Exhumation of ultrahigh-pressure rocks beneath the Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone, western Norway

Scott Johnston Bradley R. Hacker Department of Earth Science, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9630, USA Mihai N. Ducea Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Gould-Simpson Building #77, 1040 E 4th St., Tucson, AZ 85721, USA

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION ultrahigh-pressure) provinces, a lack of post- orogenic deformation, and the preservation of The Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone of Ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) terranes—which original tectonostratigraphic contacts between western Norway represents an archetype for range from km-scale nappes to tens-of-thou- the (U)HP provinces with structurally higher crustal-scale normal faults that are typically sands-of-square-kilometer provinces—experi- tectonostratigraphic units, provide a unique cited as one of the primary mechanisms ence rapid and near-isothermal decompression opportunity to reconstruct the history of an UHP responsible for the exhumation of ultrahigh- from metamorphic conditions within the coesite orogen and characterize UHP exhumation. The pressure (UHP) terranes. In this paper, we stability fi eld (>~27 kbar) to the upper crust at Norwegian (U)HP provinces are thought to have investigate the role of normal-sense shear plate-tectonic rates exceeding 10 mm/yr (e.g., been primarily exhumed by the Nordfjord-Sogn zones with respect to UHP exhumation using Baldwin et al., 2004; Glodny et al., 2005; Root Detachment Zone, a major top-W shear zone structural geology, thermobarometry, and et al., 2005; Parrish et al., 2006). To explain that extends >100 km along orogenic strike geochronology of the Hornelen segment of these impressive exhumation rates, a variety (Milnes et al., 1997; Andersen, 1998; Labrousse the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. The of kinematic models have been employed that et al., 2004). This quantitative study focuses on Hornelen segment of the zone is a 2–6 km incorporate one or a combination of exhuma- the Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn thick, top-W shear zone, primarily devel- tion mechanisms that include: wedge extrusion Detachment Zone to address a specifi c set of oped within amphibolite-grade allochtho- (e.g., Chemenda et al., 2000), channel fl ow (e.g., questions designed to characterize deformation nous rocks, that juxtaposes the UHP rocks of Beaumont et al., 2001), subhorizontal coaxial related to normal-sense displacement above the Western Gneiss Complex in its footwall thinning followed by non-coaxial removal of UHP terranes: (1) using structural geology and with lower-grade allochthons and Carbonif- the upper crust (e.g., Dewey et al., 1993), and electron back-scatter diffraction on quartz- erous-Devonian Basins in its hanging wall. normal-sense reactivation of the suture zone ites, we determine how strain was partitioned New thermobarometry and Sm/Nd garnet (e.g., Hacker et al., 2003). While all of these within the shear zone and across tectonostrati- geochronology show that these top-W fab- models cite normal-sense shear zones along the graphic contacts; (2) using thermobarometry, rics were initiated at lower crustal depths upper contact of the exhuming UHP terrane, we quantify the depth from which different of 30–40 km between 410 Ma and 400 Ma. the amount of offset and the tectonic setting in tectonostratigraphic units were exhumed and Structural geology and quartz petrofabrics which the normal-sense displacement occurred the depth at which normal-sense shear initiated; indicate that top-W shear was initially rela- vary drastically in the different models. These and (3) using Sm/Nd garnet geochronology, we tively evenly distributed across the shear differences in the style of normal-sense shearing constrain the timing of normal-sense displace- zone, and then overprinted by discrete have important geologic implications beyond ment with respect to (U)HP metamorphism. ductile-brittle detachment faults at slower the exhumation of UHP rocks, representing an Ultimately, our results are used to investigate strain rates during progressive deforma- essential step toward a better understanding of models for (U)HP exhumation and quantify the tion and exhumation. These results require fi rst-order plate-tectonic processes as far reach- component of UHP exhumation accomplished a three-stage model for UHP exhumation in ing as the kinematic evolution of continental through normal-sense shear. which normal-sense shear zones exhumed collision and orogeny, the formation and com- UHP rocks from the base of the crust along position of the lower continental crust, melt gen- GEOLOGIC SETTING initially broad ductile shear zones that were eration, the geometry and depositional patterns progressively overprinted by discrete duc- of syn-orogenic basins, and the forces driving The Scandinavian Caledonides formed tile-brittle structures. plate motion. through a series of orogenic events associated We present a case study from western Nor- with the closure of the Iapetus Ocean during the Keywords: ultrahigh-pressure rocks, exhuma- way that places important constraints on the Ordovician-Devonian, and culminated with the tion, Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone, low- style of normal-sense shearing associated with emplacement of the Caledonian nappe stack and angle detachment, western Norway, Hornelen UHP exhumation. The size and excellent expo- the formation of the Norwegian UHP provinces Region. sures of the Norwegian (U)HP (high-pressure/ as Baltica and Laurentia collided (Roberts and

GSA Bulletin; September/October 2007; v. 119; no. 9/10; p. 1232–1248; doi: 10.1130/B26172.1; 8 fi gures; 4 tables; Data Repository item 2007209.

1232 For permission to copy, contact [email protected] © 2007 Geological Society of America Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

Sturt, 1980; Cuthbert et al., 1983; Gee et al., metamorphic conditions in these basement Following continental subduction and UHP 1985; Hacker and Gans, 2005). The Caledonian gneisses range from upper-amphibolite facies in metamorphism, the Caledonides were reshaped nappe stack, best preserved in the foreland of the east near the foreland (Walsh and Hacker, by a major extensional event that rapidly eastern Norway and Sweden, consists of a series 2004), through UHP coesite-eclogite facies in exhumed rocks from lower crustal and mantle of tectonostratigraphic units (Fig. 1): fragments the west (Smith, 1984; Wain, 1997). The fel- depths into the upper crust. In the foreland, of Laurentia in the Uppermost Allochthon; ophi- sic gneisses of the Western Gneiss Complex this extension was accommodated through top- olitic mélanges, ocean-margin sediments, and include outcrop- to km-scale eclogite boudins W reactivation of older top-SE contractional outboard Baltica terranes in the Upper Alloch- that record northwestward increasing P-T con- detachments, and the nappe stack was exhumed thon; and imbricated basement-cover sequences ditions (Krogh, 1977; Carswell and Cuthbert, through muscovite closure to Ar by ca. 400 Ma representing distal regions of the Baltica margin 2003), suggesting subduction of Baltica beneath (Fossen and Dunlap, 1998). In the hinterland, in the Middle and Lower Allochthons (Gee et Laurentia up to UHP depths by 415–400 Ma muscovite cooling ages become progressively al., 1985; Roberts and Gee, 1985). These nappes (Krogh and Carswell, 1995; Carswell and Cuth- younger westward and down section from were thrust southeastward >200 km over the bert, 2003; Root et al., 2004; Kylander-Clark 400 Ma at higher structural levels in the east Proterozoic granodioritic-granitic gneisses et al., 2007). The Western Gneiss Complex is to 380 Ma in the westernmost UHP provinces of the Western Gneiss Complex, correlative overlain by complexly infolded orthogneisses (Root et al., 2005; Walsh et al., 2007). Most to the (par)-autochthonous Baltica basement, and paragneisses correlated with the structurally of this exhumation is thought to have occurred in a series of events that initiated as early as higher allochthons (Robinson, 1995). Eclogite through top-W, normal-sense displacement the Wenlockian (ca. 425 Ma, Andersen et al., boudins within these allochthons suggest that along a series of detachments that crop out 1990), and continued through 415–408 Ma in the allochthons were also involved in the Late- along the west coast of Norway, combined with the Upper and Middle Allochthons (Fossen and Caledonian UHP event (Terry et al., 2000; Root non-coaxial normal-sense shear and vertical Dunlap, 1998; Hacker and Gans, 2005). Peak et al., 2005; Young, 2005). thinning in the detachment footwalls ( Andersen

extensional structures 6°E 8°E ductile–brittle detachments UHP provinces top-W mylonites Western tectonostratigraphy

Devonian–Carboniferous basins Hornelen Upper Allochthon Region Middle Allochthon study area e 62°N Lower Allochthon n o

Z

Western Gneiss Complex t Hornelen n e & m h c Håsteinen Basins ta Gneiss e D n Kvamshesten Basin og –S rd fjo rd Caledonian N o Solund Basin N

