeyheri, are rare on the island. The The succession from sandy shores is usually 70 . e through Scirpus nodosus, Scaevola crassifolia Island is for Acanthocarpus to replace scrub, and Calocephalus brownii to Olearia axillaris. which implies a recent increase in the abundance The stony phase is pioneered by the dwarf shrub of the quokkas The evidence for such an Frankenia pauciflora , which, with decreasing increase and the factors responsible for it, have exposure, is replaced by taller shrubs; W estringia been discussed by Storr (1957). dumpieri, Leucopogon insularis, L. parviflorus, Acrotriche cordata and Boronia alata. On lee- Limestone Ridge Vegetation ward slopes most of these give way to Acacia In the western two-thirds of the Island, the axillaris insular cuneata, Olearia , Myoporum , consolidated dunes are usually covered by shallow Diplolaena dampieri, Melaleuca pubescens, and calcareous sands. At the eastern end of the Acacia rostellifera. Island the dunes are frequently covered by finer sands relatively rich in organic matter, which Interdunal Vegetation support a closed formation comprising several species of shrubs 5-15 feet high. Templetonia In sheltered valleys and slopes, where the sand retusa occasionally occurs in pure stands. More is deep and the accretion of silt has enhanced often it is mixed with one or more of the its water holding capacity, a scrub develops, following: Pittosporum phillyrioides , Spyndium almost exclusively of Acacia rostellifera . Typi- globulosum, Beyeria viscose , Alyxia buxifolia, cally the formation is closed and from 10-20 Acacia rostellifera and Melaleuca pubescens. feet in height. The liana Clematis microphylla Most of these species reappear on limestone is common here. Undergrowth is sparse and cliffs in sheltered bays. Undergrowth is sparse usually restricted to Stipa variabilis and and confined usually to Phyllanthus calycinus , Acanthocarpus preissii. Acanthocarpus preissii, Stipa variabilis and This scrub was once far more extensive than Guichenotia ledifolia. it is at present. As recently as the end of last century, visitors could describe the vegetation Swamp and Salt-lak? Vegetation of Rottnest as “impenetrable” beyond the con- The various marsh communities form con- fines of the eastern settlement. Today all that centric zones around the lakes and swamps. remains of the scrub in the western half of the Except where the limestone is bare, the inner- island are a few isolated thickets of Acacia most zone is dominated by the samphires, rostellifera. Arthrocnemum arbuscula, A. halocnem.oid.es , Where the scrub has gone, there now occurs and Salicornia australis. During winter and a low dense formation consisting almost spring this zone is largely under water. In early exclusively of sclerophyllous monocotyledonous summer after the water has receded, certain plants. The most characteristic species is low creeping perennials renew their growth, viz.; Acanthocarpus preissii, a fruticose, pungent- Hemichroa pentandra, Wilsonia humilis, Samolus leaved perennial, 1-3 feet high. It is usually repens and Suaeda australis. associated with a tussock grass, Stipa variabilis. The next zone is dominated by the large Less common are two other tussock grasses Poa tussocky sedge, Gahnia trifida. Sometimes it is australis and Danthonia caespitosu, the sword mixed with or replaced by the erect sedges and rushes Lepidcsperma gladiatum and L. resino- rushes, Scirpus nodosus. Hypolaena sp. and sum, Conostylis candicans and a small grass-like Juncus viaritimus. Less frequently it is inter- sedge, Carex preissii. Apart from annuals, spersed with bushes of Arthrocnemum halocne- dicotyledonous species are uncommon and are moides. Atriplex paludosa or Myoporum visco- usually found <1> in disturbed areas (e.g. sum. Wherever the soil is less saline and richer Thomasia cognata /, (2) where the scrub has in organic matter, a mat of grasses and herbs recently disappeared 71 14.—Physiology of the Quokka Investigations of physiological processes oper- lucerne chaff and ground sheep nuts, J. H. ating in the quokka have been carried out dur- Calaby i personal communication) obtained a ing the last 10 years by a number of people in preliminary figure for crude protein require- various capacities and of different interests. As ments for maintenance of adult animals, of a result, these studies have not followed a sys- approximately 3.5 grams per kilogram live body tematic sequence but are linked by the common weight per day. Further information on this interest of the investigators in the marsupial subject awaits future investigation. group. Therefore, rather than give a chrono- logical account of the work done on the quokka, Metabolism the following summary uses broad headings General which group together investigations of related The trend towards the specialised ruminant physiological processes. type shown by studies on digestion in the quokka are paralleled by some aspects of the Digestion metabolism of this animal. Pew animals and no mammals form their own Moir et aL (1954, 1956) recorded that blood alimentary cellulase to digest the cellulose volatile fatty acid (V.F.A.) and glucose levels which encases plant cells. Consequently, those in the quokka are similar to those found in mammals which use plant material as food rely ruminants, V.F.A. levels being higher and glucose on unicellular organisms, which live in the levels lower than those normally found in non- digestive tract, to digest the cellulose portion of ruminants; also V.F.A. was shown to be removed their food so that this substance can be made from the circulation by the liver and other available for the animals* needs. This is par- tissues. These facts indicate that quokka tissues ticularly important in the case of grazing herbi- may be like those of the ruminant in utilising vores. Mammals can be divided into two groups relatively large amounts of V.F.A. as an energy the by manner in which micro-organisms assist source. However the relative importance of them in this respect: the ruminants, in which V.F.A. and glucose in this respect are not yet the stomach is divided into four pouches, the known. first of these (the rumen) being the major site Further studies by J. Barker (unpublished) of predigestion of food by micro-organisms, and have shown that while normal blood glucose the non-ruminants, in which the stomach is a values for the quokka are similar to those for single compartment, digestive micro-organisms ruminants, feeding increases the blood glucose being contained in a relatively large caecum level to a rather greater extent than occurs in in and the colon. ruminants. However, intravenous injections of The quokka, like other macropods, is an herbi- insulin in the quokka depress the blood glucose vorous animal of grazing habit. Moir, Somers, to very low levels which would not be tolerated Sharman and Waring (1954), and Moir, Somers by non -ruminants, this without apparent effect and Waring '1956) showed that in this animal on the animal. This response is similar to that the problem of digesting plant material is largely which occurs in ruminants. On the other hand, overcome by a type of “pregastric digestion” glucose tolerance times for the quokka are which is similar, in many respects, to that which similar to those for non -ruminants and much occurs in ruminants. Thus, the stomach is shorter than those for ruminants. Finally, the large and sacculated, has an oesophageal groove ability of the quokka to convert injected pro- and the proximal pouch contains bacteria which pionate to glucose is considerably less than that attack and ferment the food. As in ruminants, of the ruminant although relatively greater this bacterial action results in production of than that of the rabbit. volatile fatty acids which are absorbed mainly Thus, although the quokka is like the rumi- frcm the fore-stomach. However, the stomach nants in that it tolerates blood levels of of the quokka does not exactly resemble that of V.F.A. and glucose that would not be tolerated the ruminant: it is not known if the oesopha- by non-ruminants, some aspects of cell meta- geal groove functions as in ruminants and the bolism in this animal must differ from that of functions of the distal pouches of the quokka the ruminant, and full investigation of inter- stomach are unknown. mediary metabolism in the quokka should be of Two related characteristics of digestion in great interest. ruminants are the slow rate of passage of food Trace through the alimentary canal and the small Elements proportion of fibrous food that remains un- Cobalt and Copper . —Ruminants require cobalt digested. In investigating these processes in the for the synthesis of Vitamin B,^ by micro- quokka. Calaby (1958) observed that the rate of organisms in the rumen. A higher intake level passage of food through the digestive tract in of cobalt is necessary in ruminants than in non- this animal is faster than in the ruminant but ruminants due to their poor faculty for absorp- slower than in the horse: also that the per- tion of Vitamin Bi* and to their requirement of centage of dry food digested by the quokka is a high level of cobalt in the rumen liquor to less than in ruminants but greater than in maintain a normal population of micro- rabbits. Thus, digestion of plant material in organisms. In cobalt deficiency, rumen levels the quokka is less efficient than in the domestic of cobalt are depressed. As a result, changes ruminant although probably more efficient than occur in the population structure of the resident in non-ruminant herbivores. micro-organisms and Vitamin B.-. production Little is known of the essential food require- falls below the minimal requirements of the ments of the quokka. In nitrogen balance trials, host. Thus the need for cobalt in ruminants is using a mixture of equal parts of oaten and indirect and cobalt deficiency is in fact a defi- 72 — — ciency of Vitamin B I2 . Ruminants become fore, the young are largely dependent on their cobalt deficient when grazing light land low in own iron stores during the lactation period and cobalt and particularly when grazing coastal as these are not fully adequate for their needs, sand dune country consisting largely cf wind a characteristic decline in blood haemoglobin born shell fragments. and in iron stores of the young occurs during After Moir et al. showed that the quokka had this period. Blood haemoglobin and iron stores “ruminant-like” digestion, it was of in- do not rise again until foods other than milk terest to determine whether cobalt deficiency are taken. plays a part in limiting the numbers of quokkas Preliminary studies on the quokka have on Rottnest Island, an area which consists shown that, the blood haemoglobin concentration entirely of sand dune formations and which has, is low in the young joey but rises throughout in the past, proved an unsuitable area for graz- pouch life and towards the end of this period it ing sheep. S. Barker (unpublished data) has is almost as high as the adult value. Storage attempted to produce experimental cobalt defi- iron in the liver is maintained at a constant ciency in quokkas. The basic diet used had a high concentration during the corresponding cobalt level of 0.02 p.p.m. (dry weight basis). period. These findings indicate an unusually This level is slightly lower than those found in high concentration of iron in quokka milk and the few Rottnest plants that have been analysed this was confirmed by analysis. How this high for cobalt. the liver Although cobalt levels in output of iron in milk is maintained is the sub- the quokkas were, after several months, signifi- ject of work in progress as this is of great cantly lower than those of control animals, theoretical interest since there is no known serum levels of Vitamin B, 2 did not approach mechanism for active secretion of iron into milk. the lowest levels found by Shield ( 1958 > in the Rottnest population during spring months. No symptoms comparable with those exhibited by Water Vitamin B, 2 deficient sheep were produced in Since Rottnest Island is an area where sum- quokkas on these low cobalt intake levels. It is mer conditions are fairly prolonged and are therefore tentatively concluded that the quokka coincident with a limited natural water supply, is more efficient than ruminants with respect the quokkas living on the island might be ex- pected to have of to conversion of cobalt to Vitamin B )2 and/or to some means physiological adjustment to varied availability. absorption of Vitamin B (2 . water Copper deficiency occurs in ruminants under Bentley <1955) described the ability of the two types of circumstance quokka to concentrate its urine so as to maintain (1) a simple deficiency occurring in animals a positive water balance when drinking salt 2.5'# grazing on copper deficient pastures; solutions as concentrated as NaCl. I How- and ever, most of his animals were not able to (2) an induced deficiency occurring in maintain a positive water balance when drink- animals grazing pastures with normal ing sea water (equivalent to 3.3% NaClJ.l copper levels but also with high molyb- Therefore, animals living on Rottnest Island denum and inorganic sulphate levels should be able to satisfy their summer water in this case an interaction between requirements by drinking any available brackish these three ions reduces the availability water, but while they may occasionally drink of copper to the animal. sea water, it is unlikely that they could survive By analysis of plants eaten by the quokka. over long periods with no other source of water. S. Barker (unpublished data) has shown that This is borne out by Bentley’s field observations: Rottnest pastures are low in copper—the mean urine samples collected from animals on the level being less than 5.0 p.p.m. (dry weight island during the winter were dilute while those basis) —but field studies indicate that this in collected during the summer were more concen- itself is adequate for the quokka. Also, in cer- trated, but the degree of concentration of sum- tain areas of the island, plants have a high mer field samples did not indicate any severe molybdenum and inorganic sulphate content, dehydration or show electrolyte concentrations and field studies have shown that during the that would indicate that the animals were drink- summer, blood copper levels of animals in these ing strong salt solutions. Therefore, animals areas fall below the winter levels. It therefore which survive the summer are able to obtain appears that when local population numbers sufficient water from their food and available build up during the summer, reduction in blood fresh or brackish drinking water to maintain a copper occurs in animals eating plants of high positive water balance. molybdenum and inorganic sulphate content. The structure of the quokka kidney was also Preliminary experiments have indicated that a described by Bentley and his observations indi- Cu-Mo-SOi interaction does exist in the quokka cated that the relative volume of reabsorptive and further work on this problem is in progress. tubule tissue exceeds the normal value for most Iron . —The mechanism of iron transfer from other species. This may have physiological sig- the female quokka to the suckling joey is being nificance in relation to the wide seasonal varia- investigated by Kaldor. In eutherian mammals tion in kidney secretory function observed in that have been studied, uterine embryos obtain quokkas living in their natural habitat. iron for haemoglobin manufacture and iron The possibility has been envisaged that if storage as a result of placental transfer and some seasonal fluctuation in the state of hydra- such animals are born with a relatively high tion of island animals does occur, this might blood haemoglobin concentration. After birth be demonstrated by measurement of total blood the young are, for a time, dependent on the volume at different times of the year. Prelim- maternal milk for further iron supplies but inary work to test this was done by Ho (1958) eutherian milk has a low iron content. There- and further work is being carried out by Shield 73 and Woolley, but no definite information re- Bartholomew demonstrated that furred quok- garding seasonal changes is yet available. The kas are also able to maintain their deep body method used to assess total blood volume is the temperature at normal levels when subjected to Evan’s Blue (T1824) Dye method. Ho found cold conditions with ambient temperatures as that the time for complete mixing of injected low as -10 C. This ability was accompanied by dye in the circulation of quokkas is longer than shivering and widespread peripheral vasocon- is usual for other mammals and that the plasma striction. volume per kilogram body weight is lower in the No data are available on metabolic rate quokka las in other marsupials that have been changes in quokkas under hot or cold conditions. tested) than in eutherian mammals. Blood Temperature Regulation Blood Groups demonstrated Another important aspect of quokka physi- Blood group systems have been in several mammalian species and provide in- ology in relation to their environmental teresting material for genetical studies. An conditions is that of temperature regulation. investigation of naturally occurring blood group Homoiothermy is a general feature of eutherian antigens and antibodies in the quokka was car- mammals and is largely attained by evapora- ried out by Saunders <1958). The preliminary tion of water from the skin and or lung sur- findings indicate that differences occur between faces in hot ambient conditions, and by peri- individuals in this regard but further work is pheral vasoconstriction and shivering in cold necessary to elucidate the genetic mechanisms conditions. It was at one time thought that involved. many marsupials, including the quokka, were constant body tempera- not able to maintain a Haemoglobin ture under conditions of gross changes in envir- onmental temperature. That this is not true It has been shown that differences between of the quokka has been clearly shown by Bentley individuals with respect to the type of haemo- globin in the erythrocytes, occur in several • 1955) and Bartholomew (1956) who observed very efficient homoiothermy in quokkas sub- mammalian species. Such differences are gene- jected to high and low environmental tempera- tically controlled. From electrophoretic analysis tures. of quokka blood, Kirk has so far been unable to demonstrate haemoglobin differences between Under hot conditions, the animals’ respiration individuals of this species (unpublished data>. rates rose considerably, and Bentley observed that these increases were of the same order as Erythrocyte Electrolytes those that occur in eutherian mammals of simi- lar size such as the cat and the rabbit. He In most mammalian species, potassium is the also described considerable sweating from the predominant cation, sodium being present in fore and hind Daws, which he showed to be the only small concentrations. However, in carni- only skin areas containing sweat glands. Both vores sodium is the predominant cation in workers also described obvious salivation of erythrocytes and in sheep, goats and possums, quokkas in hot conditions and Bartholomew different individuals have either high sodium considered that evaporation of saliva, which the or high potassium erythrocytes. animals spread over their limbs and tail as a Eadie (unpublished data) showed that quokka result of a “licking response to heat stress,” erythrocytes are unusual in containing roughly was the major cooling factor. However, it is equal concentrations of sodium and petassium difficult to distinguish the relative roles of sweat and that pouch young arc not different from and saliva in this respect since the behavioural adults in this respect; J. Barker • unpublished licking response would spread both sweat and data) confirmed this in studying the variation saliva to increase cooling by surface evapora- of erythrocyte sodium and potassium distribu- tion between individual quokkas and is at pres- tion. Bentley < unpublished data » has shown that the licking response to heat stress is not ent investigating other properties of these cells. essential for maintenance of the homoiothermy exhibited by these animals, by using circular Endocrinology perspex collars that extended out from the neck, Adrenal Physiology environmental to prevent licking. Under hot The adrenal cortex produces hormones that conditions, collared quokkas showed no increase are essential to life in a wide range of vertebrate quokkas of body temperatures compared to species that have been investigated. When these soaked with without collars; the paws became animals are adrenalectomised. they die after sweat which spread up the limbs and evapora- varying periods of time < which are fairly char- tion of together with the increased respira- this, acteristic for each species' during which they tion rate, provided adequate cooling for the exhibit typical symptoms resulting from dis- animals. It thus likely that the adjustable seems ruption of electrolyte, water and carbohydrate in under methods for heat loss the quokka metabolism. However, the North American combination of natural conditions are largely a opossum, Didelphis virginiana, has been shown panting and evaporation of sweat and saliva to be unusually resistant to adrenalectomy and from parts of the body. These effects are en- there was thus the possibility that this might licking. hanced by the behavioural pattern of be a characteristic of the marsupial group. This licking is acquired early in life The response hypothesis is not substantiated by the observa- (it was observed by Bartholomew in pouch tions of Buttle, Kirk and Waring (1952> who young) and this worker also showed that reported that adrenalectomised quokkas have a homoiothermy develops in the quokka during short survival time (approximately two days) pouch life. during which typical symptoms of adrenal in- 74 sufficiency, such as loss of appetite, muscular pouch, they continue to feed from the elongate weakness, depression of blood glucose and plasma nipple which often protrudes from the pouch, sodium levels and elevation of plasma potassium, until they are about 9-10 months old. occur. Sharman < 1955a) studied the oestrus cycle Animals living under conditions of environ- of the adult female quokka. He observed that mental stress are very dependent on their the non -breeding part of the year ( period of adrenal cortex secretions which aid the body anoestrus) for quokkas in the wild lasts approxi- cells to cope with the additional functional re- mately from October to January. Towards the quirements imposed upon them by the stress end of January, the breeding season starts with conditions. In such situations, the rate of the commencement of oestrus cycles—these secretion of adrenal cortex hormones is increased animals are polyoestrus within the breeding sea- above normal and if the stress is severe and/or son. As in many other species, domestication re- prolonged the animals suffer from exhaustion sults in reduction and finally elimination of the of adrenal function. A concommitant effect anoestrus period, in which case oestrus cycles with increased adrenal activity under conditions recur throughout the year and are only inter- of stress is depression of the ascorbic acid con- rupted by pregnancy and lactation. Each oestrus of tent the adrenal cortex. These facts were cycle is about 28 days in length. The period of used by Herrick (unpublished data) in an in- behavioural oestrus in each cycle lasts for about vestigation of variation of adrenal function in 12 hours and is followed, within the next 24 quokkas at different seasons, in relation to hours, by ovulation, whether or not copulation dehydration stress. Herrick's results indicated has occurred. Details of the changes in the that there was an increase in adrenal cortex ovaries, uterus and vagina during the oestrus secretion in quokkas subjected experimentally to cycle and the anoestrus period are given and severe dehydration. However, he obtained no similarities between the cyclical changes in the evidence of unusual adrenal activity or of female quokka and those in Didelphis. Bettongia dehydration in wild animals caught on Rottnest and Dasyurus, the only other marsupials for Island during summer or winter months. which detailed information is available, are The various investigations bearing on water described. metabolism which have been mentioned provide Details of pregnancy and embryonic develop- no evidence that dehydration stress is an im- ment of the quokka were described by Sharman portant factor in population limitation among (1955b), This account shows that the quokka the quokkas on Rottnest Island (and see the placenta is of the yolk sac type and that the report on Rottnest field studies in this part). It gestation period is about 26 days. After parturi- may, of course, account for death of a small tion, the female develops an oestrus condition number of animals which were not represented and ovulation occurs: copulation and fertilisa- in the samples obtained by the various workers. tion of the post partum ovum may occur at this stage, but development of this zygote normally Reproduction proceeds only to the blastocyst stage. While the Valuable contributions to the field of compara- first young remains in the pouch, the blastocyst tive reproductive physiology have been made by stays in a quiescent state, unimplanted in the extensive investigations of reproduction in the uterus which remains in an undeveloped state quokka, particularly since there is remarkably of lactation anoestrus. If the pouch-young is little information of this nature concerning the removed, the blastocyst becomes implanted and marsupial group. starts to develop further, the uterus changes to second is Sharman <1954) commented on. and Waring, the pregnant condition and a young Sharman, Lovat and Kahan <1955) described eventually born. the anatomy of the reproductive tract of the This mechanism would account for the fact female quokka. which is similar in all important that domesticated female quokkas have occa- respects to that of other marsupials, and of the sionally been observed feeding two young at the pouch, which contains four nipples, and recorded one time—one no longer resident in the pouch, some observations on the birth and pouch life but still feeding from the exterior by the elong- development of the young. Thus, the animals ate nipple to which it was previously attached, appear to be exclusively monovular, since and the other newly born and attached to a multiple births have never been recorded. New different nipple. In such a case, the blastocyst born quokkas (which weigh approximately half would have remained viable for at least five a gram) move into the pouch and attach to one months. However, this mechanism of delayed of the nipples which hypertrophies, along with birth is probably of value in the wild population the mammary gland that supplies it, as the on Rottnest Island only in cases where the first foetus grows. Only the one nipple is used by young of the season is, for some reason, lost any one young during lactation. The sexes are during earlier pouch life. By the time the first externally indistinguishable at birth and remain young normally leaves the pouch, seasonal so for about three weeks after which either anoestrus would, in most cases, have com- pouch or scrotum can be distinguished. The menced in the wild carrying female and under young are born in an undeveloped condition, these conditions the quiescent blastocyst de- but by the time they are about five months old. generates. their eyes are open and they are well covered with fur. They remain permanently in the Nerve Physiology pouch for a total period of about six months Studies are in progress by Collin on the con- after which they leave it for increasing periods duction velocity in nerves from quokkas of diff- of time until they are finally too large to enter erent size, in order to obtain data on the devel- it Even though no longer resident in the opmental aspect of nerve conduction. 75 . — Pharmacology These effects are of interest in relation to the The effects of pltressin and pitocin (extracts phenomenon of tachyphylaxis (or reduction of of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland) on response to a drug when serial doses of the blood pressure, have been studied in a wide same amount are given over a period of time), range of vertebrate species. Both drugs affect which has been demonstrated by the above blood pressure in all non-mammalian species workers in relation to the effects of pitressin that have been tested, although the effects of on blood pressure in the quokka. Woolley is at each varies in different species. The platypus, a present investigating the mechanism by which prototherian mammal, also shows blood pres- this tolerance is brought about. sure changes with both drugs. No eutherian In summary, it can be said that these investi- mammal has been shown to exhibit a blood gations on the quokka are of great interest in pressure response to pitocin, while pltressin relation to physiology, causes a rise in blood pressure in these animals. comparative since re- Similar responses to those of the Eutheria have latively little is known of physiological function been demonstrated in the only two marsupials in the marsupial group. Several unusual mech- one being the quokka—that have been tested. anisms have been demonstrated and it is possible That this is true for the quokka was first shown that some, at least, of these will prove to be by Feakes and Waring (unpublished data) and characteristic of the macropod group. was later verified by Woolley (unpublished data) S. BARKER and J. BARKER. 15.—Rottnest Field Studies Concerned with the Quokka Rottnest Island is a study area of value to periodically. Less frequently it can be demon- field ecologists interested in the dynamics of strated that the fertility itself Is affected by mammal populations. It is closed to recruit- adverse conditions of food, water or disease and ment by immigration and to loss by emigration this adjusts population numbers without the such as occurs in continental populations in spectacular death rate associated with the three response to climatic or seasonal change. major limiting factors. Its area is 4,700 acres, i.e., not so small as Since the original landing of Volckersen 300 to make it an extremely artificial study area. years ago the journals of the various navigators The single species of indigenous mammal, the and naturalists indicate that the population of quokka, is a herbivore with no carnivorous pre- the Rottnest Island quokka was dense enough dator so that no complication in the way of to elicit comment. Today the quokka numbers predator-prey relationship obscures the direct are still large. The Island has been separated relationship of the animals to the environment. from the mainland some 7 r 000 years according The animals are small (adult: 3.5kg), easily to Churchill <1959) and one can speculate that caught, and relatively docile when handled. In over the major part of this period the density captivity they domesticate easily for experi- of the animals has been high. mental work. Practically all the females have What then are the natural limiting factors of one young per year, there being no observable this population? Initially an attempt was made senescence in the population. Although accounts to establish some correlation of death with sea- of the early days of the colony indicate that son. If successful this would give a clue to the large numbers of the animals were shot for probable cause. As no recently dead or mori- sport prior to 1914, since that date the Island bund animals are in evidence at any season has become a game reserve and with complete no pathological evidence can be sought to give protection the population has become virtually a lead to the immediate cause of death. In a natural population with human checks re- fact animals in this condition are rarely found, moved. All these factors add uo to the fact that as the sick animals presumably seek shelter be- this Island and its indigenous quokka popula- fore becoming moribund and die unnoticed until tion provide a relatively simple ecological situ- destruction of the vegetation reveals their skele- ation. When it is realised that the search for tons. These are common on the Island. Hence, such situations has in recent years driven as the only remaining evidence of natural ecologists to the simplified regions of the desert, deaths, a large (600) collection of crania was tundra and the steppes, it is fortunate that we made in the hope that they would reveal some have so close at hand in Western Australia a seasonal pattern of death. It seemed upon study area capable of producing a growing body analysis that the major part, if not the whole of of fundamental research on a marsupial popu- the population deaths, takes place in the late lation. summer, i.e., March and April. This observation One of the fundamental questions of popula- gave a valuable lead because any limiting factor tion dynamics concerns the limiting factors of had to be operative at or a little before this population growth. Starvation and disease are period. the causes most favoured by mammalogists. With an established season of death further Prolonged seasonal adversity in the form of analysis of such a population could proceed on drought in hot deserts and blizzards in cold two parallel lines. Either the biotic environ- deserts decimates populations seasonally or ment of the herbivore could be studied for the 76 — effect of grazing, or the population of animals mer, when the mortality pattern appeared themselves could be studied by extended samp- constant all over the Island on the evidence of ling, the knowledge of their clinical status pro- the skull collections. Thus similarity of mor- viding an assessment of the factors contributing tality incidence in West End and Bagdad could to morbidity. Both these lines of attack have suggest that the lack of potable water on West been and are still carried on with the Rottnest End was not a contributory cause there. How- Island quokka population. Initially the latter ever, it is a well known phenomenon! that approach was used—an analysis of the physio- thirsty animals will not eat, so that chronic logical status of the population through a com- water shortage leads to starvation which, rather plete haematological survey extending over than dehydration, then becomes the proximal some two years, with large samples of animals, cause of death. With this thought in mind the repeated periodically throughout the year. We similarity of the seasonal pattern of death in knew that semi-starvation in general produced the two study areas may relate to different an anaemia and that this anaemia was prob- causes, that of the West End being primarily ably of a special type—hyperchromic and mac- mediated by dehydration. Inanition due to food rocytic. Summer dehydration, acute or chronic shortage in the presence of water and inanition was expected to produce the reverse picture due initially to chronic water restriction, but a haemoconcentration. Generalised disease has a really secondary starvation, present clearly its own general indicators in raised white cell separable blood pictures. concentrations and high sedimentation rates of The necessary experimental evidence came red cells whilst the evaluation of vitamin B, 2 from a colony of quokkas kept in the zoology deficiency is most easily determined by blood yards which had been subjected to water restric- serum bioassay. B 12 deficiency has not been tion for a period of 6 or 7 months. The chronic demonstrated in animals other than the sheep, dehydration of the experimental animals pro- but seemed a possible limiting factor in this duced, after some months of continued water case. restriction, a blood picture which differed both Two study areas have been selected on the from acute dehydration and primary starvation: Island—one comprising the whole of the west on the one hand an anaemia in so far as the end of the Island; an area of some 500 acres haemoglobin and red cell concentrations fell joined to the main island by a narrow isthmus, below the average of the control sample as did whilst the other is located adjacent to Lakes the haematocrit values, and on the other, an Bagdad and Pink and totals in all about 300 increase of the serum proteins, both albumin acres. and globulin, over those values in the control The West End study area contains no free animals which were maintained on a diet of fresh water and the animals presumably satisfy food and water ad. lib. their water requirements from that contained In the field under summer conditions the blood in their food. The other study area —Bagdad picture was the same for both areas, giving has an ample water supply all the year no evidence that either acute or chronic around as a number of seepages around the dehydration supervened in the West End despite periphery of the salt lakes flow summer and the total lack of free fresh water. winter. To use two areas so dissimilar in their With the demonstration by Moir, Summers available drinking water for a physiological and Waring (1956) that the quokka was rumin- evaluation of the animals in each could show ant-like, possessing a large stomach, and an whether dehydration operated as a limiting fac- oesophagael groove very like that in the sheep tor on the West End animals during the sum- the question arose as to whether low cobalt ROTTNEST ISLAND WESTERN AUSTRALIA 1 Mile 77 values which had previously prevented the population with starvation the fate for some establishment of sheep at Rottnest, also affected proportion each year, as evidenced by the skull the macropod population: in particular could data. this act as a specific limiting factor to popula- tion growth? Experimental work with sheep Starvation in mammal populations is rarely had demonstrated that a drop in serum B,o unaccompanied by disease when population values paralleled a progressively developing numbers are high. As previously mentioned “coast disease,” overt symptoms of the disease no moribund animals were available for their appearing at a definite low level of the serum pathology to be determined and so other meas- vitamin concentration in the experimental ures of disease were required. White blood cell of animals. For this reason it was thought that a concentrations and the sedimentation rate haematological survey of the quokka population red cells are general non-specific indicators of over a complete season would reveal any defici- disease. True, both these measures are affected ency comparable to that in sheep. We were by conditions other than disease, e.g., diet and fortunate in having the haematology department pregnancy, but in general large variation in sedimentation rates indicate tissue destruction, of the Royal Perth Hospital able to do all our B, > assays. The survey was conducted during 1956- whilst an increase in white cells indicates active the 57 and over the whole period for both study increase in phagocytosis. As a result of blood areas a total of some 450 animals were assayed. survey, cycles were found also in these two At no season did the Rottnest average Bia values measures. However, the trends were the oppo- of fall as low as those in “coasty” sheep. Instead site to expectation on an hypothesis seasonal disease in the late summer. The white cell a seasonal variation in the quokka B, > level was evident such that the maximum occurs in the counts on the average fell to low values during late summer, not the minimum which would this period—this being expected in starvation. be expected to correspond to the mortality peak. Similarly low sedimentation rate values were reflecting In addition statistical analysis revealed no cor- found in the summer, this probably relation with haemoglobin or albumin levels the decrease in plasma proteins, which correla- with low Bi* levels as in the case of experimental tion is known to exist. animals. Hence, taken together, the several Rectal temperatures of all animals captured aspects revealed by the serum B,, assay indicates also follow a seasonal trend when plotted. An that the soil cobalt deficiency 'low enough to average drop of some 2.5 °C. for the West End totally eliminate eutherian ruminant, the a animals occurs in the late summer as compared sheep, from the area) does not affect its mar- to winter values. A control colony well fed and quokka. supial analogue, the watered on the mainland shows no comparative The extreme control of the Island’s vegetation drop during the summer. Studies on domestic by the quokka has been demonstrated in several ruminants have shown that the heat of fermen- ways. In February 1955 fires burnt out the tation as measured by body temperature rise whole middle of the Island. Immediately after- is appreciable after a meal. The quokka being wards the Zoology Department erected 25 animal ruminant-like will have a digestion which will exclusion quadrats on various burnt areas. After also contribute this heat of fermentation to its two years of subsequent regrowth the effect of general metabolic heat. The relatively large the quokka grazing was amply demonstrated drop in rectal temperature at the summer season by the luxuriant growth inside a majority of possibly reflects the starvation, being the com- the quadrats and the poverty outside. The bined effect of recession of fermentation and immediate implication of this was that the the lowering of the metabolic rate consequent animal population itself was being primarily upon starvation. controlled by starvation. Semi-starvation un- complicated by disease has a fairly definite blood From this field survey it is seen that positive picture 'Keys, Brozeck, Henschel, Michelson and indications exist only for starvation as the con- Taylor, 1950). There is a rather profound trolling factor of population increase for the anaemia of the order of 25 per cent, decrease in Rottnest Island quokka (and see report on the the haemoglobin, red cell count, and haema- Physiology of the Quokka in this part). Other tocrit. This anaemia is generally of the macro- factors either have contra-indications or no cytic, hyperchromic type. (Over a period of evidence can be adduced for their effect. These some two years the seasonal anaemia of the indications are over the study-years of 1955 quokka during late summer has been of this through 1958, but no unusual seasonal or other type, the blood picture corresponding to what conditions which could make the study-years the World Health Organization (1951) regards non-representative have been discovered. for humans at least as a severe semi-starvation anaemia.) However, these figures are aver- J. W. SHIELD. ages. Hence 50 per cent, of the population will be below this value and some smaller percentage will be in the pathological range of blood values References indicative of severe starvation. Parallel to the decrease in formed elements of the blood was Keys. A., Brozeck, J., Henschel, A.. Michelsen, O., and Taylor. H, (1950).— “The Biology of Human a decrease in plasma proteins, with this effect Starvation" (Univ. Minnesota Press: more marked in the albumin rather than the Minneapolis, Minn.) globulin fraction. Joint F.A.O./W.H.O. Expert Committee on Nutrition All the foregoing considerations taken together (1951).—Prevention and treatment of mal- nutrition in times of disaster. World Health suggest that it is most probable that semi-star- Organization Technical Report Series No. vation is the condition of the general Island 45. World Health Organization, Geneva 21. r- 4 _> dense thicket burnt February. Fig. 2.—Exclosure at Barker’s swamp. Note the p-jo' i —Exclosure iu Acacia north of Biological Station. Strong regrowth of regrowth of halophytes inside the fence. Suaeda is 1955, seen out- Acacia inside fence hides other species not. abundant inside the fence but rare outside. Thomasia clumps in foreground side. Stipa and Photograph. J. W. Shield Photograph. J. W. Shield Photograph, Fig. 3. —Quokka. Flash- light photograph of A. R. Main young adult. 5.— Fish Hook Bay. Photograph taken through Fig'. Bay. Wide intertidal platform with Fig 4.—Wilson at entrance to bay. Low tide. intertidal undercut. Note deep intertidal undercut outer part terraced. Small six feet. aeolianite rock. Pole height cross bedding in Photograph, E. P. Hodgkin Photograph, E. P. Hodgkin 79 Fig. C. Central part of Ilottncst Inland. loosing west. April. 1954. Shows vegetation before the 1955 fire. Arrow points to Biological Station, Photograph, A. R. Main Ser entl e a1 Part of main Serpentine lakes. Note P . seepage area (top and right'nz "ofuoceTlIke^OaftnTn01 upper lake ri ° » Gahma clumpsrwfn, adjacent? to ^ these, Melaleuca copse in foreground, Acacia top left Tuart plantation top right. Photograph, A. R. Main 82 ) , ) ) ) . ) , ) /, ) > , , . ) , . 16. —The Birds of Rottnest Island For its size (4,726 acres) Rottnest has a dis- flab elliformis is a common visitor in winter and proportionately varied and abundant avifauna, spring to the groves of teatree ( Melaleuca pubes- the reason for which is not hard to find. The cens) on the eastern end of the island; whereas outstanding feature of the Island is its multi- around Perth its status seems to be merely that plicity of habitats: steppe, dune scrub, tall cf a passage migrant. The wooded margins of scrub, samphire, salt-lakes, brackish swamps, swamps and lakes are the principal habitat of fresh-water soaks, sandy beaches, rocky coasts the Sacred Kingfisher ( Halcyon sancta) Large and offshore islets and stacks. In addition there teatrees are the favourite roosting sites of are the man-made habitats of tuart plantations pheasants and ravens, the latter commonly and grassy clearings. nesting in them. The widespread planting of Systematic accounts of the birds of Rottnest tuarts < Eucalyptus gomphocephala) has provided a niche for the < have been written by F. Lawson l Whitlock 1 Western Warbler Gerygone <1905), Glauert (1929), and Serventy (1938). fusca), which has recently become established In the present paper the birds will be discussed on the eastern end of Rottnest. under headings of major habitats. Lakes and Swamps Open Country It is on or around the salt-lakes that one finds Steppe (dominated by Acanthocarpus and the greatest concentration of birds. Throughout tussock grass) is now the widest-spread plant the year certain of the lakes (especially Govern- formation on the island. Its chief bird in- ment House and Serpentine) support enormous habitants < are the Pipit Anthus novaezee- numbers of brine shrimps ( Artemia salina), laildiae) White-fronted Chat ( Epthianura albi- which in turn provide abundant food for breed- frons), Raven (Corvus coronoides) Kestrel ing Silver Gulls (Larus novaehollandiae) and and Whimbrel ..(Numenius phaeopus prefer Shag (Phalacrcccrax varius), and Wedge-tailed shores. rocky At low tide, Reef Herons Shearwater ( Puffinus pacificus) though the (Demigretta sacra) may be seen on the fringing largest breeding colony of the last-named is on reefs. the main island at Cape Vlaming. Non-breed- Several marine species nest on offshore stacks ing but regular visitors to the seas off Rottnest islets, viz: ( and Osprey Pandion haliaeetus >. include the Gannet ( Sula serrator) and Arctic Silver Gull ( Larus novaehollandiae) , Crested Skua (Ster corarias parasiticus). Tern (Sterna bergii) Bridled Tern (S. anae- theta), Caspian Tern ( Hydroprogne caspia ), Pied D. L. SERVENTY and G. M. STORR. 17.—The Salt Lakes of Rottnest Island The salt lakes cover some 500 acres at the as brackish. The western part of Government eastern end of the Island and separate the House Lake becomes cut off and may also dry settlement area from the main part of the Island. out; until recently the salt from this was At their highest level in August the four main harvested commercially. lakes and Garden Lake are continuous. However There is no macroscopic life water lies over the bar between Bagdad and plant in the salt Herschell Lakes only very briefly, and in summer lakes apart from an algal film on the rocks not only does a bar separate Serpentine from and the spheres of Botryoccccus macropogon Government House Lake, but other smaller (Xanthophyceae) that are washed up on the portions of the lakes are cut off. Water passes shores, Lamproth amnion macropogon (Charales) freely through the built up causeway between grows in the brackish lakes. Herschell and Government House Lakes. The fauna of the lakes is very restricted in The seasonal change in water level is marked. number of species. Artemia salina is the prin- The highest winter level (August) is 2.8 ft above cipal planktonic animal. It is present in the zero on the Fremantle tidal (fixed at datum three large lakes and Garden Lake but is par- lowest low water). By March the level of Lake ticularly abundant in Government House Lake Bagdad has fallen to -f0.5 ft (’57, ’58, *59), where the water on the leeward side is often Herschell and Government House Lakes to — 0.5 coloured pink by the animals. Chironomid ft and the Serpentine Lake main to -f-1.0 ft larvae (Tany tarsus sp.) and the larvae and (’59). Monthly mean level sea varies from pupae of an ephydrid fly are abundant in the 2.8 ft in winter (June* to 2.1 ft in summer algal film cn the rocks round the lake margins (October to January); the lakes are thus below and at times free in the water. Hydrophillid sea level for most of the year. and dytiscid larvae and adults and the larvae The lakes have wide, gently sloping littoral of a trichopteran Symphitcneuria wheeleri occur fringes and are of no great depth so that the seasonally. Isopods are common under loose seasonal evaporation results in considerable con- stenes. centration of the salts. Chlorinity figures for the 1958-59 season are thus shown below: The brackish water gastropod CoxieUa striatula is abundant in lakes Negri and Sirius: Macpherson (1957) records the type locality of Chlorinity. partsi per thousand Approx. this species as ‘'Lake Ursula,” a name used by Lake Depth Mr. Glauert for the seasonal pool in Rifle Range 1 4/9/58 26/11/58 9/2/59 22/3/i swamp. The crab Brachynotus octcdentatus occurs in brackish seepage at north Bagdad Lake; ft. this species is common in brackish waters along Bagdad .... s 43 51 67 63 the south coast of Western Australia. Chirono- Herschell .... 16 55 60 73 76 Garden 32 38 60 67 mid larvae, amphipods and ostracods are Govt. House 20 (55 70 84 83 common in the seepages. Pink 27 46 158 183 There are extensive shell deposits round the lake margins, both consolidated in the littoral There is considerable seepage into the lakes shelves and as unconsolidated material at up and this shows as a film of water between high to 12 ft above lake level. They are composed and low lake levels. The principal areas of largely of lamellibranchs; Katelysia scalarina seepage are shown on the map. Most are fresh, and Venerupis sp. appear to be the most abund- ( with chlorinities between 0.5 and 3.0 '/oo, some ant, and Hormcmya sp. nov. is also plentiful. are brackish and one, on the north shore of Lake Several species of gastropod are common, in- Bagdad at its nearest point to the sea, approxi- cluding Notoacmea onychitis and three species mates the chlorinity of sea water <19.0 %o). of the small Diala; Eubittium laioleyanum is The three small western lakes are shallow and abundant in the upper part of some deposits Negri and Sirius dry out each summer; from the and this appears to have been mistaken for biological point of view they are best regarded Coxiella by Teichert (1950). 84 In many places there are undercut cliffs near in the shelter of Cockburn Sound). Of the the lake edges similar to the intertidal undercuts others, many. e.g. Katelysia spp., are common of the ocean coasts, and at the same level; they along the south coast of W.A. and a few are are illustrated by Teichert ( 1950 > . The exist- known only from the north west (Shark Bay). ence of these makes it certain that the lakes Most live in sand or silt but both Notcacmea and were connected to the sea at a time when sea Hcrmomya live on rocky shores. The fauna is level was little different from the present. Most that of a marine gulf under stable conditions of of the common species of the shell deposits still temperature and salinity (G. Kendrick, in lit.). live in coastal waters near Fremantle (principally E. P. HODGKIN. 18.—Fresh Water and Brackish Water Swamps of Rottnest Island These swamps lie in the eastern half of the Collections were made from all the freshwaters Island and, in comparison with the salt lakes, in October, 1958. Unfortunately, identification have a very limited area. Most of the larger of the material is still incomplete, but Table 1 swamps (Lighthouse, Salmon. Barkers, Bulldozer. shows the distribution of animal groups. It is Bickley, Rifle Range and Parrakeet > are situated evident that not only is the total fauna a in interdune depressions. Aerodrome Swamp restricted one, but that it differs from one swamp was however, originally part of Government to another. It is clear also that animals main- House Lake; it was isolated during the con- taining populations in the temporary swamps struction of the aerodrome in 1943 and is now must show certain adaptive characters in relation much less saline. Corio Pool and the two small to the factors mentioned above, (a) They must Garden Pools lie adjacent to salt lakes and, either aestivate as a drought resistant stage or like the seepages round the lakes, appear to be recolonise the ponds annually from the main- fed by a seasonally variable seepage. In addition land. All the Crustacea belong to groups known to these waters, there are some wells which act to have aestivating eggs, with the exception of as breeding sites for mosquitoes. the amphipod, which is the littoral rockpool Two important factors affect the biology of talitrid. Hyale rubra (kindly identified by Dr. > the swamps. K. Sheard . In contrast, larval dragonflies (a) Water is generally present only during ' Anisoptera) cannot withstand drying and the winter; the ponds fill near the time of the annual recolonisation occurs; successful breeding first heavy winter rains in May or June and the depends on rapid growth, but in years when the last free water evaporates with the higher ponds are short lived, breeding is frequently temperatures of late October and November. unsuccessful (Hodgkin and Watson 1958). f'b) Pools in Bickley Swamp and Aerodrome Swamp They must be able to withstand some degree of may retain water through summer and even in salinity; the capacity for osmoregulation being the shorter lived swamps the soil remains moister important in the range of swamps inhabited. than in the surrounding dunes. Investigations of the fauna of the Rottnest (b) The water of some swamps is brackish swamps must give valuable information relative and shows marked seasonal changes in salinity. to adaptation to seasonal aridity and to salinity Apart from research on frogs and some and may also throw light on divergence from preliminary studies on dragonflies, no study has the mainland swamp fauna. been made of the faunal succession of the D. H. EDWARD and J. A. L. WATSON. Rottnest swamps. The frogs have been studied by members of the Zoology Department as part Reference of investigations of the Western Australian Hodgkin, E. P., and Watson. J. A. L. (1958).—Breeding amphibian fauna, and the results will be of dragonflies in temporary waters. Nature published elsewhere in the near future. Loud. 181: 1015-1016. 19. —The Littoral Environment of Rottnest Island Fauna and flora of the rocky shores of the Tidal range is small, maximum daily range Island have been studied over many years and is about 3 ft and extreme range about 5 ft, sea are now fairly well known. Sandy bays and level being influenced by air pressure, water beaches, and the abundant life of the sublittoral temperature, and prevailing winds (Hodgkin and rocks have, however, received little attention. Di Lollo 1958). Sea temperature varies remark- Zonation of the animal and plant life of the ably little; it rarely exceeds 23° C or is less intertidal limestone platforms, in relation to tide than 18° C. The water is generally very clear levels and exposure to wave action, has been the and estuarine water from the Swan River rarely particular interest of the writers. Surveys have leaches the east end of the Island, even during been made over a number of years; the results heavy winter rains. have been presented as theses (Marsh 1955, and Sandy bays and rocky headlands with inter- Smith 1952) and are in preparation for tidal platforms alternate around the 20 miles of publication. coastline and narrow limestone bars, barely 85 ? : . TABLE I C0 1 -u> (C o Y x 5 = 55 - LOCALITY X — ^ jH ! S < S’. ? S X £ X c* H 71 •J1 — x: > > i"; • / •< — < ^ <3 ' 8 r- X PH i H < 25 15 1-2 80 1 -4 1 1-5 2 0 1 0 0-4 A PPRON 1.MATE AREA Scj. Sp. Acre Sq- 4 -6 Acre Acre s ". Acre Acre Acre Acre d yd. v yd. ' yd. f ' CH 0-6 1-2 1 -7 -8 LORINITY °/oo 18. X. 1958 1 2-4 2-6 3 1 4-4 4-8 7 0 Dry 19°/ 1 (SEA-YVATER 00 ) 26. XI. 1958 0-8 2-4 Drv 50 8-8 Drv 8-4 Drv 14-2 Dry 9. II. 1959 Dry Dry Dry Dry 4-2 Dry 68-5 Dry Dry Dry ’* " * * sc * s= Sc Sc Chara sp. 1 Sc St ” “ 6 Chara sp. 2 1 =i< S ('/imoi/eton prorerum (R. Hr.) * A U A 1'IC Eluded ••anademrs Michx. * Q 1 * if St Y E 0 E T A T 1 0 X ('russula nutans Thuuh. () Hupp in mar Hi mu L. s*e if if — St s= 0 Lepiluenn preissU (Lclim.) St S' * * * Sc ANNELIDA : OLIGOCHAETA sp. * <: HYDRA! ‘ARINA : // t/drachna sp. Ei/lais sp. St Diplodontus sp. * — sp. 4 * * St CLADOCERA : Simoeephalus sp. * Moina sp. * • * St 1 Pseudomoina sp. * St St St * St OSTRACODA : Ci/pris sp. Sc * * St St St s< St sp. 2 S< sp- * St St St sp. 4 # sp. 5 St St sp. 6 * * * St St St COPEPODA : sp. S' * ISOPODA : sp. 1 sp. 2 S' * * St St St 5 AM P1I IPO DA : 11pale rubra * ODONATA Anar papuemis V () s< 0 Aexhna brerixti/la S= * I A UNA Ileinieorduliu tan * () () Orthetrnm Caledonian in o A ustrnle.st.es nnnnloHHs 0 St St * * 1 1 EM 1 PTE R A : V ELI 1 DAE. G E LASTOPOR IDA E. * * * * St St St NOTON ECTTDAE. sp. 1 1 1 sp. 2 * * * St * CORIXIDAE. sp. 1 sp. 2 St * St St COLEOPTERA : DYTISCI DAE. (adults), sp. 1 Si * Laneetes sp. * St * St sp. 3 1 sp. 4 * * St — * * * St sp. 5 * * Sc * Ithuntus sp. St St St * * St St S' S' DYTISCI DAE. (larvae), sp. 1 * St sp. 2 St * sp. 8 . HYDROPH1LIDAE (adult) sp. St s< St S' * * * HYDROPH 1 LI DA E (larvae) sp. l sp. 2 * St * H AL1 PL 1 DAE. (adult) sp. St St if * II A LI PL I DAK. (larva) sp. St St • 1)1 PTE R A : CHI RON'O.M 1 DAE. sp. ! if * St sp. 2 Sc Proclarhus sp. * 1 * St Ch. irommm oppositus St * Cl LK'IDAE. Aeries australis * A ales cn in ptorhpnr/i us Si .1 dies sp. SC * St A noph el e.s annulipes () 1 * * * St St St St STRATIOMY1DAE sp. St S' St GASTROPODA : CoricUa xtrialula s s s s S * — (8 = shells only) AMPHIBIA : Cr i n ia insignifern 0 () 0 Heleioporns ei/rei () O 0 o 0 () () 0 0 0 0 Hpla moorei () _ Copeland O o o = Collected 18. x. 1958. O = Collected prior to 18. x. 1958. 86 , : ) submerged, join headland to headland partially Both algal communities form the principal food enclosing many of the bays. The littoral of the browsing molluscs and are also browsed environment is made even more varied by the by the shore crab Leptograpsus variegatus. different of the coast; swell is mainly aspects Where the intertidal platform is narrow the storms the NW.; from the SW., with winter from vertical zonation continues with no break to is almost continuously wave Cape Vlaming below L.W.. and the Patelloida zone is succeeded is sheltered and beaten, whereas Thompson Bay immediately by the lithethamnion zone, described the sea often calm. below, which extends to mean low water level. the water is generally not more In the bays M.L.W. is often marked by an abrupt line, the exten- than 20 ft deep and the sandy floor bears upper limit of large algae, Ecklonia radiate and principally Posidonia sive stands of sea grasses; Sargassuni spp. marking the sublittoral fringe. australis and Cymodoceci antarctica. The sea platforms is grasses are heavily epiphytised by small algae On wide the vertical zonation interrupted and there is a horizontal zonation such as Polycera zostericola, Asperococcus across the width of the reef. bullosus, Eryopsis plumosa and the corallines Because the platforms lie at various heights in the intertidal Melobesia sp.. Jania micrarthrodia, and Coralline range, or not retain water, have cuvieri. No systematic study has been made of may may and different to action, there the fauna; the foraminiferan Marginopora lives exposures wave is much variation in the development of the zones on the on the sea grass and is washed up in great numbers on some beaches, the sand anemone platforms. The following four principal zones Radianthus concmata, tectibranchs, and holo- can be recognised: thurians may be common. The calcareous sand Patelloida zone.—Considerable areas of plat- varies from a fine white sand (e.g. west end of form are grazed bare by P. alticostata; Salmon Bay) to a coarse-grained material in nothing else lives in such places except which the nature of the shell particles is readily tufts of small algae on the limpets them- recognised under a hand lens te.g. Cape selves, This is found particularly on slightly higher of platforms Vlaming). The burrowing ghost crab Ocypode , parts from which water drains at the gastopod Oliva australis , and the sipunculids L.W. cccur sporadically, and terebellids and other Jania zone.