Complex 61°N

Nappes 50 km

Bergen 6°E 8°E

Figure 1. Regional map of the Norwegian Caledonides showing the relative location of the Caledonian nappe stack, the Western Gneiss Complex, the Devonian basins, and the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1233 Johnston et al and Jamtveit, 1990; Milnes et al., 1997; Ander- and Cuthbert, 1994; Krabbendam and Dewey, cross-cutting quartz dioritic-granitic dikes and sen, 1998; Fossen and Dunlap, 1998). Of 1998). This previous body of work lays the con- lenses, and local amphibolite bodies up to 200 m these extensional detachments, the Nordfjord- ceptual foundation for the present quantitative in length. These cross-cutting dikes are variably Sogn Detachment Zone is the largest and best study of the strain portioning, metamorphic con- transposed into the foliation, many forming exposed, stretching ~100 km from Sognefjord ditions, and timing within the Hornelen segment asymmetric boudins; top-W shear-sense indi- to Nordfjord (Fig. 1, Norton, 1987). of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. cators are pervasively developed throughout The Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone is a the Svartekari Group. The Svartekari Group 2- to 6-km-thick shear zone with pervasively HORNELEN REGION orthogneisses are correlated with the Lower developed amphibolite-greenschist facies asym- TECTONOSTRATIGRAPHY Allochthon, whereas the structurally lower metric shear structures that fade down section Svartekari Group paragneisses may represent an into predominantly symmetric extensional fab- The tectonostratigraphy of the Hornelen overturned section of depositional cover to the rics (Andersen and Jamtveit, 1990; Dewey et al., Region was described by Bryhni and Grim- orthogneisses, or alternatively, could be part of 1993; Andersen et al., 1994; Wilks and Cuthbert, stad (1970) and mapped by Bryhni and Lutro the cover sequences unconformably overlying 1994; Johnston et al., 2007). This late-Caledo- (Bryhni, 2000; Bryhni and Lutro, 2000b, 2000a, the Baltica autochthon. nian extension was accompanied by Devonian- 2000c; Lutro and Bryhni, 2000). From the bot- The Eikefjord Group orthogneisses and the Carboniferous deposition of coarse conglomer- tom up, the Hornelen Region tectonostratig- Lykkjebø Group paragneisses, which overlie ates and sandstones in a series of extensional raphy includes the Western Gneiss Complex, the Svartekari Group, are considered to be a basins (Norton, 1987; Eide et al., 2005). During the Svartekari Group, the Eikefjord and Lyk- basement-cover pair within the Middle Alloch- progressive exhumation and cooling, the early kjebø Groups, and the Sunnarvik Group, which thon. The Eikefjord Group consists of (1) dark, ductile extensional fabrics of the Nordfjord- are loosely correlated with regional nappe alkalic, massive to banded, fi ne-grained, bio- Sogn Detachment Zone were overprinted and stack tectonostratigraphy: Baltica basement, tite-K-feldspar gneisses with common outcrop- at least partially excised by discrete ductile- the Lower Allochthon, the Middle Alloch- to km-scale boudins of anorthosite, and rare gar- brittle detachments (Braathen, 1999; Braathen thon, and the Upper Allochthon, respectively net-amphibolite and garnet-anorthosite bodies; et al., 2004). Deformation continued along these (Fig. 2). These rocks are in fault contact with, and (2) granitic augen gneisses and mega crystic detachments through the Late Permian and was and unconformably overlain by, the Devonian- augen gneisses variably altered to biotite-rich, reactivated in the Jurassic-Cretaceous (Eide et Carboniferous sediments of the Hornelen and albite-porphyroblast schists. The Lykkjebø al., 1997) but represents only the fi nal compo- Håsteinen Basins that defi ne the top of the tec- Group consists primarily of feldspathic quartz- nent of deformation responsible for the astound- tonostratigraphic section. ites with minor interlayers of muscovite schist, ing juxtaposition of footwall UHP eclogites with The Western Gneiss Complex is the lower- rare pebble conglomerates, and a distinctive, low greenschist-grade, hanging-wall Devonian- most tectonostratigraphic unit exposed within coarse, garnet-muscovite schist found along Carboniferous sediments across the shear zone the Hornelen Region. In contrast to the wide contacts with the Eikefjord Group. This garnet- (Osmundsen et al., 1998; Braathen et al., 2004). variety of rock types found in the overlying muscovite schist in the Lykkjebø Group imme- The Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn units, the Western Gneiss Complex consists of diately below and above the Eikefjord Group Detachment Zone, underlying the Håsteinen relatively monolithologic Precambrian orthog- suggests at least three structural repetitions of and Hornelen Basins, includes the longest and neisses that range from granite-granodiorite with individual basement-cover units, and an inverted broadest continuous segment of the zone, and local 1- to 2-cm K-feldspar augen, to relatively lower limb to the nappe. Subsequent to nappe the most complete exposures of allochthonous undeformed quartz monzonite with abundant emplacement, both the Eikefjord and Lykkjebø rocks in western Norway (Fig. 2). These rela- 2- to 3-cm K-feldspar augen. In contrast to the Groups were strongly affected by regional tionships make it ideal for investigating the amphibolite-facies conditions preserved within extension and carry a foliation characterized by mechanics of deformation within the shear these felsic orthogneisses, outcrop- to km-scale pervasive top-W shear fabrics. zone and the nature of the contacts between the mafi c boudins preserve older eclogitic assem- The Sunnarvik Group, correlated with (U)HP Western Gneiss Complex and its overly- blages that, along Nordfjord, range from UHP the Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite of the Upper ing, lower pressure allochthons. Noting signifi - in the west to HP in the east (e.g., Cuthbert et al., Allochthon, structurally overlies the Eikefjord cant structural omission beneath the Hornelen 2000; Young et al., 2007). The foliation within and Lykkjebø Groups. Consisting primarily of Basin, the extensional nature of the low-angle the host gneiss is cut by abundant, pegmatitic metavolcanic rocks overlain by a thin veneer of detachment surfaces was fi rst recognized by granitic to syenitic dikes. In the several hundred feldspathic quartzites and muscovite schists, the Hossack (1984), who suggested that the detach- meters below the contact with the overlying Sunnarvik Group is intruded by granodioritic to ment surfaces represent listric normal faults allochthons, these dikes become increasingly keratophyric igneous rocks, and is characterized responsible for opening the Devonian-Carbonif- deformed and transposed into the foliation, and by a greenschist-facies foliation that generally erous basins. This model was developed further symmetric fabrics are progressively replaced by lacks ductile asymmetric shear fabrics. by subsequent authors who defi ned the Nord- asymmetric fabrics. The Håsteinen and western Hornelen Basins fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone and recognized The Western Gneiss Complex is overlain rest unconformably on the Sunnarvik Group, that signifi cant extensional displacement also by metamorphosed Precambrian plutonic and whereas the northern, eastern, and western occurred within the multiple-km-thick packages sedimentary rocks of the Svartekari Group. The margins of the Hornelen Basin are in fault con- of top-W mylonites and asymmetric fabrics lowermost unit within the Svartekari Group tact with the Eikefjord and Lykkjebø Groups. located in the allochthons and upper levels of the consists of <100 m of interlayered coarse Sedimentary facies within the Hornelen Basin Western Gneiss Complex immediately beneath muscovite schists, marbles, quartzites, and vary from proximal conglomerates near the the detachment surfaces (Norton, 1987; Séranne rare quartz-pebble conglomerates. This parag- basin margins, to sandstones and distal shales and Séguret, 1987; Andersen and Jamtveit, 1990; neiss sequence is overlain by up to 1000 m of in the interior of the basin (Steel et al., 1985), Dewey et al., 1993; Andersen et al., 1994; Wilks muscovite-rich orthogneisses with abundant suggesting that these basins formed as isolated

1234 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007

Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone 61°35’ N 61°35’

`` ` ` ` lineation Devonian–Carboniferous basins Sunnarvik Complex (Upper Allochthon) Group Lykkjebø (Middle Allochthon) Group Eikefjord (Middle Allochthon) Svartekari Group Allochthon) (Lower Gneiss Complex Western (Baltica Autochthon) 2801N 2818J 3705H 6°00’ E 6°00’ 6°00’ E 6°00’ 3705A4 ample locations, major ductile-brittle ample locations, major

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2805D1 61°35’ N 61°35’ 3727C 3 1 Eikefjord Fault Eikefjord 1 3 3 2 1 1 2 set #2 2 set #1 set #1 striation striation set #2 striation striation 2 3 Standal Fault Figure 2. Geologic map of the Hornelen Region (based on mapping by Bryhni and Lutro, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c; this study) showing s 2. Geologic map of the Hornelen Region (based on mapping by Bryhni and Lutro, Figure hemisphere lower are All stereograms fabrics, and structural data. Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone shear faults, extent of top-W and princ illustrating slip direction, striations indicated by arrows circles, with fault plane orientations indicated by great indicated by points labeled 1–3.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1235 Johnston et al basins. Clast studies (Cuthbert, 1991), together the contact with the overlying allochthons, and and the lattice-slip direction rotates toward the with 1700–1600 Ma, 1000 Ma, and Ordovi- are pervasively developed throughout the Svar- shear direction during progressive deformation, cian detrital zircon populations (Johnston et al., tekari, Eikefjord, and Lykkjebø Groups in a 2- to LPOs can be used to investigate shear symme- 2003; Johnston, 2006), suggest sourcing from 6-km-thick shear zone. Asymmetric structures try, qualitatively assess constrictional-fl atten- the Sunnarvik, Eikefjord, and Lykkjebø Groups. within the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone ing strain, and determine active slip systems Bedding within the Hornelen sedimentary rocks include S-C fabrics, sigma and delta clasts, (Schmid and Casey, 1986). Diffraction patterns dips consistently 10–30° E across the length of shear bands (extension crenulation cleavage), were collected on 1.4 × 1-mm grids with a 5-µm the basin, yet despite this tilting and exagger- and asymmetric boudinage, and yield consis- step size, using a JEOL 6300 scanning electron ated stratigraphic thickness, the Hornelen Basin tently top-WNW sense of shear (Fig. 3B, C). microscope coupled with an HKL Nordlys cam- is apparently unaffected by either syn- or post- The Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone is also era. CHANNEL 5 HKL software was used to depositional faults of signifi cant offset, and characterized by a series of discrete ductile- index the diffraction patterns, create crystal ori- reached only low greenschist-facies conditions brittle, low-angle detachments, also, with top- entation maps, and ultimately defi ne and charac- (Norton, 1987). W displacement, that reactivated and cut the terize individual quartz grains by locating grain high-temperature asymmetric shear fabrics. The boundaries (identifi ed where lattice misorienta- STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY uppermost of these low-angle detachments, and tions exceed 10°). LPOs generated from crystal high-angle, E-W striking strike-slip and normal orientation maps were checked to ensure that The rocks of the Hornelen Region have com- faults juxtapose the top-W fabrics of the Nord- they were representative of the entire thin sec- plicated, polygenetic deformational histories fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone with the Sunnarvik tion by creating secondary LPOs from diffrac- with overprinting structures that formed sequen- Group and the Devonian-Carboniferous basins. tion patterns collected on cm-scale grids with tially during E-W Caledonian contraction and Consistent E-W lineations are not found in the step sizes much greater than the grain size. extension, followed by Late Devonian through Sunnarvik Group or the Devonian-Carbonifer- All the quartzite samples examined by EBSD Early Carboniferous N-S contraction, and mul- ous basins, indicating that ductile stretching dur- yielded strong LPOs with peak c-axis concen- tiple episodes of E-W extension active into ing Caledonian extension was limited to rocks trations ≥3 times mean uniform distribution the Permian (e.g., Braathen, 1999). Although below the Upper Allochthon. (Fig. 4). Top-W LPO asymmetry, distinguished the microfabrics and original orientation of by c- and a-axis patterns that are rotated coun- structures formed during Caledonian contrac- Quartz Lattice-Preferred Orientations in terclockwise with respect to the principal strain tion have been altered by subsequent deforma- High-Temperature Rocks axes, is observed in thirteen of sixteen samples tion, remnants of the Caledonian contraction and is indicative of simple shear. These LPO are preserved in isoclinal folds that repeat the To better understand deformation history, results support top-W shear in seven samples tectonostratigraphic section throughout the strain partitioning, and variability within the that exhibit top-W petrographic microstructures study area. The folds are most easily seen at Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone, quartz micro- and suggest that top-W shear was also important the outcrop scale within the Lykkjebø Group fabrics were analyzed from sixteen Lykkjebø in six samples that do not contain petrographi- quartzites, and have axes that trend WNW and Group quartzites at different tectonostratigraphic cally distinct asymmetry. Top-E LPO asym- axial planes that are subparallel to the foliation. levels throughout the shear zone (Table 1). Lyk- metry, observed in three samples that contain Locally, these folds are associated with a weak kjebø Group quartzites are arkosic, containing clear top-W shear bands, may be the result of axial planar cleavage defi ned by minor growth 20–40% feldspar and up to 10% muscovite. perturbations in the fl ow fi eld creating local top- and bending of micaceous minerals. At the map Petrographic observations reveal that feldspar E displacement within the thin section, back scale, the tectonostratigraphic contacts between is typically weakly deformed, with local undu- rotation of foliation due to well-developed shear the Lykkjebø and Eikefjord Groups are also iso- latory extinction, minor subgrain development, bands, or variations in the ages of the thin-sec- clinally folded (Fig. 3A), and the repetition of and late brittle fractures. Quartz is dynamically tion textures relative to the quartz LPOs. The the Lykkjebø Group above and below the Eikef- recrystallized in all samples, and textures (Hirth LPOs from the structurally high quartzites yield jord Group (Fig. 2) suggests signifi cant thicken- and Tullis, 1992; Stipp et al., 2002b) reveal that c-axis girdles compatible with a combination of ing of the local tectonostratigraphy, and that the the dominant recovery mechanism changed from (c), {r}, and {m} slip, and are dis- Middle Allochthon regional geometry may be subgrain rotation (SGR, typifi ed by quartz rib- tinct from LPOs in the lowermost quartzites that an overturned anticline. bons and core-and-mantle structures) at higher display c-axis maxima near the Y direction that During Caledonian exhumation, these early structural levels to grain-boundary migration are compatible with {m} slip (Fig. 4A, B). contractional structures were strongly over- (GBM, typifi ed by irregular grain shapes with This change from c-axis girdles to single c-axis printed by E-W extension and top-W shear fab- ‘island grains’ and lobate grain boundaries) in the maxima is consistent with the previously dis- rics that defi ne the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment lowermost quartzite unit (Fig. 3D, E, F). Top-W cussed petrographic observations that indicate Zone. In the Western Gneiss Complex, Svartek- shear fabrics—including mica-fi sh, shear bands, a change in recovery mechanism from subgrain ari, Eikefjord, and Lykkjebø Groups, this exten- and S-C fabrics (Fig. 3D, E, F)—were observed rotation to grain-boundary migration (Stipp et sional deformation is characterized by the devel- in ten of the analyzed samples, with the remain- al., 2002b) from higher to lower structural levels opment of a pervasive WNW-ESE stretching ing six displaying either indistinct or symmetric within the Lykkjebø Group quartzites. A-axis lineation that is defi ned by biotite, quartz ribbons, shear fabrics; top-E microstructures were not patterns at all structural levels and regardless and amphibole that either formed or rotated into observed in any of the quartzite thin sections. of shear-sense (Fig. 4) form maxima near the the stretching direction (Fig. 2). Although sym- Quartz lattice-preferred orientations (LPOs) X direction, and minima that plot in the X-Z metric fabrics dominate the bulk of the Western were measured from quartz-rich areas of the plane, or in the case where only (c) slip is Gneiss Complex, the asymmetric shear fabrics of samples using electron-backscatter diffrac- observed, in the X-Y plane. As opposed to con- the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone become tion (EBSD). Because the normal to the lat- strictional strain, which forms small circles near increasingly prominent in the 500–1000 m below tice-slip plane rotates toward the shear plane the X direction, or fl attening strain, which forms

1236 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

A Lykkjebø B

Eikefjord

C D 291 S 275

C

5 mm

E F 287

2 mm 5 mm

Figure 3. (A-C) Outcrop structures: (A) Overturned folding of the contact between the Eikefjord Group and the Lykkjebø Group, here shown with an upside-down basal conglomerate. (B) Penetrative shear bands in the Eikefjord Group indicating top- W (toward 279°) sense of shear. (C) Feldspar sigma clasts indicating top-W (275°) sense of shear in the Eikefjord Group. (D-F) Microstructures: (D) Quartzite sample 2806A2 from structurally high levels of the Lykkjebø Group showing top-W S-C fabrics and recrystallized grains mantling larger grains (white arrows) indicative of subgrain-rotation recovery. (E) Top-W, recrystal- lized feldspar sigma clast in quartzite sample 2804L31 from low structural levels of the Lykkjebø Group. (F) Detail of 284L31 showing lobate quartz grain boundaries indicative of grain-boundary migration recovery.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1237 Johnston et al

TABLE 1. MICROSTRUCTURAL DATA AND PIEZOMETRY FROM THE LYKKJEBØ GROUP QUARTZITES Sample Structural level Petrographic observations EBSD observations Piezometry

† Deformation mechanism Symmetry Slip plane D (µm) ± Symm. σ ‡ τ ‡ d (MPa) (MPa) 3701E3 D-B fault SGR top-W a, r & m 25.5 2.2 top-W 74.7 37.4 3701E4 D-B fault SGR top-W a, r & m 25.3 2.2 top-W 75.2 37.6 2819D high SGR/GBM top-W a, r & m 64.8 3.5 top-E 39.6 19.8 2805S§ high SGR top-W r & m top-W 2813D high BLG II symmetric a 38.5 3.0 top-W 56.5 28.2 3628D high SGR no clear r & a 39.3 3.0 top-W 55.7 27.9 2806A2 high SGR top-W r & m 39.8 2.5 top-W 55.2 27.6 2802S high SGR symmetric a, r & m 38.0 2.6 top-W 56.9 28.5 2803M high SGR/GBM top-W a, r & m 38.4 2.6 top-W 56.6 28.3 2801C high BLG/SGR symmetric a, r & m 40.3 2.6 top-W 54.8 27.4 2812A high SGR symmetric a, r & m 40.7 2.5 top-W 54.4 27.2 3630D high GBM top-W m 42.8 2.7 top-W 52.5 26.3 2802H1 low GBM top-W m 40.2 2.8 top-W 54.8 27.4 2802L low GBM top-W m 42.1 2.7 top-W 53.1 26.6 3705H low GBM symmetric m 48.3 3.0 top-W 48.4 24.2 2804L31 low GBM top-W m 55.3 1.7 top-W 44.2 22.1 2818J low SGR top-W r & m 38.2 2.8 top-E 56.8 28.4 2804L2 low GBM top-W m 41.3 1.7 top-E 53.8 26.9 # +5.3 +2.7 D-B fault avg. 25.4 2.2 74.4–3.5 37.2–1.8

# +1.9 +0.9 high avg. 39.7 1.8 55.2–1.5 27.6–0.8

# +7.9 +3.9 low avg. 46.7 7.5 48.3–3.7 24.1–1.9 Note: Abbreviations: D—grain diameter; D-B fault—ductile-brittle fault; high avg.—average of structurally high top-W samples; low avg.—average of structurally low top-W samples. †1σ. ‡σ τ σ d is calculated after Twiss (1977, 1980); , maximum shear stress, = 0.5* d. §Grain size data, and thus stress and strain rate, were not calculated for 2805S due to poor coverage of crystal orientation map. #2819D, 2818J, and 2804L2 were not used in average calculations for high and low structural levels because they have top-E LPO asymmetry. Average grain size estimates are weighted averages; reported stress estimates are population mode and 1 sigma errors derived through Monte Carlo simulations propagating grain size errors only.