—The coralline alga, Jania burrowing polychaetes are common on beaches fastigiata forms extensive -like , turf relatively rich in organic matter. Again this masses which retain sand and form a beach fauna has not been specifically studied. matrix in which large stands of Caiderpa cylindracea , Controceras clavulatum, Intertidal Platforms and Lauren cia heteroclada often occur. The rocky shores have the characteristic Small crustaceans, polychaetes and other conformation of all limestone coasts of south worms abound in this turf. There are western Australia of the type described by usually few larger animals though the Fairbridge (1950): flat, intertidal platforms gastropods of the brown algal zone are which vary in width from a few feet up to a sometimes common. This community hundred yards and in level from just below often covers wide areas of platform < e.g. mean L.W. to almost M.S.L., above this an west of North Point), particularly where undercut hard rock face with an overhanging shallow water lies on the inner parts at “visor” 6 to 8 feet above the platform; the low tide. platform terminates abruptly to seaward and is Zone of brown algae.—Bushy brown and red generally undercut beneath, often deeply. In algae often cover parts of the platform places the intertidal undercut is replaced by a over which water normally washes, even sloping “ramp”, sometimes kept free of littoral at low tide. The dominant species are organisms by moving sand. the fucoids, Sargassuni spp., Cystophora Zonation of fauna and flora is similar to that uvifera and Cystoseira abrotanifolia, of mainland coasts. A littoral zone above H.W. and the red algae, Pterocladia capillacea is dominated by Melaraphe unifasciata and and Hypnea niusciformis. The fucoids Tectarius rugosus below this two limpets, are often stunted and sterile for most Notoacmaea onychitis of the year. This algal community pro- and Siphonaria luzonica , are dominant down to about M.S.L.; succeeded vides a suitable habitat for browsing- by the limpet Patelloida alticostata in the lowest gastropods of which the commonest are part of the undercut and on to the platform. Euplica bidentata. Pyrene spp. and The secondary organisms of the Patelloida zone, Senectus intercostalis. two species of Patellanax Melanerita, three , Lithothamnion zone.—The term "litho- chitons, an anenome ( Actinia and a barnacle thamnion” is used for the encrusting (Tetraclitaf vary in occurrence with shade and coralline algae which form a thin or exposure to wave action. thick cover to the rock. It is particu- The rock immediately above platform level larly well developed where waves break often bears sparse communities of macroscopic on the outer parts of the platform. With algae during the winter; Enteroviorpha sp., Ulna it, and sometimes entirely replacing it lactuca, Chaetomorpha aerea , Cladophora spp. are the following browsing molluscs: and Porphyra umbilicalis are the chief com- Onithochiton occidentalis, Clavarizona ponents. Within the rock surface a permanent hirtosa, Haliotis roei, Patelloida alti- community of filamentous blue-green algae costata, Patellanax laticostata; of more extends from platform level to well above the variable occurrence are the barnacle littorinid zone. The more encrusting blue-green, Balanus nigrescens and the anemone Calothrix sp. is also widespread in this zone. Isanemonia australis . 87 In exposed places this zone may be Sargassum spp. are abundant, also the red alga 10 or more yards wide while in more Metamastophora flabellata. On well illuminated sheltered places it may be only a narrow rocky substrata towards the sublittoral fringe fringe a foot wide bordering the edge there is an abundance of Siphoneae, Dictyotales, of the platform. and Ceramiales. Interesting differences are shown in In the undercut much of the rock surface is the development of this “outer edge” again covered by encrusting coralline algae, but fauna. A high ridge at Cape Vlaming leafy algae are sparse and confined to a few constantly swept by heavy waves has Rhodophyceae in the more shaded parts. an exceptionally dense population of Beneath the overhanging rock and further back Onithochiton, P. laticostata and Balanus in the undercut the dominant organisms are a with small numbers of Clavarizona and great variety of sedentary animals. These Patelloida. High platforms at the outer include many sponges (16 species being noticed edge of the main platform in less wave- in a collection sent to Dr. M. Burton at the exposed places have the same species, British Museum); hydroids, zoanthids, alcyon- but dominated by Patelloida. On a low arians, corals, and sometimes a rich growth of level platform in the much more the many coloured gorgonian Mopsella spp.; sheltered waters at the west end of Bryozoa; and simple and compound ascidians Salmon Bay Haliotis is abundant and (Kott 1952 and 1957*. Actively moving animals Clavarizona largely replaces Onitho- are not abundant: those noted include nudi- chiton; Patelloida Patellanax and , branch gastropods, ophiuroids and a great Isanemonia are also common. variety of worms, under the lithothamnion, sponges and ascidians. Heliocidaris is present Zoogeography in the sublittoral of Thompson Bay, but the "tropical” echinoids of the west end have not The littoral fauna of the mainland coast from been seen in the sublittoral. the mouth of the Murchison River southwards is predominantly Flindersian in its distribution. The Crayfish The littoral fauna of Rottnest however includes Panulirus a considerable number of species which arc longipes is the commercial crayfish of A.: in the 13-2- Dampierian or found throughout the tropical W year 1958 million lb. of Indo-Pacific region. They are particularly crayfish were taken. This yielded nearly 5 million lb. abundant on the platforms at the west end. A weight of crayfish tails worth £A2£ few of these, especially the gastropods, occur million for export to the U.S.A. Commercial further south between Cape Naturaliste and crayfish ermen operate from boats in water up Cape Leeuwin, but most are rare or absent south to 100 meters in depth, but the species is common of Rottnest. These "tropical” species include: also on rocky shores around Rottnest and front- ing the mainland from Dirk Hartog to Mandurah. Three species of Echinoidea i Echinometra During the mathaei is particularly abundant*, six species of night the crayfish emerge on to the Zoantliidea, an actiniarian. one coral, Pocillo- intertidal platforms and graze on any plant or pora damicornis, and seven species of Gastropoda. animal material that projects above the general In addition to these we have found ten species level of the rock. They return before daybreak of hermatypic coral in the sublittoral: they are to the sublittoral or to large pools in the most abundant on the south coast where they platform and hide in crevices in the rocks, occur as scattered colonies. Pocillopora alone particularly in the undercut. Investigations by forms a "reef”, near Parker Point, but this grows George (1959) into the breeding and moulting cycles feeding on the limestone and there is no true reef and habits were made partly on building. Associated with the Pocillopora are Rottnest, and these add greatly to basic biological crabs and gastropods not found elsewhere: knowledge of the crayfish. hermit crabs are also abundant. In Rottnest waters the mature females moult in June-July and mate a few weeks later, eggs are discharged on to the pleopods in November- Sublittoral December and fertilized (the spermatophore is The intertidal platforms are deeply undercut ruptured by scratching), eggs are released below low water These “sublittoral undercuts”, in January-February and larvae hatch as pieces detached from the edge of the platforms, naupliosoma, after which the female moults and the "bars” across bays are the principal again. Tagging has shown that females breed rock surfaces accessible from the shore. The annually. Small immature “white crayfish” algal flora is a rich one and is reasonably well have been tagged; when recaptured in the known systematically, mainly from the collec- following season most were still whites, but tions made by Preiss and Harvey in the vicinity some had normal red pigmentation proving that of Rottnest in colonial times. The fauna has the white crayfish is only a developmental phase as yet received little systematic study. Distribu- of P. longipes—contrary to the belief of many tion of fauna and flora in the sublittoral rocks fishermen (George 1958). Recaptures showed is known only from preliminary surveys with a mean increase in carapace length of 0.3 in. or face masks and self-contained diving apparatus. 12.5 per cent in those size groups. The better illuminated surfaces are generally covered by large algae over a lithothamnion E. P. HODGKIN. L. MARSH and G. G. SMITH. encrustation, though flat surfaces sometimes carry a thick cover of Jania and other coralline Reference algae. The brown algae Fairbridge, R. W. (1950).—The geology and geomor- Ecklonia radiata, phology Scytothalia dorycarpa, of Point Peron, Western Australia. Scaberia agardhii and J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 34: 35-72. 88 — 20.—Population Studies in the Littoral at Rottnest Island Preliminary studies have been carried out on ally in the water. Secondly, by subdividing the a common crustacean and a common mollusc traverse it has been possible to determine of the rocky shores. whether the one phase tends to inhabit a certain Leptograpsus variegatus , —This species of rock locality. This has proved the case; certain areas crab is ubiquitous throughout the rocky shores have a stable population of one phase rather of the temperate southern hemisphere. On Rott- than the other and this stability is maintained nest the females are carrying eggs externally throughout the season. One study traverse from September through the spring and early Wilson Bay—has been intensively worked over summer until the end of February. Moulting, a period of two years and the above results are as gauged by the feel of soft carapaces when mainly from this place. However about 6 other handling the animals, occurs at all seasons but standard study traverses have been worked and seems to increase in frequency just before and the analysis from all these places supported just after the season when the females are carry- that from Wilson Bay. It appears that the ing eggs. The animals are omnivorous scaven- orange/ slate phase prefers the wetter part of gers. They have been noted eating dead fish its habitat. It inhabits the lower part of the and limpets detached from the rocks, but they reef predominating where the undercut faces appear to live mainly on the marine algae which open or broken water, i.e., those sections of they pick from the rock with their pincers. the traverse having a preponderance of orange The natural habitat of these crabs is on rocky phase animals are generally those where the surf -exposed shores and rocks just above the surf breaking on the rock is more intense. water line. During the day they retire into rock Here then we have a polymorphic species in crevices or hide in rock debris. However they which the morphs have separate ecological pre- are known to move about in the shadow during ferences. These preferences are not absolute the day but are extremely wary and retreat to ones but are only revealed and statistically cover in a flash if approached by an observer. established after a large number of observations. At night the behaviour pattern is entirely Perhaps this species is in the process of split- changed. When approached by an observer with ting into two species in an early stage of Dar- a flashlight the crabs in most instances remain winian evolution. motionless or continue eating. Their capture Melanerita melanotragus.—The black peri- and examination is extremely easy under these winkle Melanerita melanotragus abounds on the conditions. limestone surf rocks about mean sea level over As the specific name indicates, Leptograpsus the whole of Rottnest. It has attracted interest is noted for the individual colour variation which as an experimental animal for population ranges from a very dark blue to orange and a studies because of several of its attributes. The light slate colour. By arranging some 200 of variation in size of individuals of the various these crabs in a colour sequence it was obvious colonies throughout the island is great. In that this great variation in colour was not con- areas where there is a low density the animals tinuous but discrete. There were in fact only tend to grow to a large size and where the con- two distinct colour groups the one a blue phase centration is high they are of a relatively small and the other an orange grading into slate. average size. Moreover these average sizes and The latter phase contained a preponderance of the population size compositions have not orange coloured males and, contrariwise, a pre- changed over a period of 5 years. Four experi- ponderance of slate coloured females. mental populations have been divided into 5 The study method used is to walk along the size classes over this period by seiving through reef platform at night with a flashlight in standard mesh screen; all populations appear several selected study areas and by this linear to be maintaining their size composition. Fur- traverse method score some 150-200 crabs for ther wT ork is devoted to determining whether colour phase, sex, place in the undercut this stability is environmental or genetic, or (whether in the splash zone, water, or on the whether the fortuitous initial density of animals dry rock face). The linear sequence of such is the controlling factor. observations is preserved. The study areas have Some five years of marking of individual in most instances been marked with paint divi- animals indicates that the extreme age of the sion lines—generally the whole traverse is animals can probably exceed 15 years. In addi- divided into 10 subdivisions. tion this work has shown that although in Analysis to date of these traverse scorings general the animals are restricted in their move- has revealed several interesting facts. Firstly ments they can move up to 16 feet over the rock the colour phases seem to have differing afifiini- face in one night. ties for the rock positions where they feed. Blue The studies are proceeding mainly with the phase crabs show a propensity to locate them- aid of student labour; further work is to be selves higher up on the rock face whilst the devoted towards establishing life tables for the orange and slate colours have a tendency to be several study populations. found lower down on the wet rock face or actu- J. W. SHIELD. 89 21.—Student Training at the Rottnest Biological Station At the present time the Station is used only object of determining adult life by the Zoology Department span, for regular student adult recruitment rates, and training population although staff and students of other total numbers. University departments use it from time to time. 2- —The black periwinkle, Melanerita Training is at three levels: postgraduate, during 3. melanotragus, on intertidal rocks. This the third year of the degree course, and at the has proved ideal for beginning of the second year. student exercises in estimation of population size be- Postgraduate cause estimates made by the mark and return method can be immediately Participation in research projects discussed in 4. checked by a total physical count. other parts of this report has formed a large part of the training of Honours. M.Sc. and Ph.D. —The whelk, Dicathais aegrota, on inter- Candidates. The Station has been the base for tidal rock platforms. Samples attracted their field operations with the island fauna their to baited traps are marked, returned, main research material. No separate account of and recaptured. “Latin square” evalua- this aspect of student training is required here. tion of captures makes it possible to study 5. food preferences and distribution Population Ecology on the platforms. At the end of their third year course students —The rock crab, Leptograpsus variegatus, spend a week at the Station making a practical is caught by hand at night on intertidal study of the dynamics of animal populations. rocks for estimation of total population This is regarded as an integral part of the and habitat preference of the three Zoology course and a short written examination colour phases. The size of the popula- has been included during the last two years. tion is determined by the method of The fact that staff and students live and work removal of one sex and a subsequent together the whole time effectively counteracts count to reveal a change in sex ratio any tendency to take the course light-heartedly from which a population size estimate after the major examination tension has ended. is made. There are opportunities both for fun and re- —The quokka; estimation of population laxation and for stimulating discussion as a size by ear tagging and return, and a result of common interest in the problems measure of relative abundance by visual studied. For staff this is often also an oppor- counts on a regular circuit. tunity to evaluate the results of the years teach- ing. sometimes with outspoken criticism from Second-year Camp students, and to plan future teaching and research programmes. This is held over four days immediately before the start of first term The ordinary laboratory course necessarily and all students entering the second year course in Zoology are required presents the student with the animals he is to attend. The camp has two main aims: first studying as individuals. Whether it be in the to enable staff and students study of systematics, comparative anatomy, or to get to know one another in the friendly atmosphere physiology, the animal is usually treated as a of a camp, and second to introduce students to living unit, representative perhaps of a family, class, rep- resentatives of the various phyla. or phylum, but rarely as one of a population of similar individuals. In this field course emphasis The marine environment is the richest source is laid throughout on a study of quantitative of material and receives most attention, but attributes of populations of animals: reproduc- collections are also made in the salt lakes to tive rates, mortality rates, immigration and emi- shew the restricted fauna of a specialised en- gration rates, age structure, and total numbers vironment, and students assist in aspects of the in the populations. quokka research programme. Animals collected The methods used are those which have yielded are brought, back to the laboratory and are research results in population studies. The same identified as far as possible with standard texts, species of animal, and in many cases the same by means of simple keys, and sometimes by populations, have been studied in successive reference to original literature. In most cases no years and the results obtained form part of attempt is made to run them down to species, the research programmes discussed elsewhere in this emphasis being rather on learning to report. recognise the broad systematic position of the animals The statistical knowledge necessary to the and to know hoiv to identify them. working ” of the various estimates is acquired The second year course has an ecological through a series of lectures in biological statisti- background, but animals handled in the systema- cal methods given during the third-year course. tics course are of necessity often preserved. The The principal animals studied are: emphasis in this introductory camp is on seeing as many kinds of animal as 1- —Jewel beetles, Castiarina hopei, on possible alive in their natural environments. Attention flowers of the “Rottnest daisy.” Random is constantly drawn to the relationship of the samples are captured on discrete daisy animals to their physical environment and to one patches, marked, released, and recap- another. tured over successive days, with the E. P. HODGKIN and J. W. SHIELD. 90 22.—Rottnest Island Board Background of the last prisoners, white and black. (The Boys’ had ceased For many years Rottnest had provided a Reformatory in the present Hostel function in 1901.) secure place of confinement for native prisoners, to but as farming areas developed on the mainland and the country became more settled so the Present Constitution need for such a place grew less urgent. At the The Board today functions under the Parks same time the Island was used as a desirable and Reserves Act, and in status is a statutory place of recreation by the fortunate guests at body free of any departmental authority. With the Government House shooting parties but no its freedom of function however, it remains free members of the public were allowed to land of subsidy so that its very limited resources without permit. A flush of money at the time come from rents, leases and landing fees. One of the gold rush in the eighteen-nineties en- exception is the recent establishment of water abled the building of several ministerial cottages catchment area and storage of approximately along the Thompson Bay front. one and a half million gallons—a project quite First mention of the possibility of a wider beyond the resources of the Board and met by recreational use seems to have come from the the government of the day. Speaker of the Legislative Assembly after his The Board is presided over by a Minister of first taste of island hospitality. In 1905 he urged the Crown (in 1958, Mr. Kelly—Minister for the development of the Island as a tourist Lands and Agriculture) and its personnel con- resort. Immediate steps were taken to survey sists largely of experts in the field of building the position, and a most extravagant plan of and architecture, engineering, roadmaking and works emerged. Only strong outside pressure law. prevented the subdivision and sale of 300 blocks The duties of the Board embrace: of land on the Island to provide finance for (a) The extension of residential facilities. this. (b> The maintenance of existing buildings. Vice-regal support for a wider use was positive (c) The maintenance and extension of as will be seen from the following extract from services—water, sewerage, lighting and a minute dated March 1907, from the office of power. His Excellency Admiral Sir Frederick Bedford: (d) Administrative. (1) The Island should be declared a Public (e> Beautification of island, particularly in Park and recreation ground for ever. It the restoration of trees. is very desirable to avoid the idea (f> Development of recreational services, getting about that the Island is being (g) Protection of the Island’s natural re- exploited for the benefit of the few sources. men, who at this time could afford to The Island administration is in the hands of buy or rent plots to build. the Managing Secretary, who is resident there. (2) That the natural beauty of the Island shall not be disturbed more than is Biological Aspects absolutely necessary. On the one hand the Island presents a (3) Better communication with mainland. wonderful potential for natural life, with its (4) That it should be made more attractive sheltered valleys, its many protected bays, its by planting trees and making roads. very large expanse of wide shore reefs and its delightful system of salt lakes. Unhappily on Further opposition killed any idea of sub- the other hand it is a typical example of the division, and the government began some small flair for destruction of natural resources. building development in the area of the present human Decades cf bushfire destruction much of it de- barracks. A change of government swung the — liberate to disclose game have reduced half location of settlement in the opposite direction — the Island to bare heath. Present day control towards Bathurst, but before much could be in this respect has been offset by protection done the impact of World War I held up all the indigenous quokka, which has now in- progress while during a long term stay of of creased very greatly in population to the extent prisoners -of -war much was destroyed of what that natural regeneration of unprotected vege- little building had been attempted. tation is practically impossible. On 12/5/17 the Island was gazetted a Class A The protection of the crayfish from illegal Reserve under “The Permanent Reserves Act, fishing is a major problem with such a long 1399,“ and a Board appointed under the Chair- shore line and with settlement so firmly estab- manship of the Colonial Secretary (Mr. H. lished at one end. At the moment the spear Colebatch). As it received no subsidy, the Board fishermen are suspect of large scale disturbance immediately found itself in financial difficulty. if not depletion of marine life in the pools and To this day the Board functions under the same reef areas. The birds appear to be comparatively condition and under the same anxiety. In order free from disturbance and the eye of the visitor to arrive at some measure of assistance, the is delighted with the sight of the many aquatic experiment was tried of establishing a new birds about the lakes. An occasional peacock prison camp in the valley between Lakes and the small population of pheasants are des- Herschell and Bagdad, for good conduct cendants of those introduced in the year 1912. prisoners. This however proved unsuccessful There is also a well established population of and after three years, 1922 saw the departure small land birds. 91 ;; Re-afforestation of development (now under way) consists of Over the last three decades the Board has the effort to replace valley groves and to line been actively engaged in an attempt to restore the main tourist roads with ouick growing trees. some of the lost vegetation. The main indigenous Line planting along the north road across the trees of the Island include; Callistris robusta lakes has reached the sealed road and is expected (Rottnest Pino; Melaleuca pubescens (Rottnest to reach the central light-house next season. In Tea Tree) ; Acacia rostelli/era ( Rottnest Wattle) order to re-establish valley groves it is Pittosporum phillyraeozdes (Native Pittosporum) necessary to enclose areas for protection of Templetonia retusa (a shrub). young trees against the auokka, and in this pro- As early as 1886, a grant of £50 for the estab- ject there are to date six large fenced areas and lishment of a pine plantation allowed the a number of small areas all planted with trees. experimental planting of 500 trees of several The first two have reached the stage when next types in the Bathurst area. Reports in 1889 season the fences will be removed to fence two indicated an almost complete failure due no fresh areas. Happily, sales of quokkas to over- doubt to the combined influences of soil seas zocs have gone a long way towards financing deficiencies, wind, drought and the attacks of these ventures. In general the policy is to try animals. and preserve the balance between native and There was no revival of effort till 1907 when exotic, for which reason emphasis in 1958 was 200 trees were planted at Mt. Herschell and 600 given to Tea Tree and special attention in 1959 near Bickley Swamp. Before the onset of will be devoted to Rottnest Pine. summer practically all with the exception of a As an example of the scale of planting being few aloes were lost. Later still more care and attempted, this season’s planting (1958) is a watering developed the magnificent avenue of record planting cf 1250 trees, mostly line and Moreton and Sydney figs and olives through the plantation. Experimental planting has included, settlement and the large pines to be found in Native Pittosporum (indigenous), E. lehmanii, the older parts of the settlement. E. calaphylla. and palms, unnamed, from U.S.A. It rested with the late Dr. W. Somerville to With the help of public donations following dis- bring to bear the conviction and energy neces- astrous fires a few years ago, the nursery sary has to force successful results. been enlarged and reorganised. Leading from A disappointing start in 1929 stressed the need the nursery an avenue of young trees show for a local nursery. From 1932 onwards the examples cf the types now being used. story is one of continual progress. After experi- menting with native trees from the mainland, Scientific Use of the Island the outstanding result was the discovery of the It is appropriate arid very desirable that the hardihood and quick growing qualities of the unique features of the Island Tuart (Eucalyptus should be available gomphocephala) . Somerville’s to scientific study and experiment. In 1930 the book “Rottnest Island” from which much of this then State Apiculturist (Mr. W. Lance) estab- information was taken, shows photographs of lished an apiary for the breeding trees planted by Italian prisoners-of-war in 1942. of pure Car- niolan Queens, After seven years these trees had reached a and this is now a well established height of 55 feet. Between 1934 and 1944 he was project. responsible for the raising and planting out of In more recent years the Biological Committee, 5,000 tuarts in the plantation near the head of representing Fisheries Department, University Serpentine Lake. At the same time there was Department of Zoology, and K. Sheard have developing to the north of the settlement a large found it possible to establish permanent quarters plantation for use as a camping area. Alto- in the centre of the Island. Apart from what gether during eleven years it was estimated that help the Board can offer in the matter of labour, 41 acres of plantation and 210 chains of line there is little that it can do to help such highly planting had been effected. Planting has con- specialised bodies. There are however fairly tinued at the approximate rate of five to six frequent occasions good hundred trees per year. The present beautifica- when turns can be offered tion of the settlement area stands as a memorial from both directions. At all times in to Somerville, who was also largely responsible both the apicultural and the biological fields, for the original planning of the beautiful Univer- relationships with the Board and Board Manage- sity grounds at Crawley. As an example of the ment have been excellent. From the beginning experimentation that went on. the following still the Eoard was represented at Biological Section exist on the Island, E. gGmphocephala (Tuart), meetings. In the early stages, its Chairman Ficus macrophylla and F . Australis, Araucarea attended to represent the Board and in latter cxcelsa (Norfolk Is. Pine), Agonis flexuosa times his place has been taken by the Board (Peppermint), E. erythrocorys E. , meliodora, E. member most interested in the biological field camaldulensis, E. torquata, Casuarina glauca (Mr. T. Sten). The same relationships exist and C. stricta (Sheoaks), Ceratonia siliqua with the Departments of Agriculture, Forestry (Carob Bean), Olea europea, Melea azedarach and other bodies to whom the Board must turn (Cape Lilac), Pinus halepensis (Aleppo Pine), from time to time for expert advice. is P. pinea, P. canariensis (Canary Island Pine), It not to be expected that the full scientific potential Cupressus sp., Washmgtonia felifera, Pheonix canariensis. has yet been exploited, and it is to be hoped that the Island will be able to make an even Present Activity greater contribution in this direction in the Somerville’s phase of activity resulted in the future. beautification of the settlement. The next stage T. STEN. 92 — — 23.