small circles near the Y direction, these a-axis with pseudotachylites and fault gouge. The Two quartzite samples from the mylonite patterns are generally indicative of plane strain largest of these structures, the Hornelen-Sun- zone enclosing the low-angle Blåfjellet Detach- (Schmid and Casey, 1986). narvik-Standal Detachment system, juxtaposes ment at the south end of Størfjorden yielded Geometric mean-grain diameters, also mea- lower plate rocks with top-W ductile structures LPOs with c-axis girdles compatible with a sured from EBSD crystal-orientation maps, with upper plate rocks that lack top-W ductile combination of (c), {r}, and {m} were applied to grain-size piezometers to deter- structures, and defi nes the upper limit of the slip and a-axis patterns indicative of plane mine stress variations across the Nordfjord-Sogn high-temperature asymmetric fabrics within strain (Fig. 4C). Whereas both samples exhibit Detachment Zone (Table 1). The grain diameter the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone (Fig. 2). top-W microstructures including mica fi sh and in samples with clear top-W LPO asymmetry In contrast, similar low-angle structures in shear bands, and strong top-W LPO asymmetry increases slightly from 39.7 ± 1.8 µm at higher the footwall of the Hornelen-Sunnarvik-Stan- is observed in sample 3701E3, the symmetric structural levels to 46.7 ± 7.5 µm in the lowest dal Detachment system, such as the Blåfjellet LPO of sample 3701E4 is most likely the result level of the Lykkjebø Group quartzites; these Detachment, are discontinuous, accumulated of foliation back-rotation during the formation populations are signifi cantly different at the 95% less strain, and contain the high-temperature of late, well-developed shear bands. A mean confi dence level according to Student’s t-test. asymmetric fabrics of the Nordfjord-Sogn grain size of 25.4 ± 2.2 µm from these Blåfjellet Applying the grain-size piezometer of Twiss Detachment Zone in both footwall and hang- Detachment samples implies maximum shear (1977; 1980)—as recommended by Stipp et al. ing wall positions (Fig. 2). Fault-slip analysis stresses of ~37 MPa. (2002a)—yields maximum shear stresses of ~28 using stress inversion techniques applied to These low-angle detachments are cut by E- MPa and ~24 MPa for structurally higher and fault planes, striations, and displacement indi- W striking, high-angle normal and strike-slip lower Lykkjebø Group quartzites, respectively. cators (e.g., Ratschbacher et al., 1994; Ratsch- faults (Braathen, 1999; this study). Fault-slip bacher et al., 2003), on fault planes within and analysis of m-scale fault planes near the Eike- Late Ductile-Brittle Deformation related to the Blåfjellet Detachment, indicates fjord and Standal Faults indicates initial E-W continued top-W displacement during the fi nal stretching and vertical thinning strongly over- Subsequent to this high-temperature duc- stages of brittle motion along the Blåfjellet printed by E-W stretching and N-S shortening tile deformation, the asymmetric fabrics of Detachment (Fig. 2). Paleomagnetic data and (Fig. 2). This analysis is consistent with early the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone were 40Ar/39Ar geochronology on gouges from the E-W to SE-NW stretching followed by late cut by a series of discrete, low-angle duc- Dalsfjord Fault, a similar fault beneath the sinistral shear inferred for the E-W striking tile-brittle detachments that are characterized Kvamshesten Basin, indicate that these faults Eikefjord and Standal Faults. This late fault- by dm-thick zones of top-W, fi ne-grained remained active through the Permian and Juras- ing was accompanied by regional folding of mylonites overprinted by brittle fault cores sic (Torsvik et al., 1992; Eide et al., 1997). the entire tectonostratigraphy and resulted in a

1238 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

Figure 4A [c] crystal [c] crystal orientation map orientation map 2801C, L = 277, N = 939 2812A, L = 299, N = 1317

2.8 2.3 4.2 2.7 500 µm 500 µm 2813D, L = 282, N = 969 J2805S, L = 272, N = 978

4.5 6.2 2.4 500 µm 2.6 500 µm 2802S2, L = 215, N = 1545 2803M, L = 286, N = 1829

3.4 2.5 5.3 2.9 500 µm 500 µm 3628D, L = 275, N = 899 3630D, L = 277, N = 524 500 µm

4.6 2.3 27° 8.5 2.8 200 µm

2806A2, L =291, N = 1422 2819D, L = 284, N = 279 500 µm

2.9 5.2 500 µm 8.1 3.0 15°

Figure 4. Lattice-preferred orientations and crystal orientation maps of the Lykkjebø Group quartzites from (A) higher struc- tural levels, (continued on following page). series of open, W-plunging anticlines and syn- after 380 Ma, and possibly as late as 335 Ma quartz that change from GBM at lower struc- clines with 5- to 10-km wavelengths (Fig. 2). (Root et al., 2005). tural levels to SGR at higher structural levels, Stratigraphic evidence from the Kvamshesten In summary, the new structural data provide whereas maximum shear stresses were rela- Basin indicates that deposition was synchro- several new results constraining the key struc- tively constant at 24–28 MPa across the shear nous with N-S contraction, and suggests that tural events and styles of deformation in the zone. Third, continued top-W displacement the Devonian-Carboniferous Basins were ini- Hornelen Region during the Caledonian. First, within the zone occurred along discrete ductile- tially opened in a constrictional strain fi eld outcrop- to map-scale isoclinal folds within the brittle detachment faults with ductile envelopes (Chauvet and Séranne, 1994; Krabbendam and allochthons likely produced during early Cale- characterized by SGR recovery mechanisms in Dewey, 1998; Osmundsen et al., 1998). How- donian contraction are overprinted by top-W quartz and elevated maximum shear stresses of ever, these broad folds also deform Hornelen shear within the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment 37 MPa, and brittle cores containing pseudo- Basin deposits, the Blåfjellet and Hornelen Zone. Second, plane-strain top-W shear within tachylites and fault gouge. Finally, the top-W Detachments, as well as 40Ar/39Ar mica and K- the zone, restricted to the uppermost several hun- fabrics of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone feldspar age contours farther north in the West- dred meters of the Western Gneiss Complex and are cut by E-W striking strike-slip faults and ern Gneiss Complex, and indicate that at least the Svartekari, Eikefjord, and Lykkjebø Groups, folded into series of 5- to 10-km wavelength, some of this folding occurred in the upper crust is characterized by recovery mechanisms in W-plunging open folds.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1239 Johnston et al

Figure 4B

[c] crystal [c] crystal orientation map orientation map 2802H1, L = 265, N = 1166 2818J, L = 282, N = 1164

4.1 2.4 9.2 3.4 500 μm 500 μm 2802L, L = 270, N = 1200 2804L2, L = 287, N = 1077

9.0 3.1 4.2 2.3 500 μm 500 μm 3705H, L = 271, N = 648 2804L31, L = 287, N = 432

5.0 3.3 4.5 500 μm 13.5 500 μm Figure 4C 3701E3, L = 292, N = 526 3701E4, L = 294, N = 1710 500 μm

4.8 5.2 14° 9.2 500 μm 2.7 Figure 4 (continued). (B) lower structural levels, and (C) late ductile-brittle detachment faults. Following each sample name are the trend of the lineation (L = ) and the number of oriented points (N = ). Stereograms are lower hemisphere, equal-area plots with the sample foliation shown by a white line and lineation shown as a white dot. Contours indicate multiples of mean uniform distribution with the maximum value at the lower right of the stereogram. Shear-senses, indicated by arrows, were interpreted through con sideration of the asymmetry for both c- and a-axis distributions. Grayscale coloring in crystal orienta- tion maps refl ects crystal orientation with respect to the sample surface.

METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY End-member phase activities were calculated applicable, average intersections among all from microprobe spot analyses using AX reactions (Table 2, Fig. 5). Regional mapping and petrology in the (written and distributed by Tim Holland and The Devonian-Carboniferous basins are char- Hornelen Region indicate that metamorphic Roger Powell), and P-T estimates were deter- acterized by post-Caledonian low greenschist- grade increases down-section in a series of mined with THERMOCALC v3.21 using the facies metamorphism with the local develop- abrupt jumps across tectonostratigraphic con- February 2002 database (Powell and Holland, ment of a weak cleavage and metamorphic tacts (e.g., Wilks and Cuthbert, 1994). The 1988) to either calculate intersections among chlorite (Séranne and Séguret, 1987). The struc- extent of these metamorphic breaks and the well-known geothermometers and geobarom- turally lower Sunnarvik Group exhibits primar- depths from which each tectonostratigraphic eters, or, where preferred reactions were not ily Caledonian greenschist-facies assemblages unit was exhumed were quantifi ed with ther- defi ned by chlorite + muscovite + albite + quartz mobarometry. Phase compositions were mea- ± biotite ± epidote. Small, prograde-zoned gar- sured at University of California, Santa Bar- 1GSA Data Repository item 2007209, Table DR1, nets (≤1 mm) associated with albite + chlo- electron microprobe spot analyses, and Appendix bara, on a Cameca SX-50 electron microprobe DR1, details for Sm-Nd isotopic analysis, is avail- rite + muscovite + epidote in one gneiss from 1 operated at 15 kV and 15 nA (Table DR1), able at http://www.geosociety.org/pubs/ft2007.htm Stavøya indicate local albite-epidote-amphibolite using natural and synthetic mineral standards. or by request to [email protected]. facies conditions. Thermobarometry using all

1240 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

TABLE 2. THERMOCALC PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE ESTIMATES FROM THE HORNELEN REGION

† † Phase T P § Sample Unit Thermometer Barometer ‡ ‡ Cor. assemblage (°C ) (kbar) 3727C Sunnarvik THERMOCALC: average P–T peak 442 ± 71 9.1 ± 1.3 0.85 2801N Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 587 ± 63 14.9 ± 1.5 0.91 GARB GBM peak 610 ± 61 19.5 ± 1.2 0.62 2803AA1 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 541 ± 76 14.0 ± 1.8 0.92 GARB GBM peak 549 ± 72 15.8 ± 1.4 0.46 2803AA2 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 537 ± 78 16.4 ± 2.1 0.94 GARB GBM peak 524 ± 70 13.8 ± 1.4 0.36 GARB GBMP retrograde 631 ± 96 11.6 ± 1.7 0.94 GARB GBM retrograde 630 ± 89 11.4 ± 1.7 0.21 2805D1 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 540 ± 78 15.2 ± 2.0 0.94 GARB GBM peak 538 ± 72 14.7 ± 1.4 0.41 GARB GBMP retrograde 519 ± 72 8.5 ± 1.2 0.93 GARB GBM retrograde 530 ± 68 10.7 ± 1.4 0.17 2813X Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 618 ± 92 15.4 ± 2.1 0.95 GARB GBM peak 629 ± 87 17.5 ± 1.6 0.55 GARB GBMP retrograde 643 ± 96 10.5 ± 1.6 0.95 GARB GBM retrograde 650 ± 91 11.8 ± 1.6 0.24 3705A4 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 607 ± 92 17.7 ± 2.4 0.95 GARB GBM peak 605 ± 84 17.3 ± 1.5 0.58 2804L3 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 577 ± 84 15.2 ± 2.1 0.93 GARB GBM peak 571 ± 77 14.0 ± 1.5 0.38 2811BC2 Lykkjebø GARB GBMP peak 567 ± 82 15.3 ± 2.1 0.93 GARB GBM peak 562 ± 74 14.3 ±1.4 0.37 GARH GHPQ peak 537 ± 60 13.3 ± 3.4 0.59 2815A Eikefjord GARB GBMP retrograde 557 ± 78 9.5 ± 1.3 0.94 GARB GBM retrograde 561 ± 73 10.2 ±1.5 0.10 GARH GHPQ retrograde 524 ± 56 8.3 ± 1.1 0.77 2815MF Eikefjord GARH GHPQ peak 582 ± 63 18.0 ± 2.2 0.82 GARH GHPQ retrograde 596 ± 63 8.9 ±1.4 0.68 2815MM Eikefjord GARH GHPQ retrograde 628 ± 70 8.4 ± 1.3 0.73 2813V Eikefjord GARH GHPQ peak 577 ± 64 16.9 ± 2.2 0.77 Western Gneiss 2803CC Complex GrtCpx GrtCpxPhe peak 682 ± 73 24.6 ± 2.1 0.57 †Reaction abbreviations: GARB—garnet-biotite, GBMP—garnet-biotite-muscovite-plagioclase, GBM—garnet-biotite-muscovite, GARH—garnet- hornblende, GHPQ—garnet-hornblende-plagioclase-quartz, GrtCpx—garnet-clinopyroxene, GrtCpxPhe—garnet-clinopyroxene-phengite. ‡Uncertainties are ±1σ. §Correlation coefficient from THERMOCALC.

reactions among garnet + chlorite + muscovite + greenschist-facies retrograde fabrics. This garnet + oligoclase (An15–30) ± chlorite ± epi- albite in the latter rock yields 9.1 ± 1.3 kbar and overprinting relationship is best seen in a dis- dote/zoisite ± ilmenite (Fig. 6). Garnets up to 442 ± 71 °C, indicating burial to ~30 km. Simi- tinctive garnet-muscovite schist found in all 5 mm in diameter in the matrix and included lar conditions were recorded by Upper Alloch- the structurally repeated sections of the Lyk- within albite porphyroblasts display bell- thon rocks on Bremangerlandet where green- kjebø Group along the contacts with the Eike- shaped Mn profi les without rim spikes and schist-low amphibolite-facies fabrics defi ned by fjord Group. Characteristic albite porphyrob- U-shaped Mg# profi les that indicate prograde chlorite + mica + garnet in pelitic assemblages lasts (An00–05) contain inclusions of high-silica growth. In retrogressed samples, increased overprint hornfels fabrics associated with the muscovite (3.2–3.3 atoms per formula unit, Mg# ratios and Mn spikes in slightly resorbed Bremanger pluton (Kalvåg mélange of Bryhni pfu) + high-Mg# biotite + garnet ± epidote/ garnet rims suggest heating during the initial and Lyse, 1985; Cuthbert, 1991). zoisite ± amphibole ± rutile. This peak-pres- stages of decompression (Kohn and Spear, In the Lykkjebø Group, upper amphibo- sure assemblage is cut by retrograde, asym- 2000). Growth of chlorite in the foliation and lite-facies idioblastic peak-pressure assem- metric shear fabrics composed of low-silica along shear bands indicates that retrograde blages are overprinted by lower amphibolite- (3.1 atoms pfu) muscovite + low Mg# biotite + deformation within these pelites continued

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1241 Johnston et al

T (°C) through greenschist-facies conditions outside rocks were calculated with THERMOCALC, 400 600 800 the stability fi eld of garnet. using garnet-hornblende thermometry (GAHR, 0 The P-T paths of the Lykkjebø Group pelites Graham and Powell, 1984) and garnet-horn- were calculated in THERMOCALC, using the blende-plagioclase-quartz barometry (GHPQ, Sunnarvik Eikefjord & Lykkjebø intersection between the garnet-biotite (GARB, Kohn and Spear, 1990). Peak conditions of Group retrograde overprints Ferry and Spear, 1978) thermometer and garnet- 16.9–18.0 kbar at 577–582 °C were recovered 30 10

biotite-muscovite-plagioclase (GBMP, Ghent from two samples using amphibole + garnet rim depth (km) and Stout, 1981) barometer. These estimates compositions included within albite, whereas are statistically indistinguishable from intersec- retrograde conditions of 8.3–8.9 kbar at 524– tions between GARB and garnet-biotite-musco- 628 °C from three samples were calculated P (kbar) 60 vite barometry (GBM, e.g., Konopasek, 1998), using mineral compositions from oligoclase, 20 Eikefjord & which do not rely upon the anorthite content of garnet mantles, and amphiboles judged unaf- Lykkjebø peak conditions plagioclase. Mineral analyses from the albite- fected by late exchange reactions. There is no WGC: Naustdal inclusion suite and garnet mantles in all eight signifi cant difference in the peak or retrograde eclogite 90 samples yield peak conditions ranging from pressures observed in the Eikefjord and Lyk- 1σ error ellipses 14.0 to 17.7 kbar and 537 to 618 °C. In contrast, kjebø Groups, both of which indicate maximum 30 analyses from matrix phases and retrograde gar- burial depths of ~45–60 km followed by retro- net rims that defi ne top-W asymmetric shear grade deformation at ~30–40 km depth. Figure 5. P-T conditions calculated from fabrics from three of the eight samples yield The Eikefjord Group also includes lenses the Hornelen Region, illustrating sharp metamorphic conditions ranging from 8.5 to of coarse garnet amphibolites and rare garnet jumps in peak metamorphic conditions 11.6 kbar and 519 to 641 °C. anorthosites preserved in low-strain zones. across tectonostratigraphic contacts and Upper-amphibolite facies peak conditions In contrast to the schists of the Lykkjebø and retrograde overprints in the Lykkjebø and with lower-pressure overprints are also recorded Eikefjord Groups, garnets from these rocks Eikefjord Groups. Ellipse shading refers to in a variety of amphibole schists in the Eikef- are homogenous in Mn and Mg, and Mn- key in Figure 2. jord Group. In plagioclase + biotite + amphi- rich resorbed rims are characterized by sharp bole ± muscovite schists, garnet typically forms decreases in Mg# that suggest cooling during <0.5-mm inclusions within albite, and occa- retrogression. Although quantitative thermo- sionally matrix porphyroblasts up to 3 mm in barometric work on these rocks was precluded Structurally below the Lykkjebø and Eike- diameter in more felsic layers. Garnets typically by textural evidence for mineral disequilibria, fjord Groups, peak metamorphic conditions display bell-shaped Mn profi les with increas- compositionally homogenous garnets indi- within the Western Gneiss Complex reached ing Mg# toward rims, whereas Mn spikes near cate metamorphic temperatures high enough eclogite facies. Although the felsic host rims in many samples indicate garnet resorp- for diffusion in garnet and suggest that these gneisses of the Western Gneiss Complex are tion. Amphibole is zoned, with sharp increases rocks may be similar to relicts of Sveconorwe- composed of amphibolite-facies assemblages, in Al content and decreases in Mg# near grain gian granulite-facies metamorphism reported m- to km-scale mafi c boudins preserve the boundaries with garnet, whereas plagioclase is throughout western Norway in rocks correlated assemblage garnet + omphacite ± amphibole composed of albite overgrown by oligoclase. with the Middle Allochthon (Schärer, 1980; ± muscovite ± rutile (e.g., Cuthbert et al., P-T conditions in these amphibole-bearing Corfu and Andersen, 2002). 2000). One sample from the Naustdal eclog-

A B 1 mm Mg Mn An 15–30 element map site

An00–05 1 mm

Ca Fe

Grt Ms

An15–30

Figure 6. (A) Photomicrograph (crossed polarizers) of sample 2803AA1, showing an albite porphyroblast characteristic of the peak Lyk- kjebø Group assemblage cut by shear fabrics associated with top-W displacement along the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. (B) Major- element maps (concentration scales with brightness) indicate prograde growth in garnet and oligoclase overgrowths in albite porphyroblast strain shadows.