—Bibliography (Publications containing references to Rottnest Island) Compiled by D. L. Serventy and K. Sheard Alexander, W. B. (19141. —The history of zoology in West- (1947).—A Rottnest puzzle. W. Aust. Nat. 1: ern Australia. Part 1.—Discoveries in the 22. Discussion | of L. Freycinet's statement 17th Century. J. W. Aust. Nat. Hist. Soc. 5: (in Peron’s "Voyage de Decouvertes aux 49-64. Refers to visits | the of Volckersen in Terres Australes", 1, 1807 : 188-189) that two 1658 (p. 52) and Vlaming in 1696 (p. 54).] macropod marsupials occurred on Rottnest (1916). History of zoology in Western Aus- — I ; a recording error inferred through con- tralia. Part, 2.— Mus. 9: 107-125. | Species from Thompson Bartholomew, G. A. (1956).—Temperature regulation in the macropod marsupial, Setonix brachyurus. Bay.] (1949). Physiol. Zool. 29: 26-40. —Australian Cumacea. No. 16 The Family Nannastacidac. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9: Eentley, P. J. (1955).—Some aspects of the water meta- bolism of an Australian marsupial Setonyx 225-245. | Species from Thompson Bay.l (1951), brachyurus. J. Physiol. 127: 1-10. —Australian Cumacea. No, 17 The Buttle, J. M., Kirk, R. L., and Waring. H, (1952).—The Family Diastylidae (cont.). Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9: 353-370. effect, of complete adrenalectomy on the |. Species from Thompson wallaby Setonyx brachyurus. J. Endocrin. Bay.] 8: 281-290. Hodgkin, E. P. (1959). -Catastrophic destruction of the Calaby, J. H. (1958).—Studies on marsupial nutrition II. littoral fauna and flora near Fremantle, January 1959. Aust. Nat. 7: 6-11. Mor- The rate of passage of food residues and W. | digestibility of crude fibre and protein by talities due to combination of exceptionally the quokka, Setonix brachyurus (Quoy and low tides and summer heat; Rottnest reefs Gaimard.) Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 11: 571-580. discussed.] Campbell, A. .7, (1890). — A naturalist in Western Aus- Hodgkin, E. P. and Di Lollo, V. (1958).—The tides of tralia—Rottnest Island. Australasian (Mel- south-western Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. bourne). May 10: 936. Aust. 41: 42-54. Carrigy, M. A., and Fairbridge, R. W\ (1954). Recent Jackson, A. (1931).—The Oligochaeta of south-western sedimentation, physiography and structure Australia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 17: 71-136. of the continental shelves of Western Aus- Kilpatrick, A. G. ( 1932 ) .—Birds of Rottnest Island, W.A. tralia. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 38: 65-95. Emu 32: 30-31. Churchill, D. M. (1959).—Late Quaternary eustatic King, P. P. (1826). —"Narrative of a Survey of the Inter- changes in the Swan River District. J. Roy. tropical and Western Coasts of Australia”: Soc. W. Aust. 42: 53-55. London l Description of a visit on January, Clark, J. (1929). —Contributions to the fauna of Rottnest 14, 1822 (summarised by Alexander 1916, Island. No. 3. The ants. J. Roy. Soc. W. p. 123).] Aust. 15: 55-56, Kott, P. (1952).—The Ascidians of Australia I. Clarke, J. R. (1948).—Anatomy of the quokka Setonix Stolidobranchlata Lahille and Phlebo- brachyurus (Quoy and Gaimard) Part I. branchiata Lahille. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. External morphology and large intestine. Res. 3: 205-333. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 33: 59-150. (1957). —The Ascidians of Australia. II, Cotton, B. C. (1929).—Contributions to the fauna of Aplousobranohlata Lahille: Clavelinidae Rottnest Island. No. 4. Western Australian Forbes & Hanlv and Polvclinelac Vcrrill. Seplidae. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 15: 87-94. Aust. J. Mar. Freshw. Res. 8: 64-110. Dunnet, G. M. (1956). —A population study of the Lawson, F. (1905).—A visit to Rottnest Island. W.A. 4 : 129-132. elsewhere quokka, Setonix brachyurus Quoy & Emu | Commonly cited Gaimard (Marsupialia). I. Techniques for under Whitlock. F. Lawson. Gives detailed trapping and marking. C.S.I.R.O. Wildl. account of bird-life.) Res., 1 73-78. MacLean, L. and van der Heyden, L. (1956). —Sooty Dunnet, G. M. and MacLean, L. (1956).—Whimbrel on Oystercatcher at Rottnest. W. Aust. Nat. 5: Rottnest in winter. W. Aust. Nat. 5: 72. 119. Erickson, R. (1951). —Quokka feeding on introduced MacPherson, J. H. (1957). —A review of the genus snail and stink wort. W. Aust. Nat. 3: 41. Coxiella Smith, 1894, sensu lato. W. Aust. I Setonix 5: 191-204. Coxiella striatula (Menke) brachyurus eating Helix pisana and Nat. | Inula graveolens.\\ from Lakes Ursula and Bagdad.] Fairbridge, R. W. (1954). —Quaternary eustatic data for Main, A. R. (1956).—The role of pure research in con- Western Australia and adjacent states. servation. W. Aust. Fish. Dept. Fauna Bull. Proc. Pan-Ind. Ocean Sci. Congr. Perth, Sect. 1: 12-15. F: 64-84. Mathews, W. H. (1930). —Contributions to the fauna of Ford, J. R. (1958). —Occurrence of Fork-tailed Swift in Rottnest Island. No. 6 Notes on the Odonata the south-west, 1956, W. Aust. Nat. 6: and Neuroptera. J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 16: 106-107. 41-44. | Apus pacificus observed January. I George, R. 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N.S.W. 54: 361-374. (1955b). —Studies on marsupial reproduction (1933).- The composition and biogeographical III. Normal and delayed pregnancy in relations of the fauna of Western Australia Setonix brachyurus. Aust. J. Zool. 3: 56-70. Rep. Aiist. Ass. Sci. ( Advanc. No. 21: 93-138. Somerville, W. 1949 > .—“Rottnest Island.” (Rottnest [The brine shrimp. Parartemia zietziana and Board of Control.) the isopod, Haloniscus salina. recorded from Stokes, L. — salt lakes. J. (1846). “Discoveries in Australia.”: London. I [Vol. 11. p, 128, p. 516. et seq.. brief descrip- ( 1939. —The Prophliantidae. A proposed tion of the environment in 1840 and 1843.' new family of Amphipoda, with description Storr, G. M. (1957). of a new genus and four new species. Rcc. —Second record of a Gannet ringed in S. Aust. Mus. 6: 309-334. New Zealand. W. Aust. Nat.. 5: 230-231 I Crustacea, Amphi- [ Sula poda: Prophlias anomalus described from serrator ringed as fledgling in Hauraki Bathurst Point,] Gulf, N.Z., hatched in November, 1955: recovered Strickland Bay November 1956; Peron, F. and Freycinet, .- de L. ( 1807-1816) Voyage de apparently came ashore during previous Decouvertes aux Terres Australies. Paris, 3 month.] vols, [Natural History of Rottnest 1. dis- Storr, G. M. and Dunnet, G. M. (1955). Fork-tailed cussed vol. 1, pp. 187-190.1 — Swifts over Cockburn Sound and Rottnest. Rayment, T. (1934). —Contributions to the fauna of Island. W. Aust. Nat. 5: 22-23. \Apus Rottnest . Island. 8. Apoidea. J Roy. Soc. pacificus .] W. Aust. 20: 201-212. Teichert, C. (1950). —Late Quaternary changes of sea- Reid, D. (1949).—Crested Terns and Silver Gulls nesting level at Rottnest Island, Western Australia at Green Island, Rottnest. W. Aust. Nat. 2: Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 59: 63-79. 21 . Teichert, C. and Serventy. D. L. (1947) .—Deposits of (1950).—Nesting of the Pied Cormorant off shells transported by birds. Amer. J. Sci. Rottnest I. Aust. W. Nat. 2: 69. [Dyer’s 1. 245: 322-328. [Shell middens of Gabianus Roewer, C. F. ( 1929) .—Contributions to the fauna of pacificus on Rottnest I. wduch might be Rottnest Island. No. mistaken for marine shell 5 Opiliones in the beds. I Western Australian Museum. J. Roy. Soc. Thomson. J. M. 1 1951).—The fauna of Rottnest Island W. Aust. 15: 95-98. X. Anthuridae. J Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 35: 1-8. Sadleir, R. M. (1958). An observation — on the drinking Waring, H., Sharman. G. B., Lovat, of Trachysanrus D. and Kahan M. rugosus. W. Aust. Nat. 6: (1955). —Studies on marsupial reproduction 152-153, I. General features and techniques. Aust. Sedgwick, E. H. (1958). J. Zool. 3: 34-43. The introduced Turtledoves in I S&tonix brachyurus .] Western Australia. W Aust. Nat. 6: 112-127. Wheeler. W. M. (1934). —Contributions to the fauna of I Status of Streptopclia chinensis and S. Rottnest Island, Western Australia. No. 9— senegalensis reviewed. ] The ants. J. Roy. Soc . W. Aust. 20: 137-163. Serventy, D. L. (1929).—Records of Cladocera (Crustacea) Whittell. H. M. (1941). —A review of the work of John from the south-west province of Australia. Gilbert in Western Australia. Emu 41: 112- J. Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 15: 63-69. I Records 129. [Refers to a visit to Rottnest by John Daphnia thomsoni describes Daphniopsis Gilbert, James Drummond pusilla from Rottnest and Ludwig I.J Preiss in 1839. (1938).—Birds of the islands off Fremantle, Whitlock, F. Lawson ( 1947).—Cuckoo Bees ( Crocisa at Western Australia. Emu. 37: 265-268. [Breed- Bunbury. W. 1 Aust. Nat. : 44-45. ing and visiting land birds listed. 1 Williams, G. (1940). —Contributions to the fauna of (1948).—The birds of the Swan River District, Rottnest Island. 11. Pvcnogonida of West- Western Australia. Emu 47: 241-236. [Rott- ern . nest Australia. J Roy. Soc. W. Aust. 25: species included.! 197-205. Theses lodged at the Department of Zoology. University of Western Australia. Bentley, P. il953>. —Some aspects of the water meta- Cohen, J. (1956).—Histological techniques employed in bolism and kidney histology of the mar- a study of the stomach of the quokka, supial ( Setonix brachyurus) Setonyx brachyurus. Buttle, J. M. (1951).—Adrenalectomy of the quokka Setonyx bracliyuris, with particular reference George. R. W. (1959).—The biology of the Western Aus- to its effect on serum sodium and potassium tralian commercial crayfish. Panulirus lon- levels. gipes. A study of the taxonomy, ecology, Clarke, J. R. (1950). —Anatomy of the quokka, Setonyx female reproduction, larval development, brachyurus Part , 1. External morphology growth and phylogenetic relationship of the and large intestine. P. longipes. 94 Ho, D. K. H. (1957). Blood — volume of the quokka, Storr, G. M. (1957).—Quokkas and the vegetation of Setonyx brachyurus using Evans blue d”e, Rottnest Island. T.-1824. Storr, G. M. (1958).—Microscopic analysis of faeces and Marsh, L. (1955). —Ecology of the Western Australian its application in a study of the diet of limestone reefs. quokkas on the west end of Rottnest. Wilson, A. M. ( 1957).—Anatomy of the quokka. Part II. Sadleir, R. M. (1958). Comparative aspects — of the The musculature and skeleton. ecology and physiology of the Rottnest and Byford populations of the quokka, ( Setonix Thesis Icdged at the Department brachyurus Quov and Gaimard). of Botany , University of Western Saunders. L. (1958). —Marsupial serology. Australia . Smith, G. G. (1952). —A contribution to the algal Shield, J. W. (1958). —Aspects of field ecology of the quokka. ecology of the Cockburn Sound and Rottnest areas. List of Research Workers and Other Persons Mentioned in Reports Arnold, Jennifer M.. B.Sc. (W.A.) Dept of Land Research Kirk, R. L., M.Sc. (Birm.), D.Sc. and Regional Survey, Canberra. (W.A.) Reader, Z.D., (R.s ZD' ” U.W.A. U.W.A. > Kneebone, Barker, E. W. S., B.Sc. (W.A.) R.3., Geology Dept., Jennifer M.. M.Sc. (W.A.) Senior Tutor U.W.A. Physiology Dept., U.W.A. Lee, A. K,, B.Sc. (W.A.) Z.D., University of California, Barker, S., B.Sc. (W.A.) Rockefeller Fellow, Z.D., U.W.A. Los Angeles. (R.S.. Z.D., U.W.A.) Bartholemew, G. A., Ph.D. (Harvard) Professor of Littlejohn, M. J., B.Sc., Ph.D. (W.A.) Z.D., University Zoology. University of California. (Fulbright of Texas; as of Oct. 1959 Z.D., University of Fellow. Z.D., U.W.A.) Melbourne. (R.S., Z.D, U.W.A.) Bennetts, H. W. D.V.Sc. iMelb.) Principal, Animal Lovatt, Dorothy. B.Sc. (W.A.). (R.S., Z.D., U.W.A.) Health and Nutrition Laboratory, Dept, of Main, Agriculture, A. R., B.Sc., Ph.D. (W.A.) Senior Lecturer, Z.D., Perth, U.W.A. Bentley, P. J., B.Sc, (W.A.) Lecturer, Physiology Dent.. Main, Barbara A.. U.W.A. B.Sc.. Ph.D. (W.A.) R.S., Z.D., U.W.A. Malcolm. W. B„ B.Sc. (Syd.), Ph.D. (W.A.) R.O., Bowen, B. K„ B.Sc (W.A.) R.O., State. Fisheries Dept., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Fisheries and V/.A. Secretary. Rottnest Biological Station Committee. Oceanography, Cronulla, N.S.W. (at ZD., U.W.A.) Calaby, J. C., R.O., C.S.I.R.O., Wildlife Survey, Canberra. Moir, R. J., B.Sc. (Agric.) (W.A.) Senior Lecturer, A.C.T. ( Z.D., U.W.A.) Institute of Agriculture, U.W.A. Churchill, D. M., B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S,, Botany Dept., Marsh. Loisette M.. M.A. (W.A.) U.W.A. R.S., Z.D., U.W.A. T Milward. N. C., B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S., Z.D.. U.W.A. Cohen, June, B.Sc. (W .A.), (R.S., Z.D., U.W.A.) Nicholls, G. E. (Deceased), D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., Collin, R., M.Sc.. M.B.. B.S. (Syd.), B.Sc. (Oxon.) Senior Professor of Biology, U.W.A. 1921 to 1947. Lecturer. Physiology Dept., U.W.A. Perry, D. FI., Officer-in-Charge, Metropolitan District, Dunnet, G. M., B.Sc., Ph.D. (Aber.) Lecturer. Dept, of Forests Dept., W.A. Zoology, Marisehall College, Aberdeen, Scot- Royee, R. D.. B.Sc. land. (R.O.. C.S.I.R.O., Wildlife Survey, (Agric.) (W.A.) Senior Government W.A.) Botanist, Dept, of Agriculture, W.A. Rudeforth, B F., B.Sc. Eadie, J. F., B.Sc. (W.A.). (R.S., Z.D., U.W.A.) (W.A.) Laboratory Manager, Z.D., U.W.A. Edward, D. H. D., B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S., Z.D.. U.W.A. Sadleir, R, M.. B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S.. Z.D.. U.W.A. Finch, M. Eileen, M.Sc. (W.A.) Lecturer. Z.D., U.W.A. Saunders, Lynette M., B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S., Z.D.. U.W.A. Fraser, A. J., Director of Fisheries, Chief Warden of Serventy, D. L.. B.Sc (W.A.), Ph.D. (Cantab.) Principal Fauna. Dept., of Fisheries and Game. W.A. Research Officer. C.S.I.R.O., Wildlife Survey Chairman. Rottnest Biological Station Committee. Section, W.A. Sharman, G. B.. B.Sc. ) George, R. (Tas. Senior Lecturer, Z.D., W.. B.Sc. (W.A.), Ph.D. (W.A.) Assistant University Curator. W.A. of Adelaide. (Nuffield Research Museum, in charge of Inverte- Fellow. Z.D.. W.A.) brates. ( R.O., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Fisheries and Oceanography, W.A.) Member, Sheard. K.. D.Sc. (W.A.) Senior Research Officer, Rottnest Biological Station Committee. C.S.I.R.O., Division of Fisheries and Oceanography, W.A., Member. Rottnest Glauert, L., B.A (W.A.) Director of the W.A. Museum Biological Station Committee. until 1957. Shield, J. W., M.Sc. (W.A.), Ph.D. (W.A.) Senior Glenister, B. F.. B.Sc. (W.A,), M.Sc. IMelb.) Ph.D. Lecturer, Z.D.. U.W.A. (Iowa) (Senior Lecturer, Geology Dept., U.W.A.) Stark, J., Secretary, Rottnest Island Board. Sten, T. B.A., O.B.E., Dip. Ed.. M, Green, J., B.Sc. (Adel.) Curator of Herbarium. Univer- A. (W.A.) Member of Rottnest Board and formerly Superintendent sity of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. (Asst. of Teacher Training, W.A., Government Botanist, Dept, of Agriculture, Member, Rottnest W.A.) Biological Station Committee, Storr. Harris. A. C., Conservator of G. M.. B.Sc. (W.A.) R.S., Z.D., U.W.A. Forests. Forests Dept , Perth. Summers, Margaret B . B.Sc. (W.A.) Pathology Dept.. Fremantle Hospital. (R.S.. Hassell, C. W., B.Sc. (W.A.) R_S.. Geology Dept., U.W.A. Z.D.. U.W.A.) Waring, H., M.Sc. (Liv.j, D.Sc. Herrick, E. H., B.Sc. (Kans.), Ph.D. (Harvard) (Aber.). F.A.A., Professor Professor of Zoology, U.W.A. of Zoology. University of Kansas. (Fulbright Fellow, U.W.A.) Watson, J. A. L., B.Sc. (W.A.) Z.D., University of Cambridge. (R.S., Z.D., U.W.A.) Ho. Dorothy. B.Sc. (W.A.) Dietician, Royal Perth Hos- Woolley, G., M.Sc, (W.A.) R.O.. Physiology Dept.. U.W.A pital. ( R.S.. ZD., U.W.A.) Woolley, Patricia A.. B.Sc. (W.A.) Research Assistant Hodgkin, E. P.. B.Sc. (Mane.), D.Sc. (W.A.) Reader, I C.S.I.R.O. ) , Z.D.. U.W.A. Z.D,, U.W.A. Member, Rottnest Biological Abbreviations.—'C.S.I.R.O. Commonwealth Scientific Station Committee. and Industrial Research Organization; R.O. Kahan, Margaret, B.Sc. (R.S., Research Officer: R.S. — research student; U.W.A. (W.A.). Z.D , U.W.A.) University of Western Australia; Z.D. - Kaldor, I., M.D. (Budapest) Senior Lecturer Physiology Zoology Dept., U.W.A. Department. In each the present address is given first where Kelly, L., M.L.A., Minister for Fisheries, W.A., 1953-1959, that has changed; that during the course of the and Chairman, Rottnest Island Board. contribution second, in brackets. 95 TEN FATHOMS SHOALS, THREE FATHOMS NORTH POINT MONDAY ROCK ROTTNEST ISLAND PARAKEET ISLAND POINT CLUNE DUCK ROCK fjJJV PARAKEET BAY LONGREACH BAY LIGHT PARAKEET GEORD/E BATHURST POINT FREMANTLE ARMSTRONG ROCK GAGE ROADS \ SWAMP BAY ARMSTRONG R/FLE RANGE POINTS % OLD SWAMP ll CATCHMENT Q MUSHROOM ROCK ** ARMSTRONG HILL PADBURY'S tf'CARNAC I CHARLOTTE POINT FLAT ==-MT. a / \ V CHELL \ CITY OF YORK BAYj "!!L VchVnt BARE hill SETTLEMENT A LAKE BAGDAD GARDEN ' LAKE i COCKBURN THOMPSON BAY LAKE NEGRI HERSCHELL LAKE GARDEN SOUND ISLAND LAKE S/R% crayfish Rock, MUD OR SALT \ PINK WORKS JETTY BARKER'S. \t*LAKE GOVERNMENT SWAMP C HILL |PT. PERON FORBES BULLDOZER HOUSE OR/O POOL NATURAL JETTY. SWAMP HILLIP POINT SCALE OF MILES \\ LAKE TUART C B/CKLEY ii5°4o\fc ^ PLANTATION SWAMP WL I t STARK BIOLOGICAL LOCALITY MAP BAY RESEARCH STATION BICKLEY • LIGHTHOUSE SWAM, BAY LIGHTHOUSE SWAMP ROCKY SALMON SWAMP // BICKLEY POINT BAY J Jubilee rocks ff AwHITE hill >-*^ATERson ABRAHAM HENRIETTA ROCKS OAN ISLAND CELIA'S ROCKS POINT MARJORIE BAY LADY CAPE HAYWARD " ^ ^ ~J//NANCY^Af THE BLUFF MABEL | (I MUNT3 CAMfyfjT COVE XOYE / w PORPOISE \\ A CONICAL HILL ^/fj&QREEN ISLAND KING HEAD \\ _\\ STRICKLAND BAY MARY SALMON BAY DYERS ISLAND CATHEDRAL ROCKS COYE (SEAL ISLAND) VERA ROCKS WILSON £ RADAR HILL BAY CAPE VLAMING SALMON POINT POCILLOPORA REEF RADAR REEF PARKER PARKER POINT ROCK LEGEND LARGE EXCLOSURES INTERTIDAL PLATFORMS COASTAL ROCK •*•••• • • •• •• SEEPAGE AREAS SCALE OF MILES ROTTNEST ISLAND 115° 30'E TOTAL AREA 4726 ACRES Journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia Vol. 42 Part 4 24. —The Effect of Frequent Burning on the Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) Forest Soils of Western Australia By A. B. Hatch* Manuscript received—24th February, 1959 An examination of the surface soils from Climate regularly burnt firebreaks and adjacent pro- tected compartments in the jarrah forest of The jarrah forest region experiences a typical Western Australia showed no differences in Mediterranean climate, with ccol wet winters the following analyses; pH, total soluble salts, organic carbon, nitrogen, exchangeable metal and hot, dry summers. The average annual ions and exchangeable hydrogen. rainfall at Dwellingup is 50.88 inches, spread It has been shown that, the temperatures over 134 days. The rainfall distribution shows of these controlled burns are of the order of a marked winter maximum, 81 per cent, of the 320-450'C., and the forest soil Is not exposed to any prolonged high temperatures. annual rainfall occurring during the months If the burning does cause any temporary May to September. The mean monthly tem- loss of organic matter and inorganic nutrients peratures vary from 69.7°F. in February to from the immediate surface soil these losses 49.4 U F. in July. are replaced by natural leaching of the follow- ing year’s leaf fall. Soils The soils are typically lateritic gravelly soils Introduction with a shallow dark grey gravelly sand overly- ing deep yellow brown very gravelly sands. Lat- In the fire protection of the jarrah ( Eucalyp- erite boulders occur frequently throughout the tus marginata ) forest in Western Australia regular controlled burning of strips of forest profile. along railway lines, main roads, etc. is carried Experimental cut to reduce the fire risk to adjacent areas of Surface soil samples, <0-3i") were collected forest. This burning is normally carried out during January, 1954, from twelve pairs of during the latter spring months and the first adjacent areas, using a constant volume soil half of December, and the frequency of burn- sampler. The areas were selected for similarity ing of these firebreaks varies from annually to of topography, soil and forest vegetation. Details every third year, depending on the litter fall of the fire history of these areas are shown in and the fire risk involved. Table I. The forest country adjacent to the breaks has TABLE 1 been protected from fire as completely as pos- Experimental Areas sible for periods ranging from 15 to 25 years, Fire History and has an Ao horizon ranging from 4i - 6i tons per acre (oven dry weight). By contrast Fire History. the firebreaks have only a sparse accumula- Location. Com- Firebreak, partment. tion of litter, which is regularly removed by burning. 1. Amphion, Compt. 6 .... 1932 Triennially. 2. Curara, Compt. 5 The aim of this study 1930 Annually. was to compare the 3. Curara. Compt. 8 1937 Triennially. chemical properties of the two groups of sur- 4. Holmes, Compt. 1 1929 Annually. face soils, and to ascertain what changes had 5. Holmes, Compt. 3 .... 1934 Annually. 6. Holmes, Compt. 11, Plot li 1934 Triennially. taken place in the surface soils as a result of 7. Holmes. Compt. 11. Plot 13 1934 Triennially. the regular burning. 8. Holmes, Compt. 12 ... 1934 Triennially. 9. Holmes. Compt. 14 ... 1935 Triennially. 10. Marrinup, Compt. 4 .... 1938 Annually. Location 11. Mt. Wells, Compt. 10 1931 Frequently. 12. Teesdale, Compt. 2 . .. 1939 Triennially. The samples were collected from several areas in the Dwellingup Forest Division, which forms In the soil sampling, twenty-seven individual part of the prime jarrah forest of Western samples were collected from each of the burnt Australia. and unburnt areas, and combined to give three *Forests Department, Dwellingup, Western Australia. composite samples from each treatment. 97 In the laboratory the samples were air dried, Magnesium is next in importance and potassium and then passed through a 2 mm sieve. The fine and sodium are only of minor importance in earth fractions were analysed for pH, total the total exchangeable metal ions. soluble salts, organic carbon, nitrogen, exchange- Exchangeable hydrogen values (to pH 8.4) are able metal ions and exchangeable hydrogen. relatively high, and the soils are moderately In the analysis of the soil samples, most of unsaturated, the percentage metal ion saturation the methods used were those described by Piper being 32.1 and 35.5 per cent, for the compart- (1942), but at a result of recent investigations a ments and firebreaks respectively. newer method was used for the determination Discussion of the exchangeable metal ions. These were extracted by leaching with neutral normal There do not appear to be any Australian ammonium acetate, and the calcium and mag- data available on the effects of fire on the nesium determined by titration with E.D.T.A. Eucalypt forest soils, and it is difficult to com- after destruction of the ammonium acetate. pare the jarrah forest conditions with those (Bond and Tucker 1954 and Hutton 1954). quoted by overseas workers. Potassium and sodium were estimated by the From a study of the literature it appears to be generally that a very hot fire, EEL flame photometer i Hutton and Bond unpub- accepted such lished data) after the ammonium acetate had as a slash burn, where fire temperatures are of been removed by gentle ignition. the order of 850 °C. for a prolonged period, has a significant effect on soil properties. Under Analytical Data these conditions there is usually a decrease in organic matter, loss in nitrogen and increase in The means for the two groups of surface soils in the surface soils. are tabulated in Table II, and in addition the pH individual means for pH, nitrogen and exchange- However, opinions differ very widely when considering the effects of light able calcium are shown in Tables III, IV, and V. and moderate burns on the soil properties. One group of workers claim that burning has TABLE II a detrimental effect on the soil. Amongst these Analytical Data are Worley (1933) who stated: Surface Soils (0-31") from, Protected Compartments and (i) that burning destroyed humus. Regularly Burnt Firebreaks (ii) that resultant ash from the burn, containing small amounts of essential elements such as Means P .05 Difference copper and manganese, is easily lost through Analysis Difference for leaching and a general impoverishment results. Compart- Fire- Signifi- Freise (1939) ment break cance claimed that repeated burning had an unfavourable effect on the physical and biological properties of the soil, and Elwell and pH 6*27 6-38 —0-11 0-21 Fenton (1941) stated that burning caused a loss Total Soluble Salts (%) 0016 0-015 + 0 001 0-005 of soil Organic Carbon (%) 2-96 3-00 —004 0 • 64 nitrogen, destroyed organic matter and Nitrogen (%) 0-125 0-128 — 0 003 0 • 025 increased soil and water losses. Exchangeable Cations A second group of workers believe that burning Calcium m*e. %, % 3-92 67 4-23 69 —0-31 —2 1-25 4-9 Magnesium rn.e.%, has no significant effect on the soil. Amongst /o . . • 1-35 24 1-42 23 — 0 07 +1 0-46 3-3 _ these are Alway and Rost (1928) who suggested Potassium m.e. %, 0/ that burning appears to be neither beneficial 0 0-11 2 0 10 2 + 0-01 0 0-03 0-4 nor Sodium m.e. %, % 0*35 7 0 • 34 6 + 0-01 +1 0*11 2-6 detrimental to the soil, and Blaisdell (1953), who Exchangeable Metal claimed light 6 —0-36 - — that and moderate burns do not Cations 5*73 100 • 09 100 1-67 Exchangeable 1 lydro- affect soil properties. gen (pH 8-4) 12-00 10-97 + 1-03 2-70 Total Exchange Ca- TABLE III pacity m.e. % .... 17-73 1706 + 0-67 4-05 Per cent. Metal Iron Analytical Data Saturation 32-1 • —3-4 4-4 35 5 Surface Soils (0-31,") from Protected Compartments and Regularly Burnt Firebreaks pH Values It is evident from the data that this regular Mean Values light burning has had no significant effect on the surface soil Location Difference properties examined. Compart- Firebreak Both groups of soils are mildly acid, and low ment in soluble salts. Organic carbon values are relatively high, but nitrogen values are low, Amphion, Convpt. 6 .... 6-47 6-54 0-07 —0-21 giving wide C/N ratios of 24 and 23 for the Curara, Compt. 5 6-27 6-48 Curara, Compt. 8 6 • 26 6-47 —0-21 compartments and firebreaks respectively. These Holmes, Compt. 1 6 -57 6-50 + 007 wide C/N ratios are related to the litter fall in Holmes, Compt. 3 5 • 85 5 • 93 —0-08 Holmes, Compt. 11, Plot 11. .. 6-19 6-27 —0-08 the jarrah forest, which is very high in carbon Holmes, Compt. 11, Plot 13. .. 6 • 49 6 17 + 0-32 and has a C/N ratio of approximately 100. Holmes, Compt. 12 6-16 6 • 34 —018 Holmes, Compt. 14 6-24 6 • 36 012 In both groups of soils the cation exchange Mariinup, Compt. 4 5 • 72 6-27 0*55 is . capacity almost solely dependent upon the Ml . Wells, Compt 10 6-47 6-86 —0-39 6-41 0-13 organic matter present in the surface horizon, Teesdale. Coiup » 2 6-54 + Means 6-27 6-38 —0-11 and is relatively low. Calcium is the dominant exchangeable cation in the surface, averaging P -05 difference for significance = 0-21. two thirds of the total exchangeable metal ions. Each value shown is the mean of three composite samples. 98 The third group believe that light and high temperatures in the controlled burn. In moderate burning has a favourable effect on connection with this work it has been shown by the forest soil. One of the most important Heywood (1938), that in the Longleaf Pine re- papers in this group is that of Heywood gion of Southern U.S.A., the heat from the and Barnette (1934), who showed that soils majority of forest fires is insufficient to im- frequently subjected to fire were consistently poverish the soil, and that the slight heat which less acid, and had higher percentages of ex- enters the soil during the fire may even favour changeable calcium and total nitrogen. Also plant nutrition. Burns (1952) found that moderate burning benefited the mineral soil chemically, and pro- TABLE V bably had a favourable effect on the forest floor, Analytical Data and in 1955 Vlamis, Schultz and Biswell demon- Surface Soils ( 0-3 }>") from Protected Compartments and strated by means of pot experiments that light Regularly Burnt Firebreaks burning increased the nitrogen power of the Exchangeable Calcium soil fourfold, and in addition tended to increase Mean Values the phosphorus supplying power of the soil. (m.e.% & %) TABLE IV Location Compartment Firebreak Analytical Data Surface Soils (0-3h") from Protected Compartments and Amphion, Compt. 0 3-08 67 5-08 66 Regularly Burnt Firebreaks Curara, Compt. 5 4-34 69 3-11 63 % Nitrogen Values Curara, Compt. 8 5-66 71 8-34 72 Holmes, Compt. 1 .... 1 2-78 72 3-58 73 Holmes, Compt. 3 3 • 58 65 3-80 66 Mean Values Holmes, Compt.. 11, Plot 11 1 -65 58 1 • 96 62 Holmes, Compt. 13, Plot 13 2-47 63 4-41 69 Locatic n Difference Holmes, Compt. 12 .... 4-69 66 5 • 08 76 Compart- j Holmes, 3-13 • ment Firebreak Compt. 14 63 3 56 68 Marrimip, Compt. 4 5-34 65 3 • 27 73 Mt. Wells, Compt. 10 4 • 69 77 3 • 32 71 Teesdale. Compt. 2 5 • 58 75 5-24 69 Amphipn, Compt. 6 .... 0-120 0- 132 0-012 3-92 • 4-23 Curara, Compt. 5 0-122 0-144 0-022 Means 67 6 69 0 Curara, Compt. $ 0-152 () 179 0 022 Holmes, Compt. 1 0 • 090 0-122 - 0 032 I* -05 difference for significance 1*25 m.e. % and 4 -9%, Holmes, Compt. 3 0-121 () 1 • ()• 15 000 Each value shown is the mean of three composite samples. Holmes. Compt. 11. Plot 11 ... 0-079 0-097 - 0-018 Holmes, Compt. 11. Plot 13... 0-097 0-157 0-000 Holmes. Compt. 12 0- 137 0 • 095 + 0-042 In addition the controlled burning is carried Holmes, 14 .... Compt. 0-100 0 1 42 0-042 out during the latter part of the year, and the Marrimip, • Compt. 4 0 1 70 0-094 + 0-082 maximum leaf fall in the jarrah forest occurs Mt. Wells. Compt. 10 0-122 0- 120 0 • 004 Teesdale. Compt. 2 0-184 0 132 0-052 during the months of January, February and Means 125 0-128 —0 • 0 003 March. In jarrah regrowth forests the leaf fall during this period may amount to between P • 05 difference for significance = 0-025. 12 15 this Each value shown is the mean of three composite samples. and cwt. per acre (o.d.wt.), and leaf litter contains the following amounts of in- organic nutrients; calcium, 0.240% It is evident that the data for the jarrah 0.77% mag- nesium, 0.252% potassium and 0.473% nitrogen. forest soils strongly supports the second group of fresh leaf litter on the forest floor of workers in that there were no significant dif- The the firebreak is exposed to at least one winter’s ferences in the surface soil properties exam- ined. leaching by the rainfall, and it has been shown by Hatch <1855> that jarrah leaf litter loses With regard to the effect of the control burn one third of its oven dry weight during the on the forest crop it has been shown by Harris winter. includes the ‘1956) that the best of the older jarrah sap- first This loss in weight lings are found alongside the old bush tram- majority of the inorganic actions and a con- siderable amount of readily soluble organic com- ways, where fires were set by the locomotives pounds, and evidently this accession of nutri- as often as a fire would run. In addition Lon- eragan, (unpublished data) and Harris (1956) ents and organic compounds from the litter is sufficient to replace any losses in the immediate have shown that there is no significant differ- soil surface which the ence in girth increments between saplings on may be caused by regularly burnt firebreaks and protected com- burning. partments. In field inspections of the firebreaks compartments, the chief differences In considering the effects of the controlled and ob- served were the absence of a thick A1 horizon burnings of the jarrah forest soil there are sev- in the firebreak soils and also the undergrowth eral factors which appear to be related to the vegetation appeared to be much sparser in the lack of differences between the two groups of soils. firebreaks. Firstly, the temperature of the burn is not high, and in some experiments carried out at Conclusion Dwellingup, it was found that the temperatures It is evident that the practice of regularly of a controlled burn were of the order of 320°- burning selected firebreaks in the jarrah forest 450' C. for twr o and three year old litter. Sec- has had no significant effect on the soil pro- ondly, the litter on the firebreak consists mainly perties examined, and the results support the of leaves and fine twigs, and thus burns rapidly. conclusions of Alway and Rost (1928) and Therefore, the soil is not exposed to prolonged Blaisdell (1953). 99 — Also, from the above data, it would appear Burns, P. Y. (1952).—Effect of fire on forest soils in the pine that the Departmental policy of prescribed con- barren region of New Jersey. Bull. Yale Univ. Sell. For. 57. trolled burning, which is primarily based on Elwell, D. H. A., and Fenton, F. A. (1941).—The effects practical and economic considerations related to of burning pasture and woodland vegetation. the present stage of development of this State, Bull. Okla. Agric. Exp. Sta. B-247. is unlikely to cause any soil deterioration to Freise, F. W. (1939).—Investigations on the conse- quences of burning on tropical soils. Tropen- take place. - pflanser 42: 1 22 . Acknowledgments Harris. A. C. (1956). Regeneration of jarrah (Eucalyp- tus marginata) . A ust. For. 20: 54-62. Acknowledgments are made to Mr. A. C. Har- Hatch. A. B, (1955).—The influence of plant litter on ris, Conservator of Forests for his assistance the jarrah forest soils of the Dwellingup Region Western advice in — Australia. Leafl. For. Bur. Canberra and this work, and to Mr. W. R. Wal- No. 70 lace, in who was charge of the Forests Depart- Heyward, F. (1938).—Soil temperatures during forest ment’s research activities when this project fires in the Longleaf Pine Region. J. For. 36: was carried out. 478-491. Heyward. F., and Barnette, R. M. (1934).—Effect of fre- quent fires on chemical composition of forest References soils in the Longleaf Pine Region. Bull. Fla. Alway, F J., and Rost, C. O. (1928).—The effect of Agric. Exp. Sta. 265. forest fires upon the composition and produc- Hutton, J. T. (1954). —The titration of calcium and tivity of the soil. Proc. First lnt. Congr. Soil magnesium by E.D.T.A. Divisional Report 9/54, Sci. 3: 546-576. Part C., C.S.LR.O, Division of Soils, Adelaide. Blaisdell, J. P. (1953). effects of —Ecological planned Piper, C. (1942).— burning of S. ’‘Soil and Plant Analysis.” (Univ. sagebrush grass range on the upper Adelaide.) Snake River Plains, Tech. Bull. U.S. Dep. Agric. 1075. Vlamis, J.. Schultz. A. M., and Biswell. H. H. ( 1955). Bond, R. D., and Tucker. B. M. (3954). The titration Burning and soil fertility. Calif. Agric. 9, No. 3: of calcium with ethylenediamine tetra -acetate 7. in the presence of magnesium Chem, & Ind. Worley, F, P (1933).—Forest fires in relation to soil (Rev.) 40: 1236. fertility. Nature, Lond. 131: 787-788. 100 25.—Jurassic Stratigraphy of the Geraldton District, Western Australia By P. E. Playford* Manuscript received—21st April, 1959 This paper is a detailed account of the Introduction stratigraphy, structure, and petrology of the Jurassic sediments of the Geraldton district. Location of Area These sediments are almost horizontal and were deposited on an Irregular, weathered Geraldton is situated on the coast of Western surface of Precambrian gneisses and granu- Australia, about 230 miles north of Perth, the lites. The Jurassic sediments are divided into capital city. It is a port on Champion Bay, seven formations, of which the lower six form two groups. They are, from the base up. the serving the surrounding agricultural and mining G reenough Sandstone and Moonyoonooka Sand- districts. stone (making up the Chapman Group), the Colalura Sandstone, Bringo Shale. Newmarra- During this investigation an area of approxi- carra Limestone, and Kojarena Sandstone mately 400 miles around Geraldton was exam- (making up the Champion Bay Group), and ined in reconnaissance (see Plate 4), and a de- the Yarragadee Formation. The age of the tailed Chapman Group has not been definitely survey was carried out on approximately established owing to lack of 1'ossiL evidence. 14 square miles in the vicinity of Bringo, a It consists oi continental fiuviatile sandstones small railway station 19 miles from Geraldton and is tentatively placed in the Lower Jurassic, though all or part of the group may be Upper on the line to Mullewa. Permian or Lower Triasslc. The Champion Bay Group consists of marine sediments of Purpose of Investigation Middle Jurassic age. One formation, the New- marracarra Limestone, is very fossiliferous, and The marine Jurassic sediments of the Gerald- has been accurately dated as Middle Bajocian. ton district have been known since the middle The flat-topped hills of the Geraldton dis- of the last century, and were until compara- trict are usually capped by laterite, which is often overlain by sand. These hills are rem- tively recently the only known exposure of nants of the well-dissected Victoria Plateau. marine Jurassic in Australia. Nevertheless no The laterite in the district formed after uplift detailed geological investigation area and dissection of the plateau. Both the Pre- of the has cambrian granitic rocks and the Jurassic sedi- been undertaken previously, due largely to the ments (especially the Newmarracarra Lime- lack of any economically important deposits as- stone) have undergone extensive alteration be- neath the laterite. sociated with the sediments. The objects of the The major structural feature of the area present survey were firstly to map a small area is the Geraldton Fault, which is known to have of the Jurassic sediments in detail, establishing had a throw since the Jurassic of 750 to 800 feet, and a total throw of at least 1.500 feet. the rock units present, collecting fossils, and Minor faults, cutting both the Jurassic sedi- carrying out a laboratory examination of the ments and the Precambrian rocks, have also sediments; secondly to map a larger area in been noted in the area. reconnaissance, measuring stratigraphic sections throughout, and obtaining information on the Contents lateral extent of the rock units. The overly- Page Xo. ing lateritic deposits and underlying Precam- Introduction .... 101 brian metamorphic rocks were also studied. Physiography .... 103 General Geology 104 This paper was originally submitted in March, Precambrian 104 1953. as part of the requirements for the degree of the Lower Silurian (?) 105 Bachelor of Science with Honours at Upper Permian or Lower Triassic. 105 University of Western Australia. Since then, Jurassic 105 part of the Geraldton area has been re-exam- Laterite and Sand-Plain 106 ined by Mr. S. P. Willmott and myself during Quaternary Superficial Deposits 107 the course of a regional geological survey of the Jurassic Stratigraphy 107 Perth Basin on behalf of West Australian Pet- Chapman Group 107 roleum Pty. Limited. Some alteration to the (i) G reenough Sandstone 108 original manuscript has been necessary as a re- (ii) Moonyoonooka Sandstone 1 09 sult of this additional work. Champion Bay Group 115 (i) Colalura Sandstone .... 1 15 Methods of Study (ii) Bringo Shale ... 117 The area around Bringo which was examined (iii) Newmarracarra Limestone .... 118 in detail (see Plate 5), was mapped using verti- (iv) Kojarena Sandstone .... 121 cal aerial photographs, on a scale of four Yarragadee Formation .... 122 inches to the mile. In this area every outcrop Structure 123 visited and examined. reconnaissance References 124 was The survey (Plate 4) was carried out using the army *West Australian Petroleum Pty. Limited, Perth, topographical maps on a scale of one inch to Western Australia. Formerly Department of Geology, the mile. For this survey all outcrops were not University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia. visited, but roads and important tracks in the 101 — area were covered by motorcycle, with visits to Further palaeontological papers on fossils significant exposures. The regional map was from the Geraldton area were published by completed in Perth using vertical air-photos Neumayr (1885), Crick (1894), Etheridge (1901, loaned by the Army Survey Corps. 1910), and Chapman (1904. a and b). The Bringo railway cutting < Plate 6 > was The first geologist to map the Geraldton dis- mapped on a section prepared from measure- trict at all thoroughly was W. D, Campbell ments supplied by the Engineer’s Department. (1907), who published a geological map of the Western Australian Government Railways. Greenough River district, with accompanying A petrological examination was carried out notes. This map shows the broad distribution in the laboratory of samples collected mainly of the Jurassic sediments, Precambrian rocks, from the area mapped in detail. This analysis and laterite, but the notes give little information consisted of mechanical analysis, sphericity and on the stratigraphy of the area. roundness determinations, and mineralogical Further work on the area by Campbell (1910) study of the disaggregated sediments, supple- was published as part of his outstanding con- mented by thin section work. Chemical tribution to the geology of Western Australia analyses were carried out on the phosphatic “The Irwin River Coalfield and the adjacent rocks to determine their content of P 2 0.>. districts from Arrino to Northampton.” This Macro-fossils were identified from the litera- report embraced an area of about 2,000 square ture and the ammonites were sent to the late miles, and included the area covered by the Dr. W. J. Arkell. present survey. However. Campbell was mainly concerned with The army one -mile grid system is used on the the Permian sediments of the geological maps of the Geraldton and Bringo Iiwin River district, and his report contains no areas respectively (Plates 4 and 5). Localities detailed information on the stratigraphy of the Jurassic sediments. mentioned in the text are referred to this grid. Taking Bringo as an example, the east-west The next palaeontological paper was by F. W. reading is 75.9 and the north-south reading is Whitehouse (1924), who examined fossils col- 36.5, then the grid reference is given as lected by Professor W. G. Woolnough from a (759365). In the same way the grid reference railway well near Bringo. He named several for “Moonyoonooka” homestead is obtained as new species, and on evidence supplied by am- (708325). monites, suggested a Middle Bajocian age for the fauna. This dating was confirmed by Spath Historical Review (1939), who described a small collection of am- The Geraldton district was one of the monites from the Geraldton area. He considered earliest parts of Western Australia to be set- that they were referable to either the Sauzei tled, and in the early 1850’s several sheep sta- Zone or the Sowerbyi Zone (Middle Bajocian) tions were established in the area covered by of the European succession. this report. Such stations as “Newmarracarra,” The geological survey of the Irwin River “Tibradden,” “Ellendale,” and “Sandspring” and Eradu coal basins (Permian) by Johnson, de la were soon flourishing in an area which proved Hunty, and Gleeson <1954 > overlaps the present to be among the richest pastoral districts in reconnaissance in the vicinity of Wicherina. Australia. It is not surprising that the richly However their paper gives little information on fossiliferous rocks of the area attracted the at- the Jurassic sediments. tention of these early settlers, and as a result several fossil collections were sent to England. The field work for the present investigation was undertaken in December 1951, January, The first to record the Jurassic age of these February, June, August and November 1952, and fossils was Moore (1862), who examined speci- March 1953, a total of 17 weeks being mens forwarded by a Mr. Clifton, and also those spent in the field. The laboratory work was done sent by F. T. Gregory to the Geological Society during the academic year of 1952. of London. Moore expressed the opinion that the fossils were referable to the Upper and Since the present paper was submitted as an Middle Lias of the English succession. Earlier. Honours thesis in 1953 two papers have been A. C. Gregory (1849), J. W. Gregory (1849), F. published dealing with the Jurassic sediments of von Sommer (1849). and F. T. Gregory <1861> the Geraldton area. The first (Arkell and Play- had written brief accounts of the geology of the ford 1954), deals primarily with the ammonities district, but none had recognized the Jurassic of the Newmarracarra Limestone, which are age of the sediments. described in that section of the paper written The Reverend W. B. Clarke < 1867 published ) by Arkell. He considers the fauna to be Middle a paper on fossils he had been sent from the Bajocian in age. and to correlate, at least in Moresby Range, near Geraldton. His conclu- part, with the Sowerbyi Zone of the European sion was that “Taking the general aspect of succession. The Sauzei and Humphriesianum these fossils, and the occurrence of such forms Zones of the Middle Bajocian as Avicula Munsteri, Ostrea Marshi, and Am- may also be pre- sent The other section of the paper, by monites Moorei, it is almost certain that the my- self, summarizes the nearest representative of the formation is the stratigraphy of the Jurassic Inferior Oolite.” This conclusion is held to the sediments. In “The stratigraphy of Western present day, the Newmarracarra Limestone Australia” by McWhae, Playford, Lindner, being considered to be of Bajocian (“Inferior Glenister, and Balme (1958). the latest informa- Oolite”) age, though it has been further nar- tion on the Jurassic sediments of the Geraldton rowed down to the Middle Bajocian. area is given in summary form. - Acknowledgments The Greenough River rises 130 miles north- During this investigation ready assistance and east of Geraldton, and only the lower part of advice were given by Dr. R. W. Fairbridge and its course lies within the area examined. In Dr. A. F. Wilson, and I wish to express my sin- this part of its course it receives two main tri- cere thanks to both. I am also indebted to Pro- butaries, Wicherina Brook and Colalura Brook, fessor R. T. Prider for his interest and advice. the latter draining the area surveyed in detail. Other members of the Geology Department, Upstream from the road crossing near Ellen- University of Western Australia, gave valuable dale (890232) the Greenough River flows support and encouragement, for which I am through Jurassic sediments in a series of large grateful. ingrown meanders, with undercutting along Since the paper was first written, Dr. R. O. high cliffs and prominent slip-off slopes. These Brunnschweiler, Mr. S. P. Willmott, Dr. J. R. H. ingrown meanders continue upstream in the Mr. D. Johnstone, McWhae, and Mr. M. H. John- Eradu district, and as suggested by Johnson, de have given valuable stone assistance in a number la Hunty and Gleeson (1951), they indicate a of ways, for which I wish to extend my thanks. rejuvenation of ? river which had reached the “old age” stage of development. This rejuvena- Physiography tion must have occurred following uplift of the General plateau in late Tertiary times. The Murchison River, The Geraldton district is situated in the 80 miles to the north, shows even clearer northern part of the Perth Basin. It falls evidence of rejuvenation. West of the Green- within the Greenough Natural Region of Clarke ough Block (Precambrian granitic rocks) it (1926), the South-West Physiographic Division flews in a deep, narrow gorge with well-de- of Jutson (1934), and the Greenough Block veloped incised meanders. Subregicn of the Swan Coastal Belt (Physio- For 10 miles south of its mouth the Green- graphic Region) of Gentilli and Fairbridge ough River flows over a rich flood-plain known (1951). as the Greenough Flats. These flats are divided The country to the east of Geraldton con- into two parts by a low sand-covered ridge of sists of the remnants of a plateau dissected by Coastal Limestone, which is parallel to the coast. the Greenough and Chapman Rivers, leaving (This ridge is about three miles inland and re- flat-topped hills of Jurassic sediments, often presents consolidated coastal sand dunes of capped by laterite. and underlain by Precam Pleistocene age.) The river flows between the brian granitic rocks. The western margin of ridge and the present dunes, following them the dissected plateau is marked by the Gerald- north for 10 1 miles before breaking through to ton Fault Scarp (Jutson 1914). This scarp is enter the sea. This northerly deflection of the deeply dissected and has retreated several miles. river is due to the strong prevailing south- It is fronted by a coastal plain, 3 to 10 miles south -west winds which sweep the coast. The wide, which slopes gently to the sea. picturesque trees along the Greenough Flats, In those areas where the rivers have cut bent over almost parallel to the ground, testify through the sand-covered plateau, there are to the constancy and strength of these winds. rich pastoral properties supporting large num- Sand carried by the resulting northerly long- shore drift, bers of sheep. Cereal crops are also grown, combined with the slow migration being most successful in the drier years, while of sand dunes, has caused the meuth of the there are numerous market gardens on the river to migrate northwards, as its cld mouth coastal plain. is progressively filled in. first The climate of the area is characterized by As pointed out by Jutson ( 1914 > Rudds an annual rainfall of 15 to 20 inches, nearly all Gully probably represents an abandoned course of this falling in the winter months. Summer of the Greenough. This gully breaks through temperatures are high, with the maximum often the Pleistocene dune limestones and is up to 90 over 100 °F. feet deep, but today it carries only a small creek The natural vegetation has been largely re- which seldom flows. It seems very likely that during moved in the valleys of the Chapman and the Pleistocene the river emptied into Greenough Rivers, but on the granitic and Ju- the sea at Rudds Gully, flowing north behind the Pleistocene rassic areas it apparently originally consisted dunes just as today it flows be- hind the present dunes. predominantly of “Jam” < Acacia acuminata ), “York Gum” ( Eucalyptus foecunda var. loxo- , The Chapman is much smaller than the pheba), “Needle Bush” ( Hakea recurvata). and Greenough. It divides into two branches near “Shecak” (Casuarina) . There is a marked “Narra Tarra”, and these are known as the change of vegetation on the sand-plain, which Upper Chapman and East Chapman branches. supports a low scrub, including stunted species The Upper Chapman rises 35 miles north of of Acacia and Banksia , with occasional “Christ- Geraldton, and the East Chapman rises near mas Trees” (Nuytsia floribunda). Northern Gully. River Systems The Geraldton district is drained by two main Victoria Plateau rivers, the Greenough and the Chapman. An- The Victoria Plateau was named by John- other so-called river, the Buller, is in reality son et al. (1951), who defined it as the dissected little more than a creek. Like most Western plateau bounded on the east by the Darling- Australian rivers they are intermittent, only Fault, and on the west by the Geraldton Fault flowing after heavy rain. and the high sea cliffs north of Geraldton. 103 - In the Geraldton district the Victoria Plateau is sometimes present, usually as a minor acces- has been deeply dissected by the Greenough sory. Some of the gneisses also contain cor- and Chapman Rivers, leaving large remnants dierite. Typical examples of the gneisses are such as the Moresby Range. The surface of the specimen No. 34797 (University of W.A. Geology plateau is covered by sand overlying laterite, Dept, registered number), which is a quartz- generally at shallow depth. The laterite itself orthoclase-andesine-garnet gneiss, and specimen outcrops along the edges of the plateau, or in No. 34798, which is a quartz-microcline-oligo- those places where the sand has been removed clase-garnet-cordierite gneiss. by erosion. Several types of granulite have been noted The surface of the plateau shows only minor in the area, but they have not all been examined undulations, and averages about 800 feet above microscopically. Most have a composition simi- sea-level. lar to that of the granitic gneisses, and at several localities the granulites and gneisses Hills grade into one another. Other types are inter- The most conspicuous hills of the Geraldton bedded with the gneisses and include char- district are flat-topped (buttes and mesas), their nockitic granulites, hornblende granulites, and outline being due to the resistant nature of the garnetiferous quartzites. laterite cap overlying soft Jurassic sediments. The metasediments are cut by pegmatites, and The laterite cap is generally flat, though in some at several localities by quartz veins, which are cases it shows a sloping surface. probably associated with pegmatites. The Moresby Range is made up of a series of At a few places in the area the gneisses and parallel, elongated mesas and buttes, trending granulites are intruded by dolerite dykes. The north-north -west, and standing about 200 feet one crossing the area mapped in detail is at above the surrounding plain. Laterite, some- least 2 2 miles long, stretching from a quarry at times overlain by sand, caps most of the range, <746361) to (728325). near Spion Kop. The though in places this has been removed by strike of 26° closely parallels that of the dyke erosion, and Jurassic sediments outcrop at the swarm of the Northampton district, 30 miles to top. The western edge of the range is the re- the north, where the dolerite dykes have intro- treated scarp of the Geraldton Fault, and the duced lead, copper, and zinc into the gneisses. eastern margin is due to dissection by the Chap- I-ineation is seldom pronounced in the man River, which parallels the range. gneisses, but readings have been taken at three Those hills of Jurassic sediments which are widely separated localities (635426, 774356, not capped by laterite have a rounded outline, 811215). The strike of the lineation is rather and examples of these are found typically in the constant, averaging 335°, while the angle of area mapped in detail. plunge varies from 12° south to 70° north. This north-north -west tectonic trend is usual in the Springs West Coast Province of Prider (1952). Springs are common throughout the area Throughout the area the foliation of the examined. Some issue at the unconformity be- gneisses varies little from a northerly strike and tween the Jurassic sediments and the Precam- easterly dip. and they are probably isoclinally brian rocks, and these are generally brackish folded. or salt. Others, either fresh or brackish, are The contact between the Precambrian rocks found in the sediments at the contact between and the Jurassic sediments is very irregular, sandstone and shale, or limestone and shale. and east of the Geraldton Fault the elevation of The latter type has a widespread development the unconformity above sea-level varies from east of Bringo, where limestone overlies black about 250 feet near “Narra Tarra” and “White shale. Peak” to 717 feet at Mt. Davis. Much of the rain falling on the sand-plain Although the Precambrian basement rises sinks in, there being very little run-off, and the gradually from west to east, this rise is not uni- water often reappears as fresh-water springs form. There are irregularities in the surface beneath the underlying laterite. of the unconformity, which existed as hills and valleys at the time when the Jurassic sediments General Geology were deposited. The basal formations of the Precairibrian Jurassic are found to pinch out against these buried hills, so that the lower the elevation of Precambrian metasediments outcrop over a the unconformity, the greater is the thickness large proportion of the area, though exposures of the sediments. are generally poor. These recks have undergone The metasediments high-grade regional metamorphism, and consist beneath the unconformity are frequently deeply weathered, of granitic gneisses and granulites, which are the felspars being completely kaolinized characteristically garnetiferous. to depths of 100 feet or more. This is particularly well seen in vari- The petrology of the Precambrian metasedi- ous small railway cuttings near Bringo. How- ments has not been intensively studied, though ever most of this remarkable depth of weather- thin-sections of some of the most typical rock ing is believed to be associated with lateritiza- types have been examined. tion, and was not present in Jurassic times. The gneisses are the most abundant of the Similar deep weathering of metasedimentary Precambrian rocks present in the area. They rocks beneath laterite is known in many other are usually medium-grained, uniformly banded, places in Western Australia. Nevertheless a and almost invariably carry garnet. Sillimanite certain amount of weathering of the Precam 104 brian rocks is believed to have occurred in Indeed it is now believed that the Yandanooka Jurassic times. The basal formation of the Group is distinctly older than the Tumblagooda Jurassic succession, the Greenough Sandstone, Sandstone. is made up of highly weather granitic material, and is believed to be locally derived. Upper Permian or Lower Triassic Sediments of Upper Permian or Lower Lower Silurian (?) Triassic age were first discovered in 1956 in There are a few exposures of the Tumblagooda cores from the Geraldton Racecourse Bore (569307). Sandstone in the area west of Wicherina. These This bore was drilled with Calyx in 1896-98 are the southernmost known outcrops of this equipment and some of the cores were preserved by the Geological Survey of formation, which is best known along the Mur- chison River on each side of the Greenough Western Australia. A core from 1,470 feet in this bore was found to contain the uppermost Block. The Tumblagooda Sandstone is probably of Lower Silurian age. Permian or lowermost Triassic ammonoid Xenaspis. The exposures of Tumblagooda Sandstone near Wicherina consist of fine- to very coarse-grained, The formation was named the Kockatea Shale by Playford and Willmott in et al. grey to yellow, well-sorted sandstone, which is McWhae (1958). It consists of partly calcareous, light partly silicified. The sandstone is crudely to well -bedded and sometimes shows cross-bedding. grey shale, grading into siltstone, with subor- Scattered well-rounded pebbles and cobbles of dinate interbedded medium- to coarse-grained quartz and quartzite are a feature of these ex- sandstone. posures of the formation. At the large water In the Geraldton area the Kockatea Shale is tank 24 miles west-south-west of Wicherina known with certainty only from the Geraldton Dam, many pebbles and cobbles have weathered Racecourse. Municipal, and Station Yard bores. out of the formation and are scattered over the In the Municipal Bore the unit is 1,091 feet thick surface. and overlies Precambrian gneiss, while in the The relationships between the Tumblagooda Racecourse Bore it is 1,131 feet thick, without Sandstone and the over-lying Jurassic sediments having reached the base of the formation. In cannot be seen in the exposures near Wicherina. both bores the Kockatea Shale is overlain by However 54 miles north of Northern Gully (off Jurassic sediments. the map) the Lower Jurassic Chapman Group Dr. Glenister. who has examined the can be seen resting unconformably on the Tum- ammoniod Xenaspis from the Racecourse bore, blagooda Sandstone. The Tumblagooda Sand- favours a Tatarian (uppermost Permian) dating stone overlies the Precambrian granitic rocks for the formation ‘McWhae et al. 1958 >. On the unconformably. Only one satisfactory dip could other hand Mr. B. E. Balme, from a study of be measured in the exposures of the formation the spore, pollen and microplankton assemblages, near Wicherina, at ( 879400 >. There the unit is believes that it is more likely to be lowermost crudely bedded and cross-bedded, but it appears Triassic. though he does not rule out the Tata- to strike 140°, and dip 15 west. rian dating. The only fossils known from the Tumblagooda Although the Kockatea Shale is not definitely Sandstone are invertebrate tracks, which in- known to outcrop in the Geraldton area, it could dicate an early Palaeozoic age. However there conceivably be present. The Greenough Sand- is evidence to suggest that the formation is at stone. which is tentatively dated as Lower Juras- least in part of Lower Silurian age, though it sic, shows lithological similarity to parts of the may extend down into the Ordovician. This Kockatea Shale, and they may be partly equiva- dating is indicated by the fact that the forma- lent. The only certain exposures of the Kocka- tion appears to underlie conformably the Middle tea Shale in the Perth Basin are found near the Silurian Dirk Hartog Limestone in the Dirk junction of Kockatea Gully with the Greenough Hartog 17B bore (McWhae et aL 1958). River. The exposures of the Tumblagooda Sandstone near Wicherina are only a few feet thick. How- Jurassic ever on the Murchison River it appears that the In the Geraldton District Jurassic sediments unit is at least 6,000 feet, and probably exceeds are known to extend from the northern end 10,000 feet in thickness. It is probably present of the Moresby Range as far south as Mt. Hill, at depth throughout most of the Perth Basin and both marine and continental deposits are and is believed to be a continental fluviatile found in this area. The marine transgression deposit laid first down following the major is known to have extended inland at least as far period of movement along the Darling Fault, in as Eradu, on the Greenough River. Lower Silurian or late Ordovician times. Although a Jurassic age is proved for the Johnson et al. (1954) correlated the exposures marine sediments, one formation being accur- of Tumblagooda Sandstone Wicherina with near ately dated as Middle Bajocian, there is no the Enokurra Sandstone of the Yandanooka direct proof as to the age of the continental Group, which is exposed 60 miles to the south- deposits, though they are tentatively placed in south -east. However the exposures near the Lower Jurassic. Wicherina have now to be essentially been shown In summary the sequence, from top to bottom, continuous with those of Tumblagooda Sand- is as follows: stone extending down from the Murchison River, Yarragadee Formation. and the correlation with this formation cannot —Alternating sand- and micaceous siltstone, with be seriously doubted. The lithological similarity stone beds of clay- shale, and conglomerate. with the Enokurra Sandstone is quite strong, stone, but this is not sufficient to establish correlation. Thickness: 51 \ feet (plus). 