1242 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone ite contains <0.5 mm idioblastic garnets with probable Sveconorwegian age in the Eikefjord garnet mounts, and matrix fractions were sam- homogeneous major element profi les, ompha- Group, and a Late-Caledonian event within pled from unpolished thick-sections cut from cite with rimward-increasing Mg#, and white the Eikefjord and Lykkjebø Groups associ- hand samples. Isotopic analysis (described in mica with 3.3 Si atoms pfu. THERMOCALC ated with top-W shear fabrics at 8–12 kbar and detail in Appendix DR1; see footnote 1) was intersections between garnet-clinopyroxene 520–650 °C at a crustal depth of ~30–40 km. performed at the University of Arizona follow- thermometry and garnet-omphacite-phengite ing the procedure of Ducea et al. (2003). barometry (see Hacker, 2006) for homoge- Sm-Nd GARNET GEOCHRONOLOGY The Sm/Nd isotopic data yield core/rim neous garnets, low Fe/Mg omphacite cores ages of 425.1 ± 1.6/415.0 ± 2.3 Ma and 422.3 and high Fe/Mg white mica yield 24.6 ± 2.1 Sm-Nd geochronology of garnet cores and ± 1.6/407.6 ± 1.3 Ma for samples J2804L3 kbar at 682 ± 73 °C, corresponding to a depth rims was performed to constrain the age and and J2805D1, respectively, and a rim age of of ~85 km. Using the method of Stipska and duration of prograde metamorphism within 414.4 ± 1.6 Ma for sample J2801N (Table 3, Powell (2005) to estimate Fe3+ and the spread- the allochthons and provide an upper limit on Figure 7A, B). As indicated by thermobarom- sheet of Ravna and Terry (2004) yields 25 kbar the timing of top-W deformation within the etry and the presence of bell-shaped Mn pro- at 650 ± 30 °C. Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. Three of fi les, these garnets never exceeded the closure In summary, the new thermobarometry quan- the coarse garnet-muscovite schists from the temperature of >650 °C for Sm-Nd in garnet tifi es the distinct breaks in metamorphic grade Lykkjebø Group that display only minor ret- (Dodson, 1973; Van Orman et al., 2002), and between the different tectonostratigraphic units rograde deformation were selected for micro- core ages are therefore interpreted to represent of the Hornelen Region identifi ed by regional sampling of garnet cores, garnet rims, and the time of initial garnet growth, whereas rim mapping and petrography. Whereas the Sunnar- matrix (whole-rock minus garnet) fractions. To ages represent the end of garnet growth dur- vik Group reached only greenschist-blueschist ensure that garnet core and rim fractions were ing peak metamorphism. Because two-point facies conditions of 9.1 ± 1.3 kbar and 442 accurately micro-sampled and that high-REE isochrons cannot test for original homogeneity ± 71 °C, the Eikefjord and Lykkjebø Groups element inclusions in garnet were avoided, in 143Nd/144Nd among phases or ensure that all reached upper-amphibolite facies conditions garnets were placed in epoxy grain mounts, phases remained closed to Sm/Nd diffusion, at 13–18 kbar and 530–620 °C, and the West- ground down to the geometric center of the these ages must be interpreted cautiously. Fur- ern Gneiss Complex achieved eclogite-facies garnets, and polished for electron microscopy. thermore, because the core ages use a matrix conditions of 24.6 ± 2.1 kbar at 682 ± 73 °C. Phase zoning and the relative position of garnet composition that remained open to Sm/Nd dif- These pressures indicate tectonic burial to cores and rims were identifi ed through compo- fusion after the closure of garnet cores, they ~30, 45–60, and 85 km for the Sunnarvik sitional transects acquired with an energy-dis- should be regarded as minima. However, the Group, Eikefjord and Lykkjebø Groups, and persive detector, and back-scattered electron high closure temperature of Sm/Nd diffusion Western Gneiss Complex, respectively. This imaging was used to locate high-REE element and the similarities in age of the three ana- corresponds to 15–30 km of crustal excision inclusions within the garnet. Micro samples of lyzed samples suggest that a maximum age between the Upper and Middle Allochthons, 5–14 mg were collected using a Dremel tool of 425–422 Ma and a rim age of 415–407 Ma and 25–40 km of excision between the Middle with a Brasseler Instruments diamond bur to represent robust ages for the onset and end of Allochthon and Baltica basement. This work scour ~1-mm-deep sample pits (inset Fig. 7A). amphibolite-facies metamorphism in the Lyk- has also identifi ed a high-temperature event of Garnet fractions were sampled directly from kjebø Group.

0.5138 rim 2804L3 grt core: AB 0.514 425.1±1.6 Ma 2805D1 grt rim: 407.6 ± 1.3 Ma

core 2805D1 2804L3 grt rim: 415 ± 2.3 Ma 0.5130 2801N grt rim: grt core: Nd Nd 414.4 ± 1.6 Ma 0.513 2 mm 422.3±1.6 Ma 144 144 Nd/

Nd/ 0.5122 143 0.512 143 matrix matrix analyses analyses ages reported at 0.5114 ages reported at 95% confidence 0.511 95% confidence 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 147 144 Sm/ Nd 147Sm/ 144Nd Figure 7. Sm/Nd two-point isochrons for (A) garnet cores and (B) rims from the Lykkjebø Group indicate garnet growth began at 425– 422 Ma and ended by 415–407 Ma (uncertainties on individual data are smaller than shown). Inset to (A) shows a garnet from Lykkjebø Group garnet-muscovite schist 2801N mounted in epoxy and micro-sampled for cores and rims.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1243 Johnston et al