105 Champion Bay Group: only marine Jurassic outside the Geraldton area being in the area of the Hill Marine sandstone, shale, and limestone making found drainage up the following formations: River, 100 miles south of Geraldton. Kojarena Sandstone.—Brown ferruginous Laterite and Sand Plain sandstone, partly fossiliferous, with some clay- A considerable part of the area is covered by stone and shale near the top. laterite, which is often overlain by sand. These Thickness: 33 feet. deposits, which have a widespread development throughout Western Australia, are generally con- Newmarracarra Limestone .—Yellow to grey, sidered to be fossil soil horizons, formed during a massive, richly fossiliferous limestone. The more pluvial period, probably in late Tertiary limestone is subject to irregular alteration, and times. Laterite may have been deposited under a may be replaced by hematite, or leached of humid climate of seasonal rainfall as an illuvial calcium carbonate, leaving a residue of its clastic soil horizon zone of fluctuation of the wr ater impurities. table. The sand-plain which is frequently found Thickness: 16 to 38 feet. overlying laterite is believed to be the fossil Bringo Shale . —Black shale, with thin yellow eluvial horizon. phosphatic beds. Phosphatic nodules often found The laterite is up to 20 feet thick, and outcrops at the top. Dwarf pelecypods occur at several as large massive slabs around the sides of hills, horizons. giving rise to “breakaways.” The laterite show's Thickness: 0 to 8 feet. an irregular cellular structure, in some places partly concretionary. The weathered surface is Colalura Sandstone.—Predominantly brown to yellowish brown in colour, while freshly broken black ferruginous sandstone, rarely grading into surfaces are mottled in various shades of browm, yellow sandy claystone. Abundant fossil wood yellow', and red. is characteristic, and small oval nodules are The laterite consists of hydrous and anhydrous frequently found. Both nodules and fossil wood oxides of iron and aluminium, together with are sometimes phosphatic, but are usually re- quartz and minor amounts of other insoluble placed by limonite. Marine fossils rarely pre- minerals. The quartz present is usually of sand sent. grade, though some large, rounded pebbles are Thickness: 0 to 28 feet. occasionally found. Chapman Group: Overlying the laterite, wherever erosion is not too severe, Continental sandstone and arkose, with sub- deposits of quartz sand are found, w*hich are light grey to w7 hite ordinate shale, siltstone, and claystone, mak- on the surface, and yellow' at depth. This sand, which is probably no ing up the following formations: more than 20 feet thick anyw'here in the area, Moonyoonocka Sandstone . — Predominantly is believed to be essentially in situ, though it felspathic sandstone ar- yellow fine-grained and may have undergone some redistribution, kose, with subordinate shale, siltstone. and con- filling small depressions in the surface of the glomerate. Well-bedded, with cross-bedding and laterite. current ripple-mark common. Ferruginous con- Many of the hills in the Geraldton district cretions are characteristic, fossil wood is quite w^hich are capped by laterite are flat-topped, abundant, and fossil leaves are very rare. though the surface of the laterite is by no Thickness: 0 to 120 feet. means invariably horizontal. It may show* dips of anything up to 10° , as at Mt. Hill. Sloping Greenougli Saridstone . —Mottled red, white, laterite is also well seen on the three adjacent yellow, and purple argillaceous sandstone, poorly hills Sheehans Hill, Wizard Peak, and Browms sorted, with subordinate shale, siltstone, clay- Table. It is also found that, in general, the stone, and conglomerate. Poorly bedded, and laterite slopes towards the present river valleys, containing rare fossil wood. indicating that the general features of the Thickness: 0 to 280 feet. present drainage system w'ere already established at the time w'hen the laterite w*as forming. In the area examined, the total exposed The surface of the laterite in the Geraldton thickness of the Jurassic and questionable district show's considerable variations in eleva- Jurassic eediments probably does not exceed 550 tion, To the east, where there are large section exposes as this. feet. No single much as remnants of the old plateau, the laterite (or thickest section measured is at Wokatherra The the overlying sand) is usually more than 800 of the Hill at the northern end Moresby Range, feet above sea-level, reaching 863 feet near sediments where about 430 feet of are exposed, Kojarena, and 821 feet at Mt. Julia. However, the upper portion of the Champion Bay Group laterite ( in situ > at “Amuri Park” is 350 feet and the Yarragadee Formation being missing. above sea-level, while in the gravel pit at (644317) section is exposed in the Bringo rail- The upper it is only 210 feet above sea-level. It is clear way cutting, but there the Precambrian base- that laterite in the Geraldton area did not ment is so high that nearly all the Chapman form on a low -lying peneplain of the type postu- Group is excluded, and the total section is only lated by Woolnough ( 1918 > . It formed on a land 115 feet thick. surface already uplifted and eroded, the drain- Jurassic and associated lowermost Cretaceous age system found today having been already sediments are widespread in the Perth Basin, established during the period of laterization. and may exceed 8,000 feet in thickness. They This is discussed in more detail by Playford are predominantly continental sediments, the (1954). 106 The effects of laterization in the Geraldton base of the Newmarracarra Limestone, the lime- area are found to extend to considerable depths stone is completely leached. Exposures of below the laterite itself. These effects are most unaltered limestone are only found where the apparent with the Precambrian granitic rocks laterite is more than about 90 feet above the and the Newmarracarra Limestone. The gra- base of the formation. nitic rocks are found to be completely kaolinized The other sediments also show the effects of to depths of more than 100 feet below the lateritization. though not so clearly as the laterite. The upper part of this weathered zone Newmarracarra Limestone. The mottled zone is is typically mottled white and various shades of frequently visible close to laterite in all forma- red and brown, and is commonly known as the tions, and beneath this there may be a bleached mottled zone. The lower part is simply white zone, though this is seldom exposed, as removal due to kaolin, and is known as the pallid zone. of the iron oxide cement of many of the sand Many of the structures and textures of the stones makes them friable. original rock are preserved in its kaolinized A feature which is believed to be associated equivalent, particularly in the pallid zone. Thus with laterization is the occasional silicification gneissic structure is frequently clearly visible, of sediments. Near Mt. Hill, about J-mile west and in the Bring o cutting, the original ophitic of the summit, the sandstones of the Chapman texture can still be detected in a thin dolerite Group are silicified to a depth of 50 feet or dyke, despite the fact that the felspars are more. These sandstones are at an unknown completely kaolinized. depth below the original laterite surface, which is known to have been very irregular here, for The Newmarracarra Limestone is completely laterite flank of Hill, altered to depths of 80 to 100 feet beneath occurs on the north Mt. more than 100 feet below the summit, yet it does laterite. It is either replaced by hematite or not occur on the itself. simply leached of its calcium carbonate, leaving summit clastic impurities. In those a residue of the Quaternary Superficial Deposits places where the rock is clearly altered lime- In addition to laterite and sand- plain, other stone it has been mapped as Newmarracarra superficial deposits have a widespread distribu- Limestone, but wherever there is uncertainty, or tion in the area, but have not been studied in it approaches normal laterite in appearance, it any detail. These deposits include surface has been mapped as laterite. travertine, Coastal Limestone, Recent sand Alteration of the Newmarracarra Limestone dunes, and alluvium. All are of Quaternary age. by lateritization has been discussed fully in The deposits of travertine are found in small papers by Playford (1954) and Arkell and Play- patches throughout the area, where they are ford (1954), and will only be summarized here. exposed to erosion, giving rise to surfaces Newmarracarra Limestone replaced by hema- covered by fragments of the white, lime-rich tite is free of calcium carbonate, and varies in rock. colour from deep red to almost black. Moore Alluvial deposits have been spread over most (1870) gave analyses of two blocks of the hema- of the coastal plain, and inland around the tite and they contained 49% and 56%, of metallic margins of the Victoria Plateau. Alluvial sand iron. The hematite was probably derived by deposits are commonly found around remnants leaching of the overlying ferruginous Koj arena of the plateau, the sand having been washed Sandstone. from the tops of the hills where it previously Fossils are often very well-preserved in the covered laterite. hematite rock, either as moulds or as replace- Alluvial deposits are exposed in several parts ments. However, in some areas, e.g. in parts of of the Bringo cutting in old valleys cutting the Bringo cutting, the hematite rock shows a through the Koj arena Sandstone and Yarra- concretionary structure, and fossils are wholly gadee Formation. or partly destroyed. A leached zone is usually present between the Jurassic Stratigraphy hematite rock and the solid limestone. It has Chapman Group formed by removal of calcium carbonate, The name Chapman Group was introduced followed by compaction of the remaining by Playford, in Arkell and Playford (1954), for insoluble clastic impurities. Its composition is the continental sediments lying between the usually that of sandy, silty claystone, and it is unconformity with the Precambrian rocks and generally yellow in colour. This zone contains the disconformity with the overlying Champion few fossils, those which are present being inter- Bay Group. It was named after the Chapman nal moulds of ammonites and pelecypods. The River. The group was originally considered to material of these moulds was apparently low in be made up of two formations, the Greenough calcium carbonate, so that they were not des- Sandstone and the Moonyoonooka Sandstone, but troyed during leaching. was expanded by Johnstone and Playford (in The best exposure of the leached zone and McWhae et al. 1958) to include the Minchin associated hematite rock is in the Bringo cutting. Siltstone, which lies at the base of the group in There it can be seen that they are not sharply the Northampton-Hutt River area. As this separated, one grading irregularly into the formation is not exposed in the Geraldton area, other. it will not be discussed further in this paper. In the field the relationship between limestone The age of the Chapman Group is uncertain outcrop and elevation of laterite is quite owing to the lack of satisfactory fossils for apparent. Wherever the undulating surface of dating. It is not even certain that the forma- the laterite is closer than about 90 feet to the tions of the group form a continuous sequence. 107 — . However the three formations are tentatively re- the sandstone seems to be merely reworked, garded as being of Lower Jurassic age, keeping highly weathered granitic material, and it is in mind that one or more could be Lower Trias- frequently only the relic gneissic structure in sic or Upper Permian. the weathered Precambrian, or the presence of a few quartz pebbles in the sediment, which (i) Greenough Sandstone serves to distinguish them Definition.—The name Greenough Sandstone One of the most distinctive features of the was proposed by Playford, in Arkell and Play- formation is its mottled colouring, red and ford (1954), for the unit of sandstone with white being most common, but shades of grey, minor shale, claystone, and siltstone, lying be- yellow, blue, purple, and brown are also found. tween the granitic rocks and the Moonyoonooka Black or dark grey sediments have not been Sandstone in the area east of Geraldton. The found in this formation. The origin of this name was taken from the Greenough River, the mottling is not definitely known, but most of largest river flowing through the area. it is certainly secondary, as it transgresses the The type section of the Greenough Sandstone bedding. Along joints it is often found that is on “Moonyoonooka” property, at 28° 47’ 4” S., the sandstone is both irregularly bleached and 114° 48’ 3” E. <722319). The following is a hardened. However much of the mottling does description of this section. not seem to be connected with joint planes, Moonyoonooka Sandstone. Comformably over- though it is almost certainly secondary, and due lying to circulating ground waters. Since the sand- stones are mottled even when hundreds of feet Greenough Sandstone (90') below laterite, there appears to be no connection Thickness feet with the mottled zone which is found immedi- (6) Sandstone. clayey, mottled grey, ately beneath laterite. white, yellow, red. and purple; in places grades into sandy claystone; The mineralogy of the formation is very top marked by a 3" bed of hard, fer- monotonous. Quartz and clay minerals, pro- ruginous claystone with purplish bably mainly kaolinite, together with a little bands .. 45 muscovite, are usually the only ‘ light” (5) Conglomerate, intraformational. mot- minerals. tled grey, yellow, and red; contains Felspar is rare, only being found near the base angular and rounded fragments of of the formation. The heavy mineral suite is clay in a matrix of course sand ... 5 also very restricted. Zircon is by far the most (4) Claystone, mottled red and white, abundant of the non-opaque minerals, with massive ...... 1\ (3) Sandstone, clayey, yellow, mottled minor amounts of anatase, monazite, tourma- red and white; contains scattered line, and rutile. The extreme rarity of meta- fragments of angular and rounded morphic minerals (kyanite, staurolite, claystone: fills scour channel in and underlying shale, conglomeratic at garnet) is very noticeable, as they are much base; bleached and hardened along more abundant in the other formations. joints 11 (2) Shale, white to yellowish, mottled red, yellow, and purple; massive clay- Stratigraphic relationships.—In the Gerald- stone at base, but otherwise shaly; ton district the Greenough Sandstone rests un- lenses of sandstone found in the uppermost two feet; hard ferrugin- conformably on the weathered, irregular sur- f ous beds up to \' thick common face of the Precambrian rocks, and is overlain throughout 23 conformably by the Moonyoonooka Sandstone. felspathic, (1) Sandstone, conglomeratic, In the Hutt River-Bowes River area, near brown to reddish brown, ferruginous, contains poorly rounded quartz peb- Northampton, the Greenough Sandstone rests bles up to 6" in diameter; a few fel- with a slight disconformity on the Minchin and occasional boulders spar pebbles, Siltstone. of weathered gneiss at the base 5 unconformably overlying Archaean gneiss The contact between the Greenough Sand- (weathered) stone and the Moonyoonooka Sandstone is ex- posed at the type section, where it is clearly Lithology.—The Greenough Sandstone is typic- defined, but this contact has seldom been ob- ally a mottled red and white argillaceous sand- served elsewhere owing to the poorness of out- stone, which is medium to coarse-grained, and crop. In this section the mottled argillaceous is very poorly sorted and poorly bedded. Lenses sandstone and sandy claystone of the Green- of siltstone, claystone, and shale are present in ough Sandstone are overlain conformably by a the formation, with occasional quartz pebble black shale containing numerous lenses of grey conglomerates. Lenses of intraformational con- sandstone and conglomeratic sandstone. As glomerate occur rather commonly throughout black and dark grey sediments are not known the section, and cut-and-fill structure, giving in the Greenough Sandstone, this shale is as- rise to local unconformities, has been noted at signed to the next formation, the Moonyoo- several localities. Cross-bedding is rarely de- nooka Sandstone, which in some areas con- veloped in the sandstones, which are usually tains significant amounts of dark massive, with no bedding visible. Sand grains shale. show little or no rounding, but quartz pebbles are sometimes well-rounded. Distribution and thickness.—The distribution of the Greenough Sandstone is limited It is often difficult to recognize the exact by the position of the unconformity, as the weathered elevation of the Precambrian basement, and if Precambrian rocks frequently appear to grade up this rises higher than about 530 feet above sea- into the Greenough Sandstone. This is because level, the formation pinches out. Since the 108 — — basement rises gradually, though irregularly, The sediment making up the Greenough from west to east, the formation thickens to Sandstone is believed to be largely locally derived the west. from the nearby granitic hills. It fills valleys in the irregular surface of the rocks. At Wokatherra Hill, the most northerly and Precambrian The is unsorted, most westerly section studied, the greatest sediment almost having a kaolinitic cement, and closely resembles the thickness of the Greenough Sandstone, 280 feet, weathered granitic rocks both in composition has been measured. The formation has thin- and appearance. Rounding of sand grains and ned to 60 feet at Appa Hill, and pinches the bedding are always poor, confirming that out near Grant Siding. Outside the area exam- the sediment has undergone little transporta- ined the formation is known to reach a maxi- tion. mum thickness of 310 feet, at Kings Table Hill. The formation is absent over a large part of Economic Aspects.—The Greenough Sandstone the area examined, for around Bringo, “Tib- has been used to a limited extent as a building- radden,” “Sandspring,” and “Minnenooka,” the stone, and as such it is rather well-suited. The colouring is attractive, it is Precambrian is sufficiently high to exclude it. mottled and as never strongly consolidated, it is easy to work. Exposures of the Greenough Sandstone are in Small quarries have been opened at “White poor, for the sediments are usually general Peak” and “Moonyoonooka” Stations for the weakly lithified. In the area mapped in detail purpose of extracting this stone. the most typical outcrops of the Greenough Sandstone occur on two small hills at (69834), ( ii > Moonyoonooka Sandstone though the type section is the only continuous Definition.—The name Moonyoonooka Sand- section exposed. Other good outcrops of the stone was introduced by Playford, in Arkell and formation are found on “White Peak” property, Playford (1954), for the continental sediments, along the western flank of the Moresby Range, predominantly felspathic sandstones and arkoses, and in a few railway cuttings near Grant between the Greenough Sandstone, or the Pre- Siding. cambrian rocks, and the overlying marine Colalura Sandstone. The name is taken from Fossils and age.—The only fossils which have “Moonyoonooka” Station, which embraces a been found in the Greenough Sandstone are large part of the area mapped in detail (Plate 5). rare, poorly preserved fragments of wood. Moonyoonooka is also the name of a small rail- way station on the Geraldton-Mullewa line. The age of the formation has not been defi- The type section of the formation is on nitely established owing to the lack of fossil “Moonyoonooka” Station and overlies the type evidence, but it is tentatively placed in the section of the Greenough Sandstone. It com- Jurassic. However it may be Lower Triassic or mences in a creek bed at 28° 47' 18" S., 114 47' Upper Permian in age. 36" E. (714315), and continues up a hill to (714313). The following is a description of this Environment of Deposition . —The Greenough section: Sandstone is considered to be a fluviatile sedi- ment deposited around elevated areas in the Colalura Sandstone. Disconformably over- Precambrian rocks. Most of the sediment is lying— probably locally derived, having undergone little Moonyoonooka Sandstone (103') transportation. Thickness Feet. A continental, fluviatile origin of the sedi- (6) Arkose and felspathic sandstone, very ments is indicated by the following features: fine- to medium-grained, partly silty, chiefly yellow, occasionally white and (a) Marine fossils are absent, the only grey; contains some thin interbedded fossils which have been found being shales and siltstones; well-sorted, and well-bedded; shows cross- of usually fragments wood. bedding. current ripple-mark, and oc- (b) Individual strata are laterally imper- casional mud-cracks; some thin intra- formational conglomerates are present; sistent, characteristic feature of a ferruginous concretions are common, fluviatile deposits. barite concretions rare; fossil wood in the centre of ferruginous (c) Typical colours found in the formation common concretions; one fossil leaf found 66 are red, brown. The colour- yellow and (5) Sandstone, medium-grained. brown ing matter is ferric oxide, which is ferruginous. massive; outcropping normally reduced under marine, paludal, prominently Va shales and fine-grained, ( 4 i Interbedded or lacustrine environments, and is best cross-bedded felspathic sandstone; preserved under non-reducing fluviatile variegated yellow, grey, and white; environment. some beds have incrustations of water-soluble salts 11 (d) Subaerial exposure of the sediments is (3) Shale, black, carbonaceous, contain- indicated by the prevalence of intra- ing indeterminable plant fragments .... 5 (2) Sandstone. conglomeratic, brown, formational conglomerates and breccias. ferruginous, massive, lenticular, out- They indicated hardening and cracking cropping prominently. with well- of clays due to exposure to the air. rounded quartz pebbles; contains fossil wood l followed by scouring of flood-waters, rare (1) Shale, black, carbonaceous, with incorporating the hardened blocks in lenses of brown sandstone, sometimes the succeeding sediment. Local uncon- felspathic. conglomeratic, and con- fossil wood: sandstone formities often associated with the taining rare are lenses most abundant near the base, intraformational conglomerates, and where they are several feet long, and these are known to be quite typical of on the average 3 in. thick 19 fluviatile deposits. conformably overlying Greenough Sandstone. 109 Lithology.—The Moonyoonooka Sandstone con- Among the non-opaque heavy minerals, kya- sists for the most part of poorly consolidated nite and tourmaline are the most abundant, felspathic sandstones and arkoses, which are while staurolite, rutile, and zircon are well re- predominantly yellow, but also white, grey, red, presented. There are minor amounts of other and brown. These sandstones are well-bedded, non-opaque minerals present. The most notice- often very thin-bedded, and both cross-bedding able feature of the assemblage is the abundance and current ripple-mark are commonly found. of the metamorphic minerals kyanite and In the area mapped in detail these indicate a staurolite. and the relatively low percentage of current direction, which though variable, is pre- zircon. This is in marked contrast to the Green- dominantly from the south-east. ough Sandstone, where zircon is comparatively abundant, while kyanite and staurolite are very The sandstones are usually fine- to very fine- rare. grained, and contain lenses of shale, siltstone, coarse sandstone, and conglomerate, which are Stratigraphic Relationships.—Over most of dove-tailed together, conglomerate sometimes the area studied the Moonyoonooka Sandstone cutting through shale. The lenticular nature of rests conformably on the Greenough Sandstone. these beds is very noticeable. The shales are However in those places where the Greenough usually white, grey, or black in colour, while Sandstone pinches out against hills in the Pre- the coarse sandstones and conglomerates are cambrian rocks, the Moonyoonooka Sandstone usually brown. Intraformational conglomerates rests unconformably on these rocks. are sometimes found, together with rare mud- cracks. The Moonyoonooka Sandstone is overlain dis- conformably by the Colalora Sandstone, the The sand grains for the most part show little basal formation of the marine succession. This rounding, though an occasional rounded grain is disconformity has little relief and is best seen found, and in conglomerates the quartz pebbles in Bringo cutting, where the phosphatic and granules may be well-rounded. the sandstone of the Colalura Sandstone rests on are rather Small ferruginous concretions typical Moonyoonooka Sandstone, whose bed- formation. These vary characteristic of the ding planes are truncated at the surface of con- considerably in shape, but the most typical are tact (see Plate 1, 1). subspherical, and from one to six inches in outer surface is usually yellow diameter. The Distribution and Thickness.—The Moonyoo- be brown or dark red. in colour, but may also nooka Sandstone has been recognised from near centres of the concretions usually consist The Kings Table Hill in the Northampton area to of yellow, grey, or green unconsolidated powder, Mt. Hill. It extends inland as far as the Bringo surrounded by a hard limenitic shell. They cutting. have apparently formed by the decomposition of pyrite or marcasite. Some contain a piece Throughout the area examined, wherever the of limonitized fossil wood, which was once prob- Moonyoonooka Sandstone rests on Greenough ably pyritic or marcasitic. Sandstone and not the Precambrian rocks, its thickness varies little from 110 feet, the thick- A few barite concretions have been found est section measured being 118 feet at (713296), weathered out of the formation, both in the and the thinnest is 80 feet near Spion Kop type section, and at (723300*. It was not pos- (828326). The formation pinches out in those sible to fix accurately the horizon from which areas where the elevation of the Precambrian they were derived. rises higher than 640 feet above sea-level. The Moonyoonooka Sandstone shows a vari- The type section is the best known exposure able assemblage of minerals, which is in marked of the formation. Another good outcrop is at contrast to the Greenough Sandstone with its (723310), where it has been exposed by gully- monotonous suite. The “light” minerals con- ing combined with landsliding. Other typical sist of quartz, felspar, and muscovite. Felspar exposures occur at The Twins (608410), at Spion is usually present in sufficient Quantities to Kop (728327). and near “Woolanooka” (782337). designate the sandstones as felspathic, and fre- quently there is sufficient to call them arkoses. Fossils and Age.—Fragments of wood are the The felspar, which is usually rather fresh, con- only fossils commonly found in the Moonyoo- sists almost entirely of microcline and ortho- nooka Sandstone. These are sometimes present clase, though odd grains of albite and oligoclase in the centres of ferruginous concretions. have been noted. Altogether 27 samples, col- lected over a wide area from this formation, One fossil leaf has been found near the top have been examined microscopically to de- of the type section, but this is poorly preserved termine their felspar content. Of these, 13 were and is of doubtful value for dating. Dr. A. B. felspathic sandstones (10 to 24% felspar), 11 Walkom is of the opinion (in a written com- were arkoses (25% or more felspar), and three munication) that it could be a leaf of the Lin- were auartzose sandstones (less than 10%. fels- guifolium type, which would indicate a Meso- par). A noticeable feature of this examination zoic age, perhaps Jurassic or Rhaetic. was that of six samples from the type section, Owing to the lack of satisfactory fossil evi- five were arkoses. and the other was a fels- dence it has not been possible to date the Moon- pathic sandstone. yoonooka Sandstone, but it seems best con- Muscovite flakes are frequently present in the sidered as Lower Jurassic. It is probably sandstones, in quantities up to 5%. The flakes equivalent to part of the Cockleshell Gully occur along the bedding planes, so that the Sandstone of the Hill River area, and this sandstones split readily along these planes. formation has been dated as Lower Jurassic. 110 Fig. Ill PLATE 1. 1—Disconformity between Moonyoonooka Sandstone (beneath hammer) and Colalura Sandstone (about 18 inches thick) exposed in the Bringo cutting. The Colalura Sandstone is overlain conformably by Bringo Shale. Note truncation of bedding at the disconformity 2.—Exposure of Colalura Sandstone, showing abundant fossil wood enclosed in a matrix of ferruginous, con- glomeratic sandstone. The scale is 6 inches long. 112 1. 2. PLATE 2. —Newmarracarra Limestone with numerous Trigonia moorei. —Newmarracarra Limestone with several specimens of Pecten cinctus. 113 — - *L PLATE 3. 1 - Tlie western end of the Bringo cutting, showing Jurassic sediments and kaolinized granitic gneiss (right centre). Note the two small west-dipping faults cutting the Jurassic sediments. 2. —Small anticline exposed in the Yarragadee Formation near the eastern end of the Bringo cutting. 114 — Environment of Deposition.—The Moonyoo- ported a fairly considerable distance, for the nooka Sandstone is believed to be a continental local granitic rocks are rich in garnet. As the fluviatile deposit. It shows the following fea- abundance of felspar and other metastable tures indicative of fluviatile deposition, many minerals is very marked in the Moonyoonooka of which are also shown by the Greenough Sandstone, garnet would also have been com- Sandstone: mon had the sediment been locally derived. (a) Fossil wood is present and one fossil It is likely that deposition of the Greenough leaf has been found, while marine and Moonyoonooka Sandstones, and indeed of fossils are absent. all the continental Jurassic and Lower Cre- (b) A prominent feature of the formation taceous continental sediments in the Perth is the lenticular nature of individual Basin, was controlled by movement along the beds, with sandstones, conglomerates, Urella and Darling Faults. These sediments and shales dovetailing together in in- are believed to have been laid down in front of tricate fashion. This points strongly the active faults, and to have been derived by towards fluviatile deposition. The erosion of the area of steep, youthful topo- coarse sediments represent the channel graphy near the fault scarps. The Urella Fault deposits, and the finer-grained sedi- is believed to have been the dominant fault ments the flood-plain deposits, while in Jurassic times in the area north of Coorow, the dark shales represent deposits of while from about Coorow to the south coast the small lakes and swamps on the flood - Darling Fault is the main fault. It is import- plain. ant to note that no Jurassic sediments are known in the area east of the Urella Fault. (c) The characteristic colour of the forma- tion is yellow, a typical colour of fluvia- Champion Bay Group tile deposits which accumulate under non-reducing conditions, permitting The name Champion Bay Group was intro- preservation of such colours as red and duced by Playford, in Arkell and Playford yellow, which are due to ferric oxide. (1954), for the Jurassic sediments overlying the (d) Intraformational conglomerates and Chapman Group. The group is made up of four breccias testify to the subaerial ex- formations, the Cclalura Sandstone. Bringo posure of the beds. Shale, Newmarracarra Limestone, and Koja- rena Playford and Willmott (in (e) Cut-and-fill structure is present where Sandstone. coarse sandstones cut through shale or McWhae et al. 1958) redefined the Ko.iarena fine-grained sandstone. Sandstone, placing the upper part of the forma- tion as previously understood by Playford in (f) The abundance of cross-bedding and the Yarragadee Formation. The latter forma- current ripple-mark throughout the tion is not included in the Champion Bay formation is evidence of the shallow- Group. water nature of the deposit. The Champion Bay Group is of Middle Ju- (g) Arkose, though not invariably a fluvia- rassic age. One formation, the Newmarracarra tile sediment, is most typically deposited is accurately dated as Middle Ba- under the fluvial environment, so that Limestone, formations are probably the prevalence of this sediment, to- jocian, and the other gether with felspathic sandstones, sup- also of Baiocian age. ports the suggested mode of origin of (i) Colalura Sandstone the formation. Definition.—The name Colalura Sandstone was It is considered that following deposition of introduced by Playford, in Arkell and Playford the Greenough Sandstone, which rapidly filled (1954), for the sandstone unit resting on the dis- major depressions in the surface of the Pre- ccnformity with the Moonyoonooka Sandstone cambrian rocks, the Moonyoonooka Sandstone or the nonconformity with the Precambrian was spread over a broad flood-plain, above rocks, and overlain conformably by the Bringo which some basement hills still projected, Shale or the Newmarracarra Limestone. The the relief though was much less than when the formation is named after the Colalura Brook Greenough Sandstone was being deposited. The (770330), which drains the southern part of Moonyoonooka Sandstone is very well-bedded the area surveyed in detail, and flows into the and well-sorted, in marked contrast to the Greenough River. Greenough Sandstone. This is because the The type section of the Colalura Sandstone is Moonyoonooka Sandstone has been transported at Spion Kop (28° 46' 44" S., 114° 48' 24" E.). further than the Greenough Sandstone, and The following is a description of this section: has been spread layer-on-layer by successive (lateritized Lime- floods, whereas the Greenough Sandstone is lo- Laterite Newmarracarra cally derived. stone) overlying Sandstone (8 12') The prevalence of fresh felspar in the Colalura to potash Thickness Moonyoonooka Sandstone indicates that erosion feet of the source area was sufficiently rapid to pre- (1) Sandstone, very coarse- to medium- vent decomposition of this mineral. Rather grained. conglomeratic. yellowish brown, ferruginous, coarsely cross- rapid erosion is also indicated by the rich heavy bedded, containing a few thin clay- mineral suite, which includes such relatively stone beds; several horizons rich in unstable minerals as sphene. The extreme fossil wood and limonitic nodules 8-12 rarity of garnet in the non-opaque suite is evi- disconformably overlying Moonyoonooka dence that the sediment must have been trans- Sandstone. 115 — Lithology . The — Colalura Sandstone consists much as of . 1.47% P 2 O 5 The nodules in the almost entirely of sandstone, with minor claystone are yellowish and many have a black amounts of claystone, siltstone, and shale. The coating giving them a high surface lustre. In sandstone is frequently conglomeratic, and shape they are similar to the typical brown varies in colour from black and brown to nodules, and they usually contain a clayey yellowish -white, a dark brown being most nucleus, though the outer layer shows no pro- common. Sand grains may be appreciably nounced concentric structure. These nodules rounded or is unrounded, and their cement have as much as 23.8% of P 2 Ch, while the dark usually ferruginous, but is sometimes calcareous. brown nodules from the sandstone contain up A striking and characteristic feature of most to 6.1%. exposures of the unit is the presence of abundant The cementing material of the Colalura Sand- ferruginous fossil wood (see Plate 1, 2), and to stone is occasionally calcareous, as at the a lesser extent of oval-shaped ferruginous locality near “Woolanooka” (780238), and at nodules, generally about 2-inch long. The wood (873307), near “Sandspring.” varies in size from logs 3 feet long, to minute In some localities the sandstone is stained fragments. The nodules and some of the fossil black by manganese oxide. This is seen well in wood are believed to have been originally phos- the Bringo cutting, where the sandstone and phatic, and to have been ferruginized during claystone of the formation show some black weathering. They are still phosphatic in the patches due to a thin coating of manganese exposures of Colalura Sandstone in the Bringo oxide. cutting and near “Woolanooka” (780238). The “light” minerals in the sandstone remain- The phosphatic nodules, which are dark ing after treatment with acid consist of rounded brown in colour, have a pronounced concentric and angular grains of quartz, and smaller structure, and frequently contain a nucleus of amounts of felspar and muscovite. The per- greyish clay. It is possible that this structureless centage of felspar was not sufficient to designate clayey interior is of coprolitic origin, and the any of the samples examined as being felspathic, nodule has grown by concentric addition to but it is higher than in any formation other this nucleus. In the nodules which have been than the Moonyoonooka Sandstone. Only potash replaced by limonite. this concentric structure felspar has been recognized, and the percentage is lost, though the clay centres remain. is highest in the finer-grained sandstones, one The nodules are apparently syngenetic sample containing 8%>. (formed before burial in sediments), for the The heavy mineral suite is insoluble residue left after treatment of the rather variable, the most distinctive feature being the abundance nodules with acid is fine clay or sand, despite of the metamorphic minerals the fact that the nodules are themselves enclosed kyanite. stauro- lite, and garnet. The in a coarse sand. nature of the heavy mineral suite seems to vary according to the The abundant limonite in the Colalura Sand- underlying rock. In the Bringo cutting the stone is probably not entirely secondary, for Colalura Sandstone rests on both the Moony- even in the Bringo cutting where the nodules oonooka Sandstone and the Precambrian are still phosphatic, the cementing agent in the gneisses. The heavy mineral residue from the sandstone is limonite, with perhaps some hema- formation at this locality is remarkable for its tite, and the nodules themselves contain some unusually large content of garnet, which forms ferric oxide. The reason for the complete more than 50%. of the non -opaque minera ls. replacement of the nodules by ferric oxide is not The Precambrian gneisses of this area are very certain, but it may well be connected with later i- rich in garnet, and the Colalura in tization. Sandstone the Bringo cutting no doubt derived its garnet Stratification is usually absent in the sand- from this source. On the other hand, specimens stones, though they are sometimes coarsely examined from localities distant from granitic cross-bedded. The sorting of the sandstones areas, where the formation overlies thick usually appears to be poor owing to the large deposits of Moonyoonooka Sandstone, contain amounts of fossil wood and nodules present little or no garnet. These specimens are found these may make up as much as 50% or more of to contain considerable quantities of kyanite the rock by volume. However, the sand remain- and staurolite, which were probably derived bv ing after treatment of the rock with acid is the reworking of the underlying Moonyoonooka often found to be quite well-sorted. Sandstone, which is rich in these minerals, but In the Bringo cutting the Colalura Sand- contains little garnet. stone shows a well-marked facies change from Stratigraphic . the typical brown sandstone with no marine relationships —The Colalura Sandstone usually overlies the Moonyoonooka fossils but abundant dark brown fossil wood and Sandstone, being separated phosphatic nodules, to a yellowish sandy clay- by a disconformity which shows little relief. In places however, stone with abundant marine fossils, and it overlies the Precambrian rocks, occasional fossil wood and phosphatic nodules. as the Moonyoo- nooka Sandstone lenses out against The nodules and fossil wood in this claystone buried hills. Conformably overlying the Colalura are different in appearance from those in the Sandstone is either the Bringo Shale sandstone, and they also contain higher or the Newmarracarra a per- Limestone. centage of PjsOs. The phosphatic wood is yellow, and the cell structure is clearly visible, even to Distribution and thickness .—The Colalura the naked eye. This fossil wood contains as much Sandstone is a thin, discontinuous, but persistent as 32.9% of P 2 O.S, whereas the fossil wood in the formation at the base of the marine section sandstone from the cutting contains only as throughout a large part of the Geraldton district. , — It is known to extend from near Howatharra is not unexpected, as phosphatic zones are com- Siding (north of the map) to Mt. Hill, and has monly found elsewhere in the world in associa- been recognized as far east as “Sandspring” tion with unconformities. (873307). (ii) Bringo Shale The Colalura Sandstone is absent over part of Definition. The name Bringo Shale was first the area, but where present it ranges up to 28 — used by Playford, in Arkell and Playford (1954), feet in thickness at (725340). Most exposures for the black shale which overlies the Colalura are only about 2 feet thick. Sandstone or the Precambrian rocks, and under- As the Colalura Sandstone is often well- lies the Newmarracarra Limestone. of the formation are consolidated, exposures The type section is exposed in the Bringo cut- slabs, which quite frequent, in the form of large ting (766364, 28° 44' 54 S., 114° 50' 54" L.) The may migrate some distance down the hill-slopes. following is a description of this section: Newmarracarra Limestone. Comformably over- Fossils and age.—As already described, the lying Marine Colalura Sandstone is rich in fossil wood. Bringo Shale (7 feet) fossils have also been found in the formation at Thickness several localities. The most important of these Ft. In. is the Bringo cutting, where a claystone unit (5) Shale, black, becoming yellow in the uppermost foot; phosphatic nodules in the formation contains numerous marine resting on top; several layers contain- fossils, preserved as moulds. Another locality ing small pelecypods 2 6 where fossils are abundant is at (715325), where (4) Claystone. yellowish brown, phos- they are preserved as moulds in a coarse-grained phatic, concretionary 2 ferruginous sandstone. (3) Shale, black; rich in small pelecypods 6 Claystone, yellowish brown, phos- The following is a list of fossils which have (2) phatic, concretionary ...... 4 been identified from the Colalura Sandstone: (i) Shale, black; abundant small pelecy- The pelecypods Astarte cliftoni, Astarte sp,. pods at the base 3 6 Lopha cf. marslii , Ctenostreon pectiniformis , conformably overlying Colalura Sandstone. Trigonia moorei, Ostrea sp., Oxytoma cf. decern - costa sp., and the belemnite and Isognomon Lithology.—The Bringo Shale consists of black Belemnopsis sp. shale with thin yellow phosphatic beds. A layer There are also several unidentified species of of phosphatic nodules is present at the top of the pelecypods and gastropods, and one echinoid unit, at the contact with the Newmarracarra spine, a shark tooth, a reptilian tooth, and a Limestone. The shale contains some small car- reptilian vertebra were found in the Bringo bonaceous fragments of wood and a few beds of cutting. marine fossils. All the species which have been identified are The yellow phosphatic clay beds are only a also present in the Newmarracarra Limestone, few inches thick, and show pronounced con- which is known to be of Middle Bajocian age, cretionary structures. The phosphate content and it seems probable that the Colalura Sand- averages 3.3% of F-O, The phosphatic nodules, stone is also Bajocian in age. which are not common, are flattened, smooth, bulging, asymmetrical bodies, which are up to Environment of deposition.—The Colalura 6 inches long, and 2 inches thick. They show Sandstone represents the basal shallow-water only a poorly defined concentric structure. The deposits of an advancing sea. The clastic con- upper surface of the nodules often shows a stituents were largely derived by reworking from series of small pits. Sections show that these the underlying Moonyoonooka Sandstone and pits cut through the concentric structure of the Precambrian rocks. A shallow-water en- the nodules, indicating that they are secondary, vironment of deposition is indicated by the and it seems possible that they were formed by coarseness of the sandstone and the large-scale boring organisms. Another feature of the outer cross-bedding. Moreover, it is difficult to visua- surface is a series of cracks which penetrate lize such large quantities of wood being in- about i-inch into the nodules. These are sub- corporated in the sediment except under very parallel, and are apparently shrinkage cracks shallow water conditions. produced when the nodules solidified. The phosphate (P2O5) content of the nodules varies The source of all the fossil wood in the forma- in the Bringo cutting to 26.8% near tion is not easy to explain. If it has been carried from 7.6% in by rivers, then the sediments carried by those “Sandspring”. rivers would tend to mask the wood. It is pos- Stratigraphic relationships.—The Bringo Shale sible that the wood represents the vegetation on the Colalura Sandstone, or which was growing on the low-lying flood-plain rests conformably on the Precambrian rocks. Both of the Moonyoonooka Sandstone, which was en- unconformably in section exposed gulfed as the sea advanced. Against this hypo- relationships are visible the cutting. thesis is the fact that no fossil stumps have been at the Bringo found embedded in situ in the Moonyoonooka Overlying the Bringo Shale is the Newmarra- Sandstone. carra Limestone. A layer of phosphatic nodules The origin of the phosphatic nodules in the at the contact between the formations suggests formation is not known. However the occurrence an interval of non-deposition, so that they are of these nodules immediately above the dis- probably separated by a diastem, though they are conformity with the Moonyoonooka Sandstone essentially conformable. 117 Distribution and thickness.—The Bringo Shale there were periods when the bottom was quite has a rather limited distribution. It has been well-oxygenated. However, as the benthonic traced at the surface from the Bringo cutting fossils are only found in relatively thin bands, to near “Sandspring” <872307), and as far south with black unfossiliferous shale in between, the conditions w’ere apparently anaerobic during as (848249 ). It is probably present in bores in most of the time the shale was accumu- the Eradu area, underlying the Koj arena Sand- when lating. stone, and resting on the Lower Permian Irwin River Coal Measures. The cause of the stagnation is to be found in the irregularity of the surface of the Precam- The Bringo Shale appears to have been de- brian rocks. It is clear in the Bringo cutting posited only in the restricted environment ly- that the shale has accumulated in a barred ing to the east of Precam brian ridges. Thus basin on the eastern side of a hill or ridge of the unit is present in the Bringo cutting section, Precambrian rocks. On the western side of this to the east of a Precambrian ridge which ridge the Bringo Shale is absent, as this area reaches its highest point near Bringo Station, w: as apparently part of the open ocean, with free but it is absent on the western— side of this circulation, at the time when the shale was ridge, in the Grant Siding “Moonyoonooka” accumulating in the restricted environment to area (see section A-B, Plate 5. and Fig. 1.) the east of the ridge. It is not knowm wdiether No section of the formation has been seen the ridge was belowr sea- level wT hen the shale which is more than 8 feet thick, and where it wr as deposited. If it wT as submerged, the depth rests on the Colalura Sandstone it is usually of water must have been small, so that free about 7 feet thick. At the type section the connection with the open ocean w^as prevented. thickness is 7 feet, near “Sandspring” (872307) Some change must have occurred in the con- it is 8 feet, and at (848249) it is 5 feet. ditions of circulation following deposition of the The Bringo Shale is poorly exposed through- Colalura Sandstone. In the Bringo cutting sec- out the area examined. The best section is the tion this formation contains a rich benthonic r clearly Bringo cutting, but elsewhere there is no con- fauna w hich grew under normal condi- tinuous section exposed. tions of free circulation. It is possible that during Colalura times there w: as free connection Springs commonly issue at the contact be- with the open ocean through some opening tween the Newmarracarra Limestone and the winch w’as barred before deposition of the Bringo Bringo Shale, and the running water often ex- Shale commenced. Alternatively the restriction poses the shale to some extent. typical A ex- may have followed a slight relative fall in sea- ample is found one mile east of Bringo (775358), level, making the bar more effective. where there is a good spring of fresh water is- The phosphatic nodules at the top of the suing at the contact between the two forma- formation may have been deposited in the form tions. of a gel. This is suggested by their flattened, irregularly rounded shape, which is typically like Fossils and age.—The only fossils which have that of a gel mass, and also by the presence of in been found the Bringo Shale are those from skrinkage cracks on the outer surface of the the type section. At this locality there are sev- nodules. These may have formed as the gel eral layers in the shale which are rich in contracted on solidification. dwarfed pelecypods, predominantly a species of Meleagrinella, together with some oysters. Rare (iii) Neivmarrctcarra Limestone gastropods, and guards of Belemnopsis are also Definition . The Newmarracarra Limestone found. Balme (1957) has described a small as- — was defined by Playford, in Arkell and Playford semblage of fossil spores and pollen grains in (1954 ). The formation overlies a sample of the formation from the Bringo cut- either the Bringo ting. Shale, the Colalura Sandstone, the Moonyoo- nooka Sandstone, or the Precambrian rocks, and The Bringo Shale is believed to be of Bajocian underlies the Koj arena Sandstone. age. The layer of phosphatic nodules at the The name is taken from “Newmarracarra,” top of the formation indicates a probable gap in a well-known sedimentation prior to deposition of the Middle pastoral property in the Geraldton district. Bajocian Newmarracarra Limestone, but this gap The name “Newmarracarra” had previously was probably only of very short duration. been used in a stratigraphic sense by Glauert (1926), who defined the “Newmarracarra Beds” Environment of Deposition .—The Bringo Shale as the fossiliferous beds exposed in the “Nineteen was deposited in an environment having re- Mile” (later Bringo) railway cutting, from W'hich stricted circulation, resulting in anaerobic con- the fossils described by Whitehouse (1924) ditions on the bottom. Under such conditions were obtained. Actually Whitehouse’s fossils the benthonic fauna is absent or restricted, and were probably obtained from a railway well the action of scavengers in eliminating organic near Bringo, but in either case they certainly material derived from the surface waters is pre- vented. Nearly all black shales in the geological came from the limestone, and Glauert’s name record are believed to have formed in this way must be used in reclassification. (Twenhofel 1950). Teichert (1947), apparently independently, As the Bringo Shale contains several layers proposed the name “Newmarracarra Series” for with dwarf benthonic pelecypods. and as no iron all the marine sediments of the Geraldton dis- sulphide has been found in the shale, restriction trict, but Glauert’s earlier usage clearly has of circulation was apparently not complete, and priority. — — The type section of the formation is on Round It is noticeable that the percentage of clastic 31" east, Hill, near Grant Siding (729351, 28° 45' S., impurities in the formation rises to the 114° 48’ 23” E.) The following is a description as those elevated areas in the Precambrian of this section: rocks still projecting above the earlier sedi- on the Kojarena Sandstone. Conformably overlying ments are approached. For example, from Northern Gully to “Tibradden” Newmarracarra Limestone road Thickness (836367). there is an outcrop of cross-bedded Feet. calcareous sandstone at the base of the lime- yellow-grey, sandy, (4) Limestone, light stone, and all the limestone is very sandy. The hard, massive, outcropping in large hill of Precambrian slabs; few fossils 2 formation abuts a buried this locality, and almost certainly (3) Limestone, light yellow-grey, weather- rocks near ing greyish white, hard, massive, out- pinches out against this hill. On the other i- cropping in large slabs; richly fossil hand the base of the limestone to the west (as ferous ... 8 at (690297), which is several miles from such (2) Limestone, light yellow-grey, clayey, is soft, massive; richly fossiliferous ... 21 elevated Precambrian areas) comparatively (1) Limestone, light yellow -grey, sandy, free of clastic impurities. outcropping as clayey, hard, massive, The high sand content around the granitic large slabs, richly fossiliferous .... 2 hills is probably not due to erosion of these disconformably overlying Moonyoonooka hills the Newmarracarra Limestone was Sandstone. when accumulating. This is indicated by the fact that the quartz grains are comparatively well- Lithology.—The Newmarracarra Limestone, rounded. and must have undergone rather pro- where it has not undergone secondary altera- longed abrasion before deposition. They could tion, usually consists of limestone composed of great extent entire or little-broken shells. It has a variable not have been abraded to any accumulating, for these content of clastic impurities, and rarely grades while the shells were is probable into a calcareous sandstone. show little evidence of wear. It that the sand was rounded while the Colalura The limestone is generally massive, hard, and Bringo Shale were being de- smooth-weathering, outcropping as large slabs Sandstone and posited. During this time the sea probably did which frequently break off, and tend to migrate not cover the granitic hills, and rounded beach down the sides of hills making it difficult to sands may have accumulated around these is- say when the slabs are in situ. lands or promontories. The rounded sand now of the limestone varies from yellow The colour found in the limestone may represent this sand red, the most usual being yellow, and grey to which was redistributed during deposition of frequently weathering grey. The red coloration the Newmarracarra Limestone. is secondary, and is due to the presence of finely divided hematite in the rock. The most striking feature of the heavy min- eral suite is the unusually large quantity of The limestone has been subjected to a great epidote present, as this mineral is only found deal of secondary alteration throughout the quantities in the other formations. area examined. Over the most of this area a in small mineral assemblage is large part of the limestone has been either re- Otherwise the heavy Sandstone, placed by iron oxide (mainly hematite), or rather like that of the Colalura of metamorphic leached of calcium carbonate, leaving a residue with a fairly high percentage of its clastic impurities. Only in the small area minerals, including garnet. around the type section near Grant is the lime- stone thought to be unaltered throughout, and Stratigraphic relationships.—The Newmarra- even there it is possible that the sandy claystone carra Limestone was deposited in different parts overlying the limestone outcrop is really leached of the area on either the Bringo Shale, the limestone. The leached zone is found between Colalura Sandstone, the Moonyoonooka Sand- the hematite and the unaltered limestone, and stone, or the Precambrian rocks. The contact the thickness of alteration is very variable. This with the Precambrian rocks is a nonconformity, with alteration of the limestone is connected and that with the Moonyoonooka Sandstone is a lateritization, and has been discussed already. disconformity. The contact with the Bringo The limestone is often stained red by hematite Shale and the Colalura Sandstone is believed to without complete removal of calcium carbonate. be essentially conformable, though the units may This is not connected with lateritization and is be separated by a diastem. overlies Bringo often found where the limestone The Newmarracarra Limestone is overlain con- Shale, with springs issuing at the contact. formably by the Kojarena Sandstone. The insoluble residue from the limestone consists of clay, rounded grains of quartz, a Distribution and thickness.