DISCUSSION TABLE 3. Sm/Nd ISOTOPIC DATA FOR LYKKYEBØ GROUP GARNET-MUSCOVITE SCHISTS Sm Nd Age Sample (ppm) (ppm) 147Sm/144Nd† 143Nd/144Nd‡ (Ma)§ Strain Partitioning within the Nordfjord- 2804L3 grt core 5.84 3.99 0.88464 0.513834 ± 5 425.1 ± 1.6 Sogn Detachment Zone 2804L3 grt rim 5.05 5.01 0.60923 0.513034 ± 6 415.0 ± 2.3 2804L3 matrix# 4.97 27.16 0.11060 0.511679 ± 2 2805D1 grt core 3.98 2.95 0.81543 0.513625 ± 5 422.3 ± 1.6 The new structural data and quartz-fabric 2805D1 rim 4.38 3.52 0.75207 0.513387 ± 2 407.6 ± 1.3 analyses place constraints on strain partition- 2805D1 matrix# 3.99 23.54 0.10245 0.511653 ± 2 2801N grt rim 4.43 4.18 0.64055 0.513042 ± 4 414.4 ± 1.6 ing along tectonostratigraphic contacts and 2801N matrix# 3.55 22.64 0.09477 0.511561 ± 1 within the top-W fabrics of the Nordfjord-Sogn † 147Sm/144Nd errors are ~0.25%. Detachment Zone. Consistent top-W shear- ‡ 143Nd/144Nd normalized to 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219 and standard errors (2σ) refer to the last decimal place only. §Because ages are derived from two-point isochrons, errors (reported at 95% confidence) are fabrics and quartz LPOs throughout the shear analytical only. zone indicate that top-W displacement affected #Matrix samples refer to whole-rock fractions sampled from the rock matrix enclosing garnet, but a broad shear zone focused within the Svartek- specifically avoiding garnet itself. ari, Eikefjord, and Lykkjebø Groups, although the progressive change from subgrain-rotation recovery to grain-boundary-migration recov- ery observed in quartz from higher to lower structural levels across the zone indicates TABLE 4. QUARTZITE STRAIN RATES A. Strain rates in high-temperature Lykkjebø Group quartzites either downward-decreasing strain rate with Structural level 600° C 560° C 550° C 500° C constant temperature or downward-increasing strain rate with downward-increasing tempera- –log(ε˙); P = 1000 ± 200 MPa† high 9.2 ± 1.1 9.7 ± 1.1 9.7 ± 1.1 10.4 ± 1.2 ture (e.g., Stipp et al., 2002a). To assess these low 9.4 ± 1.1 9.8 ± 1.1 10.0 ± 1.2 10.6 ± 1.2 possibilities, strain rates across the shear zone were calculated using the fl ow laws of Hirth et –log(τ˙); P = 1000 ± 200 MPa† al. (2001) with differential stresses of 48 MPa high 9.3 ± 1.1 9.7 ± 1.1 9.8 ± 1.1 10.4 ± 1.2 low 9.4 ± 1.1 9.9 ± 1.1 10.0 ± 1.1 10.6 ± 1.2 and 55 MPa determined from structurally high and low Lykkjebø Group quartz grain sizes, B. Strain rates in late ductile–brittle quartzite mylonites ° ° respectively, and f at 1000 MPa confi ning Structural level 400 C 300 C H2O –log(ε˙); P = 500 ± 100 MPa‡ pressure determined from retrograde barometry D–B fault 11.8 ± 1.3 14.0 ± 1.5 (Table 4). Assuming temperatures of 550 °C, ‡ structurally high Lykkjebø Group quartzites –log(τ˙); P = 500 ± 100 MPa −10 –1 D–B fault 11.8 ± 1.3 14.0 ± 1.5 yield strain rates of 2 × 10 s ; investigating Note: Strain rates calculated using the quartz flow laws of Hirth et al. (2001); one sigma errors are a range of geotherms from ~0 to 50 °C/km derived through Monte Carlo simulations propagating errors on grain size, f H20, creep activation energy (Q), and the material constant (A); D–B fault—ductile-brittle fault. and temperatures of 550–600 °C, yields strain † −10 −10 –1 fH20 normalized to P = 1000 ± 200 MPa—the initial depth of top-W shear fabrics. rates of 1 × 10 – 4 × 10 s for structurally ‡ f H20 normalized to P = 500 ± 100 MPa—the probable depth of deformation during late top-W low Lykkjebø Group quartzites. The similarity displacement along ductile-brittle detachments. between calculated strain rates in upper and lower structural levels precludes discrimination between the possible mechanisms for the down- ward switch from subgrain-rotation recovery to Assuming a temperature of 400 °C with fH2O fi nal increments of displacement within the grain-boundary migration recovery. However, normalized to 500 MPa confi ning pressure, Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone were pro- the data indicate that variation in strain rate was the quartzites sampled from the ductile-brittle gressively focused along discrete ductile-brittle small throughout the structural stack. Measured detachments deformed at signifi cantly slower shear zones that cut the earlier high-temperature grain sizes and calculated strain rates are compa- strain rates of 2 × 10−12s–1 (Table 4B). The top-W fabrics. rable to observations in quartz aggregates from slower strain rates and m- to dm-scale thick- other extensional detachments (e.g., Hacker et ness suggest that the shear zones associated Crustal Exhumation and the Depth of al., 1990; Hacker et al., 1992). When integrated with these ductile-brittle detachments were only Asymmetric Shear Fabrics within the across the entire thickness of the Nordfjord- responsible for relatively minor and fi nal stages Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone Sogn Detachment Zone, however, they yield of top-W displacement within the Nordfjord- unrealistically large shear displacements over Sogn Detachment Zone. The new thermobarometry quantifi es total million-year time scales. These high displace- These results indicate that top-W strain within crustal exhumation across the Nordfjord-Sogn ment rates may be the result of extrapolating a the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone was ini- Detachment Zone and the depth at which asym- theoretical piezometer and experimental fl ow tially rather evenly distributed at all structural metric shear fabrics within the shear zone were laws for pure quartzite to natural deformation levels throughout the allochthonous nappes, and initiated. Metamorphic breaks between tec- of quartzofeldspathic rocks. Regardless of the was not concentrated along the Western Gneiss tonostratigraphic units in the Hornelen Region absolute values of the calculated strain rates, the Complex/allochthon contact. These data sup- are similar to observations from the Solund consistency of quartz grain sizes throughout the port the qualitative observation of distributed Region that indicate discrete jumps in pressure shear zone suggests that strain rates were rela- shear strain throughout the Lower and Middle from 7–9 kbar in the Upper Allochthon to 14– tively constant during high-temperature shear allochthons by Wilks and Cuthbert (1994). Dur- 16 kbar in the Middle Allochthon, and fi nally along the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. ing continued extension and exhumation, the 23 kbar in Western Gneiss Complex basement

1244 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

(Hacker et al., 2003), implying the same series (Andersen et al., 1998). This suggests that rocks 13–18 kbar. However, several lines of evidence of orogenic events in both locations separated of Middle Allochthon affi nity from different suggest that these two units were juxtaposed prior by 100 km. Whereas the ultimate juxtaposition structural levels experienced drastically differ- to the onset of top-W displacement within the of the Western Gneiss Complex with Devonian- ent Late Caledonian histories. While large tracts zone. Whereas eclogite-facies asymmetric fab- Carboniferous sediments corresponds to cumu- of the Middle Allochthon remained at or near rics are not observed at any tectonostratigraphic lative crustal excision of up to 85 km across the the surface, other levels of the Middle Alloch- level within the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment shear zone, the 7–12 kbar jump in peak meta- thon were (re)buried during the Late Silurian Zone, the new thermobarometry from the Eikef- morphic conditions between the Western Gneiss and Early Devonian. The age of 425–407 Ma for jord and Lykkjebø Groups and similar amphibo- Complex and the Lower/Middle Allochthons in prograde garnet growth within Middle Alloch- lite-facies asymmetric shear fabrics in the upper- the Hornelen Region—and the 7- to 9-kbar jump thon rocks from the Hornelen Region implies most levels of the Western Gneiss Complex (e.g., in the Solund Region—was overprinted by simi- that peak conditions achieved during this sec- Engvik and Andersen, 2000) indicates that the lar ~10-kbar, amphibolite-facies, asymmetric ond episode of Middle Allochthon burial either top-W shear fabrics of the shear zone initiated shear fabrics at both structural levels. Because slightly predated, or were synchronous with, at amphibolite-facies conditions typical of lower the bulk of the top-W deformation within the subduction of the Western Gneiss Complex to crustal depths of 30–40 km and not at mantle Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone occurred UHP depths. depths. Furthermore, quartz microstructures that within the allochthonous Svartekari, Eikef- Garnet Sm/Nd ages can be used in conjunc- indicate relatively evenly distributed shear strain jord, and Lykkjebø Groups, the depth at which tion with existing 40Ar/39Ar muscovite cool- throughout the shear zone place the bulk of the these top-W fabrics initiated is constrained by ing ages from the Hornelen Region to place top-W displacement within the Svartekari, Eike- the metamorphic conditions within these rocks. upper and lower age brackets on deformation fjord, and Lykkjebø Groups. Because the bulk of The retrograde assemblages of the Eikefjord and along the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. the displacement within the shear zone occurred Lykkjebø Groups directly associated with top-W Because the top-W fabrics of the shear zone within the allochthons and not along the West- shear fabrics provide an estimate of 8–12 kbar overprint the peak assemblage associated with ern Gneiss Complex/allochthon contact, the top- for the initiation of deformation within the shear garnet growth, 415- to 407-Ma garnet rim ages W fabrics of the shear zone cannot have been zone, whereas the relatively statically grown defi ne an upper age limit for the initiation of responsible for the juxtaposition of the amphib- inclusion suite provides an upper limit of 13–18 top-W displacement along the shear zone. olite-facies allochthons with the (U)HP Western kbar. This indicates that top-W normal-sense Muscovite ages are used to defi ne the lower Gneiss Complex, nor can they have been the pri- displacement across the Nordfjord-Sogn Detach- age limit for ductile displacement within the mary mechanism responsible for exhuming the ment Zone was initiated at lower crustal depths shear zone because the bulk of the exhumation Western Gneiss Complex from mantle depths to of 30–40 km with a deeper limit of 45–60 km. occurred within the ductile shear fabrics of the the base of the crust. Finally, eclogites in rocks shear zone at amphibolite-facies temperatures of allochthonous affi nity farther north (Young et Timing of Allochthon Burial and greater than muscovite closure to argon. Within al., 2007) suggest that the observed gap in meta- Asymmetric Shear Fabrics within the the Hornelen Region, muscovite ages gradu- morphic pressures in the study area may also Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone ally increase up-section from 396 Ma in the have been exacerbated by local phase disequi- Western Gneiss Complex to 402 Ma in the Lyk- librium in the allochthons, or poor preservation Our new garnet Sm/Nd ages have signifi cant kjebø Group (Andersen, 1998), whereas older of peak pressure assemblages. implications regarding the spatial variation and ages of 419-417 Ma in the structurally highest In this paper, we follow Walsh et al. (2007) and timing of Caledonian burial in the Middle Alloch- levels of the Lykkjebø Group are the result of suggest that the break in metamorphic pressures thon. Garnet core ages of 425–422 Ma coin- excess argon(Johnston et al., 2006). Together, across the Western Gneiss Complex/allochthon cide with the post-Wenlockian (428–423 Ma) these ages bracket top-W ductile displacement contact was created as the Western Gneiss Com- emplacement of the Solund-Stavfjord Ophiolite within the zone to ca. 410–400 Ma, and imply plex ascended buoyantly through the mantle via (Andersen et al., 1998) and the 423–422 Ma zir- that displacement and exhumation associated lower crustal-wedge extrusion and was under- con ages from eclogites in the Middle Alloch- with the shear zone were initiated either during, plated beneath the allochthons (Fig. 8B). This thon Lindås nappe (Bingen et al., 2004), sug- or immediately after, (U)HP metamorphism in ascent may have been partially accommodated gesting that the burial of the Middle Allochthon the Western Gneiss Complex. by localized top-W, normal-sense displacement to depths of 45–60 km initiated during ophiolite along the Western Gneiss Complex/allochthon emplacement. However, garnet rim ages of 415– Signifi cance of Normal-Sense Fabrics contact (e.g., Andersen and Jamtveit, 1990; 407 Ma overlap with the upper range of 412– within the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Krabbendam and Dewey, 1998), although any 400 Ma Sm/Nd and U/Pb ages for the timing of Zone and a Model for UHP Exhumation fabrics associated with this displacement were (U)HP metamorphism north of Nordfjord (Car- overprinted by subsequent crustal exhumation. swell et al., 2003; Root et al., 2004; Kylander- The synthesis of these quantitative results Upon arrival at the lower crust, vertical pure- Clark et al., 2007) indicating that this garnet indicates that top-W displacement within the shear thinning of 50–80% in the Western Gneiss growth may have been associated with the early Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone exhumed Complex accommodated additional exhumation stages of the Caledonian UHP event. In contrast, (U)HP rocks from the base of the crust, but not (Dewey et al., 1993; Young et al., 2007) and fur- rocks of Middle Allochthon affi nity in the hang- from mantle depths, and requires a new three- ther exaggerated the break in metamorphic pres- ing wall of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment stage exhumation model (Fig. 8). Evidence sures between the Western Gneiss Complex and Zone in the Kvamshesten area (e.g., Andersen for an initial stage of exhumation from mantle the allochthons. et al., 1998; Corfu and Andersen, 2002) cooled depths is provided by the abrupt jump in meta- The second and third stages of (U)HP exhu- through muscovite closure by 450 Ma and morphic pressures across the Western Gneiss mation—accounting for exhumation of (U)HP were at the surface during the deposition of the Complex/allochthon contact from mantle condi- rocks from the lower crust to mid and upper Devonian-Carboniferous Kvamshesten Basin tions of ~25 kbar to lower crustal conditions at crustal levels, respectively—were achieved

Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 1245 Johnston et al

allochthonous A 425–410 Ma: peak collision and burial nappe stack

Laurentia Upper Lower Middle Baltica

100x100 km

UHP terranes B Stage 1: 410–405 Ma exhumation from mantle depths and initiation of high-temperature, top-W fabrics

?

C Stage 2: 405–400 Ma high-temperature top-W displacement and exhumation from lower crust

D Stage 3: < 400 Ma Dev.–Carb. top-W ductile–brittle slip basins

WGC

Figure 8. Schematic cross sections illustrating three individual structural regimes active within the Nord- fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone that cumulatively exhumed the (U)HP provinces of western Norway. Time frames are approximate and refer only to the Hornelen Region as variations; cooling ages observed along strike of the orogen suggest subtle differences in exhumation history. (A) Geometry at the height of col- lision. (B) Mantle exhumation: shown here as a crustal-scale (U)HP thrust sheet rising buoyantly along the subduction zone and underplating the allochthons. Early, top-W displacement along the shear zone begins as the rising (U)HP body contacts the lower crust (shown by wavy lines). (C) Orogen-wide exten- sion: widespread lower crustal stretching and high-temperature top-W ductile displacement within the shear zone. (D) Ductile-brittle detachment faults (shown with heavy solid line) progressively exhume and excise earlier high-temperature top-W fabrics developed within the shear zone. WGC—Western Gneiss Complex; Dev.–Carb.—Devonian–Carboniferous.

through top-W displacement within the Nord- cut by discrete ductile-brittle shear zones in UHP provinces, and the characterization of fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone. The second stage the third and fi nal stage of (U)HP exhumation these crustal-scale detachments is essential to of exhumation was initiated after 410 Ma as a (Fig. 8D). This three-stage model is signifi cant understanding the processes that exhume UHP broad, top-W ductile shear zone centered within in that it constrains normal-sense displacement rocks. Key thermobarometry geochronology, the allochthons formed to accommodate lower to the component of exhumation that lifted and structural geology results from the Nord- crustal reorganization and the addition of large UHP rocks from the lower to the upper crust, fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone in western Nor- volumes of former-(U)HP continental crust to and underscores the importance of further way indicate that (1) top-W shear within the the base of the crust (Fig. 8B, C). Although a work focusing on the mechanisms responsible shear zone initiated at lower crustal depths of bulk constrictional strain fi eld during exhuma- for exhuming UHP rocks from mantle depths 30–40 km; (2) top-W shear occurred between tion is not ruled out (Krabbendam and Dewey, to the base of the crust. 410 Ma and 400 Ma during or immediately 1998; Osmundsen et al., 1998; Foreman et al., after UHP metamorphism; and (3) strain was 2005), quartzite LPOs indicate that plane strain CONCLUSIONS partitioned relatively evenly throughout the conditions defi ne Zone top-W shear fabrics. shear zone and was not focused along tec- During progressive exhumation and cooling, Orogen-scale, normal-sense shear zones are tonostratigraphic contacts. These results indi- high-temperature shear fabrics passed through commonly cited as one of the primary mecha- cate that normal-sense displacement within muscovite closure by ca. 400 Ma, and were nisms responsible for the exhumation of large the Nord fjord-Sogn Detachment Zone was

1246 Geological Society of America Bulletin, September/October 2007 Hornelen segment of the Nordfjord-Sogn Detachment Zone

Bryhni, I., and Grimstad, E., 1970, Supracrustal and infra- Engvik, A.K., and Andersen, T.B., 2000, Evolution of Cale- the primary mechanism responsible for post- crustal rocks in the gneiss region of the Caledonides donian deformation fabrics under eclogite and amphib- orogenic exhumation of the Norwegian UHP west of Breimsvatn: Norges Geologiske Undersökelse, olite facies at Vårdalsneset, Western Gneiss Region, provinces from the base of the crust, but not v. 266, p. 105–140. Norway: Journal of Metamorphic Geology, v. 18, Bryhni, I., and Lutro, O., 2000a, Berggrunnskart EIKEF- p. 241–257, doi: 10.1046/j.1525-1314.2000.00252.x. from mantle depths. This interpretation is JORD 1118 II, M 1:50,000: Foreløgip utgave Norges Ferry, J.M., and Spear, F.S., 1978, Experimental calibration consistent with a three-stage model for UHP geologiske undersøkelse. of the partitioning of Fe and Mg between biotite and Bryhni, I., and Lutro, O., 2000b, Berggrunnskart FIM- garnet: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, exhumation that calls for crustal exhumation LANDSGREND 1218 II, M 1:50,000: Foreløgip v. 66, p. 113–117, doi: 10.1007/BF00372150. dominated initially by ductile, and ultimately, utgave Norges geologiske undersøkelse. Foreman, R., Andersen, T.B., and Wheeler, J., 2005, Eclog- by ductile-brittle, normal-sense displacement Bryhni, I., and Lutro, O., 2000c, Berggrunnskart NAUST- ite-facies polyphase deformation of the Drøsdal eclog- DAL 1218 III, M 1:50,000: Foreløgip utgave Norges ite, Western Gneiss Complex, Norway, and implica- and highlights the paucity of data pertaining geologiske undersøkelse. tions for exhumation: Tectonophysics, v. 398, no. 1-2, to an initial stage of exhumation from mantle Bryhni, I., and Lyse, K., 1985, The Kalvåg Mélange, Norwe- p. 1–32, doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2004.10.003. depths to the base of the crust. gian Caledonides, in Gee, D.G., and Sturt, B.A., eds., Fossen, H., and Dunlap, W.J., 1998, Timing and kinematics The Caledonide Orogen—Scandinavia and Related of Caledonian thrusting and extension collapse, south- Areas: John Wiley and Sons [Chichester], p. 417–427. ern Norway; evidence from 40Ar/39Ar thermochronol- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Carswell, D.A., Brueckner, H.K., Cuthbert, S.J., Mehta, K., ogy: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 20, p. 765–781, and O’Brien, P.J., 2003, The timing of stabilisation and doi: 10.1016/S0191-8141(98)00007-8. Thanks to Torgeir Andersen for his encouragement the exhumation rate for ultra-high pressure rocks in the Gee, D.G., Guezou, J.C., Roberts, D., and Wolff, F.C., 1985, and for sharing his insights on Norwegian geology Western Gneiss Region of Norway: Journal of Meta- The central-southern part of the Scandinavian Cale- morphic Geology, v. 21, p. 601–612, doi: 10.1046/ donides, in Gee, D.G., and Sturt, B.A., eds., The Cale- with us on countless fi eld excursions; to Phil Gans j.1525-1314.2003.00467.x. donide Orogen–Scandinavia and Related Areas: John and Jim Mattinson for thoughtful comments on the Carswell, D.A., and Cuthbert, S.J., 2003, Ultra-high pres- Wiley and Sons [Chichester], p. 109–133. manuscript; and to Andrew Kylander-Clark, Emily sure metamorphism in the Western Gneiss Region of Ghent, E.D., and Stout, M.Z., 1981, Geobarometry and geo- Peterman, Matt Rioux, Dave Root, Emily Walsh, and Norway: EMU Notes in Mineralogy, v. 5, p. 51–73. thermometry of plagioclase-biotite-garnet-muscovite Dave Young for countless fruitful discussions regard- Chauvet, A., and Séranne, M., 1994, Extension-parallel fold- assemblages: Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrol- ing in the Scandinavian Caledonides: Implications for ogy, v. 76, p. 92–97, doi: 10.1007/BF00373688. ing Caledonian tectonics. 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MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED 31 MAY 2007 in the Pakistan Himalaya: Geology, v. 34, no. 11, p. 989– Stipp, M., Stuenitz, H., Heilbronner, R., and Schmid, S.M., 992, doi: 10.1130/G22796A.1, doi: 10.1130/G22796A.1. 2002b, The eastern Tonale fault zone; a “natural Printed in the USA

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