—Unaltered New- little felspar, an occasional flake of muscovite, marracarra Limestone has a very limited dis- and a small quantity of heavy minerals. The tribution in the Geraldton district, the most percentage of these clastic impurities is usually extensive outcrops being found in the area map- rather high, most samples being sandy, argil- ped in detail. Elsewhere outcrops are very laceous limestones. The quartz sand present sporadic, as the limestone has been largely is rounded, having an average roundness of altered by lateritization. The hematite rock about .29. This value is considerably higher and underlying leached zone can be readily re- than that for sand in the other formations, and cognized as altered Newmarracarra Limestone indicates relatively prolonged abrasion of the in the field, and have been mapped as such. sand. On the other hand, the intensely altered lime- 119 stone close to true laterite is not readily re- found is Fontannesia clarkei and large numbers cognized, and for mapping purposes has been in- of this species were collected in the debris from cluded in the laterite. rabbit-burrows in the area about one mile of Bringo. The ammonites have Owing to the irregular alteration, the thick- south-east recently been the subject of a detailed study by ness of limestone is very variable, the thickest Arkell Playford 1954), and he exposures being near Round Hill, where up to Arkell (in and that the Newmarracarra Lime- 33 feet of unaltered limestone are exposed. has concluded stone can be referred to the Sowerbyi and per- Elsewhere the formation is invariably altered haps Sauzei and Humphriesianum Zones of the to some extent, so that at least the upper part European Middle Bajocian. is replaced by hematite or simply leached of calcium carbonate. Because of the irregular The following is a list of fossils which have leached zone, which causes compaction of the been recorded from the Newmarracarra Lime- formation, it is not possible to give accurate stone. It must be understood that most of primary thickness of the limestone at those these fossils were described many years ago, and localities where it has been altered. The thickest many of the names, particularly of the genera, section which has been measured is at (690297', need revision. These forms marked with an where the formation is about 38 feet thick. At asterisk, e.g. *Cristellaria cultrata , have not been this locality there are about 28 feet of limestone figured or properly described from the Newmar- and 10 feet of altered limestone. Nearly all of racarra Limestone. Their occurrence has this alteration is in the form of hematite, and merely been recorded, and there is some doubt the leached zone is very thin. In the Geraldton as to whether some of them are really present. Racecourse bore the formation may be 47 feet The Ostracoda. originally described by Chap- thick (from 186 feet to 233 feet). man (1904a), were recently discussed by Kel- At the Bringo cutting the unaltered limestone lett and Gill (1956), and they point out that the It is is up to 5 feet thick, but passes both laterally fauna needs complete re-study. certain and vertically into leached limestone (see Plate that all the fossils which have previously been 6). The leached zone is up to 8 feet thick, and described as coming from the Geraldton dis- is overlain by as much as 9 feet of hematite trict are from the Newmarracarra Limestone. rock. The contact between the leached and Foraminifera (Chapman 1904a, Moore 1870). hematite-replaced limestone is not well-marked, Bulimina gregorii, Cristellaria costata var. com- each grading gradually but irregularly into the pressa, C. costata var. seminuda, *C . cultrata, C. is only other. At this locality the formation daintreei, C. decipiens. C. cf. limata, C. promi- 17 feet thick, and has compacted considerably nula, C. rotulata . C. subalata, Discorbina rosa- zone. owing to the thick leached Flabellina dilatata, Haplophragrnium neco- cea , Exposures of the Newmarracarra Limestone M. solida, cornianum > Marginulina compressa, extend from near Howatharra Siding on the Polymcrphina burdigalensis, P. compressa, P. Geraldton-Northampton line (off the map) to gutta, Textularia crater, Truncatulina ivuellers- lense to east, Mt. Hill. It is known to out the torfi. Vaginulina intumescens, V. lata, V. and has been recorded during the recent Wapet schloenbachi var. interrupta , V. strigillata. survey as far inland as U miles south-east of Echinoidea (Whitehouse 1924). Cidaris sp. Eradu Pool on the Greenough River. It is ab- sent from bores around Eradu itself, though Vermes (Clarke 1867, Moore 1870. Etheridge both the Koj arena Sandstone and the Bringo 1910). Serpula conformis, *Serpula spp. Shale are apparently represented there. Byozoa (Whitehouse 1924). Berenicea cf. The Cadda Formation of the Hill River area, archiaci. 100 miles south of Geraldton. is a facies equiva- Brachiopoda (Clarke 1867, Moore 1870, lent of the Newmarracarra Limestone. The Etheridge 1910). Rhynclionella variabilis, Cadda Formation contains a high percentage of * Rhynchonella spp. in addition to limestone, sandstone and siltstone Pelecypoda (Clarke 1867, Moore 1870. Ether- and is also not as richly fossiliferous as the idge 1901, Maitland 1907, Etheridge 1910, Newmarracarra Limestone. Glauert 1910, Whitehouse 1924. Teichert 1940). * * Area sp., Lopha marshi, Avicula inaequivalvis , Fossils and age ,—The Newmarracarra Lime- Ctenostreon pe.ctiniformis Ciicullaea inflata , *C. stone is richly fossiliferous. and fossils are usu- , oblonga, C. semistriata, C. tibraddonensis, ally well-preserved, though they are frequently Meleagrinella sinuata Grypliaea spp., -H in- difficult to extract owing to the toughness of the , L. punc- matrix. In addition to the abundant marine nites sp., *Lima proboscidea Sowerby, tata, Modiola maitlandi , *Mytilus cf. gygerensis, fossils, fragments of wood up to about 2 feet long are not uncommon in the limestone. *M. sp., *Nucula sp., Ostrea tholiformis , Ostrea spp. Oxytoma decemcosta, * Pecten calvus, P. The most abundant fossils are the pelecypods, cinctus, *P. cf. frontalis, P. greenoughensis, *P. Trigonia moorei is far the most and of these by :: valoniensis, P. spp.. *Pema sp., Plicatula sp., common. This species is found, perfectly pre- Radula duplicata, Radula sp., Trigonia moorei, served, in great abundance thoroughout the formation, indeed some parts are composed Gresslya donaciformis, *Myacites liassianus, M. Astarte apicalis, almost entirely of masses of this shell (see Plate sanfordii, Pholadomya ovulum, cliftoni, *Cardium sp., *Cypricardia sp., 2 1 ). A , * *Isocardia sp., LUcina sp.. * Opis sp.. * Panopaea The ammonites, which are of prime import- rugosa, *P. sp., *Tancredia sp.. Teredo australis , ance in dating the formation, are seldom found * Unicardium sp. in any abundance, though there are at least 23 species known. The species most commonly Scaphopoda (Clarke 1867). *Dentalium sp. 120 S / ” — arena Sandstone Gastropoda (Clarke 1867, Moore 1870, Ether- The type section of the Koj is in the Bringo railway cutting (28° 44' 54" S., idge 1910). * Amberleya sp., *Phasianella sp., 114° 50' 54" E.). The following is a description Pleurotomaria greenoughensis, *Pleurotomaria, of this section: sp .*Trochus sp., Turbo laevigatus, * Turbo sp., Yarragadee Formation. Conformably over- Cerithium greenoughensis, *C. sp., *Chemnitzia lying sp., *Nerinctea sp., Rissoina australis. (Crick 1894). Nautilus perorna- Kof arena Sandstone (33') Nautiloidea Thickness tus. feet. lower Belemnoidea (Clarke 1867, Moore 1870, Crick (2) Sandstone, reddish brown, the half being mottled grey, brown, and 1894. Whitehouse 1924). Belemnites canalicula- yellow; bedding indistinct; marine inches tus, * Belemnites canhavii, *B. sp.. Belemnopsis fossils in a lens up to 6 thick, 19 feet above the base 31 sp. (1) Claystone, greyish white, mottled red; Ammonoidea (Arkell and Playford 1954). poorly bedded 2 Sonninia playfordi, Witchellia australica, Fon- conformably overlying Newmarracarra Lime- tannesia fairbridgei, F. clarkei, F. whitehousei, stone. F. spp., Otoites woodwardi, O. antipodus, O. depressus 70. australis, ( ?TrilobiticerasJ , Lithology.—The Koj arena Sandstone is com- fasciculatus P. cham- Pseudotoites leicharti, P. , posed predominantly of brown ferruginous pionensis, P. robiginosus, P. emilioides, P. brun- sandstone, with a little claystone at the base. nschweileri, P. spitifomits, P. semiornatus, P. The sandstone is medium- to coarse-grained, The unit is spp., Zemistephanus corona , Z. armatus, ?Z and is generally very well-sorted. spp.. Stephanoceras ( Stenunatoceras cf. sub- poorly bedded to massive, though cross-bedding coronatum, S. ( J aff. triptolemus. is sometimes present. Ostracoda (Chapman 1904a, Kellett and Gill The sandstones are composed of subangular grains of quartz, with little or no felspar, and 1956). “Cytliere” lobulata, “ Cytheropteron small quantities of heavy minerals. Compared australiense, “Loxoconcha” elongata, “L.” jur- with the preceding marine formations the assica, Procytlieridea sp. heavy mineral suite is marked by an increased percentage of the ultra-stable minerals zircon Environment of deposition.—The Newmarra- and tourmaline, and a corresponding fall in the carra Limestone is built up for the most part quantity of metamorphic minerals. of the remains of shallow-water benthonic organisms, predominantly pelecypods, which ac- Stratigraphic Relationships.—The Koj arena cumulated on the bottom of a shallow, warm Sandstone is found overlying the Newmarra- sea. Currents introduced a certain amount of carra Limestone, with apparent conformity, clay, silt, and sand, but the fact that these fos- throughout most of the area examined. In one sils show little evidence of wear, and the pele- area near Wicherina (945350) the Newmarra- cypod valves are often closed, indicates that carra Limestone is sometimes overlain directly these currents were not very strong. There was by the Yarragadee Formation, while in bores also a certain amount of drift wood in the sea, around Eradu (to the east of the area covered which on becoming waterlogged, sank to the by Plate 4) the Kojarena Sandstone appears to bottom and was incorporated in the limestone. rest on the Bringo Shale. Further north, near Following deposition of the Bringo Shale, the mouth of Kockatea Gully, the Kojarena there must have been a further subsidence (re- Sandstone disconformably overlies the Upper lative rise in sea-level) before deposition of the Permian or Lower Triassic Kockatea Shale. Newmarracarra Limestone. This subsidence ex- The Kojarena Sandstone is overlain, with ap- plains the change in environment from one of parent conformity, by the Yarragadee Forma- restricted circulation during deposition of the tion. Bringo Shale, to one of open circulation for the Newmarracarra Limestone. By covering or in- Distribution and Thickness.—The Kojarena creasing the depth of water over the elevated Sandstone is the most widely distributed of the Precambrian ridges, the region east of these Middle Jurassic marine formations. It extends ridges obtained good circulation. from Howatharra Siding (off the map) to Mt. Hill, and inland it is found all along the valley of the Greenough River north and south of (iv) Kojare7ia Sandstone Eradu and the lower reaches of Kockatea Gully. is probably present in the Geraldton Definition.—The name Koj arena Sandstone The unit Bore between 154 and 186 feet. was first published by Playford in Arkell and Racecourse Playford (1954). He defined it as the Jurassic In the area around Eradu the unit probably sediments, mainly sandstones, which overlie the reaches its thickest development. The thick- Newmarracarra Limestone in the Geraldton dis- ness from bores and exposures in this area is trict. The name is taken from Koj arena, a probably about 110 feet, whereas in the Gerald- small railway siding on the Geraldton-Mullewa ton area it does not exceed 33 feet, the thick- line. However, the limits of the formation have ness of the type section. It is not present in is since been revised by Playford and Willmott in the 47 i mile peg bore (off the man) which McWhae et al. (1958), the upper part of the situated close to the Urella Fault. In this bore formation as previously understood being in- the Yarragadee Formation rests directly on the cluded in the Yarragadee Formation. Kockatea Shale. 121 . Fossils and age.—The Kojarena Sandstone con- (6) Siltstone, sandy, with some inter- bedded fine-grained silty sandstone tains few fossils. In the Bringo cutting section and claystone; variegated yellow, at 20 miles 5 chains from Geraldton, there is a white, and red, thinly-bedded, partly thin fossiliferous lens up to 6 inches thick cross-bedded; contains some thin ferruginous bands and cannon-ball containing moulds of marine fossils. At several concretions 6 y2 localities, Hill and miles other such as Round H (5) Shale, silty in part, grey, grading east-north -east of Eradu, a few similar marine into siltstone, white to light grey: fossils have been found. Those which have been contains a few thin jarositic bands 5V2 (4) Siltstone. sandy, white to yellowish identified are Trigonia moorei , Cucullaea sp.. white, thinly bedded to fissile, grading Belernnopsis sp. These fos- Isognomon sp.,and into fine-grained silty sandstone; con- sils are also present in the underlying New- tains thin beds of grey claystone, marracarra Limestone, which is of Middle which is partly carbonaceous 6 Bajocian age. As the two formations are com- (3) Claystone, dark grey, carbonaceous, grading into siltstone; poorly bedded, formable, it is likely that the Kojarena Sand- containing carbonaceous wood frag- stone is also of Bajocian age. ments; yellow jarositic beds, irregular in shape, are present; an efflorescence Fragments of wood occur occasionally in the of minute gypsum crystals is present unit, and worm tubes are also sometimes found. in places ...... 5£ Environment of deposition.— The Kojarena (2) No exposure, due to channel filled with alluvium ...... 4 Sandstone is interpreted as being a shallow- silty, greyish white marine deposit. The presence of marine (1) Claystone. sandy, water to grey, mottled pink, poorly bedded, fossils in typical sandstones of the formation weathered; contains few thin yellow- shows the marine origin, and the high degree of brown ferruginous beds 7 sorting probably indicates that it was deposited conformably overlying Kojarena Sandstone. below wave-base. It represents the final phase Jurassic marine cycle. of the Middle Lithology.—The Yarragadee Formation is an interbedded sequence of sandstone and siltstone, Yarragadee Formation with lesser thicknesses of shale, claystone, and conglomerate. The sandstones are mainly poorly Definition.—The Yarragadee Formation was sorted, and are very coarse- to medium -grained. first named “Yarragadee Beds” by Fairbridge They are partly felspathic, though the felspar (1953). He used the name for exposures of is usually kaolinized at the surface. Exposures sandstone and siltstone on Yarragadee property, of the sandstones are commonly white, with 7 to 8 miles north of Mingenew. His usage was a mottled red-and-yellow colouring. The silt- followed by Johnson et al. (1954). The name stones are micaceous, and are usually white at was raised to formation rank by Playford and the surface, though in the subsurface they are Willmott (in McWhae et al. 1958). They often dark grey and carbonaceous. Bedding in included the “Monksleigh Beds” of Fairbridge the sandstones is generally poor, though cross- (1953) in the formation. Fairbridge’s type bedding is sometimes developed. The siltstones locality of the “Yarragadee Beds,” li miles are often thinly bedded to fissile. south-south-east, of Yarragadee Homestead, is the type of the Yarragadee Forma- retained as Stratigraphic relationships —In the Geraldton tion. However, the section exposed there is area the Yarragadee Formation rests with ap- faulting (it. is adjacent to the complicated by parent conformity on the Kojarena Sandstone, Urella Fault), and a satisfactory section cannot and the top is eroded or capped by laterite. be measured. The section of Yarragadee Formation exposed Distribution and thickness.—The Yarragadee in the Bringo railway cutting is proposed as a Formation is known to extend from near Howa- reference section for the formation in the tharra Siding in the north to the Moore River Geraldton area. This section is as follows: in the south. In the Geraldton-Mingenew area it is known to extend no further inland than Yarragadee Formation (511) the Urella Fault. It seems that no Jurassic sedi- Top of formation not exposed, overlain by ments occur to the east of this fault, which is Quaternary deposits. believed to have been active in Jurassic times. Thickness feet Exposures of the formation are sporadic, and (13) Sandstone, silty, coarse-grained, light are generally thin. Individual beds in the unit yellowish brown; poorly sorted 1 are markedly lenticular, and the differential (12) Claystone, white, unbedded, lenticu- compaction l associated with this results in very lar.' ... /z variable dips. (11) Sandstone, silty, coarse-grained. Light yellow-brown, unbedded, poorly sorted. 2 No exposures of the Yarragadee Formation in (10) Claystone, silty, white, unbedded; the Geraldton area are more than 80 feet thick, contains rare cannon-ball concretions; and it is doubtful if more than 100 feet of the lenticular IV2 formation is present in this area. However a con- (9) Sandstone, silty, coarse-grained, study of the Yardarino, glomeratic in part, light yellow-brown Dongara, Mingenew, unbedded, poorly sorted; quartz grains and Moora bores shows that the unit probably subangular 8 exceeds 4,000 feet in thickness in the deepest (8) Claystone, greyish white, unbedded, part of the Perth Basin, near the Darling Fault. lenticular ...... 1 (7) Sandstone, medium-grained, yellow- Fossils and age.—The only fossils known from brown, weil-sorted, unbedded; quartz grains are sub-angular; contains a few the Yarragadee Formation are plants, but none dark brown cannon-ball concretions ... 3 have been recovered from exposures of the formation in the Geraldton area. However The major structural feature of the Geraldton in the type area of the formation, 64 miles area is the Geraldton Fault. It was named by north -north-west of Mingenew, there are Jutson (1914), and has also been referred to as numerous well-preserved fossil leaves in a the “Moonyoonooka Fault” (Woolnough and white siltstone. Walkom (in McWhae et ah 1958) Somerville 1924). The evidence for the exist- has reported the following forms from ence of the fault is based on geomorphology and the deep bores at Geraldton. The fault itself this locality: Otozamites bengalensis , Otoza- mites feistmanteli, Otozamites bechei, Otoza- is not seen at the surface. mites cf. bunburyanus, Araucarites cutchen- Geraldton is situated on a coastal plain which sis Pagiophyllum sp. Brachyphyllum ex- is backed by a dissected scarp of Jurassic sedi- , pansum, Elatocladus plana, and Retinosporites ments overlying the Precambrian basement. indica. Walkom considers that these fossils are Jutson suggested that this is a retreated fault of Middle or Upper Jurassic age. However Balme scarp. The scarp in itself is not sufficient (1957, and written communication) has ex- evidence for the existence of a fault, but the amined samples from the Mingenew bores and hypothesis is confirmed by two deeo bores in the from a shaft only 2 miles north-west of the Geraldton area—the Racecourse and Municipal type locality, and he finds a probable Lower bores. The Racecourse bore was drilled with Cretaceous spore and pollen assemblage. These calyx equipment in 1896-98, and was aban- samples are in a similar stratigraphic position doned at a depth of 1,531 feet without reaching in the formation to Walkom 's fossil leaves. basement. Some of the cores were preserved Balme has also reported on the palynology of from the bore, and these have been examined. samples from the Yarragadee Formation in The section in the bore is interpreted as: 0-53 the Dongara. Yardarino, 474 mile-peg, and feet, Quaternary; 53-400 feet, Jurassic: 400-1,531 Moora bores. These suggest that the unit feet, Lower Triassic or Upper Permian (Kockatea ranges from Middle Jurassic to Lower Creta- Shale). A few cores were retained from the ceous in age, with no evidence of a break with- Newmarracarra Limestone, which is believed to in the unit. be present between 186 and 233 feet. As the New- marracarra Limestone is flat-lying in its area of Environment of deposition.—In the Geraldton exposure (east of the bore) and the nearest area the Yarragadee Formation is believed to exposure is about 540 feet above sea-level, the have been deposited under continental, fluvia- throw of the fault since the Jurassic can be tile conditions, associated with movement along expected to be of the order of 750 feet. However, the Urella Fault. A continental environment the throw on the fault at the unconformity be- of deposition is indicated by the rapidly altern- tween the Kockatea Shale and the Precambrian, ating lithologies, the lenticular nature of in- is believed to exceed 1,500 feet, based on the dividual beds, the lack of marine fossils and depth of this unconformity in the bore and its presence of plant fossils, and the variegated elevation at the surface. Hence it seems likely colouring of the unit. that there were two distinct periods of movement Continental sedimentation is frequently as- along the Geraldton Fault, the first during the sociated with faulting, which results in con- Lower Triassic or late Permian, or between the tinuing elevation of the source area. As the Lower Triassic and the Jurassic, and the second Yarragadee Formation is not known to occur east after the Middle Jurassic. of the Urella Fault, it seems quite likely that The Geraldton Municipal bore struck granite this fault active was during Jurassic times. at 1,435 feet. As the Racecourse bore was still The Urella Fault dies out to the north, and in sediments at 1,531 feet, the unconformity must in this area the Yarragadee Formation thins, dip east. i.e. into the fault. and eventually disappears. The Urella Fault difficult to position the fault accurately also dies out to the south, but there the Juras- It is owing to the lack of outcrop on the coastal plain. sic and later movement is taken up by the Hence the position of the fault shown on the Darling Fault. map must be regarded as being only approx- imate. Structure In the Bringo cutting a series of small faults The Jurassic sediments of the Geraldton dis- are exposed which fracture both the Precambrian trict are practically horizontal, showing only very and the overlying Jurassic sediments. They are small dips, measured in terms of a few feet per normal faults, throwing down to the west, with mile. the downthrown block usually dipping east The base of the Newmarracarra Limestone is (Plate 3. 1 and Plate 6). There are seven of taken as a marker horizon, and in the area these faults, the largest throw on any of them mapped in detail this is found to decrease in being only four feet, and the total throw about elevation from 660 feet above sea-level in the 14 feet. The faults tend to die out in the soft Bringo cutting to 539 feet at (690297). This is Jurassic sediments, sometimes passing into a fall to the south-west of just over 20 feet per monoclines. These faults cannot be traced either are probably mile, equivalent to a dip of only about 1/5 . on the ground or on air-photos, and This is the maximum regional dip found any- only local features. They may have formed when where in the area, and is apparently due to movement occurred along the main Geraldton differential compaction over the sloping Pre- Fault, Their age is evidently pre-laterite, for cambrian basement. In the Bringo cutting the the contact between the hematite rock and the limestone is only 14 feet above the Precambrian. leached limestone (which are products of whereas at (690297) there are about 220 feet of lateritization) is almost unaffected by the fault- sediments beneath the limestone. ing. 123 One small pre-Jurassic fault was also noted Gentilli, J., and Fairbridge, R. W. (1951).—Physiographic diagram in the cutting, displacing a vein in the Pre- of Australia. (Geographical Press, Columbia University, New York.) cambrian rocks. Glauert, L. (1910).—A list of Western Australian fossils Minor faulting has also been found in the (systematically arranged). Bull. Geol. Surv W Aust. 36: 71-106. Chapman Group sediments exposed in a cliff- Glauert, L. face near “Ellendale” (895228). At this locality (1926).—A list of Western Australian fossils. Supplement No. 1. Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Aust. a west-dipping normal fault, having a throw 88: 36-72. of about five feet, is clearly visible. Gregory, A. C. ( 1849 ) .—Report on an expedition to the northward At the eastern end of the Bringo cutting there of the colony of Western Australia. The W. Aust. Almanack (for 1849): 69-80. is a small faulted anticline < Plate 3, 27. The Gregory. F. T. (1861).—On the geology of a part of faults are apparently due to tension at the Western Australia. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. crest of the anticline, and a small block 17: 475-483. of sediments has fallen between them. As there Gregory, J. W. (1849).—Notes on the geology of Western Australia. is no evidence The W. Aust. Almanack (for 1849): of compressive movements else- 107-112. where in the area, this anticline may well be Johnson. W., de la Hunty, L. E„ and Gleeson, J. (1951). due to folding over a tilted fault block at depth. —Interim report on the geology of parts of the Alternatively it may have formed by differential Irwin River, Lockier River, and Greenough River drainage basins. Annu. compaction over a buried ridge of Progr. Rep. Geol. Surv Precambrian W. Aust. (for 1949); 46-59. rocks. Johnson, W.. de la Hunty. L. E., and Gleeson, J. S. At (724298) a series of well-developed land- (1954).—The geology of the Irwin River and Eradu districts and adjacent country. Bull. slides is visible. The sides of hills the around Geol. Surv. W. Aust. 108. this locality are steep, and the hills are capped Jutson, J. T. (1914). —An outline of the physiographical either by laterite or by Newmarracarra Lime- geology (physiography) of Western Australia. stone. The unconsolidated sandstones and shales Bull. Geol. Surv. W. Aust. 61. Jutson, of the Moonyoonooka Sandstone have failed, re- J. T. (1934).—The physiography (geomor- phology) sulting in four main of Western Australia. Bull. Geol. faulted blocks and many Surv. W. Aust. 95. minor ones. They are classical examples of Kellett. Betty, and Gill, Edmund D. ( 1956).—Review of landslides, with the typical concave outline at Western Australian ostracod types in the the top of the hill, and a series of back-tilted Museum of Victoria. Australia. Aust. J. Sci. 18: 125-126. blocks. The complex manner in which the Moonyoonooka Sandstone Maitland, A. G. (1907). —Recent advances in the know- has been faulted ledge of the geology of Western Australia. Bull. during this landsliding can be seen in a nearby Geol. Surv. W. Aust. 26: 37-66. . gully • (723300) where the formation is well- Maitland. A. G. 1919 ) —A summary of the geology of Western Australia. Geol. exposed. The total throw of the landslides is Mem. Surv. W. Aust. 1: 39-42. about 170 feet. McWhae, J. R. H.. Playford P. E., Linder, A. W., Glen- ister, B. F., and Balme. B. E. 1 1958).—The strati- graphy of Western Australia. J . Geol. Soc. Aust. References 4: 1-161. Arkell, W. J.. and Playford, P. E. (1954).—The Bajociam Moore, C. (1862).—Contributions to Australian geology ammonites of and Western palaeontology. . Australia. Phil. Trans , Rep. Brit Ass., 32nd Meet- Roy. Soc. Land .. Ser. B, ,237: 547-605. ing: 83. Balme, B. E. (1957). —Spores and pollen grains from Moore. C. (1870). —Australian Mesozoic geology and the Mesozoic of Western Australia. C.S.I.R O. palaeontology. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 26: Aust. Coal Res. Sect. Tech. Comm. 25. 226-260. Campbell, W. D. il907>. —Notes upon the geological map Neumavr, M (1885). —Die geographische Verbreitung der of the Greenough River district." Bull. Juraformation, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 50: Geol. , Surv. W. A%ist. 26: 34-36. 57. Campbell, W. D. 1 1910). —The Irwin River coalfield and Playford, P. E. (1954). —Observations on laterite in the adjacent districts from Arrino to North- Western Australia. Aust. J. Sci. 17: 11-14. ampton. Bull, Geol. Surv. W. Aust. 38. Prider, R. T. (1952).—South-west Yilgarnia. Sir Douglas Chapman, F. (1904a).—On some Foraminifera and Mawson Anniv. Vol.. Univ. Adelaide: 143-151. Ostracoda from Jurassic (Lower Oolite) strata Sommer. F. von (1849).—A sketch of near Geraldton, the geological Western Australia. Proc. Roy formation and physical structure of Western Soc. Viet. 16 124 . CONTENTS OF VOLUME 42 Part 1 (published 19th March , 1959) 1. The Potential of Some Native West Australian Plants as Pasture Species. Presidential Address, 1958. By A. J. Millington 1 2. Permian Stratigraphy of the Woolaga Creek Area, Mingenew District, Western Australia. By G. Playford ...... 7 Part 2 (published 2nd June, 1959) 3. A New and Distinctive Species of Eriachne R. Br. (Gramineae) from Western Australia. By M. Lazarides 33 4. Tertiary Sediments at Coolgardie, Western Australia. By B. E. Balme and D. M. Churchill 37 5. Topographic Relationships of Laterite near York, Western Australia. By M. J. Mulcahy 44 6. The Status of Yarra singularis and Geotria australis (Petromyzontidae) By R. Strahan 49 7. Late Quaternary Eustatic Changes in the Swan River District. By D. M. Churchill 53 8. Notes on the Fabric of Some Charnockitic Rocks from Central Australia. By Allan F. Wilson .... 56 Part 3 (Rottnest Island: The Rottnest Biological Station and Recent Scientific Research. Edited by E. P. Hodgkin and K. Sheard) ( published 15th August, 1959) Foreword. By A. J. Fraser .... 65 9. Introduction. By H. Waring 65 10. Rottnest Island as a Location for Biological Studies. By A. R. Main 66 11. History of the Rottnest Biological Station. By E. P. Hodgkin 68 12. Geology of Rottnest Island. By Brian F. Glenister, C. W. Hassell, and E. W. S. Kneebone 69 13. The Vegetation of Rottnest Island. By G. M. Storr, J. W. Green, and D. M. Churchill 70 14. Physiology of the Quokka. By S. Barker and J. Barker 72 15. Rottnest Field Studies Concerned with the Quokka. By J. W. Shield .... 76 16. The Birds of Rottnest Island. By D. L. Serventy and G. M. Storr 83 17. The Salt Lakes of Rottnest Island. By E. P. Hodgkin 84 18 Fresh Water and Brackish Water Swamps of Rottnest Island. By D. H. L. Edward and J. A. Watson .. 85 19: The Littoral Environment of Rottnest Island. By E. P. Hodgkin, L. Marsh, and G. G. Smith 85 20. Population Studies in the Littoral at Rottnest Island. By J. W. Shield 89 21. Student Training at the Rottnest Biological Station. By E. P. Hodgkin and J. W. Shield 90 22. Rottnest Island Board. By T. Sten 91 23. Bibliography. Compiled by D. L. Serventy and K. Sheard 93 List of Research Workers and Other Persons Mentioned in Reports 95 Part 4 (published 21st October, 1959) 24. The Effect of Frequent Burning on the Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) Forest Soils of Western Australia. By A. B. Hatch 97 25. Jurassic Stratigraphy of the Geraldton District, Western Australia. By P. E. Playford 101 The Royal Society of Western Australia Incorporated Council 1958-1959 President E. P. Hodgkin. D.Sc., F.R.E.S. Past President A. J. Millington. D.Sc. (Agric.)". Vice-Presidents R. T. Prider, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.Aust .I.M.M., F.G.S. N. H. Brittan, B.Sc., Ph.D. Joint Hon. Secretaries D. P. Drover, B.Sc., Ph.D. L. E. Koch, B.Sc. Hon. Treasurer R. D. Royce, B.Sc. (Agric.). Hon. Librarian G. G. Smith, M.Sc. Hon. Editor J. E. Glover, B.Sc., Ph.D. Alison M. Baird, M.Sc. C. F. H. Jenkins, M.A. R. J. Little. L. W. Samuel, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.I.C., F.R.A.C.I. A. C. Shedley, B.Sc., Dip.For. A. R. Tomlinson. A. F. Wilson, D.Sc., F.G.S. K. Sheard. D.Sc. Council 1959-1960 President R. T. Prider, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.Aust.I.M.M F.G.S. Past President E. P. Hodgkin, D.Sc., F.R.E.S. Vice-Presidents .... N. H. Brittan, B.Sc., Ph.D. D. P. Drover, B.Sc., Ph.D. Joint Hon. Secretaries R. W. George, B.Sc., Ph.D. L. E. Koch, B.Sc. Hon. Treasurer A. C. Shedley, B.Sc., Dip.For. Hon. Librarian G. G. Smith, M.Sc. Hon. Editor J. E. Glover, B.Sc., Ph.D. C. F. H. Jenkins, M.A. R. J. Little. M. J. Mulcahy, B.Sc. R. D. Royce, B.Sc. (Agric.). L. W. Samuel, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.I.C., F.R.A.C.I. N. S. Stenhouse, B.Sc. D. W. Stewart, B.Sc. (For.). A. F. Wilson, D.Sc., F.G.S.